NEW  AMERICAN 

ENCYCLOP  EDI  A 


OF 


A  PRACTICAL  AND    EDUCATIONAL   COMPENDIUM 

SUITED    TO    THE    NEEDS    OF 

EVERY-DAY  LIFE 


Including   exhaustive  practical  treatises    especially    adapted  for    self-instruction    in    English 

Grammar,  Rhetoric  and  Literature,  Modern  Languages,  the  Plastic  and  Decorative  Arts, 

Music — Vocal  and  Instrumental;  the  Theoretical  and  Practical  Sciences  ;  Health, 

Food,   Exercises,   Amusements,  Games  and  Pastimes;  the  Principles  of 

Law,    Business    and  Etiquette;   Agriculture,   Horticulture   and 

Domestic   Economy;  History,    Politics  and  Mathematics; 

together    with  a   multitude    of  interesting  Facts 

and  useful  Recipes  suited  to  every-day  needs 


NEW  EDITION,    REVISED  AND  ENLARGED  BY 

JAMES  E.  ROMANS,  A.M. 

Author  of  "Self -Propelled  Vehicles," 
"•A  B  C  of  the  Telephone"  etc. 


NEW  YORK 
P.   F.  COLLIER   &  SON 


COPYRIGHT  1908 
By  P.  F.  COLLIES  &  SON 


PREFACE 

A  PRACTICAL  education  is  the  greatest  wealth  that 
man  or  woman  may  possess.  It  is  a  property  that 
can  not  be  alienated,  yet  one  that  may  be  shared 
with  others  without  loss.  Education  is  the  legacy  that  all 
good  parents  must  bequeath  to  their  children.  It  is  an 
investment  that  all  young  people  must  be  persuaded  to  seek. 
Some  part  of  every  day  should  be  devoted  to  the  acquire- 
ment of  a  little  more  useful  knowledge.  Yet  so  many 
kinds  of  information  are  required  nowadays  that  no  school 
or  college  supplies  enough.  "Self-made* *  means  more  than 
ever,  and  much  of  the  most  useful  knowledge  is  that  which 
is  acquired  in  painstaking  home-study  to  which  is  devoted 
from  a  few  minutes  to  an  hour  daily. 

It  is  this  need  that  this  book  is  intended  to  supply.  It 
is  a  practical  book,  to  which  men  and  women  liberally  in- 
formed on  their  own  special  topics  have  contributed  their 
treasures  of  knowledge  in  compressed  and  intelligible  form. 
It  is  both  a  manual  of  study  and  a  work  of  reference  for 
the  whole  family,  and,  while  so  simple  in  style  that  a  child 
may  understand  it,  is  a  source  of  power  to  readers  of  all 
ages.  Though  the  primary  object  of  the  publishers  has 
been  to  supply  the  information  of  greatest  value  in  business 
and  professional  pursuits,  a  great  deal  of  attention  has  also 
been  paid  to  methods  of  securing  that  perfect  bodily  devel- 
opment without  which  the  young  man  and  young  woman 
find  themselves  outstripped  at  the  beginning  of  life's  race. 

No  less  essential  to  success  is  a  thorough  understanding 
of  the  social  graces  and  attainments,  which  have  been  ex- 
haustively discussed  in  these  pages.  The  chapters  on  Mer- 
cantile Law,  with  forms  for  all  manner  of  legal  documents, 


iv  PREFACE 


be  found  indispensable.  The  art  of  writing  shorthand, 
so  useful  in  mercantile  or  professional  life,  is  fully  treated 
and  copiously  illustrated.  Book-keeping  is  so  exhaustively 
explained  that  a  teacher  is  unnecessary,  while  a  "lightning 
calculator"  has  been  introduced  that  will  save  many  hours 
of  time  in  every  month. 

The  Complete  Letter  Writer  puts  in  the  possession  of 
every  reader  the  great  art  of  polite  correspondence.  The 
systems  herewith  presented  for  the  self-teaching  of  French, 
German,  and  Spanish  are  the  simplest  and  most  complete 
ever  published. 

While  much  that  is  included  in  these  volumes  is  not  dis- 
tinctly educational,  the  end  of  imparting  useful  and  constantly 
needed  information  is  never  overlooked.  The  several  trea- 
tises on  the  English  language,  including  that  on  words  of 
foreign  origin,  must  prove  invaluable.  History  and  govern- 
mental theory  are  treated  with  sufficient  fulness  to  give  a 
groundwork  for  future  elaboration.  The  fine  arts,  including 
music,  have  received  the  space  they  require.  It  will  be 
found  that  the  treatises  on  music  contain  all  that  is  essen- 
tial to  the  beginner,  furnishing  rules  that  may  be  implicitly 
followed,  in  order  to  obtain  mastery  of  the  several  instru- 
ments described. 

Technical  science  is  fully  represented  by  the  treatises  on 
steam  and  gas  engines  and  the  first  principles  of  electricity. 
The  last-named  will  be  found  a  particularly  complete  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  this  vast  subject,  about  which  whole 
libraries  of  abstruse  works  have  already  been  written. 

As  far  as  possible,  related  subjects  have  been  classified 
together,  both  for  convenience  in  reference  and  to  enable 
ready  comparison  in  reading.  In  short,  neither  pains  nor 
time  has  been  spared  in  the  effort  to  render  these  volumes 
handy  reference  books  and  a  ready  means  for  self-education 
in  such  practical  branches  a*  affect  every-day  life. 


CONTENTS 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR I 

ON  WRITING  GOOD  ENGLISH 27 

How  TO  WRITE  FICTION > 34 

THE  WRITING  OF  POETRY 39 

ENGLISH  WORDS  OF  FOREIGN   ORIGIN 48 

LANGUAGES 63 

FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT  67 

GERMAN   SELF-TAUGHT    98 

SPANISH  SELF-TAUGHT  139 

PENMANSHIP 172 

THE  METRIC  SYSTEM 186 

A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 194 

OPERATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT 213 

OPERATION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  GOVERNMENT 219 

OPERATION  OF  THE  FRENCH  GOVERNMENT 224 

OPERATION  OF  THE  GERMAN  GOVERNMENT 227 

DESCRIPTIVE  ASTRONOMY 230 

OUTLINES  OF  GEOLOGY 238 

PRINCIPLES  OF  PERSPECTIVE , 246 

THE  ANATOMY  OF  ART 250 

PAINTING    255 

SCULPTURE  MODELING  260 

BRASS  WORK  . . . .« 264 

WOOD  CARVING 268 

PYROGRAPHY 271 

RUDIMENTS  OF  Music 274 

DICTIONARY  OF  MUSICAL  TERMS 292 

THE  PIANO  SELF-TAUGHT 298 

THE  VIOLIN  SELF-TAUGHT 308 

THE  MANDOLIN  SELF-TAUGHT ; 317 

THE  GUITAR  SELF-TAUGHT , 322 

THE  VIOLONCELLO   SELF-TAUGHT 330 

THE  CORNET  SELF-TAUGHT 337 

THE  STUDY  OF  VOCAL  Music r 344 

INSTRUMENTAL  SIGHT-READING 353 

VOCAL   SIGHT-READING , 355 

(v) 


CONTENTS 


PHOTOGRAPHY 3f>3 

ARCHITECTURE  371 

STEAM  ENGINES  381 

GAS  ENGINES   395 

FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  ELECTRICITY 402 

WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY  424 

AUTOMOBILES  429 

GAMES  OK  CARDS 435 

GAMES  OF  SKILL 459 

PARLOR  MAGIC   478 

ETIQUETTE    494 

How  TO  PRESERVE  YOUR  HEALTH 511 

GYMNASTICS 520 

RIDING 534 

SWIMMING  541 

OUTDOOR  GAMES 546 

FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 569 

BOXING    574 

WRESTLING    582 

FENCING 588 

JIU-JITSU   595 

AGRICULTURE 600 

THE  HORSE  630 

CATTLE 655 

POULTRY 660 

INDOOR  GARDENING   679 

HEALTH   HINTS  FOR  WOMEN 684 

THE  NURSERY  706 

COMMON-SENSE  TALK  ABOUT  FOOD 719 

A  FEW  LESSONS  IN  DANCING 723 

PARLIAMENTARY  PROCEDURE  , 733 

THE  LETTER  WRITER 74^ 

ARITHMETICAL  AMUSEMENTS  754 

OUTLINES  OF  LAW , 763 

FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS 781 

CIVIL  SERVICE  RULES 702 

COMMERCE  AND  MONEY 800 

BOOKKEEPING  812 

THE  LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR 828 

PHONOGRAPHY  OR  SHORTHAND 836 

WHO'S  WHO  OF  HISTORY 850 

NOTED  EVENTS  IN  THE  WORLD'S  HISTORY 864 

HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS..  .  868 


GRAMMAR 


GRAMMAR  is  the  science  of  language,  and  its  principal  use  is  to 
show  the  methods  of  expressing  thoughts  with  correctness  and 
propriety,  avoiding  the  commonest  cause  of  misunderstanding 
— the  incorrect  use  of  words. 

It  must  always  be  remembered  that  grammars  can  only  define,  but 
can  not  determine,  the  correct  use  of  language.  This  depends,  in  every 
instance,  upon  the  forms  of  thought  and  meaning  to  be  conveyed;  and 
in  all  languages  was  settled  and  employed  long  before  the  studies  of  gram- 
marians commenced.  The  importance  of  a  correct  use  of  language  can 
not  be  overestimated.  Laws  and  treaties  have  failed  and  irretrievable 
blunders  have  been  made  because  of  men  who  had  not  taken  pains  to  so 
express  themselves  as  to  make  their  meaning  unmistakable. 

In  the  present  treatise  the  formation  and  derivation  of  words  are 
not  treated  under  Etymology,  but  are  added,  by  way  of  illustration,  in 
the  succeeding  article  on  the  derivation  of  words  from  foreign  roots. 
By  this  arrangement,  not  only  do  we  avoid  some  repetition,  but  the 
subject  is  more  conveniently  presented  for  the  student. 

THE    TWO    DEPARTMENTS    OF    GRAMMAR 


ETYMOLOGY  (Greek,  the  "science  of 
true  uses  and  derivations"),  which 
treats  of  the  classification,  formation,  der- 
ivation, and  inflection  of  words  by  them- 
selves ;  SYNTAX  (Greek,  a  "setting-together"), 
which  treats  of  the  combination  of  words 
into  sentences,  to  the  end  of  conveying  defi- 
nite ideas ;  making  statements  of  fact,  infer- 
ence or  supposition,  and  asking  questions. 
The  grammar  of  each  particular  language 
differs  from  that  of  every  other,  principally 
in  the  different  methods  of  forming  words 
and  sentences  to  convey  ideas,  and  in  the 
use  of  certain  peculiar  expressions  known  as 
idioms  (Greek,  "private  or  particular  con- 
structions"). 

Comparative  grammar  seeks,  'by  compar- 
ing the  grammars  of  several  languages,  to 
reach  the  laws  of  inflection  and  construction 
common  to  them,  and  finally  to  all  lan- 
guages. General  or  historic  grammar  at- 
tempts to  explain  the  growth  of  language 
within  a  specified  group. 


E  T  Y  M  O  L  O  GY 

LETTERS. — There  are  twenty-six  letters  in 
the  English  Alphabet:  A  a,  B  b,  C  c,  D  d, 
E  e,  F  f,  G  g,  H  h,  I  i,  J  j,  K  k,  L  1,  M  m, 
N  n,  O  o,  P  p,  Q  q,  R  r,  S  s,  T  t,  U  u,  V  v, 
W  w,  X  x,  Y  y,  Z  z. 

The  number  of  sounds  to  be  represented 
by  these  letters  is  estimated  at  about  forty; 
and,  in  consequence,  several  of  them  stand 
for  more  sounds  than  one.  It  is  somewhat 
remarkable  that  since  this  is  the  case,  the 
letters  c,  q,  and  x  should  be  superfluous ;  the 
two  sounds  of  c  being  represented  by  s  and 
k,  as  in  cell  (sell),  calends  (kalends)  ;  q, 
being  always  followed  by  u,  with  the  sound 
expressible  by  kw;  and  the  sounds  of  x  dif- 
fering in  no  respect  from  those  of  ks,  gz, 
and  z,  in  some  words  borrowed  from  other 
languages;  as  Xerxes  (Zerxes)  and  Xeno- 
phon  (Zenophon).  It  would  be  of  consid- 
erable advantage,  if  symbols  for  the  sounds 
represented  now  by  the  combinations  of  let- 
ters, ch,  sh,  th,  ng,  etc.,  could  be  devised  and 


GRAMMAR 


introduced;  but  this  is  a  matter  of  such 
great  difficu'ty  as  to  be  almost  impossible. 

THE  VOWELS  are  a,  e,  i,  \  «,  and  some- 
times w  and  y.  The  latter  are  used  as 
vowels  when  occurring  with  other  vowels, 
as  diphthongs,  as  in  how,  hay — y  being  used 
for  i  in  many  proper  names,  as  Whyte,  etc. 
— although  both  are  consonants  at  the  be- 
ginning of  words,  as  in  well,  yell. 

The  word,  vowel,  comes  from  the  Latin 
stem,  vocal,  and  indicates  such  a  sound  as 
can  be  made  with  the  vocal  organs  open, 
and  in  a  resting  position.  Thus,  a  simple 
vowel  may  be  sounded  for  a  long  period, 
as  may  be  found  by  experiment: 

a,  as  in  ah,  or  as  in  at; 

e,  as  in  beet,  or  as  in  get; 

i,  as  in  bit; 

o,  as   in  boat; 

u,  as  oo  in  boot. 

The  sound  of  i,  as  in  bite,  is  really  com- 
pound or  diphthongal,  as  is  that  of  a,  as 
in  hate:  hence,  in  attempting  to  sound 
either  for  a  prolonged  period,  the  voice 
automatically  separates  the  two  sounds, 
giving  the  latter,  as  may  be  found  by  ex- 
periment. 

The  sounds  of  r,  I,  m  and  n  may  also 
be  given  vocally;  whence  in  some  lan- 
guages, like  the  Sanskrit,  an  r- vowel  and  an 
/-vowel  are  recognized  in  the  alphabet; 
theoretically,  also,  an  m-vowel  and  an  n- 
vowel.  The  English  sounds  of  th,  as  in 
the  and  in  thin,  made  with  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  against  the  upper  and  lower  front 
teeth,  together  with  3,  z,  ch,  sh,  v,  t,  ph, 
gh,  may  also  be  sounded  for  a  prolonged 
period,  although  not  properly  to  be  classed 
with  vowels. 

THE  ENGLISH  VOWEL  SOUNDS  differ  from 
those  of  all  other  languages  of  Europe. 
Thus,  the  sound  which  we  express  by  a, 
they  express  by  e;  where  we  write  e,  they 
write  i;  where  we  use  i,  they  employ  ei; 
and  our  u  corresponds  with  their  eu.  We 
must  not  forget,  however,  that  the  names 
of  the  vowels  in  English  do  not  represent 
their  natural,  but  only  their  modified, 
sounds — the  modification  being  evidently 
due  to  the  influence  of  another  vowel  in 
he  word,  particularly  silent  e.  This  is  in 
4  sense  analogous  to  the  vowel  modifica- 
tions met  with  in  other  languages.  Thus, 
we  have: 


SHORT. 
hat 
met 
bit 
not 
cut 


MODIFIED. 
hate 
mete 
bite 
note 
"cute** 


The  English  modified  u,  pronounced 
yoo,  as  in  unit  (yoonit)  or  lute  (lyoot),  is 
also  peculiar  to  our  language. 

The  sound  of  i  is  modified  by  certain 
consonant  combinations,  such  as  gh  and  nd. 
Thus:  nig  and  nigh,  big  and  bight;  bin 
and  bind,  grin  and  grind. 

The  combinations  of  vowel  sounds,  called 
diphthongs  and  triphthongs,  such  as  ae,  ai, 
au,  ei,  ie,  oe,  oi,  ou,  eau,  etc.,  express  the 
intermediate  sounds  of  this  series,  but  they 
also  do  not  correspond  with  those  of  the 
other  European  languages. 

CONSONANTS  (Latin,  "a  sounding-to- 
gether") represent  the  sounds  produced 
when  the  voice  is  interrupted  by  the  vol- 
untary action  of  the  throat,  tongue,  palate, 
nose,  teeth,  and  lips,  and,  as  the  word  indi- 
cates, may  be  sounded  only  with  some  other 
— to  wit,  a  vowel.  Thus,  b  is  produced  by 
an  opening  of  the  lips,  when  the  tongue  is 
in  a  particular  position  in  relation  to  the 
teeth,  and  may  not  be  sounded  except  with 
a  vowel  sound  either  before  or  after,  as 
ab  or  ba,  eb  or  be,  etc. 

THE  THREE  ORDERS  of  consonants  are 
Mutes,  Sibilants  and  Liquids;  and  these 
are  further  subdivided  according  to  the 
organs  employed  in  giving  utterance  to 
them.  Thus  the  mutes  are  classified  first 
as  Smooth  or  Aspirated,  and  next  in  the 
following  manner;  the  sounds  for  which 
we  have  no  symbols  being  inserted  in  their 
proper  places : 

SMOOTH.  ASPIRATED. 

SuJi/fi.     Gradual.  SuJden.  Gradual. 

Guttural      t,  e,f  g  th  (not  English)    t*  (not  English) 

Dental  /  d  M(in)  M(ine) 

Labial  ft  /,fh  v 

The  ch  here  is  the  terminal  sound  of  the 
Scotch  word  "loch";  and  the  gh,  that  of 
the  Irish  word  "lough."  The  letter  h 
finds  no  place  in  this  scheme,  because  it 
is,  in  fact,  nothing  but  a  sign  of  the  trans- 
mission of  the  breath  called  "aspiration," 
and  not  of  a  sound  at  all. 
The  sibilants  may  be  classified  thus: 

SuJJtn.  Gradual. 
Dental                                    i,e  i 

Dental  and  Palatal  tk  <-/i(eSl) 

Dental  and  Guttural          (a)s(ure)  / 

And  the  liquids  may  be  arranged  in  this 
manner : 

a_-.,.  1  Guttural 
roP'e  }  Palatal  / 

I  Guttural  (•")*{ 

Nasal     \  Dental  it 

( Labial  * 

The  letter  x  represents  the  sounds  of  ks, 
ge,  and  sometimes  of  z. 

Of  the  sounds  expressed  by  the  composi- 
tion of  various  letters,  both  vowels  and 


GRAMMAR 


s 


consonants,  nothing  more  can  be  said,  than 

Roots.                  Prim.  Deriv.         Second.  Deri-^. 

that  some  of  them  are  identical  with  sounds 

Shake                     shock                       shocking 

treated    of    above;    and    others    are    com- 

Sing                       »ong                         singer,    songster 
Sit                         set,  seat                 settle,    settler 

pounded  of  such  sounds.    Thus  the  sound 

Speak                    speech                     speaker,     bespeak 

of  the  word  buoy  is  identical  with  that  of 

Stick                       stake,    stitch 

boy;  and  in  "adhesive,"  the  sound  d  is  pro- 

Strike                    stroke 

nounced    distinctly,    and    followed    by   the 

Strong                    strength 

aspirate,  or  hard  breathing  h. 

Tell                        tale 
Trow                      truth                        truthfulness 

Wake                     watch                      waken,  watchful 

DERIVATION   AND   FORMATION    OF 

Weave                    woof,    web             weaver,     webster 

Win                                                         winsome 

WORDS 

Work                      wright 

RADICAL  WORDS    (called  by  etymologists 

Wring                    wrench,    wrong"    wrongful 

"roots,"    simply)    are   either   nouns,   verbs, 

ry                        wri    e, 

adjectives,  or  pronouns;  expressive  of  com- 

Derivative   words    are    also    formed    by 

mon   things,    conditions,   actions,    etc.,   etc. 

composition;    that   is,   by   the   construction 

Primary    Derivatives    are    constructed    by 

of  a  single  word  out  of  two  or  more  words, 

slight  changes  in  the  vowel  sounds,  or  in 

each  capable  of  being  used  independently. 

the  consonants,  or  in  both;  and  are  some- 

These compounds  differ  entirely  from  the 

times   designated   "stems."     Secondary  De- 

secondary   derivatives,    and    are    found    in 

rivatives  are  formed  by  means  of  prefixes 

every   class   of   English   words.     They   are 

and  affixes,   from  both  roots  and  primary 

not,  however,  so  numerous  in  our  tongue 

derivatives.     Example  : 

as   in   the   German;   and  in  that   they  are 

less  common  than  in  the  Greek  language. 

Roots.                      Prim.  Deriv.        Second.    Deriv. 

Ex.     Sunshine,    fairhaired,     thunderstorm, 

Bake                      batch                       baker,    baxter 

harvestman,   daybreak,   nevertheless,   there- 

Bear                       bier,    birth             barrow,     forbear 
Bind                       band,     bond,          bandage,  bondage, 
bound                      bundle 

fore,  into,  everlasting,  midnight,  noontime, 
elsewhere,  however,  undersell,  overturn,  be- 

Bite                        bit                             biter 

cause,     hedgerow,     warehouseman,     earth- 

Bless                      bliss                          blessing 

quake,    steamengine,    railroad. 

Blood                      bleed                        bloody 

Brood                     breed 
Child                                                       childish 

CLASSES    OF   WORDS 

Choose                   choice 
Chop                        chip 

THE   CLASSIFICATION   of   words    depends 

Deal                        dole 

upon    their    signification    as    parts    of    sen- 

Die                         dead,   death            deadly 

tences  or  as  they  have  the  nature  of  Sub- 

Drive    '                  drove                       drover 

jects  and  Predicates,  Attributives  and  Ob- 

Duck                                                       duckling 

jects,  with  the  various  means  of  expressing 

Fall                         fell,   foal 
(De)file                 foul,    filth              filthy,    fulsome 

the  relations  between  ideas  in  a  sentence. 

Find                                                         foundling 

NOUNS.  —  Names   of  things,   persons,  and 

Flee                       fleet,    fly,    flight 

of    whatever   exists,    even    in    imagination, 

Flow                       flood 
Forth                                                       further,  further- 
ance 

are  called  Nouns,  and  sometimes  Substan- 
tives.   Ex.  Tree,  stone;  man,  boy;  Caesar, 

Gape                     gap 

Wellington;  virtue,  hope. 

Gird                                                         girder,    girdle 

VERBS.  —  Words    expressing    an   assertion 

Gold                        gild,    gilt                 golden,   gilding 
Good                       God                          goodness,    godly, 

respecting  an   action   or  condition,   or   the 

godliness 

reception  of  the  consequences  of  an  action, 

Guile                        guilt                           guilty 

or   simply   respecting   existence,   are  called 

Heal    (to   cover  hell,    hole,    hale,  hellish,    hollow, 

Verbs.    Ex.     To  run;  to  strike;  to  sleep, 

or    hide)                health                       healer 

to  be  '  to  be  beaten. 

Lead                       lode                          leader,     mislead 

Lend                       loan 

ADJECTIVES.  —  Attributives  which  can  only 

Lie                          lay,     law                 lien,     lawyer, 

in  figurative  language  be  used  without  a 

layer 

noun    (which   they   qualify  in  some  way) 

Lose                       loss,    loose            loser,    unloose 
^Tan                                                         mannikin      man* 

are    called    Adjectives.     Ex.     Good,    bad, 

hood 

green,  high,  everlasting. 

Milk                        milch 

These  are  the  three  principal  classes  of 

Pin                          pen,    pound 

words,  which  represent  distinct  notions  of 

Pride                      proud 
(Be)  reave              raven                       ravenous 

things,     persons,     actions,     qualities,     etc, 

Rise                        raise,    rouse           arise,    arouse 

formed    in    the    mind.      Other    words    ex- 

See                       sight                       sightly 

press  not  so  much  the  notions   we  have 

4 


GRAMMAR 


formed  as  the  connection  of  those  notions 
with  each  other,  or  their  relations  to  us, 
or  some  of  the  infinitely  various  associa- 
tions of  thoughts. 

PRONOUNS  serve  not  only  to  prevent  the 
too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  nouns, 
but  yet  more  to  indicate  the  relation  of  the 
persons  or  things  spoken  of  to  the  speaker. 
Such  are  the  Personal  Pronouns.  Others 
are  used  as  attributives,  but  they  also  show 
the  relations  of  the  subjects  they  character- 
ize to  the  speaker.  Ex.  /,  thou,  he,  they; 
mine,  thine;  this,  those;  whom,  what. 

ADVERBS. — Whatever  exists,  or  acts,  or  is 
acted  upon,  is  regarded  as  being,  or  acting, 
or  being  acted  on,  in  some  particular  time, 
place,  manner,  etc.,  and  these  modifications 
of  the  simple  notions  indicated  by  the  verb 
are  expressed  by  a  class  of  words  called 
Adverbs.  Ex.  Now,  where,  so,  seldom, 
perhaps. 

PREPOSITIONS. — Many  of  the  relations  of 
notions  one  to  another,  also,  are  those  of 
place,  time,  manner,  means,  etc. ;  and  these 
are  expressed  by  words  called  Prepositions, 
which  serve  to  connect  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns with  other  nouns  and  pronouns,  and 
with  verbs.  Ex.  From,  by,  of,  to,  after. 

CONJUNCTIONS.  —  The  connection  of 
things,  etc.,  with  each  other,  and  of  thoughts 
with  other  thoughts,  is  shown  by  means  of 
Conjunctions.  Ex.  And,  or,  but,  though, 
for. 

NUMERALS  are  in  part  names,  and  in  part 
attributives  and  adverbs;  and  therefore  do 
not  properly  form  a  class  by  themselves. 
Ex.  Two,  four,  six;  first,  tenth,  hundredth; 
firstly,  secondly,  lastly. 

INTERJECTIONS,  which  are  expressions  of 
emotion,  such  as  fear,  joy,  pain,  wonder, 
etc.,  and  not  of  thought,  and  the  greater 
number  of  which  are  rather  sounds  than 
words,  can  not  be  noticed  in  a  grammar; 
although  it  is  convenient  to  have  such  a 
class  to  which  certain  expressions  which 
occur  in  the  Dictionary  may  be  referred. 
Ex.  Ah!  O!  Hat 

NOUNS.— The  Gender  of  Nouns  is  deter- 
mined by  the  sex  of  the  persons  or  beings 
they  represent,  being  called  Masculine  or 
Feminine  as  they  are  the  names  of  males 
or  females.  Beings  without  natural  sex, 
things  without  life,  and  abstractions  are 
called  Neuter. 

Figuratively,  sex  is  attributed  to  many 
beings  naturally  having  no  such  distinction, 
and  also  to  abstractions.  Ex.  The  sun,  he 
is  setting;  the  moon,  she  is  rising;  Charity, 
she  is  the  child  of  heaven.  Very  smaV  be- 


ings, of  whatever  sex  they  may  be,  and 
those  whose  sex  is  not  important  in  the 
sentence,  are  spoken  of  as  neuter.  Ex.  The 
ant,  it  is  a  patron  of  foresight  and  pru- 
dence; the  child,  it  knows  not  what  it  does. 
Very  few  words,  in  English,  have  termi- 
nations, or  other  special  forms  indicative 
of  gender.  The  following  are  a  few  ex- 
amples :  Arbiter,  arbitress;  prosecutor, 
prosecutrix;  margrave,  margravine;  he- 
bear,  she-bear;  man-servant,  maid-servant. 
In  other  instances  different  words  are  ap- 
propriated to  the  two  sexes,  without  pecu- 
liarity of  termination.  Ex.  Brother,  sister; 
horse,  mare;  king,  queen. 

NUMBER. — The  only  distinction  of  Num- 
ber is  between  one  and  more  than  one;  the 
former  being  called  Singular;  and  the  lat- 
ter Plural. 

Most  commonly,  s  or  (when  it  ends  in  a 
sibilant  or  x)  es  is  added  to  the  singular. 
Ex.  Sword,  swords;  fish,  fishes.  Words 
ending  in  f  or  fe  generally  make  their  plu- 
rals in  ves.  Ex.  Calf,  calves;  life,  lives. 
But  all  words  ending  in  ft,  except  staff, 
staves,  and  several  words  in  f  or  fe,  add  s 
without  any  change  of  letters  for  the  plural. 
Ex.  Whiff,  whiffs;  grief,  griefs;  fife,  fifes. 
Those  ending  in  o,  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
add  s  only;  but  if  a  consonant  precede  the 
o,  S  or  es  is  added.  Ex.  Cameo,  cameos; 
ratio,  ratios;  cargo,  cargoes;  volcano,  vol- 
canoes; portico,  porticoes;  solo,  solos. 
Words  ending  in  y  after  a  consonant  have 
ies  in  the  plural.  Ex.  fiy,  Hies;  history, 
histories. 

A  very  few  change  the  vowel  sound  of 
the  singular.  Ex.  Foot,  feet;  goose,  geese; 
tooth,  teeth;  woman,  women  (pronounced 
wimmen).  One  adds  en  to  the  singular — 
ox,  oxen.  One  both  changes  the  vowel 
and  adds  en — brother,  brethren. 

Besides  these,  the  following  must  be 
noted:  Child  makes  children  in  the  plural. 
Mouse  has  mice,  and  louse,  lice;  but  it  is 
the  spelling  only  which  is  peculiar.  Penny 
has  two  plurals;  when  coins  are  meant, 
pennies,  but  when  money  is  spoken  of, 
pence.  In  like  manner  die,  signifying  a 
stamp  for  coining,  has  dies;  but  when  it 
means  a  cube  used  in  play,  dice.  Pea  has 
peas  and  pease,  the  latter  signifying  peas 
collectively,  or  used  for  food.  Kine  is  some- 
times used  as  a  plural  to  cow. 

Deer,  sheep,  swine,  are  used  in  both 
numbers;  and  (when  spoken  of  as  food) 
fish,  cod,  salmon,  etc.  The  names  of  metals 
are  made  plural  only  when  employed  to 
signify  some  particular  things  composed 
of  them.  Ex.  Irons,  coppers,  brasses.  Ar- 


GRAMMAR 


tides    of   trade    and    commerce    which,    in 

Singular. 

Plural. 

ordinary   language,  are  never   used  in  the 

Basis, 

bases. 

plural    form,    have    plural    forms    in    the 

Basso-relievo, 

bassi-relievi. 

market.     Ex.  Cloths,  oils,  sugars,  teas,  etc. 
Words   signifying   abstract   qualities   sel- 

Beau, 
Bonvivant, 
Calculus, 

beaux, 
bonsvivans. 
calculi. 

dom    take    the    plural    form,    because    they 

Calx, 

calces. 

can    not    have    a    plural    meaning,    except 
when  used  figuratively,  that  is,  to  express 

Candelabrum, 
Catachresis, 
Chateau, 

candelabra, 
catachreses. 
chateaux. 

concrete    ideas.     Ex.    The   honors   of   the 

Cherub, 

cherubim,  cherubs. 

world;   the   decencies  of  life.     Names   of 

Cheval-de-friaOfc 

chevaux-de-frise. 

measures,   weights,  of  some  numbers,   and 
of  terms  employed  numerically,  are  in  some 

Chrysalis, 
Cicerone, 
Cilium, 

chrysalides,   chrysalises, 
ciceroni, 
cilia. 

instances   used  in  the  singular  form,   with 

Colossus, 

colossi. 

a  plural   meaning.     Ex.  A  ten-dollar  note, 

Convolvulus, 

convolvuli. 

eighteen  hundred  and  fifty-eight,  an  army 

Corps, 

Crisis 

corps, 
crises. 

of  eighty   thousand  men,  twelve  dozen  of 

Criterion, 

criteria. 

wine,  three  brace  of  dogs,  a  fleet  of  twenty 

Datum, 

data. 

sail,  twelve  thousand  foot  and  three  thou- 

Desideratum^ 

desiderata. 

sand  horse,  fifteen  thousand  stand  of  arms, 

Diaeresis, 
Dictum, 

diaereses, 
dicta. 

a   hundred   head   of  cattle,   each   weighing 

Dilettante, 

dilettanti. 

thirty  stone. 

Effluvium, 

effluvia. 

Alms,    means,    news,   pains,    and    riches, 
which  are  plural  in  form,  are  used  both  as 

Ellipsis, 
Emporium, 
Encomium, 

ellipses, 
emporia,    emporiums, 
encomia,    encomiums. 

singulars   and  as  plurals.     Ashes,  bellows, 

Ephemeris, 

ephemerides. 

breeches,  cates,  dregs,  gallows,  pincers,  scis- 
sors, and   tongs,  have  no  singulars,   either 

Erratum, 
Eulogium, 
Fasciculus, 

errata, 
eulogia,     eulogiums. 
fasciculi. 

in  form  or  meaning.     The  names  of  some 

Flambeau, 

flambeaux. 

sciences,  derived  from  the  Greek  language, 

Focus, 

foci,    focuses. 

are  plural  in  form,  but  in  meaning  singular. 
Such  are  ethics,  hydrostatics,  mathematics, 
mechanics,   politics.     And    so    is    the    term 

Foramen,  . 
Formula, 
Fungus, 
Fulcrum, 

foramina, 
formulae,   formulas, 
fungi,  funguses, 
fulcra. 

morals.    Suds,  and  wages,  plural  in  form, 
are  singular  in  signification;  and  pulse  (le- 

Genius, 

i  geniuses,persons  of  genius 
1  genii,   aerial  beings. 

guminous   seeds),   also   plural   in   form,   is 

Oenus, 
Gymnasium, 

genera, 
gymnasia. 

simply  collective  in  its  meaning. 

Hiatus   (M  short). 

hiatus  (u  long). 

FOREIGN  WORDS.  —  Almost  all  nouns,  which 
have    been    simply    adopted    from    foreign 

Hippopotamus, 
Hypothesis, 
Ignis-fatuus, 

hippopotami, 
hypotheses. 
ignes-fatuL 

languages,  retain  their  original  plurals;  but 

Improvisator^ 

improvisator!. 

some  have  also  plurals  formed  in  the  En- 

Inamorato, 

inamorati. 

glish  fashion,  and  in  a  few  instances  with 
a    different    meaning.      The     following    is 

Incubus, 

incubi. 
(indices,    algebraic    expo- 
nents. 

nearly  a  complete  list  of  these  words: 

Index, 

indexes,    pointers,    tables 

of  contents. 

Singular.                               Plural. 

Jeu-d'esprik 

juex-d'esprit. 

Abacus,                                   abaci. 

Lamina, 

laminae. 

Addendum,                              addenda. 

Larva, 

larvae. 

Alluvion,    alluvium,              alluvia. 

Macula, 

maculae. 

Alto-relievo,                             alti-relievi. 

Madame, 

mesdames. 

Alumnus,                                  alumni. 

Magus, 

magi. 

Amanuensis,                           amanuenses. 

Mausoleum, 

man  sol  ea. 

Amphibium     (not    used),   amphibia. 

Medium, 

media. 

Amphora,                                  amphorae. 
Analysis,                                   analyses. 

Memorandum, 

1  memoranda,     memoran- 
dums. 

Animalculum    (not  used),   animalcula. 

Memorabile   (not  used), 

memorabilia. 

Antenna,                                   antennse. 

Menstruum, 

menstrua. 

Antithesis,                                antitheses. 

Mephitis, 

mephites. 

Apex,                                         apices. 

Metamorphosis, 

metamorphoses. 

Aphelion,                                aphelia. 

Miasma, 

miasmata. 

Aphis,                                        aphides. 

Millennium, 

millennia. 

Apparatus,                              apparatus. 

Minutia  (not  used). 

minutiae. 

Appendix,                               appendices,    appendixes. 

Momentum, 

momenta. 

Aquarium,                                aquaria,    aquariums. 

Morceau, 

morceaux. 

Arcanum,                                arcana. 

Monsieur, 

messieurs. 

Automaton                         •  automata,   automatons. 

Narcissus, 

narcissi. 

Axis,                                        axes. 

Nautilus, 

nautili. 

Bandit,                                  banditti.                                 Nebula, 

nebulae. 

GRAMMAR 


Singular. 

Nidus. 

Nimbus, 

Nostrum, 

Novus  homo, 

Nucleus, 

Oasis, 

Ovum, 

1'arenthesis, 

Parhelion, 

Perihelion, 

I'hasis, 

Phenomenon, 

Polypus, 

Premium, 

Proboscis, 

Prima  donna, 

Radius, 

Ranunculus, 

Regale    (not   used), 

Rhombus, 

Sarcophagus, 

Savant, 

Scholium, 

Scoria, 

Seraph, 

Series, 

Species, 

Spectrum, 

Speculum, 

Sphinx, 

Spicula, 
Stadium, 


Stamen, 


Stigma, 

Stimulus, 

Stratum, 

Stria, 

Symposium, 

Synopsis, 

Synthesis, 

Tableau, 

Terminus. 

Thesis, 

Triumvir, 

Tumulus, 

Vertebra, 

Vertex, 

Virtuoso, 

Viscus  (rare), 

Vortex, 


Plural. 

nidi, 
nimbi, 
nostra. 

novi  homines, 
nuclei, 
oases, 
ova. 

parentheses, 
parhelia, 
perihelia, 
phases, 
phenomena, 
polypi. 

premia,    premiums, 
proboscides. 
prime  donne. 
radii. 

ranunculi,    ranunculuses, 
regalia. 
rhombi. 
sarcophagi, 
savans. 
scholia, 
scoriz. 

seraphim,   seraphs, 
series, 
species, 
spectra, 
specula. 

j  sphinges,  hawk-moths. 
\  sphinxes,  in  mythology. 

spiculz. 
stadia. 

stamens,    parts    of    flow- 
ers. 
stamina,     the    solids    of 

the  human  body. 
f  stigmata,    in   botany  and 

surgery. 

1  stigmas,     marks     of    rt- 
t     proach. 

stimuli. 

strata. 

striae. 

symposia. 

synopses. 

syntheses. 

tableaux. 

termini. 

theses. 

triumviri,  triumvirs. 

tumuli. 

vertebr*. 

vertices. 

virtuosi. 

viscera. 

vortices. 


THE  CASES  OF  NOUNS. — When  a  noun  is 
the  subject  of  a  sentence  it  is  said  to  be 
in  the  nominative  case,  and  when  it  imme- 
diately follows  a  verb  or  a  preposition  it  is 
said  to  be  in  the  objective  case,  but  its  form 
is  precisely  the  same  in  both  cases.  Ex 
Nom.  The  man  walks;  trees  grow.  Obj 
I  pity  the  man;  he  fells  the  trees; — with  th< 
man;  under  the  trees. 

When  one  noun,  in  either  the  singular  o 
plural  number,  is  used  along  with  anothe 
attributively,  and  indicating  its  possesso 
or  origin,  's  (with  an  apostrophe  before  it 
which  shows  that  a  vo""*l  sound  has  been 


Iropped)  is  added  to  the  former,  except 
when  it  ends  in  a  sibilant,  when  most  fre- 

uently  only  the  apostrophe  is  added.  The 
>ame  rule  holds  for  plurals  made  with  s. 

£x.  A   soldier's   life;    the   soldiers'   friend; 

he  jury's  verdict;  the  judges'  sentence; 
Thomas's  horse  (read  "Thomases") ;  the 

ox'   (read  "foxes")   brush;   "He  that  de- 

pised  Moses'  law,  died ;"  "If  ye  suffer  for 
righteousness1  sake,  happy  are  ye." 

Declension  of  a  Noun. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Nominative  Case,      \          v.  v. 

Objective  Case,         \         Kmg>         Klngs- 
Possessive  Case.  King's,      Kings'. 

THE  ARTICLES. — In  order  to  individualize 
the  application  of  common  nouns,  two 
words  usually  designated  articles,  one  an 
adjective,  the,  the  other  a  numeral,  on  (or, 
as  abbreviated  before  a  consonant  sound, 
a),  almost  universally  precede  them.  The 
former,  which  is  called  the  definite  article, 
is  used  before  nouns  of  both  numbers.  Ex. 
The  man,  the  men;  the  horse,  the  horses. 
The  latter  is  called  the  indefinite  article, 
and  is  used  before  nouns  in  the  singular 
number  only.  Ex.  A  man,  an  hour,  a  tree, 
an  enemy. 

PROPER  NAMES,  abstract  nouns,  names  of 
materials,  and  some  other  classes  of  nouns, 
take  the  articles  only  when  they  are  used 
as  common  nouns.  Ex.  Solon.  Brutus, 
hope,  fear,  -water,  wood;  the  Solon  of  his 
country;  he  is  a  Brutus;  the  hopes  and  fears 
of  youth ;  the  water's  edge ;  the  wood  of  the 
ark. 

USES  OF  VERBS. — When  the  action  signi- 
fied by  a  verb  immediately  affects  any  per- 
son or  thing  as  its  object,  the  verb  is  called 
transitive  or  active;  but  when  the  action  i? 
completely  described  by  the  verb  itself,  ot 
when  the  verb  signifies  a  condition,  it  is 
called  intransitive  or  neuter.  Ex.  Transi- 
tive: We  suspect  deceit,  he  loves  truth.  In- 
transitive: I  walk  or  run,  they  sleep,  you 
stand.  Many  verbs  are  both  active  and 
neuter.  Ex.  To  abate  a  nuisance,  the  storm 
abated;  to  account  a  man  wise,  to  account 
for  one's  conduct. 

TRANSITIVE  VERBS  are  conjugated  in  two 
ways :  one  form,  called  active,  is  used  when 
the  agent  is  the  subject  of  the  verb.  Ex.  7 
esteem  him;  they  speak  both  French  and 
German ;  the  Allies  defeated  the  Russians. 
The  other  is  used  when  the  agent  is  the 
immediate  object  of  the  verb,  and  is  called 
passive.  Ex.  He  is  esteemed  by  me;  both 
French  and  German  are  spoken  by  them; 
the  Russians  were  defeated  by  the  Allies. 


GRAMMAR 


THE  CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. — In  the 
conjugation  of  verbs,  four  moods  are  dis- 
tinguished— the  indicative,  the  subjunctive, 
the  imperative,  and  the  infinitive — and  an- 
other class  of  forms,  called  participles.  The 
indicative  is  used  when  the  speaker  asserts 
something  as  actually  existing  or  acting. 
Ex.  He  reads,  we  walked,  they  will  con- 
sent, thou  art  punished,  I  was  exalted.  The 
subjunctive  is  used  when  some  possible  or 
probable  action  or  state  of  being  is  spoken 
of,  and  generally  occurs  with,  if,  though,  or 
some  other  word  expressing  contingency. 
Ex.  "If  I  be  a.  father,  where  is  mine  hon- 
or?" "Though  thou  detain  me,  I  will  not 
eat;"  "If  he  were  a  prophet,  he  would  have 
known  who  touched  him;"  "Though  these 
three  men  were  in  it,  they  should  deliver 
neither  son  nor  daughter."  When  a  com- 
mand is  given,  the  imperative  is  employed. 
Ex.  "Honor  all  men.  Love  the  brother- 
hood. Fear  God.  Honor  the  king."  The 
infinitive  mood  consists  of  the  substantive 
forms,  and  the  participles  of  the  attributive 
forms,  of  the  verb  to  which  they  belong. 
The  preposition  to  is  prefixed  to  all  infini- 
tives, except  those  which  follow  auxiliary 
verbs,  and  such  verbs  as  see,  hear,  etc.,  in 
the  active  voice.  Ex.  "To  err  is  human; 
to  forgive,  divine;"  to  have  praised,  to  have 
been  blamed;  I  saw  him  weep,  he  was  seen 
to  weep. 

THE  THREE  TENSES  OF  VERBS,  or  the 
times  in  which  an  action  or  event  may  be 
said  to  take  place,  are  the  present,  the  past, 
and  the  future;  and  in  each  of  them,  it 
may  be  considered  as  indefinitely,  or  imper- 
fectly, or  perfectly  accomplished.  Ex. 
(Indef.  pres.)  /  read,  (imperf.  pres.)  7  am 
reading,  (perf.  pres.)  /  have  read;  (indef. 
past)  /  read,  (imperf.  past)  /  was  reading, 
(perf.  past)  /  had  read;  (indef.  fut.)  /  shall 
read,  (imperf.  fut.)  7  shall  be  reading, 
(perf.  fut.)  7  shall  have  read.  In  the  sub- 
junctive mood,  the  tense  forms  express  the 
probability  or  improbability  of  the  event  or 
action  spoken  of.  Ex.  (Prob.)  "What  mat- 
ter where,  if  I  be  still  the  same  ?"  "Though 
thou  detain  me,  I  will  not  eat."  (Improb.) 
"If  ye  were  of  the  world,  the  world  would 
love  his  own."  "If  ye  loved  me,  ye  would 
rejoice." 

The  imperative  mood  admits  of  no  dis- 
tinctions of  time,  but  only  of  the  complete- 
ness or  incompleteness  of  the  action  com- 
manded. Ex.  (Imperf.)  Read  thou,  (perf.) 
Have  done! 

In  the  infinitive  mood  the  only  tense  is 
the  present.  Ex.  (Indef.  pres.)  to  read, 
(imperf.  pres.)  to  be  reading,  (perf.  pres.) 


to  have  read.  And  the  participles  admit 
only  of  the  distinctions  of  completeness  and 
incompleteness  of  the  action  spoken  of.  Ex. 
(Imperf.)  reading,  (perf.)  read. 

AUXILIARY  VERBS. — By  means  of  a  class 
of  verbs,  called  auxiliary  verbs,  the  capabil- 
ity of  expressing  the  several  relations  of 
mood,  tense,  etc.,  is  greatly  extended  and 
refined.  Those  tenses  which  are  formed 
without  the  assistance  of  auxiliaries  are* 
called  simple  tenses,  and  the  others,  com- 
pound. 

The  auxiliary  verbs  of  mood  are  such  as 
may  and  can,  which  express  possibility; 
must,  ought,  and  shall,  which  express  obli- 
gation; shall  and  will,  expressing  determi- 
nation of  will;  might,  could,  and  would, 
expressing  desire;  let  and  may,  implying 
permission;  do,  which  adds  emphasis  to  as- 
sertion, and  is  employed  in  negatives  and 
questions,  etc.  Ex.  It  may  be  so,  he  can  do 
it,  you  must  see  that  you  should  obey, 
"these  things  ought  not  so  to  be,"  we  shall 
see  to  that,  7  will  be  heard,  might  it  but  be 
so!  could  we  but  know  it,  would  he  were 
here!  let  him  do  what  he  will,  you  may  do 
as  you  please,  we  do  like  simplicity,  it  does 
not  signify,  do  you  see  the  meaning? 

The  auxiliary  verbs  of  tense  are  such  as 
be,  be  about,  be  going,  begin,  do,  have,  keep, 
shall,  will,  etc.  Ex.  You  are  chosen;  they 
were  laughing;  we  are  about  to  depart;  we 
are  going  to  learn  French ;  7  did  once  think; 
he  has  seen  too  much;  they  kept  expecting 
what  was  impossible ;  he  would  dance  and 
sing  the  whole  day  long. 

All  the  moods,  tenses,  etc.,  of  the  passive 
forms  of  verbs  are  made  by  the  help  of  the 
verb  be.  Ex.  7  am  praised,  we  were  loved, 
they  shall  be  beaten,  to  be  afflicted,  having 
been  disappointed. 

INFLECTIONAL  FORMS. — The  only  distinc- 
tive personal  forms  are  those  of  the  second 
and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present 
indefinite  tense,  and  the  second  person  sin- 
gular of  the  past  indefinite;  all  the  other 
persons  in  each  of  the  simple  tenses  are 
alike.  Ex.  7  lead,  thou  leadest,  he  leads 
(leadeth),  we  lead,  you  lead,  they  lead.  I 
led,  thou  leddest,  he  led,  we  led,  you  led, 
they  led. 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS,  of  which  there  are 
but  two  in  our  language  (strictly  so  to  be 
called),  are  found  only  in  the  third  person 
singular.  Ex.  "Meseems  I  hear  her  sing- 
ing loud,"  meseemed;  "methinks  he  breaks 
it,"  "methought  I  saw  my  late  espoused 
wife."  But  other  verbs  are  often  used  im- 
personally. Ex.  It  rained  last  night,  it  liked 
him  well,  it  behooved  him  to  do  the  same. 


B 


GRAMMAR 


THE   PAST  TENSE.  —  By   far  the   greater 

Present  Indff.      Past  Indef.                 Perfect 

number  of  English  verbs,  including  all  that 

Tense.                   Tense.                  Participle. 

have  been  recently  introduced,  and  almost 
all  derivatives,  are  of  the  class  called  weak 
verbs,  that  is,  they  form  their  past  indefi- 

Cleave (split)  (clove,  clave)  cleft  cloven,  cleft 
Creep              (crope)  crept             crept 
(Falde)fold    folded                       (folden)  folded 
Freeze             froze                          frozen 

nite  tenses,  and  their  perfect  participles,  by 

Heave             (hove)  heaved          (hoven)  heaved 

the  addition  of  d  (or  /)  to  the  present,  or 

(Qucath)        quoth 

cd  when  the  present  ends  in  d  or  /.      Ex. 
Hope,  hoped;   light,  lighted.    But  it  must 

Lead                (lode,  lad)  led           led 
Leap                (lope)  leapt,  leaped   leapt,  leaped 
Seethe             (soth)  sod,  seethed    sodden 

be  observed,  there  is  a  great  difference  be- 

Shear              (shore)    sheared      shorn 

tween  our  spoken  and  our  written  language 

Speak              spoke    (spake)          spoken 

in  this  particular;  the  forms  of  the  latter 

Steal               stole    (stale)             stolen 

having    departed    widely    from    the   sounds 
of  the  former.    Ex.   Walk,  -walked   (pron. 

Swear             swore    (sware)         sworn 
Tear                 tore  (tare)                  torn 
Tread             trode,  trod,  (trade)  trodden,    trod 

walkd)  ;  step,  stepped   (pron.  slept)  ;  stab, 

Wear                wore  (ware)               worn 

stabbed   (pron.  stabd)  ;  bar,  barred   (pron. 

Weave            wove                          woven 

tard). 

Weep               (wope)  wept              wept 

The  remainder  form  their  past  indefinite 
tenses  and  perfect  participles  either  (i)  by 
modifying  the  verbal  sound,  and  adding  n 

Wreak             (wroke)  wreaked      (wroken)    wreaked 
Wreathe         wreathed                   wreathen,   wreathed 
Yield              (yolde)  yielded         yielded 

.  u,,\                                                                                Hj*f»n 

or   (en)    for   the   participle    (being  of   the 

k  oe^ 
See                  saw                             seen 

class  called  strong  verbs)  ;   (2)  by  modify- 
ing the  vowel,  and  adding  t  for  the  partici- 

Awake, wake  awoke                       awaked 
Bake                (boke)    baked          (baken)  baked 

ple;  (3)  by  changing  the  terminal  d  into  t; 

Forsake          forsook                       forsaken 

or   (4)   by  retaining  the  present  form  for 

Grave              (grove)  graved         graven,  graved 

both  the  tense  and  the  participle.    But  the 

Lade                (lode)  laded              laden,    loaden 

tendency   to   uniformity   is   so   strong   that 
many  of  these  verbs  have  lost  'one  or  both 

Shake              shook,    shaked           shaken,    shaked 
Shape             (shope)  shaped         shapen,  shaped 
Shave              shaved                       shaven,   shaved 

of  their  peculiar  forms,  and  others  have  two 

Stave              stove 

forms   for  the   past   indefinite  and   perfect 

Take                took                             taken 

participle. 

Stand              stood                          stood 

The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  these 

Wax                (wox,  wex)  waxed     (waxen)  waxed 

verbs,    classified    mainly    by    their    present 
forms.     The    original    forms    of   many    of 

2d  Class.     Vowel  i,  becoming  a,  o.  u,  or  ott. 

them  are  obsolete,  and  such  forms  are  in- 
closed in  parentheses.     Sometimes  the  past 

Begin               began  (begon)           begun 
Cling               clung  (clong)             clung 
Dig                   dug,  digged               dug,  digged 

tense  is  used  for  the  participle,  and  some- 

Drink              drank  (drunk,           drunken,    drunk 

times  the  terminal  «  or  en  has  been  dropped. 

dronk) 

Fling               flung  (flang,  flong)  flung 

First  Division.  Verbs  which  change  their 

Hang  (hing)  hung,   hanged            hung,   hanged 

vowel  sounds,  and  form  their  perfect  par- 

Ring               rang,  rung  (rong)      rung 

ticiples  by  adding  en  or  n,  are  strong  verbs. 

Run    (rin)      ran                               run 
Shrink             shrank,  shrunk          shrunken,     shrunk 

ist  Class.  Vowels  e  and   a.  becoming  e,  a,  or  o. 

(shronk) 

Present   Indef.     Past  Indef.                  Perfect 

Sing                 sang,  sung  (song)     sung 
Sink                 sank,  sunk  (sonk)     sunken,    sunk 

Tense.                  Tense.                     Participle. 

Sling               (slang)  slung  (slong)  slung 

IX  /e               (dolve,  dalf)delved  delved 

Slink               (slank)slunk(slonk)slunk 

Get                  got    (gat)                   (gotten)    got 

Spin                (span)  spun  (spon)  spun 

Help                (bolp,  halp)  helped  (holpen)  helped 

Spring             sprang,  sprung          sprung 

Melt                (molt)    melted         molten,  melted 

(sprong) 

Sweat              (swote,    swat.)          (sweaten)  sweated 

Stick                stuck  (stoke)             stuck 

sweat,    sweated 

Sting                (stang)  stung             stung 

Swell               (swoll)    swelled       swollen,    swelled 

(stong) 

Yell                 (yoll)    yelled           yelled 

Stink               stank,   stunk             stunk 

Burst               (brast)    burst            (borsten)    burst 
Beat                beat                            beaten,    beat 

(stonk) 
String              (strang)  strung        strung 

Swim              swam,  swum             swum 

Eat                  eat,  ate                      eaten,  eat 

(sworn) 

Bear  (bring    bore    (bare)              born 

Swing             (swang)  swung         swung 

forth) 

(swong) 

Bear  (carry)  bore  (bare)               borne 

Swink              (swank,  swonk)        (swonk)  swinkt 

Break              broke  (brake)            broken,    broke 

swink 

Cleave    (ad-  (clave)  cleaved         cleaved 

Win                  (wan)  won                 won 

here) 

Wring             wrung,  v,  ringed        wrung 

GRAMMAR 


Present  Indef.      Past  Indef.                  Perfect 

4th     Class.     Vowel     o,     shortened. 

Tense.  •               Tense.                     Participle. 
Bid                  bade  (bode),  bid       bidden,   bid 

Present  Indef.       Past  Indef.                 Perfect 
Tense.                    Tense.                   Participle. 

Give                gave  (gove)               given 
Sit                   sate                             sitten,  sate 

Choose            chose  (chase)           chosen 

Slit                  (slat  )  slit,  slitted   slitten,,  slit,  slitted 

Go                                                      gone 

Spit                 spat,  spit                   spitten,    spit,  spat 

Lose                lost                              (lorn)   lost 
Shoot              shot                            shotten,  shot 

Betide              betid                            betid 

Do                   did                              done 

Hide                 hid                               hidden,   hid 

Light               lit,    lighted                lit,    lighted 

5th  Class. 

Slide                slid                               slidden,  slid 

Come               came                           come 

Abide,    bide  abode                         abode 

Arise,    rise    arose  (aris)                arisen 
Bite                  (bote,  bat)  bit           bitten,   bit 
Chide               (chode)  chid              chidden,   chid 

Second   Division.     Verbs    which    change 
their  vowel  sound,  but  form  their  perfect 

Climb               (clomb,  clamb)          climbed 

participles    in   d   or   t;   and    are   therefore 

climbed 

weak  verbs. 

Dive                (dove)  dived              dived 

Drive               drove  (drave)           driven 

ist    Class.     Vowels  shortened. 

Glide               (glode,  glid)              glided 

Bleed              bled                            bled 

glided 

Breed              bred                           bred 

Hight              (hote,  hete) 

Feed                 fed                               fed 

Lie                  lay                              lien,    lain 

Meet               met                             met 

Ride                rode,   rid                   ridden,   rid 

Read                read                            read 

Rive                (rove)  rived              riven 

Speed               sped                             sped 

Shrive             (shrove)  shrived       shriven 

Smite               smote  (smate),          smitten,    smit 

Bereave^         bereft,  bereaved       bereft,  bereaved 

emit 

reave 

Stride              strode,    strid            stridden 

(Clepe)                                            y-clept 

Strive              strove                        striven 

Deal                dealt                           dealt 

Thrive             throve,  thrived          thriven 

Deem                (dempt)  deemed       deemed 

Write              wrote  (wrate)  writ    written,   writ, 

Dream             dreamt,   dreamed     dreamt,    dreamed 

wrote 

Feel                 felt                             felt 

Writhe            writhed                       writhen,    writhed 

Flee                 fled                             fled 

Hear                heard                           heard 

Shine               shone,   shined           shone,   shined 

Keep                kept                             kept 

Wit  (wite)      (wote)     wot 

Kneel              knelt,    kneeled          knelt,    kneeled 

Strike             (stroke)    struck        stricken,    struck 

Lean             •  leant,    leaned            leant,  leaned 
Mean               meant                          meant 

Bind               bound  (bond)           bounden,    bound 

Sleep                slept                             slept 

Fight               fought                         foughten,  fought 

Sweep              swept                           swept 

Find                (fand,  fond)  found  found 

Grind               ground                        ground 

Shoe                shod                           shod 

Wind               wound  (wond),         wound 

2d  Class.    Vowels   a,  e,  i,  and  o,  changed 

winded 

into  o,  au,  on. 

3^  Class.     Vowel   o,  becoming  e  in  past  tense. 

Sell                  sold                            sold 
Tell                   told                              told 

Draw              drew                           drawn 

Fall                 fell                             fallen 

Catch               caught,    catched       caught,    catched 

Saw                 sawed                         sawn,    sawed 

Reach              (raught)  reached      (raught)  reached 

Wash              (wesh)  washed         washen,  washed 

Stretch            (straught.streight)   stretched 

stretched 

Blow               blew                           blown 
Crow               crew,    crowed          crowed 

Teach              taught       •                 taught 
Distract          distracted                  (distraught)     dis- 

Fly                  flew                              flown 

tracted 

Grow                grew                            grown 
Hew                hewed                        hewn,    hewed 

Freight            freighted                     fraught,     freighted 

Hold               held                            holden,   held 

Shall                should 

Know              knew                          known 

Will                 would  (woll) 

Mow               (mew)    mowed         mown,    mowed 

Show               (shew)  showed          shown,   showed 

May                (mought)  might 

Snow              (snew)    snowed       snowed 
Sow                (sew)    sowed           sown,   sowed 

Beseech          besought                    besought 

Strow,  strew  strewed,  strowed     strewn,    strown, 
(straw)                                                strewed 

Bring              brought                      brought 
Buy                 bought                       bought 

Throw             threw                         thrown 

Own                ought,   owed             owed 

Seek                sought                        sought 

Let    (late)      let                               let 

Think               thought                       thought 

Slay                 slew                             slain 

Work               wrought,     worked    wrought,    worked 

Laugh             (loghe,    leugh)         laughed 

Note,  that  the  y  in  "y-clept"  is  the  old  participial 
prefix,  of  which  only  one  other  instance  remains  in 

laughed 

occasional  use  in  our  language,  "y-clad." 

10 


GRAMMAR 


Third  and  Fourth  Divisions. 
Weak  Verbs. 


Contracted 


Present  Indef.      Past  Indef. 

Tense.  Tense. 

Have  had 

Make  made 

Lay  laid 

Pay  paid 

Say  said 


Dwell 
Pen 
Spill 
(WU) 

Bend 

Build 

Gild 

Gird 

Lend 

Rend  , 

Send 

Sbend 

Spend 

(Wend) 

Cast 

Cost 

Cot 

Hit 

Hart 

Knit 

Lift 

Pat 

Quit 

Rid 

Roast 

Set 

Shed 

Shred 

Shut 

Split 

Spread 

Thrust 

Wet 


Am 

Clothe 

Go 


dwelt,    dwelled 
penned 
spilt,   spilled 
(wist) 

bent,     bended 

built,    builded 

gilt,    gilded 

girt,    girded 

lent 

rent 

sent 

shent 

spent 

went 

cast 

cost 

cut 

hit 

hurt 

knit,   knitted 

lift,  lifted 

put 

quit,    quitted 

rid 

roasted 

set 

shed 

shred 

shut 

split,    splitted 

spread 

thrust 

wet,    wetted 


Ptrfect 
Participle. 
had 
made 
laid 
paid 
said 

dwelt,    dwelled 
pent,    penned 
spilt,   spilled 

bent,    bended 

built,   builded 

gilt,  gilded 

girt,  girded 

lent 

rent 

sent 

shent 

spent 


cast 

cost 

cut 

hit 

hurt 

knit,  knitted 

lift,  lifted 

put 

quit,    quitted 

rid 

roast,  roasted 

set 

shed 

shred 

shut 

split,   splitted 

spread 

thrust 

wet,   wetted 


Defective  Verbs. 
was  been 

clad,  clothed         (y-clad)   clothed 
went  gone 


In  the  first  of  these,  each  part  belongs  to 
a  different  verb;  in  the  second,  "clad"  and 
"y-clad"  are  derived  from  some  word  not 
greatly  unlike  "clothe";  and  both  forms  in 
this  kind  have  appeared  in  the  preceding 
lists. 

Irregular  Verbs. 
Can  could 

Dare,  durst  durst 

It  is  the  introduction  of  the  /  into  "could," 
which  makes  the  former  of  these  irregular. 
The  other  appears  to  have  adopted  its  origi- 
nal past  tense  as  an  additional  form  for  the 
present;  when  used  transitively,  in  the 
meaning  of  "to  challenge  or  provoke,"  its 
past  tense  and  perfect  participles  are 
"dared." 


CONJUGATION   OF  AUXILIARY  VERBS, 
i.  To  BE. 

Indicative    Mood.     Present  Indefinite  Tens*. 
Sing.     i.  I  am,       2.  Thou   art,         3.  He  is, 
Plur.     i.  We  are,  2.  You  are,          3.  They  are. 

Past  Indefinite  Tense. 
Sing.     i.  I  was,      2.  Thou  wast,    3.  He  was, 
Plur.     i.  We  are,  a.  Thou  were,  3.  They  were. 

Subjunctive  Mood.     Form  implying  probability. 
Sing,  and  plur.    (If)  I,  thou,  he,  we,  you,  they  be. 

Form  implying  improbability. 

Sing,   and    plur.      (If)    I  were;  thou  wert;  he,  we, 

you,   they   were. 

Imperative  Mood. 

Sing.     Be  thou.  Plur.     Be  ye. 

Infinitive  Mood.     Present  Indefinite  Tense. 

To  be. 

Participles. 
Imperfect.     Being.  Perfect.     Been. 

2.  To  HAVE. 

Indicative  Mood.     Present  Indefinite  Tense. 
Sing.     i.  I    have,      2.  Thou  hast,  3.  He  hath  or  has, 
Plur.     i.  We  have,  2.  You  have,  3.  They  have. 

Past  Indefinite  Tense. 

Sing.  i.  I  had,         2.  Thou  hadst,     3-  He  had, 
Plur.  i.  We  had,    2.  You  had,          3.  They  had. 

Subjunctive  Mood.     Probable  form. 

Sing,  and  plur.     (If)    I,  thou,   he,   we,   you,   they 

have. 

Improbable  form. 

Sing,  and  plur.     (If)    I  had;  thou  hadst;  he,  we, 
you,     they    had. 

Infinitive  Mood.     Present  Indefinite  Tense. 
To  have. 

Participles. 
Imperfect.    Having.  Perfect.    Had. 

3.  To  Do. 

Indicative  Mood.      Present  Indefinite  Tense. 
Sing.  i.  I  do,       2.  Thou  dost,3.  He  doth  or  does, 
Plur.  i.  We  do.  a.  You  do,     3.  They  do. 

Past  Indefinite  Tense. 

Sing.  1. 1  did,       2.  Thou  diddest  or  didst,  3.  He  did, 
Plur.  i.  We  did,  2.  You  did,  3.  They  did. 

Subfunftive  Mood.     Probable  form. 
Sing,  and  plur.    (If)  I,  thou,  he,  we,  you,  they  do. 

Improbable    form. 

Sing,  and  plur.     (If)    I  did;   thou   didst;   he,   we, 
you,  they  did. 

Infinitive  Mood.    Present  Indefinite. 
To  do. 

.  Participles. 

Imperfect.     Doing.        Perfect.    Done. 

In  the  auxiliaries,  may,  can,  shall,  will, 
the  only  change  of  form  is  in  the  second 
person  singular,  which  are  mayest,  might- 


GRAMMAR 


11 


est;   canst,  couldst;  shalt,  shouldst;  wilt, 

Imperative. 

wouldst;  in  the  present  and  past  tenses  re- 
spectively.   Let  and  must  have  no  inflex- 
ions, and  ought  (which  admits  of  no  dis- 
tinction of  time)  has  oughtcst  in  the  second 

See  thou,                              Be  thou  seeing, 
See  you.                              Be  ye  seeing. 

Infinitive  Present.      To   see,    To  be  w'ngi 
Participle.      Seeing. 

person  singular. 

Perfect. 

Perfect    Tense. 

Singular.                                 Plural. 

I  have  seen,                           We  have  seen, 

Singular.                              Plural. 

Thou  hast  seen,                    You  have  seen, 

I  might,  could,  would,  or    We  might,  could,  would, 

He  has  seen.                          They  have  seen. 

should  be,                             or  should  be, 

Pluperfect. 

Thou     mightst,     couldst,    Ye  or  you  might,  could, 

I  had  seen,                            We  had  seen, 

wouldst,    or    shouldst        would,  or  should  be, 

Thou  hadst  seen,                  You  had  seen, 

be, 

He  had  seen.                         They  had  seen. 

He  might,  could,  would,     They  might,  could,  would, 

Future  Perfect. 

or  should  be,                        or  should  be. 

I  shall  have  seen,                 We  shall   have  seen. 

Thou  wilt  have  seen,            You  will  have  seen, 

Pluperfect. 

He  will  have  seen.               They  will  have  seen. 

I  might,  could,  would,  or    We  might,  could,  would, 

Perfect  Infinitive.      To  have  seen. 

should  have  been,                or  should  have  been, 
Thou     mightst,     couldst,    Ye  or  you  might,  could, 

Perfect  Participle.      Seen. 

wouldst,    or    shouldst        would,  or  should  have 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

have  been.                              been, 

Present. 

He  might,  could,  would,     They  might,  could,  would, 
or   should    have    been.        or  should  have  been. 

Probable.                       Improbable. 

(If)  I  see,                            (If)  I  saw, 

Perfect    Tense. 

(If)  Thou  see,                      (If)  Thou  sawest, 
(If)  He  see,                           (If)  He  saw, 

Singular.                                Plural. 

(If)  We  see,                          (If)  We  saw, 

I  might,  could,  would,  or    We  might,  could,  would, 
should  have,                          or  should  have, 

(If)  You  see,                         (If)  You  saw, 
(If)  They  see.  .                    (If)  They  saw. 

Thou     mightst,     couldst,     Ye  or  you  might,  could, 

Imperfect. 

wouldst,    or    shouldst        would,  or  should  have, 
have, 
He  might,  could,  would,     They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have.                   or  should  have. 

(If)  I  be  seeing,                    (If)  I  were  seeing, 
(If)  Thou  be  seeing,             (If)  Thou  wert  seeing; 
(If)  He  be  seeing,                  (If)  He  were  seeing, 
(If)  We  be  seeing,                 (If)  We  were  seeing, 
(If)  You  be  seeing,               (if)  You  were  seeing, 
(If)  They   be   seeing.           (if)  They  were  seeing. 

Pluperfect. 

Perfect. 

I  might,  could,  would,  or    We  might,  could,  would, 
should  have  had,                  or  should  have  had, 
Thou     mightst,     couldst,     Ye  or  you  might,  could, 

(If)  I  have  seen,                    (If)  I  had  seen, 
(If)  Thou  have  seen,            (if)  Thou  hadst  seen, 
(If)  He  have  seen,                (if)  He  had  seen, 

wouldst,    or    shouldst        would,  or  should  have 
have  had,                                had, 
He  might,  could,  would,  or  They  might,  could,  would, 

(If)  We  have  seen,               (If)  We  had  seen, 
(if)  You  have  seen,              (If)  You  had  seen, 
(If)  They  have  seen.            (If)  They  had  seen. 

should  have  had,                 or  should  have  had. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  IRREGULAR  VERB, 

Present. 

TO  SEE. 

Singular.                                 Plural. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

I  am  seen,                              We  are  seen, 

Thou  art  seen,                      You  are  seen, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

He  is  seen.                            They  are  seen. 

Indefinite.                             Imperfect, 

Past. 

Present. 

I  was  seen,                          We  were  seen, 

1  see,                                      I  am  seeing, 

Thou  wast  seen.                   You  were  seen, 

Thou  seest,      .                     Thou  art  seeinft 

He  was  seen.                        They  were  seen. 

He  seeth,  or  sees,              He  is  seeing, 

We  see,                                   We  are  seeing, 

Future. 

You  see,                                 You  are  seeing, 

I  shall  be  seen,                      We  shall  be  seen, 

They  see.                               They  are  seeing. 

Thou  wilt  be  seen,                You  will  be  seen, 

Past. 

He  will  be  seen.                   They  will  be  seen. 

I  saw,                                   I  was  seeing, 

Perfect. 

Thou  sawest,                         Thou  wast  seeing; 

I  have  been  seen,                  We  have  been  seen, 

He  saw,                                 He   was  seeing. 

Thou  hast  been  seen,            You  have  been  seen, 

We  saw,                                 We  were  seeing, 

He  has  been  seen.                They  have  been  seen. 

You  saw,                               You  were  seeing. 
They  saw.                              They  were  seeing. 

Pluperfect. 

ty  f 

I  had  been  seen,                   We  had  been  seen, 

Future. 

Thou  hadst  been  seen,         You  had  been  seen. 

I  shall  see,                             I  shall  be  seeing, 

He  had  been  seen.                They  had  been  seen. 

Thou  wilt  see,                      Thou  wilt  be  seeing 
He  will  see,                          He  will  be  seeing, 

Future  Perfect. 

We  shall  see,                          We  shall  be  seeing, 

I  shall  have  been  seen,        We  shall  have  been  seen, 

You  will  see,                        You  will  be  seeing, 

Thou  wilt  have  been  seen  You  will  have  been  seen, 

They  will  see.                      They  will  be  seeing. 

He  will  have  been  seen.     They  will  have  been  seen. 

12 


GRAMMAR 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Probablt.  Improbable. 

Indefinite. 

(lf\  i  be  aeen.  (10  I  wcre  8een' 

}lf{  Thou  be  Been.  (If)  Thou  wert  see* 

)  He  be  BMIl  (H)  He  were  seen, 

(If)  We  tern*  Hf)  We  were  seen. 

You  teMMk  (10  You  were  seen, 

(If!  TheVbe^en.  00  They  were  seen. 

Perfect. 

(ID  I  have  been  seen,  (If)  I  had  been  seen, 

(If)  Thou  have  been  seen,  (If)  Thou  hadst  been  »een 

(If)  He  have  been  seen.  (If)  He  had  been  seen, 

(If)  We  have  been  seen,  (If)  We  had  been  seen, 

(If)  You  have  been  seen,  (If)  You  had  been  seen, 

*If)  They  have  been  seen.  (If)  They  had  been  seen. 

Imperative.        Be   thou   seen,      Be  ye  seen. 
Infinitive  Present.       To  be  seen. 
Infinitive  Perfect.       To  have  been  seen. 
Participle  Indefinite.   Being  seen. 
Participle  Perfect.      Having  been  seen. 

By  means  of  the  various  auxiliaries  a 
great  number  of  additional  tenses,  in  all 
the  moods,  might  be  formed. 

In  the  passive,  the  imperfect  tenses  can 
not  be  formed  except  for  a  few  verbs,  and 
then  only  in  the  past  and  present,  and  in 
two  ways — "the  house  is  building,"  or  "the 
house  is  being  built;"  "the  books  were 
printing,"  or  "were  being  printed."  For- 
merly the  first  of  these  forms  was  different. 
Ex.  The  ark  was  a-preparing. 

The  term,  indefinite,   as   applied  to  the 
conjugation  of  a  verb,  refers  to  the  time, 
expressed   or   implied.     Thus,   the   expres- 
sion,  "I  should   like   to   see,"   involves   no 
consideration  of  the  time  of  seeing,  whether 
present  or  future;  whereas,  the  expression, 
"/  should  like  to  be  seeing,"  is  a  colloquial 
form  for  "/  should  like  to  see  now."    Simi- 
larly, in  saying,  "/  do  anything,"  the  mean- 
ing viay  be  that  the  thing  done  is  a  matter 
of  custom,  past  as  well  as  present ;  whereas, 
\i  saying,  "/  am  doing,"  the  obvious  mean- 
ing is  that  the  present  time  is  referred  to. 
Thus,  "I  am  doing  it"  is  equivalent  to  say- 
ing, "/  do  it  now."     Such  a   form,  con- 
structed of  an  auxiliary  verb  and  the  pres- 
ent participle  in  ing,  is  called  imperfect,  as 
indicating  an  action  in  process,  and  not  yet 
completed.     The  term,  imperfect,  in  Latin, 
and   some   other   grammars,   refers   to   the 
preterit  or  past  tense. 

ADJECTIVES. — There  are  no  changes  of 
forms  in  the  adjectives,  to  show  their  re- 
lations to  the  nouns  they  qualify,  as  to 
gender,  number  or  case.  Ex.  A  wise  man, 
wise  men;  a  tall  man,  a  tall  woman,  a  tall 
tree;  they  saw  the  powerful  king's  golden 
crown;  he  defeated  three  great  emperors' 
vast  armies.  But  the  degree  of  intensity 
in  which  any  quality  is  regarded  as  char- 


acterizing one  or  more  persons  or  things, 
when  compared  with  others,  is  expressed 
by  the  addition  of  er  (or  r)  and  est  (or  st) 
to  the  simple  (or  positive)  form  of  the  ad- 
jective;— the  former  (called  the  compara- 
tive degree)  being  employed  where  only 
two  subjects  are  compared,  the  latter 
(named  the  superlative)  when  a  subject  is 
compared  with  more  than  one  other  in  re- 
spect of  the  same  quality.  Ex.  This  tree 
is  taller  than  that,  but  the  next  is  the  tallest 
of  the  three,  and  those  trees  are  the  tallest 
in  the  wood;  this  man  is  wiser  than  those 
and  those  men  are  the  wisest  in  our  coun- 
try; platinum  is  the  heaviest  metal,  or  plati- 
num is  heavier  than  any  other  metal. 

Instead  of  using  these  inflections,  with 
adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable,  the 
comparative  is  frequently  formed  by  pre- 
fixing more,  and  the  superlative  by  prefix- 
ing most,  to  the  simple  form.  Ex.  A  more 
prudent  man,  the  most  prudent  conduct; 
more  seasonable  weather,  most  unseasonable 
importunities. 

Some  adjectives  are  defective,  or  have 
comparatives  and  superlatives  formed  from 
other  words;  and  some  do  not  form  them 
according  to  the  common  rule.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  principal  adjectives  to  which 
these  remarks  apply: 

worst 
farthest 
furthest,  first 
best 

latest,  last 
least 
most 

nearest,  next 
oldest,  eldest 

Another  class  of  adjectives  differ  from 
the  common  rule  in  having  a  positive  sig- 
nification with  the  comparative  form  (as  is 
the  case  with  the  comparatives  superior, 
inferior,  exterior,  and  interior,  borrowed 
from  the  Latin),  and  only  a  superlative 
degree  of  comparison  besides.  Ex.  Former, 
foremost;  hinder,  hindmost,  and  hinder- 
most;  hither,  hithermost;  inner,  inmost, 
and  innermost;  nether,  nethermost;  outer, 
outmost,  and  outermost;  under,  undermost; 
upper,  upmost,  and  uppermost;  utter,  ut- 
most, and  uttermost.  The  following  su- 
perlatives also  occur:  midmost  for  midst, 
northernmost  and  southernmost. 

Different  degrees  of  intensity  are  also 
more  generally  expressed  by  the  use  of 
some  adverbs.  Ex.  Too  hot,  very  cold, 
exceedingly  angry.  "Less"  and  "least"  are 
employed  when  the  comparison  regards 
lower  degrees  of  intensity.  Ex.  Less  scrup- 
ulous* least  scrupulous. 


Bad 

worse    (worser) 

Far 

farther 

Fore 

further 

Good 

better 

Late 

later,  latter 

Little 

less,  lesser 

Much,  many 

more 

Near,   nigh 

nearer,  nigher 

Old 

older,  elder 

GRAMMAR 


13 


NUMERALS. — When  the  cardinal  numer- 
als are  employed  to  signify  abstract  num- 
bers, they  are  nouns.  Ex.  Four  and  three 
are  seven,  two  and  one  are  three.  But 
when  used  to  express  concrete  quantities 
they  are  adjectives.  Ex.  Four  horses,  ten 
men,  a  hundred  pounds. 

The  ordinal  numerals  (which  signify  po- 
sition in  a  series)  are  most  frequently  ad- 
jectives. Ex.  The  first  man,  the  tenth 
sheep,  the  thirtieth  day.  But  they  are  some- 
times used  objectively,  and  then  are  ad- 
verbs. Ex.  He  stands  first,  I  am  tenth  on 
the  list.  They  are  also  the  regularly 
formed  adverbial  ordinal  numerals,  firstly, 
secondly,  thirdly,  etc. 

Fractional  numerals  are  the  same  as  or- 
dinals, but  they  are  nouns,  and  are  so  be- 
cause they  are  abbreviations.  Ex.  One- 
third  (for  "one  third  part")  three-fourths 
(for  "three  fourth  parts"),  four-fifths,  two- 
tenths  of  an  inch.  In  this  series  first  is 
omitted,  half  is  used  for  second,  and  quar- 
ter is  often  substituted  for  fourth. 

Besides  these  there  are  the  reiterative  nu- 
merals, once,  twice,  thrice,  four  times,  etc.; 
the  multiplicatives,  single,  double  or  two- 
fold, triple  or  three-fold,  quadruple  or  four- 
fold, etc.; — the  distributives,  singly  or  one 
by  one,  two  by  two,  etc.;  and  other  classes. 

The  words  neither,  either,  other,  both, 
next,  again,  then,  and  some  others,  which 
are  also  called  pronouns,  are  frequently 
employed  as  numerals,  to  signify  not  one, 
one,  second,  two,  secondly,  etc. 

Intermediate  numerals  express  number 
and  quantity,  but  not  definitely.  They  are 
such  words  as  more,  some,  none,  few, 
many,  several,  much,  all,  etc. 

PRONOUNS. — Those  which  are  used  as 
nouns  only,  are  the  personal  pronouns,  I, 
thou,  he,  she,  it,  and  their  plurals.  They 
are  thus  declined : 

FIRST  PERSON.  SECOND  PERSON. 

IJominative  Case,  I  we  thou  you,  ye 

Objective  Case,    me  us  thee  you,  ye 

Possessive  Case,  my,          our  thy,  your, 

mine        ours  thine  yours 
THIRD    PERSON. 

Nominative  Case,  he  she  it  them 

Objective  Case,     him         her  it  they 

Possessive  Case,     his  her,  its  their, 

hers  theirs 

The  possessive  cases  of  these  pronouns 
are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  class  by 
themselves,  and  called  possessive  (adjec- 
tive) pronouns.  In  the  first  and  second 
persons,  the  possessive  cases,  and  in  the 
third  person,  the  objective  cases,  with  self 
or  selves  affixed,  constitute  the  renexive 
pronouns.  Ex.  Know  t /r vself,  he  loves  him- 


self, they  were  ashamed  of  themselves. 
And  these  and  the  possessives"  are  rendered 
emphatic  by  the  insertion  of  own.  Ex. 
"I  scarcely  coveted  what  was  my  own;" 
"Thou  owest  unto  me  even  thine  own  self." 

THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  are  this 
and  that,  with  the  plurals  these  and  those; 
such,  the  same,  yon  and  yonder,  here,  there, 
hence,  thence,  then,  etc.,  most  of  which  are 
adverbs,  used  instead  of  a  pronominal 
clause  understood.  Ex.  "This  same  shall 
comfort  us,"  "after  this  or  that  determinate 
manner,"  "it  makes  a  greater  show  in  these 
months  than  in  those,"  "such  are  the  cold 
Riphean  race,  and  such  the  savage  Scyth- 
ian," "darkness  there  might  well  seem  twi- 
light here,"  "now  shaves  with  level  wing 
the  deep,  then  soars,"  "useless  and  thence 
ridiculous,"  "yon  flowering  arbors,  yonder 
alleys  green."  The,  commonly  called  the 
definite  article,  is  properly  a  demonstrative 
pronoun. 

INTERROGATIVE  AND  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 
— Pronouns  used  in  questions,  called  inter- 
rogative, and  those  used  in  subjective  and 
adjective  accessory  sentences,  called  rela- 
tive, are  who  (in  the  objective  whom,  and 
the  possessive  whose,  in  both  numbers), 
which  (occasionally  with  a  possessive  case, 
whose)  what,  where,  whither,  whence, 
when,  how;  some  of  them  being  adverbs. 
Ex.  Who  art  thou?  Which  is  it?  What 
do  you  mean?  "Whose  dog  are  you?" 
"Whom  dost  thou  serve?"  Whence  come 
you?  "Whither  goest  thou?"  "How  can 
these  things  be?"  "The  son  of  Duncan, 
from  whom  the  tyrant  holds  the  due  of 
birth,  lives  in  the  English  court."  "The 
handsel  or  earnest  of  that  which  is  to 
come."  "See  what  natures  accompany  the 
several  colors."  "In  Lydia  born,  where 
plenteous  harvests  the  fat  fields  adorn." 
"Grateful  t'acknowledge  whence  his  good 
descends."  "I  strayed  I  knew  not  whither." 
Note,  that  the  relative  pronoun  what  is  in 
signification  equivalent  to  the,  that,  or  those 
which. 

Whoever,  whosoever  (and  whomsoever, 
whosesoever)  whichever,  whichsoever, 
whatever,  whatsoever,  wherever,  whence- 
soever,  however,  herein,  therein,  therefore, 
wherefore,  whereof,  whereas,  etc.,  are  com- 
pounded or  contracted  pronouns  and  pro- 
nominal phrases,  and  are  used  somewhat 
in  the  sense  of  relative  pronouns.  Ex.  "I 
think  myself  beholden,  whoever  shows  me 
my  mistakes."  "Whomsoever  else  they 
visit,  with  the  diligent  only  do  they  stay." 
"In  whatsoever  shape  he  lurk,  I'll  know." 
"Thy  very  stones  prate  of  my  whereabout." 

2 


14 


GRAMMAR 


"You  do  take  the  means  whereby  I  live." 
"Hertin  is  a  wonderful  thing."  "Howbeit, 
this  wisdom  saved  them  not" 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. — In  addition  to 
these  various  classes  of  pronouns,  there  are 
some  which  are  called  indefinite,  such  as 
one,  aught,  naught,  (sometimes  spelt  ought, 
nought),  each,  every,  either,  neither,  any, 
other  (which  has  a  plural  when  used  as  a 
noun,  but  not  when  used  attributively), 
they  (when  used  to  signify  "people  in  gen- 
eral"), etc.  Ex.  "One  may  be  little  the 
wiser  for  reading,"  "for  aught  that  I  can 
understand,"  "it  cometh  to  naught,"  "are 
there  any  with  you?"  "the  virtue  and  force 
of  every  of  these  three  is  shrewdly  allayed," 
"they  say  that  he  has  died  immensely  rich." 

ADVERBS. — These  words  do  not  admit  of 
inflection,  and  of  them  some  are  found  only 
in  the  adverbial  form,  others  are  used  as 
prepositions  or  conjunctions  also;  some  are 
pronouns  or  adjectives;  and  many  are  de- 
rived from  adjectives  and  even  from  sub- 
stantives. 

They  are  employed  to  express  the  rela- 
tions of  place — as  here,  there,  where,  hither, 
thither,  whither,  hence,  thence,  whence, 
above,  below,  before,  behind,  in,  out,  off, 
on,  near,  afar,  backward,  forward,  aside, 
etc.,—oi  time,  as,  then,  when,  now,  after, 
before,  still,  soon,  already,  lately,  daily, 
hitherto,  etc., — of  manner,  as  how,  thus,  so, 
as,  otherwise,  well,  -fluently,  kindly,  blindly, 
lovingly,  bravely,  brightly,  etc., — of  mood, 
as  yes,  no,  not,  if,  perhaps,  probably,  possi- 
bly, likely,  really,  etc., — of  degree  or  in- 
tensity, as  frequently,  seldom,  often,  again, 
very,  quite,  even,  nearly,  only,  too,  almost, 
much,  rather,  once,  twice,  thrice,  etc., — of 
causality,  as  wherefore,  therefore,  however, 
nevertheless,  etc. 

Some  of  those  of  manner,  degree,  and 
mood  admit  of  degrees  of  comparison, 
which  they  form  after  the  manner  of  ad- 
jectives. Ex.  Soon,  sooner,  soonest,  brave- 
ly, more  bravely,  most  bravely. 

PREPOSITIONS. — These  also  are  uninflected 
words,  and  besides  the  prepositions,  prop- 
erly so-called,  notms,  adjectives,  verbs, 
participles,  and  adverbs,  and  even  combi- 
nations of  words,  are  employed  as  preposi- 
tions. Almost  all  the  real  prepositions  ad- 
mit of  being  used  to  express  every  variety 
of  relation  between  the  predicate  and  its 
objects,  and  between  a  subject  and  its  at- 
tributes; but  originally  they  all  expressed 
the  relation  of  place  alone. 

The  prepositions,  properly  so-called,  and 
other  words  used  for  prepositions,  are  such 
as  above,  about,  across,  after,  against,  along, 


among,  at;  before,  behind,  beside,  between, 
beyond,  by,  concerning,  down,  during,  from, 
in,  into,  of,  off,  on,  over,  save,  since, 
through,  till,  to,  toward,  up,  upon,  with,  etc. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  combina- 
tions of  words  used  as  prepositions: — be- 
cause of,  by  means  of,  on  account  of,  in 
behalf  of,  instead  of,  according  to,  adjacent 
to,  contrary  to,  with  respect  to,  etc. 

Verbs  are  frequently  compounded  with 
prepositions  to  modify  their  signification; 
and  sometimes  prepositions  are  used  as  ad- 
verbial objects  in  our  language  which  in 
other  tongues  are  compounded  with  the 
verb.  Ex.  He  undertook  that  business  will- 
ingly; they  have  overcome  their  enemies; 
what  would  I  not  undergo  for  you?  "they 
went  over  to  the  enemy;"  "the  poet  passes 
it  over  as  hastily  as  he  can;"  "to  set  forth 
great  things  by  small;"  "I  shall  set  out  for 
London  to-morrow." 

CONJUNCTIONS,  like  adverbs  and  preposi- 
tions, are  indeclinable  words.  Some  words 
are  used  only  as  conjunctions,  and  are 
called  conjunctions  proper;  others  are  real- 
ly pronouns,  adverbs,  etc. 

Coordinative  conjunctions  are  simply 
copulative,  or  serve  to  connect  two  clauses, 
or  even  two  sentences,  into  a  continuity  of 
ideas.  Such  are  and,  also,  besides,  more- 
over, too,  not  only — but  also,  both— and,  as 
well  as,  neither — nor,  then,  etc.;  adversa- 
tive, as,  else,  either — or,  not — but,  on  the 
contrary,  still,  nevertheless,  etc.;  or  causa- 
tive, as,  therefore,  hence,  so,  consequently, 
for,  accordingly.  Subordinative  conjunc- 
tions connect  adverbial  and  subjective  ac- 
cessory sentences  with  their  principal  sen- 
tences; and  are  such  as,  that,  but  that,  but, 
whether,  if,  since,  although,  unless,  so, 
when,  while,  whilst,  where,  whence,  etc. 

ANCIENT  FORMS. — Among  these  indeclin- 
able classes  of  words  may  be  found  many 
very  interesting  examples  of  ancient  forms 
and  inflections  of  the  English  language, 
some  of  which  have  been  lost  in  all  but 
these  instances,  and  in  these  the  original 
signification  is  no  longer  preserved.  Ex. 
Possessive  cases,  else,  unawares,  needs; 
dative  cases,  seldom,  whilom;  neuter  objec- 
tive cases,  little,  less,  well,  nigh,  athwart; 
comparative  degrees,  after,  yonder,  over, 
ere;  superlative  degrees,  erst,  next,  almost. 

Indeclinable  words,  used  only  as  ad- 
verbs, prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  inter- 
jections, are  frequently  called  particles.  The 
direct  affirmative,  yes,  and  the  direct  nega- 
tive, no,  are  by  some  grammarians  placed 
in  a  distinct  class,  as  not  being  properly 
adverbs. 


GRAMMAR 


15 


SYNTAX 

FORMATION  OF  SENTENCES. — Words  are 
combined  in  the  formation  of  sentences  in 
three  ways:  as  subjects  and  predicates;  as 
attributives  to  subjects,  and  as  objects  to 
predicates.  Sentences  are  combined  co- 
ordinately,  or  subordinately ;  subordinate  or 
accessory  sentences  occupying  the  positions 
of  nouns,  adjectives,  or  adverbs,  in  the 
principal  sentences  of  which  they  form 
part. 

SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. — In  every  sen- 
tence of  perfectly  expressed  thought,  two 
elements  are  positively  essential:  some  per- 
son or  thing  spoken  of,  or  a  subject;  and 
something  asserted  respecting  it,  or  a  pred- 
icate. If  either  subject  or  predicate  be 
wanting,  the  expression  in  itself  is  unin- 
telligible. 

For  subjects,  nouns  (which  stand  for 
persons  or  things)  or  pronouns  (used  in 
the  place  of  nouns,  and  always  in  the  nomi- 
native case),  adjectives,  participles  or  in- 
finitive moods  (representing  qualities,  ac- 
tions, etc.),  single  words  or  letters  (in 
which  the  thing  and  the  name  are  identi- 
cal), or  subjective  accessory  sentences,  may 
be  used.  Ex.  "All  tongues  speak  of  him;" 
"action  is  eloquence;"  "my  praises  made 
the  first  a  soldier;"  "you  are  a  traitor;" 
"here  he  comes;"  "they  say,  she  's  mad;" 
"the  dead  shall  rise  and  live  again;"  "the 
wise  shall  inherit  glory;"  "in  him  sparing 
would  show  a  worse  sin  than  its  doctrine;" 
"to  err  is  human,  to  forgive,  divine;"  "who 
is  now  used  in  relation  to  persons,  and 
which  to  things";  "A  has,  in  the  English 
language,  three  different  sounds."  Exam- 
ples of  subjective  accessory  sentences  are 
as  follows:  "that  you  have  wronged  me, 
doth  appear  in  this ;"  "for  a  holy  person  to 
be  humble  is  as  hard  as  for  a  prince  to 
submit  himself  to  tutors;"  "to  make  such 
a  statement  involves  the  suspicion  of  igno- 
rance." 

The  strictly  impersonal  verbs  have  no 
subject  expressed.  Ex.  "Methinks  already 
I  your  tears  survey,"  "methought  I  sa\V 
the  grave  where  Laura  lay."  Actions  or 
conditions  which  are  not  assignable  to  any 
subject,  have  the  pronoun  it,  as  a  forma! 
subject  Ex.  "It  thunders,  it  lightens,"  "ti 
snows  at  the  top  of  them,  oftener  than  t 
rains,"  "it  was  freezing,"  "it  is  very  cold,' 
"it  is  hot  to-day,"  "it  seems."  And  simi- 
larly, for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or  anima 
tion,  it  and  there  are  used  formally  as  sub 
jects,  the  real  subjects  being  placed  afte 

their    predicates.     Ex.  "It    \*    excellent    to 

have  a  giant's  strength,  but  it  is  tyrannou 


o  use  it  as  a  giant,"  "it  is  good  to  be  here," 
it  is  //'  "it  was  you  who  did  this,"  "it  be- 
looved  him  to  suffer,"  "it  is  said  that  par- 
iament  is  dissolved,"  "it  repented  the  Lord 
hat  he  had  made  man,"  "it  doth  not  yet 
appear  what  we  shall  be,"  "there  be  many 
hat  say,"  "there  was  in  a  city  a  judge," 
'once  upon  a  time  there  lived  a  man," 
'there  arose  o  mighty  famine  in  that  land," 
'there  were  that  thought  it  a  part  of  Chris- 
ian  charity  to  instruct  them." 

PREDICATE    CONSTRUCTIONS. — The    essen- 
tial   characteristic    of    the    predicate    being 
assertion,   a   verb    is    indispensable   in   this 
part  of  a  sentence.     But  besides  verbs  of 
all   kinds,   the   verb   to   be,   with  nouns   or 
pronouns   (and  that  not  only  in  the  nomi- 
lative  case,  but  in  the  possessive  also,  and 
in   the   objective   with   a   preposition),   ad- 
jectives, participles,  the  infinitive  mood,  ad- 
verbs    (and     adverbs     with    prepositions), 
single  words  or  letters,  and  accessory  sen- 
tences, may  be  used  as  predicates.     In  the 
latter   cases,   the   form  of  the  verb   to   be, 
which  is  employed,  is  called  the  copula,  or 
link,  which  unites  the  predicate  to  the  sub- 
ject.    Ex.  "He   ran   this    way,    and    leaped 
this   orchard   wall,"   "he   hath   hid   himself 
among    those    trees,"    "I    'II   believe   thee," 
"Juliet  is  the  sun,"  "I  am  a  villain,"  "you  'II 
be  the  bear,"  "her  mother  is  the  lady  of  the 
house,"    "ye    are    Christ's,    and    Christ    is 
God's,"  "oh,  he  is  even  in  my  mistress's  case, 
just  in  her  case,"  "the  haughty  prelate,  with 
many  more  confederates,  are  in  arms,"  "of 
noble  race  was  Shenkin,"  "they  were  to  the 
number  of  three  hundred  horse,"  "they  shall 
be  mine,"  "you  shall  be  ours,"  "he  is  not  of 
us,"  "the  sky  is  red,"  "you  are  meek,"  "you 
are  excused,"  "they  are  running  this  way," 
"you  are  not  to  be  taught,"  "the  holy  treas- 
ure was  to  be  reserved,"  "the  woman  will 
be  out,"  "ye  are  from  beneath,"   "the  pret- 
erit of  creep  is  crept,"  "the  ending  of  the 
genitive  case  is  s,"  "this  is  what  I  said," 
"thou  art  whom  I  fear,"  "men  should  be 
what  they  seem."     Nevertheless,  in  poetry 
and    oratory,    when    peculiar    emphasis    or 
effect  is  desired,  the  copula  is  omitted,  and 
the   other  predicative   word   placed  before 
the   subject.     Ex.   "Vain,   all  in  vain,   the 
weary  search;"  "sweet  the  moments,  rich 
in  blessing." 

The  connection  between  the  predicate  and 
the  subject  in  a  sentence  is  shown  by  the 
predicate  being  in  the  same  number  as  the 
subject  Ex.  He  loves,  they  love,  the  tree 
falls,  trees  grow,  I  am  afraid,  we  are  satis- 
fied. Two  or  more  singular  subjects  con- 
nected by  the  conjunction  "and"  (which, 
however,  is  often  omitted),  so  as  to  form 


16 


GRAMMAR 


either  a  compound  or  a  single  subject,  have 
their  predicate  in  the  plural.  Ex.  "Bacon 
and  Shakespeare  ore  the  greatest  geniuses 
that  England  has  produced;"  "now  abide 
faith,  hope,  charity;"  "one  and  one  are  two." 
And  similarly,  collective  nouns  have  their 
predicates  in  the  singular  when  they  are 
thought  of  in  the  aggregate,  but  the  plural 
when  their  component  parts  are  most  re- 
garded. Ex.  "Parliament  is  sitting,"  "a 
cluster  of  mob  were  making  themselves 
merry  with  their  betters,"  "the  people  are 
the  city,"  "my  people  doth  not  consider." 
But  when  the  predicate  is  a  singular  noun, 
the  copula  is  often  singular.  Ex.  "Bread 
and  cheese  is  fit  diet  for  a  prince."  And 
when  the  conjunction  or  or  nor  is  used, 
unless  the  last  subject  be  plural,  the  predi- 
cate is  singular.  Ex.  "Either  you  or  your 
brother  has  deceived  me,"  "neither  shall  the 
sun  light  on  them,  nor  any  heat"  "either 
he  or  they  have  carried  her  off." 

ASSERTIONS  REGARDING  ONE'S  SELF. — 
When  the  speaker  makes  the  assertion  re- 
specting himself,  the  subject  is  a  personal 
pronoun  of  the  first  person,  and  the  verb  is 
also  in  the  first  person;  when  the  assertion 
is  addressed  to  him  respecting  whom  it  is 
made,  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  second 
person,  and  the  form  of  the  verb  to  corre- 
spond with  it,  are  employed;  and  when  it 
relates  to  any  other  person  or  thing,  the 
third  person  of  the  verb  (with  the  pronoun 
to  correspond,  if  requisite),  is  used.  Ex. 
"I,  that  speak  unto  thee,  am  he,"  "I  know 
in  whom  /  have  believed,"  "we  speak  that 
we  do  know"  "thou  art  the  man,"  "thou 
knewest  that  I  was  an  austere  man,"  "ye 
believe  not,  because  ye  are  not  of  my 
sheep."  "Hamlet,  thou  hast  thy  father 
much  offended. — Mother,  you  have  my 
father  much  offended."  "He  planteth  an 
ash,  and  the  rain  doth  nourish  it,"  "he 
drinketh  no  water,  and  is  faint,"  "the  great 
duke  came  to  the  bar,"  "gentlemen,  the 
Penance  lies  on  you,"  "heavenly  blessings 
follow  such  creatures,"  "the  hearts  of 
princes  kiss  obedience,  so  much  they  love 
it"  In  commands,  the  subject  is  very  com- 
monly omitted  Ex.  "Observe,  observe,  he 
is  moody,"  "believe  it,  this  is  true,"  "pray 
hear  me."  The  subject  is  also  very  fre- 
quently omitted  in  animated  discourse,  be- 
fore the  verbs  pray,  please,  etc.,  when  used 
m  accessory  sentences.  Ex.  "Pray  hear 
me,"  "give  it  me,  please." 

GENERAL  ASSERTIONS.— When  the  asser- 
tion is  general,  or  refers  to  the  time  at 
which  it  is  made  generally,  the  present  in- 
definite tense  is  used.  Ex.  "Man  wants 


but  little  here  below."  "I  am  the  most  un- 
happy woman  living."  "My  lords,  you 
speak  your  pleasures.  What  he  deserves  of 
you  and  me,  I  know;  what  we  can  do  to 
him  (though  now  the  time  gives  way  to 
us)  I  much  fear."  When  it  refers  to  the 
actual  point  of  time  at  which  the  assertion 
is  made,  the  present  imperfect  is  used. 
Ex.  "The  duke  is  coming,"  "his  grace  is 
entering,"  "from  all  parts  they  are  coming," 
"England  is  not  wanting  in  a  learned  nobil- 
ity." And  when  it  is  made  respecting  an 
action  regarded  at  the  time  as  completed, 
the  present  perfect  is  employed.  Ex.  "I 
have  heard  one  of  the  greatest  geniuses 
this  age  has  produced,"  "the  gods  have 
placed  labor  before  interest,"  "this  observa- 
tion we  have  made  on  man."  The  present 
perfect  sometimes  appears  with  a  different 
auxiliary.  Ex.  "I  am  come,  they  are  gone." 
"Cardinal  Campeius  is  stolen  away  to 
Rome."  The  indefinite  tense  is  frequently 
used  instead  of  the  imperfect.  Ex.  "He 
bites  his  lip,  and  starts,  stops  on  a  sudden, 
looks  upon  the  ground."  And  the  present 
perfect  is  sometimes  employed  to  indicate 
past  time,  or  in  a  sense  equivalent  to  that 
of  the  past  indefinite  tense.  Ex.  "We  have 
done  that  which  it  was  our  duty  to  do," 
"we  have  heard  with  our  ears,  and  our 
fathers  have  declared  unto  us  the  noble 
works  thou  didst  in  their  days." 

PECULIAR  USES  OF  THE  PRESENT. — In  ani- 
mated historical  narrative,  and  in  narrative 
poetry,  the  present  indefinite  is  often  em- 
ployed. Ex.  "The  boy  starts  to  his  feet, 
and  his  keen  eye  looks  along  the  ready 
rifle  ....  Lo!  a  deer  from  Dalness, 
hound-driven,  or  sullenly  astray,  slowing, 
bearing  his  antlers  up  the  glen,  then  stop- 
ping for  a  moment  to  snuff  the  air,  then 
away— away!  The  rifle-shot  rings  dully 
from  the  scarce  echoing  snow-cliff,  and 
the  animal  leaps  aloft  struck  by  a  certain 
but  not  sudden  death-wound." 

Her  lover   sinks— she   sheds  no   ill-timed   tears; 

Her  chief  is  slain — she   fills  his   fatal   post; 

Her  fellows    flee — she    checks    their    base    career; 

Her  foe  retires — she   heads  the  sallying  host. 

"My  General  descends  to  the  outer  staircase, 
and  harangues;  once  more  in  vain  ...  Lafayette 
mounts  the  white  charger;  and  again  harangues, 
and  reharangves,  ...  so  lasts  it,  hour  after  hour, 
for  the  space  of  half  a  day." 

CONSTRUCTIONS  WITH  PAST  TENSES.— In 
like  manner,  actions,  etc.,  are  referred  to 
the  past  generally,  or  as  proceeding  and 
incomplete,  or  as  completed,  by  the  use  of 
the  past  indefinite,  imperfect,  and  perfect 
tenses.  Ex.  "My  father  loved  you,  he  said 
he  did,"  "1  thrice  presented  him  a  kingly 


GRAMMAR 


17 


crown,"  "you  wronged  yourself;" — "they  of 
Bethshemesh  -were  reaping,"  "Israel  were 
fighting  with  the  Philistines,"  "they  were 
eating,  and  drinking,  and  dancing;" — "when 
Boaz  had  eaten  and  drunk,  he  went  to  lie 
down,"  "Elihu  had  waited  till  Job  had 
spoken."  The  emphatic  form  is  commonly 
used  interchangeably  with  the  indefinite. 
Ex.  "Thus  did  my  master  bid  me  kneel, 
and  thus  he  bade  me  say."  The  indefinite 
is  often  employed  definitely  when  any  par- 
ticular past  time  is  indicated  in  the  sen- 
tence. Ex.  "/  saw  him  yesterday." 

USES  OF  THE  FUTURE  TENSE. — And  in  the 
same  way  actions,  etc.,  in  time  become  dis- 
criminated by  the  employment  of  the  future 
indefinite,  imperfect,  and  perfect  tenses. 
Ex.  "A  weighty  secret  will  work  a  hole 
through  them,"  "he  will  not  stoop  till  he 
falls,"  "I  shall  never  forget;" — "thy  people 
shall  be  willing  in  the  day  of  thy  power," 
"they  will  be  still  praising  thee;" — "we 
shall  have  completed  our  task  before  you 
commence  yours,"  "then  cometh  the  end, 
when  he  shall  have  delivered  up  the  king- 
dom to  God."  Instead  of  the  future,  the 
indefinite  present  is  often  used.  Ex.  / 
leave  England  to-morrow,  we  sail  next 
week.  Other  forms  for  expressing  future 
time  are  mentioned  above.  Ex.  "We  are 
going  to  spend  some  time  on  the  Conti- 
nent," "I  was  about  to  write." 

THE  INDICATIVE  MOOD. — When  simple  as- 
sertion, or  denial,  is  intended,  the  predicate 
is  always  in  the  indicative  mood.  Ex.  "I 
am  glad  to  see  your  lordship  abroad,"  "the 
mouse  gnawed  the  threads  to  pieces,  and 
set  the  lion  at  liberty,"  "he  goeth  in  com- 
pany with  the  workers  of  iniquity,  and 
walketh  with  wicked  men,"  "you  did  wish 
that  I  would  wake  her  then,"  "she  may  go 
to  bed  when  she  list;  all  is  as  she  will," 
"thou  must  run  to  him,"  "flatter  him  it 
may,  I  confess." 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. — In  principal 
sentences,  when  a  wish  is  to  be  expressed, 
or  a  concession  to  be  made  for  the  sake  of 
argument,  the  subjunctive  mood  is  used. 
Ex.  "Now,  all  my  joy  trace  the  conjunc- 
tion!" "the  Lord  forbid!"  "the  Lord  in- 
crease this  business !"  "be  it  so,  my  argu- 
ment remains  unshaken." 

Commands  are  conveyed  by  means  of 
the  imperative  mood.  Ex.  "Know  thy- 
self," "follow  thou  me,"  "cease  to  do  evil, 
learn  to  do  well,"  "rejoice,  you  men  of  An- 
giers,  ring  your  bells."  The  auxiliary  let 
is  employed  for  the  first  and  third  persons. 
Ex.  "Acknowledge  then  the  king,  and  let 
me  in,"  "let  none  of  them  escape,"  "rise, 


let  us  go,"  "let  the  soldiers  seize  him,"  "let 
Euclid  rest,  and  Archimedes  pause,"  "let 
him  be  known  among  the  heathens." 

ACTIVE  AND  PASSIVE  VOICES. — The  dis- 
tinction between  the  use  of  the  active  and 
the  passive  forms  of  verbs  has  been  pointed 
out  and  illustrated  above  (p.  n)  ;  and  from 
that  it  will  appear  that  whatever  has  been 
said  here  respecting  predicates  applies  as 
much  to  the  latter  as  to  the  former,  with 
this  exception — there  being  no  (or  but 
few)  imperfect  tenses  in  the  passive,  the 
indefinite  tenses  are  in  all  cases  (except 
the  few  referred  to)  used  to  express  ac- 
tion still  in  progress,  or  incomplete.  Ex. 
"The  colors  are  changed  by  viewing  them 
at  different  obliquities,"  "I  am  determined 
to  prove  a  villain,"  "you  shall  be  new 
christened  in  the  town,"  "to  that  sweet  re- 
gion was  our  voyage  bent,"  "Hector  was 
dragged  about  the  walls  of  Troy,"  "the 
Irish  horse-boys  should  be  cut  off,"  "after 
all  that  can  be  said  against  it,  this  remains 
true,"  "it  may  be  occasioned  thus,"  "it  shall 
be  reported  to  the  king,"  "the  Presbyterian 
sect  was  established  in  all  its  forms,"  "it 
was  said,  that  the  elder  should  serve  the 
younger." 

INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCES. — In  questions 
the  same  grammatical  forms  are  employed 
as  in  assertions;  but  the  order  of  the  words 
is  generally  inverted,  and  when  compound 
tenses  are  used  (as  they  most  frequently 
are),  the  subject  follows  the  auxiliary, 
while  the  verb  itself  occupies  its  usual 
place.  Interrogative  pronouns  are  put  at 
the  beginning  of  questions.  Ex.  "Where 
is  he?"  "Shall  I  live  in  hope?"  "What,  do 
you  tremble,  are  you  all  afraid?"  "Saw  you 
the  king  to-day?"  "When  have  I  injured 
thee?"  "Why  look  you  so  pale?" "Who  hath 
believed  our  report?"  "To  whom  will  ye 
liken  God?"  "Lusentio  is  your  name?" 
"What,  you  mean  my  face?"  "You  saw  this 
and  opposed  it  not?" 

The  grammatical  construction  of  nega- 
tive sentences  differs  not  at  all  from  that 
of  affirmative  ones,  such  as  have  been 
chiefly  selected  for  examples ;  the  relation 
of  the  negative  words  no,  not,  etc.,  being 
either  that  of  the  attributive  to  its  subject, 
or  of  the  object  of  manner  to  its  predicate, 
as  may  be  seen  below. 

SUBJECT  AND  ATTRIBUTIVE. — In  order  to 
describe  the  subjects  respecting  which  as- 
sertions are  made  in  sentences,  more  accu- 
rately than  their  mere  names  are  sufficient 
to  do;  and  to  define  them,  so  that  the  as- 
sertions may  not  become  ambiguous  by  rea- 
son of  the  vagueness  of  the  subjects  they 


IS 


GRAMMAR 


relate  to,  words,  phrases,  and  accessory 
sentences  are  employed,  which  are  called 
attributives. 

The  commonest  attributives  are  adjec- 
tives; with  which  may  be  included  partici- 
ples (which  are  the  adjective  forms  of 
Terbs),  numerals,  some  kinds  of  pronouns, 
nouns  used  as  adjectives,  and  a  few  ad- 
verbs, which  are  also  occasionally  used  at- 
tributively. The  only  sign  of  the  relation 
between  these  attributives  and  their  sub- 
jects is  their  position,  which  is  immediately 
before  the  words  they  refer  to,  except  in 
cases  where  peculiar  emphasis  or  anima- 
tion is  aimed  at,  when  they  immediately 
follow  their  subjects.  Ex.  "The  weird  sis- 
ters," "my  dread  exploits,"  "from  this  mo- 
ment," "my  dearest  coz,"  "my  pretty 
cousin,"  "to  offer  up  a  weak,  poor,  inno- 
cent lamb,"  "O  nation  miserable!"  "a  most 
miraculous  work  in  this  good  king,"  "thy 
royal  father  was  a  more  sainted  king," 
"each  several  crime,"  "many  ways,"  "the 
healing  benediction,"  "all  my  pretty  chick- 
ens," "an  accustomed  action,"  "curses,  not 
loud,  but  deep,"  "those  linen  cheeks  of 
thine  are  counsellors  to  fear,"  "a  rooted 
sorrow,"  "the  written  troubles  of  the 
brain,"  "what  wood  is  this?"  "within  this 
three  mile,"  "a  moving  grove,"  "lead  our 
first  battle,"  "hateful  to  mine  ear,"  "thou 
shalt  have  none  assurance  of  thy  life," 
"there  was  no  day  like  that  before,"  "it  is 
no  good  report  that  I  hear,"  "in  that  very 
day  his  thoughts  perish,"  "a  hundred  altars 
in  her  temples  smoke,  a  thousand  bleeding 
hearts  her  power  invoke,"  "some  rqen  with 
swords  may  reap  the  field,"  "see  where  the 
victor  victim  bleeds,"  "his  knowledge  of 
good  lost,"  "man's  first  disobedience," 
"these  are  the  martyr  spirits  of  mankind," 
"which  way  went  he?"  "what  man  is  he?" 
"on  the  hither  side,"  "yon  flowery  arbors, 
yonder  alleys  green,"  "in  russet  gear  and 
honest  kersey  hose,"  "a  hundred  upon  poor 
four  us!"  "an  everlasting  now." 

In  some  cases  where  a  noun  is  com- 
pounded with  an  attributive  word,  in  the 
plural  number,  the  noun  assumes  the  plural 
form.  Ex.  Attorney-general,  Attorneys- 
general ;  Lord-lieutenant,  Lords-lieutenant 
But  where  the  compound  word  expresses 
an  inseparable  notion  the  plural  ending  is 
added  to  the  attributive,  if  that  is  the  sec- 
ond element  in  the  word.  Ex.  Two  spoon- 
fuls. 

PossEssrvEs  AS  ATTRIBUTIVES. — Nouns 
and  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case  are 
exceedingly  common  as  attributives.  But 
it  must  be  noted  that  there  is  no  distinc- 
tion between  the  possessive  cases  of  per- 


sonal pronoun  and  certain  adjective  pro- 
nouns called  possessive;  examples  of  which 
are  given  in  the  preceding  paragraphs. 
Sometimes  the  subject  to  these  attributives 
is  omitted;  and  frequently  the  preposition 
of  is  inserted  before  the  possessive  case. 
Ex.  "I  am  not  yet  of  Percy's  mind,"  "the 
roaring  of  the  lion's  whelp,"  "a  herald's 
coat  without  sleeves,"  "hearts  no  bigger 
than  pins'  heads,"  "I  did  pluck  allegiance 
from  men's  hearts,"  "a  fair  queen  in  a 
summer's  bower,"  "I  must  to  the  barber's, 
monsieur,"  "the  knight  came  to  the  tail- 
or's" "I  saw  thee  late  at  the  Count  Or- 
sino's,"  "which  is  the  way  to  Master 
Jew's?"  "let  ours  also  learn  to  maintain 
good  works,"  "I  seek  not  yours  but  you," 
"the  king  is  now  in  progress  towards  St. 
Alban's,"  "a  friend  of  mine  on  his  jour- 
ney," "if  e'er  those  eyes  of  yours  behold 
another  day,"  "a  seal  ring  of  my  grand- 
father's? "this  dotage  of  our  general's  o'er- 
flows  the  measure." 

OBJECTIVES  AS  ATTRIBUTES. — The  ob- 
jective case  of  nouns  and  pronouns,  with 
various  prepositions,  but  especially  with 
the  preposition  of  (which  combination  is 
equivalent  to  the  possessive  case),  is  used 
attributively.  Ex.  "I  speak  in  behalf  of 
my  daughter,  in  the  minority  of  them 
both,"  "the  wicked  ministry  of  arms,"  "the 
instrument  of  Providence,"  "the  customs 
of  the  Irish,"  "thou  art  a  soul  in  bliss,"  "a 
wholesome  law  time  out  of  mind,"  "com- 
passion on  the  king  commands  me  stoop," 
"travels  by  sea  and  land,"  "the  messenger 
from  our  sister,"  "our  duty  to  God"  "sons 
to  Cymbeline,"  "four  rogues  in  buckram." 
Imperfect  participles  are  also  employed 
with  the  preposition  of  as  attributives. 
Ex.  "A  famine  of  hearing  the  word  of  the 
Lord,"  "he  hath  a  bad  habit  of  frowning," 
"the  greatest  care  of  fulfilling  the  Divine 
will."  Another  attributive  use  of  this  prep- 
osition (with  one  or  two  others)  with 
nouns  and  pronouns  is  called  partitive, 
from  its  evident  force  and  signification. 
Ex.  "The  most  diminutive  of  birds,"  "I 
have  peppered  two  of  them,"  "seven  of  the 
eleven,  I  paid,"  "every  one  of  them,"  "all 
of  us,"  "it  contained  the  whole  of  religion," 
"for  which  of  these  works  do  ye  stonv. 
me?"  "one  amongst  a  thousand." 

APPOSITION.— Subjects  are  further  de- 
fined and  described  by  means  of  the  words 
expressing  subjects,  in  the  same  number, 
and  immediately  preceding  or  following 
them,  and  said  to  be  in  apposition  with 
them.  Ex.  "Fulvia  thy  wife  came  first  into 
the  field,  against  my  brother  Vicius,"  "the 


GRAMMAR 


19 


false  house-wife  Fortune,"  "thou,  my 
brother,  my  competitor,  my  mate  in  em- 
pire, friend  and  companion  in  the  part  of 
war,"  "King  Cophetua  wooed  the  beggar 
maid,"  "Hamlet,  Prince  of  Denmark,"  His 
royal  highness,  Prince  Albert;  Lord  John 
Russell,  Mr.  Smith.  When  several  per- 
sons of  the  same  name  are  spoken  of,  or 
addressed  by  letter,  the  honorary  title  is 
put  in  the  plural,  while  the  name  is  in  the 
singular  number.  Ex.  Messieurs  Smith, 
Cheeryble  Brothers,  the  Mesdames  Robin- 
son. 

In  some  cases  the  noun  in  apposition  is 
connected  by  means  of  the  preposition  of. 
Ex.  The  empire  of  Russia,  the  city  of  St. 
Petersburg,  the  university  of  Cambridge, 
the  county  of  Kent,  the  port  of  London, 
the  month  of  July,  the  province  of  Judea. 

When  two  nouns  in  apposition  are  at- 
tributives to  another,  the  latter  only  is  put 
in  the  possessive  case.  Ex.  "Our  neigh- 
bor Shepherd's  son,"  "King  Henry's  head," 
"Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary,"  "Duke  Hum- 
phrey's deeds,"  "The  Lord  Protector's 
wife,"  "my  Lord  Cardinal's  man,"  "Saint 
Alban's  shrine." 

Accessory  sentences  are  employed  as  at- 
tributives. Ex.  "Whose  hand  is  that  the 
forest  bear  doth  lick?  Not  his  that  spoils 
her  young  before  her  face,"  "a  day  will 
come,  when  York  shall  claim  his  own," 
"in  that  chair,  where  kings  and  queens  are 
frowned." 

ATTRIBUTIVE  CONSTRUCTIONS. — Many  of 
the  illustrations  given  above  show  how 
common  it  is  for  a  single  subject  to  be 
described  and  defined  by  means  of  many 
attributives.  The  following  examples  will 
show  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  repe- 
titiom  of  the  same  word  as  subject  to  sev- 
eral attributives,  or  as  attributive  to  sev- 
eral subjects,  is  prevented.  Ex.  "1  thought 
the  king  had  more  affected  the  Duke  of 
Albany  than  Cornwall,"  "the  princes,  France 
and  Burgundy,"  "here  I  disclaim  all  .  .  . 
propinquity  and  property  of  blood,  and  as 
a  stranger  to  my  heart  and  me,  hold  thee," 
"we  still  retain  the  name  and  all  the  addi- 
tions to  a  king,"  "thy  dowerless  daughter 
is  queen  of  us,  of  ours,  and  our  fair 
France,"  "he  wrote  this  but  as  an  essay  or 
taste  of  my  virtue;"  "menaces  and  male- 
dictions against  king  and  nobles;"  "the 
•  marks  of  sovereignty,  knowledge,  and  rea- 
son;" "my  train  are  men  of  choice  and 
rarest  parts;"  "the  messengers  from  our 
sister  and  the  king;"  "he,  the  sacred  honor 
of  himself,  his  queen's,  his  hopeful  son's, 
his  babe's  betrays  to  slander;"  "uncles  of 
Glo'ster  and  of  Winchester;"  "the  Dukes 


of  Orleans,  Calaber,  Bretaigne,  and 
gon." 

PREDICATE  AND  OBJECT. — The  significa- 
tion of  predicates  is  modified  or  completed 
by  means  of  words,  phrases,  and  accessory 
sentences,  which  are  called  objects.  And 
not  only  are  all  parts  of  verbs  followed  by 
these  adjuncts,  but  adjectives  also  fre- 
quently require  them. 

Objects  which  complete  or  supplement 
the  meaning  of  their  predicates  are  of  three 
kinds: — (i.)  The  immediate  or  direct  ob- 
ject of  the  predicate;  (2.)  the  remoter,  or 
mediate  and  indirect  object;  (3.)  the  re- 
motest object,  or  that  which  indicates  the 
effect  or  result  of  what  is  asserted  in  the 
predicate.  Ex : 

ist  obj.  2d  obj.  3d    obj. 

"I  will  take  you       to  me        for  a  people." 

ad  obj.  ist  obj.  3d  obj. 

"This  opinion  gave  them  courage  to  all  adventures." 

Those  which  modify  or  attemper  the  sig- 
nification of  their  predicates  are  six  in 
number: — (i.)  Those  which  indicate  the 
cause  or  origin  of  whatever  is  asserted  in 
the  predicate;  (2.)  those  which  tell  its  de- 
sign or  purpose;  (3.)  those  which  declare 
the  means  by  which  it  is  brought  about; 
(4.)  those  which  show  the  manner  of  its 
existence  or  action;  (5.)  and  (6.)  those 
indicating  the  time  and  place  of  its  occur- 
rence. It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that 
it  is  not  easy  in  all  instances  to  determine 
to  which  class  an  object  belongs — those 
expressing  cause,  purpose,  or  means  fre- 
quently being  distinguishable  by  exceed- 
ingly evanescent  characteristics.  But  this 
is  not,  practically,  either  inconvenient  or 
productive  of  ambiguity;  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  examples  of  these  and  other  kinds 
of  objects.  Ex.  (i.)  "My  soul  grows  sad 
with  troubles;"  "by  that  sin  fell  the  angels." 
(2.)  "She  went  to  glean  Palawan's  fields;" 
"one  man  pursues  power  in  order  to  wealth, 
and  another  wealth  in  order  to  power." 
(3)-  "Judge  the  event  by  what  has  passed;" 
"the  strong  through  pleasure  falls  "soonest." 
(4.)  "They  act  wisely;"  "beware  and  gov- 
ern well  thy  appetite."  (5.)  "We  lacked 
your  counsel  and  your  help  to-night;"  "it 
hath  been  sung  at  festivals,  on  ember  eves, 
and  holy  ales."  (6.)  "The  lion's  foe  lies 
prostrate  on  the  plain;"  "I  am  with  thee, 
by  and  before,  about  and  in  thee,  too." 

Nouns,  pronouns,  and  other  words  used 
as  nouns, — such  as  the  infinitive  mood  of 
verbs,  and  participles, — most  commonly 
without,  but  also  with  prepositions  before 
them,  serve  as  immediate  objects  of  predi- 
cates; »nd_also  of  the  infinitive  mood  of 


so 


GRAMMAR 


verbs,  and  participles,  and  of  adjectives, 
when  they  are  not  the  predicates  of  sen- 
tences. And  the  personal  pronouns, 
whether  with  or  without  prepositions, 
are  in  the  objective  case.  Ex.  "Do  you 
not  hear  him?"  "you  mar  our  labor;" 
"keep  your  cabins;"  "you  do  assist  the 
storm;"  "  't  is  time  I  should  inform  thee 
further;"  "wipe  thou  thine  eyes;  have  com- 
fort;" "you  have  often  begun  to  tell  me 
what  I  am,  but  stopped,  and  left  me  to  a 
bootless  inquisition;"  "he  whom,  next  thy- 
self, of  all  the  world  I  loved,  and  to  him 
put  the  manage  of  my  state;"  "the  gov- 
ernment I  cast  upon  my  brother;"  "the  ivy 
which  had  hid  my  princely  trunk,  and 
sucked  the  verdure  out  on't;"  "triumphing 
over  death,  and  chance,  and  time;"  "on 
mine  arm  shall  they  trust;"  victorious  over 
temptation." 

The  common  exclamations,  "ah  me!" 
and  "woe  is  me!"  are  contractions;  the  lat- 
ter was  originally,  "woe  becomes  or  befits 
me,"  and  the  former  is  equivalent  to  it 
in  meaning,  and  may  have  been  derived 
from  it 

THE  MORE  REMOTE  OBJECT  is  also  ex- 
pressed by  nouns,  and  most  commonly  pre- 
ceded by  the  preposition  to;  but  this  is 
often  omitted;  and  there  are  other  preposi- 
tions which  serve  to  connect  this  object 
with  its  predicate.  Whenever  the  remoter 
object  is  expressed,  but  the  immediate  ob- 
ject left  out,  the  sense  is  imperfect  The 
personal  pronouns,  as  in  the  last,  are  al- 
ways in  the  objective  case.  Ex.  "Three 
great  ones  of  the  city  oft  capp'd  to  him;" 
"whip  me  such  honest  knaves ;"  "throwing 
but  shows  of  service  on  their  lords,  do 
themselves  homage;"  "I  am  beholden  to 
you;"  "forgive  us  our  trespasses;"  "he 
makes  a  supper,  and  a  great  one,  to  many 
lords  and  ladies;"  "I  need  not  add  more 
fuel  to  your  fire;"  "comparing  spiritual 
things  with  spiritual;"  "I  have  charged 
thee  not  to  haunt  about  my  doors;"  "fetch 
me  an  irpn  crow ;"  "O  continue  thy  loving- 
kindness  unto  me;"  "the  services,  which 
I  have  done  the  signiory;"  "the  goodness 
of  the  night  upon  you,  friends;"  "I'll  refer 
me  to  all  things  of  sense;"  "good-night  to 
every  one!"  "it  can  not  be  that  Desdemona 
should  long  continue  her  love  to  the  Moor, 
nor  he  his  to  her;"  "I  have  told  thee  often, 
and  I  re-tell  thee  again  and  again,  I  hate 
the  Moor." 

FOB  THE  REMOTEST  OBJECT,  which  ex- 
presses the  result  or  effect  of  the  predicate, 
nouns  (with  or  without  prepositions,  or 
preceded  by  the  conjunction  as),  pronouns, 


adjectives,  participles,  the  infinitive  mood 
of  verbs,  and  to  be  with  nouns,  adjectives, 
and  adverbs,  are  employed.  Ex.  "He,  in 
good  time,  must  his  lieutenant  be,  and  I, 
his  Moorship's  ancient;"  "the  king,  your 
father,  was  reputed  for  a  prince  most  pru- 
dent;" "whom  I  hold  my  most  malicious 
foe,  and  think  not  at  all  a  friend  to  truth; 
bade  me  enjoy  it?  "man  became  a  living 
soul;"  "why  should  damage  grow  to  the 
hurt  of  the  king?"  "they  looked  upon  them- 
selves as  the  happiest  people  vf  the  uni- 
verse;" "things  were  just  ripe  for  a  war;" 
"those  pearls  of  dew  she  wears  prove  to  be 
presaging  tears  f  "his  servants  ye  are  to 
whom  ye  obey,  whether  of  sin  unto  death, 
or  of  obedience  unto  righteousness,""  "we 
take  a  falling  meteor  for  a  star;"  "it  were 
not  for  your  quiet,  nor  your  good,  nor  for 
my  manhood,  honesty,  and  wisdom,  to  let 
you  know  my  thoughts ;"  "I  believe  him  to 
be  a  very  honest  man;"  "whom  do  you  sup- 
pose it  to  be?" 

OBJECTS  MODIFYING  MEANING. — Of  the 
objects  which  modify  the  meaning  of  the 
predicate,  those  which  do  so  by  indicating 
its  origin  or  cause  are  expressed  by  noons 
(and  all  words  and  combinations  of  words 
that  can  be  used  instead  of  them),  pre- 
ceded by  certain  prepositions,  and  by  some 
adverbs.  Oaths  are  included  under  this 
head,  as  indicating  the  ground  of  the  asser- 
tion, though  not  of  what  is  asserted.  Ex. 
"I  would  not  follow  him  then;"  "therefore 
to  our  best  mercy  give  yourselves;"  "whom 
from  the  How  of  gall  I  name  not,  but  from 
sincere  motions;"  "you  lost  your  office  on 
the  complaint  of  the  tenants;"  "men  are 
pleased  with  variety;"  "astonished  at  the 
voice,  he  stood ;"  "they  were  jealous  of  her 
beauty,"  "guilty  of  high  treason;"  "I  can 
tell  you  why;"  "thou  hast  forced  me  out 
of  thy  honest  truth  to  play  the  woman ;" 
"they  boast  themselves  of  idols;"  "Sem- 
pronius  gives  no  thanks  on  this  account;" 
"you  are  good,  but  from  a  nobler  cause, 
from  your  own  knowledge,  not  from  na- 
ture's laws;"  "by  the  faith  of  a  man,  I 
know  my  prince;"  "by  heaven,  I  rather 
would  have  been  his  hangman;"  "on  my 
honor,  it  is  so." 

OBJECTS  INDICATING  DESIGN. — Those  ob- 
jects which  point  out  the  design  and  pur- 
pose of  the  predicate  are  expressed  by  the 
infinitive  mood  of  verbs,  most  commonly, 
and  also  by  nouns,  etc.,  with  prepositions. 
Ex.  "I  follow  him  to  serve  my  turn  upon 
him;"  "wears  out  his  time  for  nought  but 
provender:"  "in  following  him,  I  follow 
but  myself,  not  I  for  love  and  duty,  but 


GRAMMAR 


21 


seeming  so,  for  my  peculiar  end;"  "I  come 
to  bury  Casar,  not  to  praise  him;"  "he 
travelled  the  world,  on  purpose  to  converse 
with  the  most  learned  men;"  "with  this 
design  I  have  visited  all  the  most  cele- 
brated schools  in  Europe;"  "he  writes  not 
for  money  nor  for  praise;"  "there  is  a  time 
to  weep,  and  a  time  to  laugh;"  "be  swift 
to  hear,  slow  to  speak;"  "one  man  pursues 
power  in  order  to  wealth,  and  another 
wealth  in  order  to  power;"  "thou  art  not 
able  to  go  against  this  Philistine  to  fight 
with  him." 

OBJECTS  INDICATING  MEANS. — Objects  by 
which  the  means  employed  in  producing  any 
result  are  declared  are  generally  expressed 
by  nouns,  etc.,  with  prepositions.  Ex.  "I 
must  be  be-lee'd  and  calm'd  by  debtor  and 
creditor,  this  countercaster ;"  "preferment 
goes  by  letter  and  affection,  not  by  the  old 
gradation;"  "plague  him  with  flies;"  "we 
may  outrun  by  violent  swiftness  that  which 
we  run  at,  and  lose  by  overrunning;"  "my 
soul  grows  sad  with  troubles;"  "the  strong 
through  pleasure  soonest  falls,  the  weak 
through  smart;"  "you  must  think  we  hope 
to  gain  by  you;"  "thus,  by  the  music  we 
may  know  when  noble  wits  a-hunting  go;" 
"you  absolved  him  with  an  axe;"  "some  he 
killed  with  his  gun,  others  by  poison." 

MANNER  is  expressed  by  adjectives,  par- 
ticiples, adverbs,  and  nouns,  etc.,  with  prep- 
ositions or  the  conjunction  as.  Ex.  "He, 
as  loving  his  own  pride  and  purposes, 
evades  them,  with  a  bombast  circumstance;" 
"wears  out  his  time,  much  like  his  mas- 
ter's ass;"  "wide  was  spread  their  fame  in 
ages  past;"  "in  madness,  being  full  of  sup- 
per and  distempering  draughts,  dost  thou 
come  to  start  my  quiet ;"  "he,  with  his 
father,  is  going  home;"  "a  Puritan  among 
them  sings  psalms  to  hornpipes;"  "we  are 
not  to  stay  all  together,  but  to  come  by 
him,  where  he  stands,  by  ones,  by  twos, 
and  by  threes;"  "seize  her  by  force,  and 
bear  her  hence  unheard;"  "so  frown'd  the 
mighty  combatants ;"  "thus  he  spake ;" 
"quit  yourselves  like  men;"  "ye  shall  be 
as  gods;"  "come  quickly;"  "he  answered 
well;"  "they  that  sow  in  tears  shall  reap 
in  joy;"  he  that  goeth  forth  weeping,  bear- 
ing precious  seed,  shall  doubtless  come 
again  with  rejoicing,  bringing  his  sheaves 
wth  him;"  "they  act  wisely." 

OBJECTS  INDICATING  TIME. — All  the  va- 
rious ways  in  which  objects  indicate  the 
time  of  an  action,  etc.,  are  expressed  by 
nouns,  etc.,  with  or  without  prepositions, 
adjectives,  participles,  and  adverbs.  Ex. 
"He  in  good  time  must  his  lieutenant  be;" 


"we  rose  both  at  an  instant,  and  fought 
a  long  hour  by  Shrewsbury  clock;"  "then 
have  sat  the  livelong  day;"  "he  came  by 
night;"  "doomed  for  a  certain  time  to  walk 
the  night,  and  for  the  day  confined  to  fast 
in  fires;"  "he  did  them  meditate  all  his  life 
long;"  "till  then,  who  knew  the  force  of 
those  dire  arms?"  "I  have  not  wept  this 
forty  years;"  "morning  by  morning  shall 
it  pass  over;"  "yet  in  her  sanguine  gown 
by  night  and  day;"  "depart  immediately;" 
I  was  never  pleased;"  "thy  servants'  trade 
hath  been  about  cattle  from  our  youth  even 
until  now;"  "sometimes  walking;"  "now 
is  the  time." 

PLACE  WHERE,  AND  DIRECTION  whence 
and  whither,  are  expressed  by  nouns,  et<x, 
with  or  without  prepositions,  and  by  ad- 
verbs. Ex.  "I  will  wear  my  heart  upon 
my  sleeve;"  "his  eyes  had  seen  the  proof  at 
Rhodes,  at  Cyprus,  and  on  other  grounds;" 
"proclaim  him  in  the  streets;"  "I,  upon  my 
frontiers  here,  keep  residence;"  "I  saw 
hereabout  nothing  remarkable;"  "let  them 
hence  away;"  "a  puissant  and  mighty  power 
is  marching  hitherward  in  proud  array;" 
"if  they  come  to  sojourn  at  my  house,  111 
not  be  there;"  "darkness  there  might  well 
seem  twilight  here;"  "ah!  where  was 
Eloise?"  "the  good  man  is  gone  a  long 
journey;"  "come  a  little  nearer  this  way;" 
"'the  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  in  every  place;" 
"we  must  measure  twenty  miles  to-day;* 
"he  looked  this  way  and  that  way,'"  "come 
hither,  child,  to  me." 

ACCESSORY  SENTENCES  are  sentences  com- 
plete in  themselves  as  to  syntax,  but  occu- 
pying subordinate  places  in  other  sentences, 
which  stand  to  them  in  the  relation  of 
principals.  They  are  of  three  kinds,  named 
(after  the  offices  they  discharge  in  their 
principal  sentences)  subjective,  attributive,, 
and  objective  sentences.  Their  relation  to 
their  principals  is  shown  by  their  position, 
and  by  the  use  of  relative  pronouns  and 
certain  conjunctions,  and  in  many  cases  by 
the  employment  of  the  subjunctive  mood. 

SUBJECTIVE  ACCESSORY  SENTENCES  are 
found  in  every  relation  in  which  a  noun 
could  stand;  and  may  be  either  subjects, 
predicates  (both  of  which  have  been  illus- 
trated above),  or  completing  objects  to 
predicates  (with  or  without  prepositions)  ; 
but  being  equivalent  to  nouns,  they  are 
named  after  that  part  of  the  sentence  which 
is  especially  taken  by  the  noun.  Ex.  "See 
that  thou  do  it;"  "I  take  it  much  unkindly, 
that  thou,  logo,  shouldst  know  of  this,"" 
"thou  toldst  me,  thou  didst  hold  him  in 


22 


GRAMMAR 


thy  hate;"  "be  judge  yourself,  whether  I  in 
any  just  term  am  affined  to  love  the  Moor;" 
"right  glad  I  am,  he  was  not  in  this  fray;" 
"1  have  forgot  why  I  did  call  thee  back;" 
"what  you  would  work  me  to  I  have  some 
aim;"  "mark  me  with  what  violence  she 
loved  the  Moor;"  "1  could  well  wish  court- 
esy would  invent  some  other  custom  of  en- 
tertainment;" "you  must  not  think,  then, 
that  I  am  drunk;"  "what  you  can  make  her 
do,  I  am  content  to  look  on;  what  to 
speak,  I  am  content  to  hear;"  "mark  what 
it  is  his  mind  aims  at  in  the  question,  and 
not  what  words  he  expresses;"  "she  said, 
Say  on;"  "as  when  we  say,  Plato  was  no 
fool." 

ATTRIBUTIVE  ACCESSORY  SENTENCES  occur 
wherever  adjectives  might  be  used  as  at- 
tributives. The  relation  between  these  sen- 
tences and  their  subjects  is  shown  by  their 
position,  by  their  predicates  assuming  the 
same  personal  forms  as  those  of  their  sub- 
jects, and  by  the  employment  of  the  rela- 
tive pronouns  who,  which,  and  that,  in 
them.  Where  no  confusion  is  possible, 
these  pronouns  may  be  omitted.  Ex.  "Thou, 
logo,  who  hast  had  my  purse;"  "a  fellow 
that  never  set  a  squadron  in  the  field,  nor 
the  division  of  a  battle,  knows  more  than  a 
spinster;"  "I  hold  him  to  be  unworthy  of 
his  place  that  does  those  things;"  "I  fear 
the  trust  Othello  puts  him  in  will  shake 
this  island;"  "honest  logo,  that  lookst  dead 
with  grieving;"  "every  one  hears  that, 
which  can  distinguish  sound;"  "that  for- 
bidden tree,  whose  mortal  taste  brought 
death  into  the  world;"  "the  son  of  Duncan, 
from  whom  this  tyrant  holds  the  due  of 
birth;"  "fruits  that  blossom  first,  will  first 
be  ripe;"  "he  that  is  of  God,  heareth  God's 
words;"  "unto  me,  who  am  less  than  the 
least  of  all  saints;"  "thinkest  thou  this,  O 
man,  that  judgest  them  which  do  such 
things,  and  dost  the  same,  that  thou  shalt 
escape  the  judgment  of  God?"  "I,  that 
speak  unto  thee,  am  he." 

Whether  the  relative  be  subject  attribu- 
tive, or  object,  in  its  own  sentence,  it  is 
always  placed  at  the  very  commencement 
of  it,  because  it  has  so  few  inflections,  that 
otherwise  its  connection  with  the  subject 
(or  antecedent)  it  refers  to  might  be  ob- 
scure. 

These  sentences  frequently  stand  as  at- 
tributives to  other  sentences,  which  are 
related  to  them  as  subjects.  Ex.  "They 
shall  obey,  unless  they  seek  for  hatred  at 
my  hands,  which  if  they  do,  they  shall  feel 
ihe  vengeance  of  my  wrath;"  "he  was 
unsatisfied  in  getting,  which  was  a  sin;" 
"as  he  spoke,  a  braying  ass  did  sing  most 


loud    and    clear,    whereat    his    horse    did 
start." 

OBJECTIVE  ACCESSORY  SENTENCES  are 
those  which  serve  instead  of  objects  of 
cause,  purpose,  means,  manner  (including 
degree  or  intensity),  time,  and  place;  and 
those  expressing  a  condition  or  concession, 
which  are  distinguished  by  the  employment 
of  the  probable  or  improbable  forms  of  the 
subjunctive  mood,  according  to  the  amount 
of  contingency  affecting  the  condition  or 
concession,  and  generally  after  certain  con- 
junctions. The  indicative  mood  is,  how- 
ever, now  very  commonly  used  instead ; 
always,  indeed,  where  no  contingency  or 
uncertainty  is  to  be  expressed.  Ex.  "Be- 
cause we  come  to  do  you  service,  you  think 
we  are  ruffians;"  "since  neither  love,  nor 
sense  of  pain,  nor  force  of  reason  can  per- 
suade, then  let  example  be  obeyed;"  "be 
ye  steadfast,  immovable,  .  .  forasmuch  as 
ye  know  that  your  labor  is  not  in  vain  in 
the  Lord;"  "he  makes  it  his  care  both  to 
write  and  to  speak  plainly,  so  that  he  may 
be  understood;"  "treat  it  kindly,  that  it 
may  wish,  at  least,  with  us  to  stay;"  "judge 
not,  that  ye  be  not  judged;"  "as  will  appear 
by  what  follows;"  "from  what  has  been 
said,  you  may  perceive  the  hopelessness  of 
your  undertaking;"  "be  taught  by  what  I 
am  suffering;"  "who,  he  knew,  would  "be 
willing;"  "thou  hast  used  my  purse,  as  if 
the  strings  were  thine;"  "it  is  as  sure  as 
you  are  Roderigo;"  "throw  such  changes 
of  vexation  on't,  ay  it  may  lose  some 
color;"  "the  longer  I  am  acquainted  with 
him,  the  more  I  like  him;"  "so  great  was 
the  cold,  that  the  deepest  rivers  were 
frozen;"  "he  is  ay  merry  as  the  day  is 
long;"  "I'll  see,  before  I  doubt;"  "kings 
may  take  their  advantage,  when  and  how 
they  list;"  "use  physic,  or  ever  thou  be 
sick;"  "while  I  was  protector,  pity  was  all 
the  fault  that  was  in  me;"  "he  is  the  most 
improved  mind,  since  you  saw  him,  that 
ever  was;"  "where  your  treasure  is,  there 
will  your  heart  be  also;"  "I  will  follow 
thee  whithersoever  thou  goest;"  "I  have 
shown  whence  the  understanding  may  get 
all  the  ideas  it  has;"  "the  noise  pursues  me, 
wheresoever  I  go;"  "despise  me,  if  I  do 
not;"  "were  I  the  Moor,  I  would  not  be 
lago;"  "you  will  not  serve  God,  if  the  devil 
bid  you!"  "think  we,  or  think  we  not,  time 
hurries  on ;"  "thou  dost  conspire  against 
thy  friend,  if  thou  but  thinkst  him  wronged, 
and  makest  his  ear  a  stranger  to  thy 
thoughts;"  "though  thou  detain  me,  I  will 
not  eat;"  "wert  thou  an  oracle  to  tell  me 
so,  I'd  not  believe  it ;"  "had  fate  so  pleased, 
I  had  been  eldest  born;"  "I  had  been  hap- 


GRAMMAR 


23 


py,  so  I  had  nothing  known;"  "unless  I 
lock  on  Sylvia  in  the  day,  there  is  no  day 
for  me  to  look  upon;"  "though  he  was 
rich,  yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor;" 
"many  things  are  believed,  although  they 
be  intricate,  obscure,  and  dark." 

CONTRACTED  AND  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 
—Two  or  more  sentences  having  the  same 
subjects,  or  the  same  predicates  or  objects, 
and  two  or  more  subjects  having  the  same 
attributives,  or  vice  versa,  are  frequently 
contracted  into  one  compound  sentence,  or 
phrase,  by  the  use  of  conjunctions.  Ex- 
amples of  several  kinds  may  be  found  in 
the  former  parts  of  this  Compendium; 
others  are  such  as  these:  Ex.  "With  fair- 
est flowers,  whilst  summer  lasts,  and  I 
live  here,  Fidele,  I'll  sweeten  thy  sad 
grave;"  "his  honesty  got  him  small  gains, 
but  shameless  flattery,  and  filthy  beverage, 
and  unseemly  thrift,  and  borrow  base,  and 
some  good  lady's  gift;"  "it  shall  ever  be 
my  study  to  make  discoveries  of  this  na- 
ture in  human  life,  and  to  settle  the  proper 
distinctions  between  the  virtues  and  per- 
fections of  mankind,  and  those  false  colors 
and  resemblances  of  them,  that  shine  alike 
in  the  eyes  of  the  vulgar." 

In  contracted  sentences,  where  a  com- 
parison is  expressed,  care  should  be  taken 
to  avoid  ambiguity.  Ex.  "He  would  make 
a  better  soldier  than  scholar,"  expresses  the 
greater  aptitude  of  the  person  spoken  of 
for  the  arts  of  war,  than  for  the  pursuit 
of  learning.  "He  would  make  a  better  sol- 
dier than  a  scholar,"  expresses  that  the 
person  spoken  of  displays  greater  aptitude 
for  war  than  a  student  would.  "He  likes 
them  better  than  I,"  signifies  that  his  lik- 
ing for  the  persons  spoken  of  is  greater 
than  my  liking  for  them;  while  "he  likes 
them  better  than  me"  signifies  that  his  lik- 
ing for  them  is  greater  than  his  liking  for 
me. 

Similarly,  wherever  two  or  more  sub- 
jects are  distinguished  by  the  attributive 
adjectives  only,  unless  in  cases  where  no 
ambiguity  can  arise,  they  should  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  repetition  of  the  demon- 
strative. Ex.  "The  red  and  blue  vestments 
were  most  admired,"  should  be,  "the  red 
and  the  blue  vestments,"  if  two  kinds  are 
intended.  But  we  may  say,  "the  Lords 
Spiritual  and  Temporal,  because  the  at- 
tributives are  incompatible  in  their  signifi- 
cation. 

CONSTRUCTION  is  the  arrangement  of 
words  in  sentences,  and  of  sentences  in 
relation  to  each  other,  so  as  to  indicate 
the  subordination  of  the  several  parts,  and 


their  connection  and  union;  and  the  uni- 
versal rule  is  to  place  the  subordinate 
words,  or  phrases,  before  the  principal 
ones.  Yet  for  the  sake  of  imparting  spe- 
cial significance  to  some  words  or  sen- 
tences, the  form  of  this  rule  is  often  vio- 
lated, and  particularly  in  poetry.  This  is 
called  inverted  construction,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  ordinary  arrangement,  which  is 
designated  direct. 

DIRECT  CONSTRUCTION. — "The  orator  had 
the  honor  of  haranguing  Pope  Clement  the 
Sixth,  and  the  satisfaction  of  conversing 
with  Petrarch,  a  congenial  mind;  but  his 
aspiring  hopes  were  chilled  by  disgrace 
and  poverty;  and  the  patriot  was  reduced 
to  a  single  garment,  and  the  charity  of 
an  hospital !"  "The  apartments,  porticoes, 
and  the  courts  of  the  Lateran  were  spread 
with  innumerable  tables  for  either  sex, 
and  every  condition;  a  stream  ot  wine 
flowed  from  the  nostrils  of  Constantine's 
brazen  horse;  no  complaint,  except  the 
scarcity  of  water,  could  be  heard;  and  the 
licentiousness  of  the  multitude  was  curbed 
by  discipline  and  fear." 

INVERTED  CONSTRUCTION. — "At  last,  after 
much  fatigue,  through  dull  roads,  and  bad 
weather,  we  came,  with  no  small  difficulty, 
to  our  journey's  end."  "Unto  the  French, 
the  dreadful  judgment-day  so  dreadful  will 
not  be,  as  was  his  sight."  "So  shaken  as 
we  are,  so  wan  with  care,  find  we  a  time 
for  frighted  peace  to  pant."  "Great  is 
Diana  of  the  Ephesians!"  "Fallen,  fallen 
is  Babylon,  that  great  city!"  "Silver  and 
gold  have  I  none:  but  such  as  I  have,  give 
I  unto  thee."  "Go  I  must,  whatever  may 
ensue."  "Up  rose  the  sun,  and  up  rose 
Emily." 

ACCENTUATION. — In  order  to  show  the 
subordination  of  the  less  important  phrases 
in  sentences,  to  the  principal  ones  in  each 
of  the  several  combinations  treated  of 
above,  and  to  give  prominence  to  the  most 
important  elements  in  words,  a  particular 
stress  of  voice  (called  accent)  is  custom- 
arily laid  upon  the"  radical  part  of  all  in- 
flected words,  and  upon  the  principal  words 
or  phrases  in  each  of  those  combinations. 
Ex.  Golden,  disgraceful,  gratitude,  king- 
dom, truthfulness,  wakeful ;  they  read ;  the 
men  were  astonished,  my  suspicions  were 
correct;  the  secrets  of  the  grave  this  viper- 
ous slander  enters;  the  mighty  dead;  all 
his  golden  words  are  spent;  king  David; 
here  is  one  Lucianus,  nephew  to  the  king; 
the  kingdom  of  England ;  the  world  hateth 
you;  I  joy  to  meet  thee;  give  the  book  to 
me ;  I  crave  your  pardon. 


GRAMMAR 


EMPHASIS  is  distinguished  from  accent 
by  this:  the  latter  serves  to  indicate  the 
connection  of  the  words,  etc.,  and  to  give 
unity  to  the  meanings  of  the  several  parts 
which  enter  into  the  different  combinations 
that  make  up  sentences,  etc.;  while  em- 
phasis shows  some  special  meaning  which 
the  speaker  desires  to  give  to  his  words, 
and  which  they  would  not  ordinarily  bear. 
Ex.  "They  read,  we  write,  the  men  were 
astonished,  and  the  woman  fled;  my  sus- 
picions were  correct,  but  my  knowledge 
•was  no  more  than  yours;  the  kingdom  of 
England,  not  that  of  Scotland;  no,  sir,  I  do 
not  bite  my  thumb  at  you,  sir;  but  I  bite 
my  thumb,  sir;  be  not  afraid,  s^4  shall  not 
harm  thee;  \  scorn  you  not,  it  seems  that 
you  scorn  me." 

PUNCTUATION. — The  pauses  which,  in 
speaking,  are  used  to  impart  greater  ac- 
curacy and  clearness  to  our  expressions,  in 
writing  are  represented  by  characters  called 
stops;  and  the  notes  of  interrogation  and 
admiration,  the  parenthesis  and  the  dash, 
as  well  as  the  breaking  up  of  composition 
into  paragraphs,  are  employed  for  similar 
purposes.  In  poetry  they  are  more  used 
than  in  prose;  and  the  fewest  number  pos- 
sible should  always  be  employed. 

USES  OF  THE  COMMON  POINTS. — The 
full  point,  or  period,  indicates  the  termi- 
nation of  a  passage  which  is  complete 
both  in  meaning  and  in  syntax.  The 
colon  marks  the  end  of  a  grammatical 
combination,  but  shows  that  what  follows 
is  required  to  complete  the  meaning.  The 
semicolon  shows  that,  both  in  meaning  and 
in  syntax,  the  expression  it  follows  is  in- 
complete The  comma  is  used  to  distin- 
guish, rather  than  to  divide,  the  parts  of 
grammatical  combinations,  so  that  the  con- 
nection between  them,  and  their  significa- 
tion when  combined,  may  be  more  clear. 
But  where  the  passages  are  not  very  long, 
and  no  mistake  would  arise,  the  comma  is 
used  for  the  semicolon,  and  even  for  the 
colon;  and  the  semicolon  is  employed  in- 
stead of  the  colon.  The  period  is  fre- 
quently employed,  also,  where  we  should 
«xpect  only  the  colon.  Ex.  "The  Roman 
Senators  conspired  against  Julius  Caesar  to 
kill  him:  that  very  next  morning  Artemi- 
dorus,  Caesar's  friend,  delivered  him  a  pa- 
per (desiring  him  to  peruse  it),  wherein 
the  whole  plot  was  discovered:  but  Caesar 
complimented  his  life  away,  being  so  taken 
tip  to  return  the  salutations  of  such  people 
as  met  him  in  the  way,  that  he  pocketed 
the  paper,  among  other  petitions,  as  un- 


concerned   therein;    and    so,    going   to    tht 
Senate-house,  he  was  slain." 

"The    noble    Brutus 
Hath  told   you,    Caesar    was   ambitious: 
If  it  were  so,   it  was  a  grievous  fault; 
And  grievously  hath  Caesar  answer'd  it." 

THE  USE  OF  THE  COMMA.— As  there  is 
some  uncertainty  regarding  the  correct  uses 
of  the  comma,  it  seems  well  to  give  a  few 
common  rules  that  are  practically  observed 
by  writers.  In  spite  of  the  growing  ten- 
dency to  punctuate  sparingly,  it  seems  nec- 
essary in  many  cases  to  ensure  correct  un- 
derstanding of  a  sentence  by  inclosing 
between  commas  (i)  such  words  and 
clauses  as  limit  or  characterize  the  mean- 
ing of  principal  words  or  ideas;  (2)  such 
words  and  clauses  as  could  be  omitted 
without  marring  the  grammatical  unity  of 
the  sentence— that  is,  leaving  subject,  pred- 
icate, and  verb;  (3)  such  words  and 
clauses  as  receive  a  change  of  stress  or 
emphasis,  when  the  sentence  is  read  aloud 
understandingly,  or  where  the  voice  should 
pause  at  a  logical  modification  of  an  idea; 
(4)  such  relative  clauses  as  are  introduced 
by  who  and  which.  Commas  are  also  used 
where  words  or  clauses  are  omitted,  and 
in  such  expressions  as  "The  word,  love,  is 
full  of  meaning." 

THE  PARENTHESIS.— Parentheses  indicate 
either  an  explanatory  remark,  or  a  thought 
related  to  what  has  been  said,  which  is 
noted  but  not  pursued;  and  instead  of  the 
common  sign,  two  commas,  or  two  semi- 
colons, or  two  dashes,  are  often  employed. 
Ex.  "Travelling  on  the  plain  (which  not- 
withstanding hath  its  risings  and  fallings), 
I  discovered  Salisbury  steeple  many  miles 
off."  "I  find  two  (husband  and  wife),  both 
stealing,  and  but  one  of  them  guilty  of  fel- 
ony." "Spill  not  the  morning  (the  quintes- 
sence of  the  day!)  in  recreation."  "Raleigh 
had  (besides  his  own  merits)  two  good 
friends." 

In  good  writing  the  parentl.esis  is  seldom 
used,  except  for  special  purposes,  as,  for 
example,  to  give  the  equivalent  of  an  En- 
glish word  in  a  foreign  language  or  a  for- 
eign word  in  English,  or  to  give  the  value 
of  some  monetary  or  metrical  expression 
in  terms  of  other  standards.  In  common 
usage,  either  the  comma  or  the  dash  is  now 
used  where  the  parenthesis  was  formerly 
common.  Thus,  in  the  examples  given 
above,  dashes  would  be  used  in  the  first; 
commas,  in  the  second ;  dashes  or  commas, 
in  the  third,  and  commas,  in  the  fourth. 

BRACKETS  are  most  commonly  used  as  a 
meansjof  supplying  words,  obviously  needed 


25 


for  the  sense,  in  quoting  passages  trans- 
lated from  foreign  languages — particularly 
ancient  or  barbarous  languages — and  for 
indicating  changes  of  person,  number  or 
tense  of  words  in  a  quoted  passage,  as 
from  a  letter.  For  other  examples,  see 
under  Zeugma  below. 

In  general,  the  dash  is  used  to  show  that 
a  pause  should  be  made,  because  the  sense 
is  broken  off  abruptly;  or  while  the  sense 
is  not  interrupted,  something  unexpected 
follows;  or  to  call  for  greater  attention  to 
what  is  about  to  be  said.  Example: 

"To   die, — to   sleep, — 

No  more; — and,  by  a  sleep,  to  say  we  end 
The   heart-ache,    and   the   thousand    natural   shocks 
That  flesh  is  heir  to, — 'tis  a  consummation 
Devoutly   to  be   wish'd." 

"O  thou  invisible  spirit  of  wine,  if  thou  hast 
no  name  to  be  known  by,  let  us  call  thee — devil!" 

"  'Thou  art  a  villain." 
"  'You  are — a  senator.'  " 

"Some  people,  handsome  by  nature,  have 
wilfully  deformed  themselves ; — such  as 
wear  Bacchus'  colors  in  their  faces,  arising 
not  from  having — but  being — bad  livers." 

"Romeo,    the   hate    I   bear   thee    can   afford 
No  better  term  than  this — Thou  art  a  villain." 

Dashes  are  also  used  to  inclose  paren- 
thetical, explanatory  or  inserted  clauses, 
which  were  formerly  included  between 
commas  or  parentheses.  Thus:  "The  law 
holds  that  a  man  and  his  wife  must  be  re- 
garded as  'one  soul  inhabiting  two  bodies' 
— which  expression  was  original  with  Sir 
Matthew  Hale — and  yet,  strangely  enough, 
admits  the  possibility  of  divorce." 

Other  artifices  are  employed,  such  as 
italics  and  SMALL  CAPITALS,  in  typography 
to  represent  some  of  the  effects  of  the  tones 
and  inflections  of  the  voice. 


RHETORIC 

SOME  modes  of  expression,  called  trop- 
ical, or  figurative,  which  are  strictly  among 
the  matters  respecting  which  rhetoric  is 
conversant,  should  be  noticed  here;  as  they 
serve  to  account  for  some  of  the  forms 
which  have  been  noticed  above. 

ELLIPSIS,  or  omission,  is  the  suppression 
of  some  word,  which  from  the  nature  of 
what  is  spoken  of,  or  from  the  context, 
can  be  readily  supplied.  Ex.  "All  in  vain 
[is]  my  frantic  calling,  all  in  vain  [are] 
my  falling  tears!"  "[There  is]  no  way  to 
fly,  nor  strength  to  hold  out  flight!"  "The 


.knight  came  to  the  tailor's  [shop.]."    "Are 
you  going  to  the  House  [of  Parliament]  ?" 

PLEONASM,  or  redundancy,  is  the  intro- 
duction of  some  words  not  actually  re- 
quired, but  often  exceedingly  effective,  as 
a  means  of  giving  peculiar  emphasis,  or 
expressing  a  particular  feeling.  Ex.  "The 
skipping  king,  he  ambled  up .  and  down." 
"They  returned  back  again  to  the  same  city 
from  whence  they  came  forth."  "The 
dawn  is  overcast,  the  morning  lowers,  and 
heavily  with  clouds  brings  on  the  day." 

ZEUGMA,  or  syllepsis,  is  the  suppression 
of  a  verb  or  a  noun,  in  positions  in  which 
it  will  readily  be  suggested  by  another  verb 
or  noun,  which  is  expressed;  and  with 
which  the  object,  or  attributive  belonging 
to  the  suppressed  words,  appears  to  be 
connected.  .Ex.  "And  his  mouth  was 
opened  immediately,  and  his  tongue 
[loosed] ;"  "forbidding  to  marry,  and 
[commanding]  to  abstain  from  meats;" 
"my  paternal  house  is  desolate,  and  he 
himself  [my  father]  destitute  and  in  exile." 

RHETORICAL  FIGURES. — In  writing  a  lan- 
guage many  expressions  are  used,  which, 
because  they  depart  from  the  limits  of 
direct  speaking,  are  called  "figurative." 
Among  these  are  the  several  figures  of 
comparison,  direct  and  indirect;  the  sev- 
eral figures  which  use  a  part  to  express 
the  whole,  or  a  unit  as  a  type  of  a  collec- 
tion of  related  objects.  Only  the  more  im- 
portant figures  need  be  mentioned  here. 

PERSONIFICATION,  or  prosopopoeia,  is  the 
treating  of  things  and  subjects  without  life, 
even  abstractions,  as  though  they  were  liv- 
ing persons,.  Ex.  "Confusion  heard  his 
voice."  "I  have  no  spur  to  prick  the  sides 
of  my  intent,  but  only  vaulting  ambition, 
which  o'erleaps  itself."  "Doth  not  wisdom 
cry,  and  understanding  put  forth  her 
voice?"  "Make  temperance  thy  compan- 
ion, so  shall  health  sit  on  thy  brow." 

APOSTROPHE,  or  address,  is  frequently 
akin  to  personification,  as  in  cases  where 
inanimate  objects  or  abstractions  are  ad- 
dressed as  though  personal  and  present. 
Thus,  "Come,  gentle  Spring."  Apostro- 
phe is  most  common  in  addresses  to  the 
absent  or  the  dead.  Thus,  David  speaks 
to  his  dead  son :  "O  Absalom,  my  son,  my 
son!  Would  God  I  had  died  for  thee!" 

HYPERBOLE  is  merely  exaggeration,  and 
its  proper  literary  use  is  to  give  emphasis 
to  a  statement  of  fact.  Thus,  Voltaire  says, 
"The  English  gain  two  hours  each  day  by 
clipping  their  words."  As  it  stands,  this 
statement  is  witty;  but  had  he  merely  said, 


26 


GRAMMAR 


"The  English  clip  their  words  about  five 
times  as  much  as  any  other  people,"  merely 
stating  a  fact,  his  remark  would  have  been 
unworthy  further  interest.  Thus,  most 
witty  sayings  are  mere  hyperboles.  A  cer- 
tain author  remarks,  for  example,  "No 
classes  in  society  are  really  happy,  except 
artists  and  thieves:  they  always  act  as  they 
please." 

Many  exaggerated  expressions  in  com- 
mon use  are  merely  hyperbolic.  Thus,  we 
hear  people  say;  "I  am  awfully  tired;"  "I 
just  love  cake;"  "What  a  splendid  pie!" 
Similarly,  most  profane  expressions  come 
under  this  same  head;  consisting  essentially 
in  the  use  of  superlative  words,  as  descrip- 
tions, characterizations  or  exclamations. 
Profane  swearing  consists  in  such  irrever- 
ent uses  of  God's  name.  Such  exaggera- 
tions have  no  real  place  in  literature  or 
rhetoric. 

SIMILES  AND  METAPHORS  are  expressions 
of  comparison.  The  first  involves  a  di- 
rect comparison,  usually  introduced  by 
like,  as,  etc.  Thus,  "The  condemnation  of 
Socrates  took  him  away  in  his  full  grandeur 
and  glory,  like  the  setting  of  a  tropical 
sun."  A  metaphor  is  an  abridged  simile. 
Thus,  we  speak  of  a  man  as  a  "pillar  of  the 
church,"  rather  than  saying;  "He  is  like 
a  pillar  of  the  church."  Also,  we  speak 
of  a  "Napoleon  of  finance;"  "a  Daniel 
come  to  judgment;"  "the  Nestor  of  De- 
mocracy." 

METONOMY  (Greek,  "change  of  name") 
is  the  figure  by  which  we  use  a  word  in- 
dicating one  thing  for  one  indicating  an- 
other. Ex.  "He  loves  his  bottle  too 
much,"  referring  to  the  liquor  in  the  bot- 
tle; "I  have  read  Browning,"  meaning  his 
works;  "Man  doth  live  by  the  sweat  of 
his  brow,"  meaning  "by  the  labor  causing 
the  sweat." 

SYNECDOCHE  is  a  figure  allied  to  meton- 
omy,  except  for  the  fact  that  it  involves 
the  use  of  a  part  to  indicate  the  whole. 
Thus,  we  speak  of  "thirty  head  of  cattle;" 
"fifty  extra  hands"  [men] ;  "thirty  sail 
[•hips]  on  the  sea;"  "a  girl  of  sixteen 
fnmmers"  [years]. 


ANTITHESIS  consists  in  making  a  sharp 
and  definite  contrast,  either  between  two 
things  or  persons  or  between  two  ideas 
connected  with  one  thing  or  person.  Its 
object  is  primarily  to  emphasize  what  is 
said  about  the  noun  most  closely  related 
to  the  general  subject  of  the  writing.  Thus: 
"The  prodigal  robs  his  heir,  the  miser  robs 
himself."  "There  is  no  greater  joy  than 
love,  and  no  keener  pain." 

Other  methods  of  emphasizing  or  enforc- 
ing ideas  are  found  in  the  epigram,  the  al- 
legory and  the  interrogation. 

EPIGRAM  is  a  terse  saying,  generally  a 
statement  of  principle,  or  a  generalization 
on  facts,  introduced  into  a  description  or 
discussion  as  a  kind  of  brief  summary  or 
explanation.  Thus  :  "When  you  have  noth- 
ing to  say,  say  it." 

ALLEGORY  is  either  an  elaborated  meta- 
phor or  else  a  narration  introduced  to  en- 
force a  point  in  the  discourse.  Thus,  the 
Parables  of  Christ  are  allegories;  so  also 
are  the  Fables  of 


INTERROGATION,  as  a  figure  of  rhetoric, 
consists  in  obtaining  emphasis  by  putting 
a  statement  into  the  form  of  a  question, 
although  with  no  notion  that  it  is  to  be 
answered  in  any  way.  The  Scriptures  con- 
tain many  examples  of  this  figure.  Thus  : 
"What  is  man  that  Thou  art  mindful  of 
him?  Or,  The  son  of  man  that  Thou  visit- 
est  him?"  Evidently,  these  interrogations 
expect  no  answers  stating  the  "what"  or 
the  "why."  They  are  merely  emphatic 
statements  of  man's  insignificance  before 
God. 

Closely  allied  to  the  interrogation  is  the 
exclamation,  which,  in  addition  to  taking 
the  form  of  abrupt  remarks,  often  ex- 
pressing deep  emotion  —  "How  beautiful  !" 
"What  eyes!"  —  are  put  into  the  form  of 
questions.  Thus  :  "Can  I  ever  forget  that 
happy  day!"  The  principal  difference  be- 
tween interrogation  and  exclamation  in 
these  formal  questions  is  that  the  former 
deals  directly  with  the  subject  in  hand, 
while  the  latter  seeks  the  end  of  emphasis 
by  introducing  a  digression  from  the  main 
subj  ect. 


ON  WRITING  GOOD  ENGLISH 


SINCE  one  who  writes  has  but  one  object,  to  impart  ideas,  it  follows 
that  he  need  consider  but  two  things  in  so  doing — grammatical 
correctness  and  rhetorical  form.  Should  he  violate  the  rules  of 
grammar,  he  would  incur  the  danger  of  rendering  his  meaning  doubtful 
— even  of  conveying  exactly  the  opposite  idea  from  that  intended;  should 
he  wholly  violate  the  canons  of  rhetorical  form,  his  meaning  would  be 
quite  as  obscure  as  in  the  former  case,  no  matter  how  grammatical  his 
sentences.  These  statements  are  true,  because  grammar  is  the  science  of 
the  correct  use  of  words — giving  the  established  rules  in  regard  to  their 
inflection,  number,  and  agreement  in  a  sentence — while  rhetoric  is  the 
science  of  the  correct  formation  of  sentences,  to  the  end  of  conveying  any 
desired  meaning,  without  requiring  the  reader  to  strive  and  study,  in 
order  to  discover  it. 


THE  ESSENTIAL  ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  WRITING 


BREVITY  AND  DIRECTNESS.— The 
first  and  most  important  element  of 
good  English  writing  is  a  quality  to  be  de- 
scribed by  the  words,  BREVITY  and  DIRECT- 
NESS. In  general,  the  best  sentence  conveys 
the  intended  meaning  in  the  fewest  possible 
words.  When  all  unnecessary  words  are 
omitted,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  sen- 
tence allows  each  part  its  full  value  and 
greatest  force,  the  reader  easily  grasps  the 
idea.  Thus,  the  best  sentence  has  precisely 
one  aim  in  view — economy  of  attention.  It 
avoids  all  elements  that  either  distract  or 
weary  the  mind;  says  what  it  has  to  say — 
no  more,  no  less — then  closes. 

ELEMENTS  OF  STYLE. — As  defined  by  a 
prominent  authority,  the  three  important 
elements  of  a  good  English  style  are  CLEAR- 
NESS, FORCE,  ELEGANCE.  Of  these  he  says: 
"Never  forgetting  the  vast  extent  of  our 
thoughts  and  emotions,  and  the  very  nar- 
row limits  of  even  the  widest  vocabulary, 
we  remember  that  each  of  our  words  must 
not  only  name  an  idea,  but  along  with  the 
idea  it  names  must,  subtilely  but  surely, 
suggest  others.  I  have  borrowed  from 
logic  two  names — there  used  technically — 
to  express  these  two  powers  of  words. 
To  their  power  of  naming  ideas,  I  have 
ventured  to  give  the  name,  'denotation'; 
to  their  power  of  suggesting  ideas,  I  have 
ventured  to  give  the  name,  'connotation/ 


And  I  have  tried  to  show  that  such  choice 
and  composition  of  the  elements  of  style 
as  shall  best  denote  our  meaning  is  what 
Clearness  demands;  that  such  choice  and 
composition  of  the  elements  as  shall  best 
connote  our  emotion  [in  setting  forth  the 
ideas]  is  what  Force  demands;  and  that 
such  choice  and  composition  of  the  ele- 
ments as  shall  most  exquisitely  adapt  itself 
to  the  eternally  elusive  immaterial  reality 
of  thought  and  emotion  is  what  Elegance 

demands.    In   a   single   sentence the 

secret  of  Clearness  lies  in  denotation;  the 
secret  of  Force  lies  in  connotation;  the  se- 
cret of  Elegance  lies  in  adaptation." 

CLEARNESS. — From  what  has  just  been 
said,  it  is  evident  that  the  first  requirement 
in  writing  is  to  have  something  to  say  and 
to  know  exactly  what  it  is.  A  vague 
thought  can  be  expressed  only  in  an  ob- 
scure and  ambiguous  sentence.  In  other 
words,  if  a  writer  is  struggling  to  discover 
just  what  his  own  idea  is,  he  will  leave 
his  reader  in  the  same  uncertainty.  This 
is  the  fundamental  sin  against  clearness. 

A  certain  well-known  critic  once  re- 
marked: "Many  people  to-day  are  writing 
books  on  subjects  about  which  they  know 
next  to  nothing  at  all.  I  can  tell,  by  read- 
ing a  few  pages  of  any  book  on  any  sub- 
ject, whether  the  writer  has  a  sufficient 
knowledge  of  the  things  he  is  writing 

(27) 


28 


ON   WRITING   GOOD   ENGLISH 


about  It  is  not  necessary  that  I  should 
know  anything  of  his  subject — I  judge 
solely  by  the  definiteness  of  the  ideas  he 
can  give  me." 

Occasionally,  in  learned  and  ignorant 
alike,  we  find  men  whose  rapidi.y  of  think- 
ing is  far  in  excess  of  their  ability  to  ex- 
press—either in  writing  or  speaking.  Their 
ideas  flow  so  rapidly  that,  before  one  is 
fairly  stated,  another  emerges  into  view, 
•with  the  result  that  the  hearer  or  reader 
is  fairly  lost  in  a  crowd  of  words.  Writ- 
ing done  under  such  conditions  can  be 
neither  interesting  nor  profitable.  Its  in- 
coherence fully  demonstrates  the  need  of 
a  well-controlled  mind  as  the  first  require- 
ment for  a  well-developed  literary  style. 

Other  writers  of  a  nearly-allied  class  are 
fairly  deserving  the  charge,  made  by  a  cer- 
tain wit,  "of  knowing  so  much  they  don't 
know  anything."  Laboring  under  the  im- 
pression that  their  subject  is  difficult,  they 
intensify  its  difficulty  by  writing  on  it  in 
a  crabbed,  involved  and  prolix  manner. 
Struggling  to  express  a  meaning,  evidently 
either  beyond  words  or  else  very  poorly 
grasped  by  themselves,  they  complicate 
their  composition  by  hopelessly  long  and 
involved  sentences  and  the  too  frequent 
use  of  subordinate,  relative  and  co-ordi- 
nate clauses.  This  is  notoriously  the  case 
with  such  writers  as  Kant,  Hegel,  and  some 
other  philosophers,  whose  books  abound  in 
sentences  of  as  many  as  200  or  300  words, 
and  so  hopelessly  involved  that  many  of 
their  ideas  are  quite  lost  to  the  world. 

The  student  of  English  composition 
should  be  assured  of  two  points:  (i)  no 
subject  is  so  difficult  that  it  can  not  be 
clearly  stated  by  a  person  who  has  mas- 
tered it ;  and  (2)  an  obscure  style  is  nearly 
the  best  evidence  of  the  writer's  ignorance 
of  the  subject  he  attempts  to  treat,  or  of 
the  language  he  attempts  to  write.  This 
does  not  mean  that  all  subjects  can  be 
exhausted  in  treatises  of  small  compass — 
some  demand  extensive  space  for  ade- 
quate statement  and  full  explanation,  with 
the  best  understanding  in  the  writer. 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CLEARNESS. — To  at- 
tain the  end  of  clearness  in  expression,  two 
things  are  required:  (l)  logical  arrange- 
ment of  ideas  and  (2)  words  suited  to  ex- 
press them.  If  a  writer  wishes  to  describe 
a  city,  a  house,  a  person,  or  any  other  ob- 
ject, he  should  definitely  catalogue,  either 
in  his  mind  or  on  paper,  the  points  he  in- 
tends to  bring  out;  then,  arrange  them  in 
order,  either  from  most  important  to  least 
important,  or  the  opposite,  according  to 
the  emotion  hfc  wishes  to  excite  in  his 


reader's  mind :  finally,  state  them  in  the 
fewest  and  most  expressive  words  possible. 
Of  course,  much  depends,  in  this  class  of 
writing,  upon  the  aim  the  writer  has  in 
view.  If  he  merely  wishes  to  reproduce 
the  picture  before  the  eye  of  his  mind,  he 
needs  only  to  state  the  points  as  briefly  as 
elegance  will  permit.  If  he  wishes  to  re- 
produce in  the  reader's  mind  an  emotion 
he  himself  has  experienced  in  contemplat- 
ing the  object  in  question,  greater  license 
in  the  choice  of  words  is  allowable.  The 
main  points  should  be  definitely  stated,  and 
only  minor  and  unimportant  matters  left 
to  the  reader's  imagination.  The  methods 
of  proceeding  in  this  work  vary  with  differ- 
ent writers.  Some  find  that  discussion  is 
the  best  clarifier  of  ideas,  and  make  it  a 
practice  to  talk  over  with  some  friend — 
preferably  with  a  "good  listener" — all  the 
details  of  the  proposed  writing.  Talking 
over  ideas  undoubtedly  gives  them  a  defi- 
nite form,  but  one  may  speak  them  aloud 
by  himself,  without  afflicting  a  friend  or 
wife  with  his  crude  thoughts.  Many  writ- 
ers lose  interest  in  the  thoughts  that  they 
have  thus  prematurely  given  to  others. 
Others  prepare  "skeletons"  of  the  composi- 
tion, arranging  the  bare  ideas  in  order  on 
paper,  and  indicating  all  the  connections 
and  transitions,  previous  to  starting  the 
actual  work  of  writing.  This  method  is 
largely  followed  in  the  preparation  of  trea- 
tises on  special  subjects  and  in  writing  ser- 
mons, essays,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  laying  out 
material  for  descriptions.  It  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  assisting  the  mind  in  perfecting 
its  own  conceptions,  but,  according  to  some, 
rather  tends  to  shackle  spontaneity  of  ex- 
pression. A  certain  college  professor  states 
that,  in  preparing  his  lectures,  he  writes  his 
ideas  on  labelled  cards,  which  he  subse- 
quently arranges  in  the  order  that  seems 
best  fitted  to  give  unity  to  the  composition. 
Numerous  authors  avoid  all  such  helps, 
sitting  down  to  write  with  only  a  very 
general  idea  of  the  lines  of  treatment  to 
be  followed,  and  developing  their  subjects 
as  they  proceed.  Such  a  method  is  prob- 
ably the  one  most  often  followed  by  trained 
wirters,  but  generally  involves  an  immense 
amount  of  revising  and  re-editing  after  the 
first  draft  is  complete.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  hear  that  some  certain  author  re- 
wrote such  and  such  a  book  of  his  as 
many  as  ten  or  twelve  times,  before  he 
considered  it  ready  for  publication. 

LITERARY  FORM. — Next  in  importance,  to 
clearly  and  definitely  conceiving  the  sub- 
ject to  be  written  up,  comes  the  question 
of  form.  To  attain  the  end  of  clearness, 


ON   WRITING   GOOD   ENGLISH 


29 


we  must  stop  midway  between  the  mere 
"snapshot"  mention,  which  says  too  little, 
and  the  precise  prolixity  of  a  legal  docu- 
ment, which  says  too  much.  If,  for  exam- 
ple, a  writer  wishes  to  describe  a  certain 
man's  personal  appearance  and  character- 
istics, he  avoids  the  detailed  catalogue  of 
a  Bertillon  "card  of  identification,"  and 
gives  only  such  broad,  general  facts  as 
leave  a  distinct  impression  on  the  reader's 
mind,  with  a  larger  number  of  details  to 
be  supplied  by  imagination.  Thus,  if  a 
character  in  a  story  is  described  as  having 
a  "harsh  and  strident  voice  and  an  exag- 
gerated red  nose,"  the  reader  obtains  a  far 
more  vivid  picture  than  would  be  possible 
with  two  pages  of  minute  description.  In- 
deed, it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the 
habit  of  writing  lengthy  descriptions  of 
persons,  places,  and  scenes,  in  fiction  or  any 
other  kind  of  artistic  writing,  is  properly 
called  a  "literary  sin,"  because  it  defeats 
the  very  end  it  is  intended  to  serve.  The 
reader's  attention  wanes  before  he  has  fin- 
ished reading  them. 

THE  VICE  OF  DETAILED  DESCRIPTIONS. — 
Professor  Wendell  of  Harvard  well  says: 
"The  trouble  of  undue  specification  is  not 
confined  to  legal  documents.  Almost  any 
novel  you  choose  to  open  will  give  you 
an  example  of  it,  ....  a  heroine  whose 
personal  appearance  is  described  at  con- 
siderable length.  We  are  told  that  she  is 
not  very  tall,  for  example,  but  has  a  per- 
fect figure;  that  she  has  great  masses  of 
golden  hair,  or  dark,  as  the  case  may  be; 
delicately  arched  eyebrows;  a  nose  per- 
haps the  least  bit  retrousse;  a  sensitive 
mouth;  a  very  fine  complexion,  and  so  on, 
often  for  a  page  or  more.  This  kind  of 
thing  is  carefully  specific :  it  often  stands 
for  a  very  definite  image  in  the  mind  of 
the  writer;  but  it  never  conveys  to  my 
mind — or  to  any  other  man's  whom  I  have 
plied  with  questions — any  unmistakable 
idea  of  what  the  young^  woman  in  ques- 
tion looks  like To  analyze  her  ap- 
pearance in  detail  is  really  to  do  just  what 
lawyers  do  when  they  describe  a  piece  of 
real  estate;  to  be  a  great  deal  more  specific 
than,  for  ordinary  human  purposes,  the 
thought  is  which  we  are  trying  to  express. 
In  short,  we  are  in  some  degree  obscure 
because  we  use  too  many  words." 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  FORCE. — The  end  of 
clearness  is  defeated  in  lengthy  and  de- 
tailed descriptions,  not  only  by  the  use  of 
toe  tnany  words,  which  overtax  the  reader's 
attention,  but  also  because  that,  in  most 
such  cases,  there  is  little  or  no  .inducement 


to  retain  interest.  This  is  precisely  the 
point  at  which  such  compositions  are  found 
to  lack  the  important  element  of  force. 
They  may  be  calculated,  like  a  title  deed 
or  a  scientific  analysis,  to  give  very  pre- 
cise information  to  those  who  seek  it,  but 
they  utterly  fail  to  reproduce  the  emotions 
that  possibly  gave  them  birth. 

To  be  brief,  the  detailed  description,  as 
such,  has  no  proper  place  in  literary  com- 
position, although  Dickens,  and  several 
other  writers  of  note,  have  used  it  largely. 
It  can,  however,  receive  a  human  interest 
by  the  introduction  of  humorous  passages, 
witty  epigrams,  enlivening  similes  and  pic- 
turesque remarks.  In  this  manner,  the 
most  detailed  accounts  of  natural  scenery, 
buildings,  cities,  or  other  objects — historical 
narrations,  accounts  of  persons,  or  disser- 
tations on  the  driest  topics — may  be  ren- 
dered extremely  entertaining  to  the  aver- 
age reader.  With  some  such  idea  in  mind, 
many  preachers  have  essayed  to  introduce 
humorous  passages  into  their  sermons,  hop- 
ing to  reach  the  hearts  of  their  listeners 
by  entertaining  them.  Other  writers,  with 
equally  serious  aims,  sociological,  religious, 
or  moral,  have  written  stories  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  enlivening  discussions  that 
would,  otherwise,  go  unread.  It  must  not 
be  forgotten,  however,  that  it  requires  the 
greatest  skill  to  thus  impart  force,  or  "con- 
notation" of  ideas,  as  Professor  Wendell 
calls  it,  into  matter  otherwise  devoid  of 
common  interest. 

The  lack  of  force  in  a  composition  may 
be  well  illustrated  by  the  familiar  experi- 
ence of  a  humorous  story  told  by  a  "poor 
story-teller."  Such  a  person,  owing  per- 
haps to  lack  of  training  and  practice  in  this 
particular  line,  invariably  "misses  the 
point";  and  the  narration,  intended  to  ex- 
cite laughter,  is  received  with  a  disappoint- 
ing silence.  Another  person  can  take  a 
story  of  only  moderate  interest,  and  so 
embellish  it  that  it  never  fails  to  evoke 
the  desired  emotion.  Similarly,  some 
speakers,  dilating  on  conditions  that  have 
excited  their  own  sympathy,  fail  of  im- 
parting their  sentiments  to  their  hearers 
by  a  profuseness  of  emotion  and  a  lack  of 
skill  in  the  use  of  words.  Thus,  a  certain 
missionary  from  the  "wild  West,"  in  ad- 
dressing a  meeting  at  an  Eastern  church, 
described  the  funeral  of  a  cowboy,  who, 
for  lack  of  a  better  casket,  was  buried  in 
two  barrels — one  slid  over  his  feet,  the 
other  over  his  head.  This  incident,  indif- 
ferent enough  in  the  eyes  of  the  average 
man,  excited  him  to  such  a  height  of  tragic 

oratory  that  the  audience  burst  into  roars 

3 


SO 


ON   WRITING   GOOD   ENGLISH 


- 

of  laughter.  He  had  not  only  failed  to 
convey  the  emotion  he  himself  seemed  to 
feel,  but  had  actually  excited  its  direct 
opposite. 

FORCE  IN  THE  STATEMENT  OF  IDEAS. — In 
the  attempt  to  gain  force  in  writing  or 
speaking,  extremes  must  be  carefully 
avoided.  Each  passage  must  be  framed 
so  as  to  appeal  to  the  average  mind;  neither 
wearying  it  by  attempts  at  classic  loftiness 
— a  glaring  fault  of  Seventeenth  Century 
poets  and  writers — nor  yet  repelling  it  by 
a  too  obvious  vulgarity,  as  is  often  done 
to-day.  Professor  Wendell  remarks  on 
this  point:  "In  their  own  little  way,  'Pina- 
fore'and 'The  Pirates  of  Penzance' and  'Pa- 
tience' were  a  great  deal  more  forcible,  in 
the  sense  in  which  I  use  the  term,  than  the 
works  called  'better'  and  the  works  ad- 
mitted to  be  worse;  each  of  which  ap- 
pealed to  the  emotions  of  only  one  of  the 
classes  who  joined  in  enjoying  these.  Al- 
ways remembering,  then,  that  the  average 
man  is  not  a  vulgar  fellow,  but  one  who 
combines  the  traits  common  to  gentle  and 
vulgar  alike,  we  may  safely  say  that  the 
most  forcible  writing  is  that  which  holds 
his  attention." 

METHODS  OF  OBTAINING  FORCE. — In  a 
'  certain  sense,  some  persons  are  qualified 
naturally  to  write  with  true  force  and 
effect,  on  account  of  a  facility  at  analyzing 
and  defining  ideas ;  stating  them  in  the 
clearest  manner,  and  discerning  their  rela- 
tions to  other  ideas — that  is  to  say,  in  com- 
paring one  thing  with  others.  The  art  may 
be  cultivated,  however,  by  closely  observing 
the  principles  underlying  good  composition. 
Force  in  writing  is  most  largely  obtained 
by  the  use  (i)  of  the  most  descriptive 
words,  and  (2)  of  tropes  or  rhetorical  fig- 
ures. Of  course,  the  choice  of  both  words 
and  figures  is  always  determined  by  the 
effect  the  writing  is  intended  to  produce. 
After  the  end  of  clearness  has  been  ob- 
tained by  complete  conception  of  ideas  and 
the  use  of  the  simplest  grammatical  con- 
structions, it  is  in  place  to  determine  in 
what  manner  we  wish  a  given  passage  to 
be  understood — that  is,  what  emotion  we 
wish  it  to  evoke.  An  effective  writer  must 
have  a  good  vocabulary,  and  a  fair  sense 
of  the  shades  of  meaning  belonging  to  dif- 
ferent synonymous  words.  He  must  not 
use  words  above  common  comprehension, 
lest  he  miss  the  desired  effect,  nor  yet 
words  too  colloquial,  unless  he  intends  to 
be  humorous.  In  general,  the  simplest  ef- 
fects, obtained  by  the  use  of  the  simplest 
words,  give  by  far  the  m^t  forceful  com- 


position, since  we  should  often  leave  a 
jreat  part  of  an  emotion  to  be  supplied  by 
magination,  just  as  we  leave  the  full  mean- 
ng  of  an  idea. 

FORCE  IN  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS. — A  few 
examples  will  suffice  to  illustrate  what  is 
meant.  In  most  fiction  of  the  present  time, 
a  love  affair  is  the  central  part  of  the  story 
and  the  heroine  altogether  the  most  inter- 
esting character.  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, that  the  author  set  forth  the  attrac- 
tions of  the  heroine  in  the  most  advan- 
tageous manner.  To  use  words  regarding 
tier  or  her  attractions  that  are  either  am- 
biguous or  insufficient  to  the  end  in  view, 
means  only  to  lose  the  reader's  sympathy. 
Thus,  a  certain  writer  of  short  stories  mars 
the  effect  of  his  description  by  speaking 
several  times  of  his  heroine  as  "my 
charmer."  That  this  word  is  clear  in  a 
certain  sense  can  not  be  doubted :  for  a 
woman  who  enchains  a  man's  devotion 
certainly  charms  him  in  a  very  real  sense. 
But  the  word  is  insufficient  to  describe  the 
sentiment  we  like  to  attribute  to  a  lover, 
and  certainly  is  burdened  with  many  as- 
sociations far  from  ideal — such  as  "snake- 
charmer."  We  also  speak  of  a  woman  as 
;charming,"  without  involving  the  idea 
that  our  sentiment  partakes  of  love.  Should 
the  words,  "beloved,"  "dear  one,"  "idol," 
or  even  "darling"  be  used,  the  full  mean- 
ing is  still  unexpressed,  and  the  dignity  of 
the  subject  disregarded.  An  experienced 
editor  changed  the  expression  in  one  case 
into  "the  one  woman  in  the  world,"  and, 
in  another,  into  "my  queen";  both  of  which 
better  convey  the  adoration  a  man  is  sup- 
posed to  feel  for  a  woman  he  loves.  Such 
words  are  more  forceful,  because  more  ex- 
pressive, more  descriptive  of  the  emotion 
involved. 

Similarly,  in  describing  a  heroine,  some 
writers  would  be  satisfied  with  calling  her 
"beautiful,"  "fascinating,"  "elegant."  But, 
while  all  the  qualities  described  by  these 
words  are  desirable,  perhaps  necessary,  in 
a  woman,  they  contain  no  suggestion  that 
would  compel  the  reader  to  sympathize 
with  the  sentiments  of  her  lover.  In  one 
of  the  most  effective  of  modern  romances, 
the  hero  is  thrown  with  a  woman  under 
such  exceptional  circumstances  as  permit 
the  display  of  remarkable  and  heroic  traits 
on  her  part.  The  hero  speaks  thus:  "A 
great  wonder  and  gratitude  grew  in  ray 
heart,  wonder  that  a  woman  could  be  so 
brave,  gratitude  for  the  love  she  gave  me. 
....  I  felt  that  no  woman  could  ever  be 
so  dear  to  me  as  this  glorious  woman,  no, 
not  even  my  betrothed."  While  it  may  be 


ON   WRITING   GOOD    ENGLISH 


31 


that  no  reader  has  ever  seen  a  woman 
whom  he  could  describe  as  "glorious,"  the 
emotion  it  evokes  is  one  that  all  can  appre- 
ciate. It  is  a  word  that  includes  the  ideas 
of  beauty,  grandeur,  nobility,  loveliness,  and 
yet  expresses  more  than  all  of  them.  A 
similarly  effective  expression,  borrowed 
from  another  author,  is  a  "gracious,  lovely 
girl,"  which  contains  a  wealth  of  sugges- 
tion in  two  words. 

To  sum  up,  an  author  must  choose  a 
word  that  best  suits  the  emotion  he  feels, 
or  would  evoke,  and  this  is  often  a  matter 
for  long  and  careful  study.  It  is  useless 
for  one  to  attempt  to  write  forcibly,  unless 
his  vocabulary  is  sufficiently  large  to  ex- 
press all  the  shades  of  meaning  he  may 
desire  to  give.  A  large  vocabulary  can  not 
be  properly  derived  from  study  of  the  dic- 
tionary, nor  yet  from  the  careful  perusal 
of  such  useful  works  as  Crabbe's  "Syno- 
nymes"  or  Roget's  "Thesaurus  of  English 
Words."  It  comes  best  from  wide  read- 
ing of  the  best  authors,  and  careful  atten- 
tion to  their  methods  of  expression.  An 
excellent  way  to  obtain  facility  in  the  use 
of  expressive  words  is  to  make  notes  of 
forceful  passages,  encountered  in  the  course 
of  reading,  and  to  carefully  study  their 
meaning. 

FORCE  IN  THE  USE  OF  FIGURES. — The  sec- 
ond element  of  forceful  writing  is  found 
in  the  use  of  figures  of  speech,  already 
catalogued  and  described  in  the  article  on 
grammar.  These  tropes,  when  properly 
conceived  and  worded,  enable  a  phrase  or 
a  sentence  to  convey  the  same  wealth  of 
meaning  as  we  have  seen  can  be  expressed 
in  a  well-chosen  word.  In  fact,  it  is  by 
the  judicious  use  of  figures  that  authors 
are  able  to  produce  most  of  the  "sayings 
that  stick,"  the  "quotable  passages"  and  the 
condensed  epigrams  that  mean  so  much. 

The  several  processes  of  gaining  force  by 
the  use  of  tropes  are:  SUBSTITUTION,  in  the 
use  of  metonymy  and  synecdoche;  COM- 
PARISON, in  the  use  of  simile,  metaphor,  and 
antithesis;  INVERSION,  in  the  use  of  irony; 
EXAGGERATION,  in  the  use  of  hyperbole;  and 
VIVIDNESS,  in  the  use  of  allegory,  apostro- 
phe, and  personification. 

RULE  GOVERNING  THE  USE  OF  FIGURES. — 
One  rule  holds  good  for  the  use  of  all 
figures:  force  requires  that  in  no  case,  ex- 
cept in  humorous  writing,  should  an  idea 
be  compared  with  or  stated  in  the  terms 
of  another,  when  the  difference  or  separa- 
tion between  them  is  too  marked.  Thus, 
the  sublime  and  the  commonplace  should 
never  be  coupled  in  a  figure,  except  in  the 


description  of  love,  religion,  or  other  emo- 
tions that  are  essentially  noble  and  exalted. 
The  force  of  a  figure  is  lost  when  a  com- 
parison is  made,  for  example,  between  the 
doings  of  a  king  or  other  exalted  personage 
— as  the  world  estimates  them — and  those 
of  a  man  whose  activities  are  limited  to 
his  garden  or  his  store.  It  may  be  per- 
fectly admissible  to  use  metaphors  for  a 
person  of  the  latter  class,  describing  him 
as  a  "king  among  men,"  "one  of  nature's' 
noblemen,"  "one  of  ten  thousand" — al- 
though this  sort  of  thing  may  be  overdone', 
but  to  elaborate  the  figure  much  further 
merely  challenges  popular  opinion,  which 
sharply  discriminates  between  kings  and 
"commoners." 

On  the  other  hand,  an  idea  that  is  au- 
gust, noble,  and  exalted  in  itself — such  as 
the  love  of  man  for  woman,  the  love  of  a 
mother  for  her  child — may  suffer,  rather 
than  benefit,  by  the  use  of  a  too  elaborate 
figure.  Descriptions  of  human  love  fail  of 
considerable  force  by  attempts  to  develop 
comparisons  with  religious  mysteries,  or, 
to  import  too  much  of  the  sublimity  be- 
longing to  other  great  and  grand  subjects. 
The  average  mind  does  not  sympathize 
with  the  idea  of  love  that  "soars  among 
the  clouds  and  jostles  the  stars" — the  ideal- 
ism of  true  love  is  somewhat  too  beautiful 
for  adequate  expression,  and  the  definite- 
ness,  even  of  sublime  figures,  rather  dis- 
appoints than  describes. 

The  right  use  of  figures,  like  the  right 
use  of  words,  comes  only  by  wide  reading 
of  the  best  authors,  arfd  close  observation 
of  their  style.  In  general,  however,  a  fig- 
ure that  is  most  forcible  is  also  one  that 
is  briefest,  most  to  the  point,  and  best 
worded.  Lengthy  figures  and  allegories, 
except  in  very  rare  occasions,  and  in  the 
hands  of  the  most  skilful  writers,  usually 
fail  of  force  by  their  very  length,  and  pres- 
ently appear  even  humorous. 

Properly  speaking,  a  figure  of  speech 
merely  sets  forth  the  picture  suggested  to 
the  mind  by  a  given  fact  or  occurrence, 
and  is  merely  a  survival  of  the  picturesque 
talk  of  primitive  peoples.  Primitive  minds, 
partly  from  lack  of  exhaustive  knowledge 
and  partly  from  strong  and  vivid  imagina- 
tion, have  originated  very  many  of  the  fig- 
ures now  used  by  poets  and  writers,  and 
considered  forceful  and  expressive.  The 
best  modern  parallel  to  the  imagery  of 
savages  is  found  in  the  line  of  picturesque  * 
words  and  expressions,  known  as  "slang" — 
this  does  not  include  profane  and  vulgar 
words — which,  as  has  been  often  remarked, 
"all  understand  at  the  first  hearing." 


82 


ON   WRITING   GOOD   ENGLISH 


EXAMPLES  OF  FORCEFUL  FIGURES. — Con- 
trary to  the  supposition  of  young  writers 
in  general,  force  in  the  use  of  figures  does 
not  consist  in  long,  high-sounding,  or  even 
elegant,  words.  Frequently,  the  best  ex- 
amples of  this  quality  may  be  derived  from 
newspaper  writers  and  authors  whom  the 
"elect"  will  never  allow  to  be  "literary." 
Thus,  in  a  newspaper  article  describing  a 
parasite  believed  to  be  fatal  to  mosquitoes, 
'  the  writer  remarks :  "It  gets  inside  the 
mosquito  and  does  things,  and  the  mosquito 
dies."  This  sentence  is  eminently  more 
effective  than  a  column  of  scientific  dis- 
cussion that  few  understand  and  fewer 
read.  A  well-known  humorous  writer,  de- 
scribing a  young  man's  enthusiasm  over  a 
girl's  dancing,  writes:  "He  told  her  .  .  .  . 
that  when  he  thought  how  beautifully  she 
picked  them  up  and  set  them  down,  she 
made  all  the  other  girls  of  his  acquaintance 
look  like  a  set  of  cripples."  Such  passages 
lack  decidedly  in  several  particulars,  but 
no  one  can  mistake  their  meaning. 

A  well-turned  sentence,  particularly  one 
that  involves  a  humorous  antithesis,  even 
a  descent  from  sublime  to  ludicrous,  is 
often  more  effective  than  the  best-con- 
ceived and  most  persuasive  line  of  argu- 
ment Thus,  a  story  told  of  Abraham  Lin- 
coln relates  that,  when  practicing  at  the 
bar,  he  argued  a  case  against  one  of  the 
best  jury  lawyers  in  the  State.  In  sum- 
ming up,  his  opponent  made  a  long  and 
impassioned  address,  which  evidently  ap- 
pealed strongly  to  the  emotions  of  the  jury 
and  spectators.  Mr.  Lincoln,  seeing  that 
his  first  work  must  be  to  destroy  the  ef- 
fect thus  produced,  began  hesitatingly: 

"Gentlemen  of  the  Jury:  Mr.  has 

made  a  great  speech.  It  has  affected  us 
all;  it  has  affected  me.  I  have  the  great- 
est respect  for  Mr.  personally,  and 

I  have  the  greatest  respect  for  his  talents. 
Indeed,  I  may  say,  I  have  only  one  fault 
to  find  with  him,  and  that  is  that  he  wears 
one  of  these  new-fangled  shirts  that  button 
behind."  By  this  sentence  he  changed  the 
strong  impression  of  his  opponent,  excit- 
ing a  violent  laughter  that  completely  oblit- 
erated deeper  emotions. 

The  descriptive  power  of  figurative  writ- 
ing may  be  illustrated  by  a  passage  from 
one  of  Edgar  Poe's  tales:  "The  beauty  of 
Eleonora  was  that  of  the  Seraphim;  but 
she  was  a  maiden  artless  and  innocent  as 
the  brief  life  she  had  led  among  the  flow- 
ers." None  knows,  to  be  sure,  exactly 
what  the  "beauty  of  the  Seraphim"  may 
mean,  but  a  better  expression  for  superla- 
tive loveliness  could  scarcely  be  conceived. 


Another  passage  of  similar  purport  reads 
thus :  "Otomie  seemed  such  a  woman  as 
men  dream  of  but  very  rarely  win,  seeing 
that  the  world  has  few  such  natures  and 
fewer  nurseries  where  they  can  be  reared." 
Here  another  well-constructed  hyberbole 
gains  the  interest  and  sympathy  of  the 
reader. 

Perhaps  the  choicest  example  of  figura- 
tive writing  was  produced  by  a  noted  poet 
— Crashaw,  it  is  said — in  his  early  youth. 
Having  been  commanded  by  his  teacher  to 
write  a  poem  descriptive  of  Christ's  miracle 
of  turning  water  into  wine,  he  neglected 
the  task  until  the  very  last  moment;  then 
wrote  but  a  single  line.  It  is  as  follows : 

"The  conscious  water  saw  its  God  and  blushed." 

There  was  no  need  for  addition:  that  one 
line  tells  the  story  perfectly. 

ELEGANCE  OR  CONSISTENCY.— On  the  mat- 
ter of  elegance  in  style  there  is  little,  to  be 
said.  Elegance  does  not  involve  the  use 
of  high-sounding  words  and  ambitious 
phrases,  lit  frequently  means  quite  the 
opposite.  Briefly  described,  it  involves  but 
one  thing — that  the  language  and  the  treat- 
ment should  be  in  keeping  with  the  sub- 
ject. In  scientific  or  descriptive  writing 
all-  that  is  needed  is  lucidity,  with  such 
embellishments  as  contribute  to  clearness 
and  precision.  In  writings  more  distinc- 
tively literary,  force  and  fitness  are  of 
equal  importance.  Thus,  while  a  story  of 
ancient  times  should,  logically,  require  the 
use  of  classic  words  and  figures,  a  story 
of  the  present  should,  in  all  respects  possi- 
ble, be  told  with  the  language  and  imagery 
of  to-day.  A  homely  story  demands  homely 
words  and  phrases — it  may  even  be  heroic 
with  these.  Take,  for  example,  John  Hay's 
poem,  "Jim  Bludso": 

"  'Mid   the   hot  black  breath   of  the   burnin'   boat 

Jim  Bludso's  voice  was  heard; 
An'    they    all    had    faith    in    his    cussedness,    an* 

knowed   how  he'd  keep   his   word. 
An'    sure's   you    live    they   all   got   off   afore   the 

smokestacks   fell, 
An'   Bludso's  ghost  went  up  alone  in  the  smoke 

of  the  Prairie  Belle. 

He  seen  his  duty,  a  dead  sure  thing, 
An'  he  went  for  it,  thar  an'  then, 

An*  Christ  ain't  a  goin*  to  be  too  hard 
On  a  man  what  died  for  men." 

There  are  some  things  that  a  school- 
master might  criticise  in  this  poem,  but  it 
tells  its  story.  Had  its  author  attempted 
to  use  the  stilted  verse  and  the  classical 
pedantry  of  some  of  our  older  poets,  his 
production  might  have  seemed  humorous 


ON   WRITING   GOOD    ENGLISH 


83 


to  some,  and  certainly  would  have  missed 
its  effect  with  all  readers.  It  is  a  master- 
piece, simply  because  it  takes  a  character, 
low  according  to  many  standards,  and 
brings  out  its  inherent  heroism  in  the 
language  of  its  own  environment.  It  thus 
fulfils  the  requirements  of  what  may  be 
called  "true  literary  elegance."  Although 
the  language  is  crude  and  vulgar,  the  emo- 
tional effect  is  lofty,  the  deficiencies  in  the 
words  not  obscuring  the  meaning. 

BRIEF  RULES  FOR  THE  STUDENT. — The  stu- 
dent ambitious  to  write  good  English  must, 
first  of  all,  learn  that  writing  is  a  trade, 
a  craft,  or  a  business,  as  he  prefers.  As 
such  it  demands  close  and  careful  study: 
(i)  of  the  laws  of  grammar;  (2)  of  the 
laws  of  analyzing,  conceiving,  and  stating 
ideas;  (3)  in  the  use  of  words  and  phrases 


that  most  clearly,  forcibly,  and  elegantly 
express  what  he  wishes  to  say.  A  knowl- 
edge of  words  and  phqases — of  language — 
can  be  acquired  only  by  reading  the  best 
authors,  masters  of  the  language;  care- 
fully studying  their  words  and,  as  carefully, 
comparing  their  uses  with  those  of  other 
authorities.  Above  all,  a  writer  should 
never  use  a  word  until,  by  study  of  the 
dictionary  and  table  of  synonyms,  he  is 
certain  that  it  expresses  precisely  the  idea 
he  would  set  forth,  and  may  be  understood 
to  imply  no  other.  This  assured,  his  sole 
remaining  task  is  to  so  frame  his  sentences 
that  each  word  has  its  full  weight  and 
value,  and  that  no  more  words  are  used 
than  expression  of  the  idea  demands.  By 
carefully  following  these  rules,  he  may 
learn  the  secret  of  a  good  English  style. 


HOW  TO  WRITE  FICTION 


THE  student  of  writing  must  remember  that  the  calling  of  the  pro- 
fessional writer  may  be  either  a  craft — that  is,  a  trade — or  an  art. 
A  craftsman  in  any  line  may  have  the  utmost  skill  in  the  use  of 
the  tools  and  materials  of  his  occupation,  and  may  be  able  to  produce  the 
most  highly-  finished  work.  He  can  not  be  said  to  be  an  artist,  however, 
until  he  originates  as  well  as  executes.  A  carpenter  or  mason,  for  example, 
may  be  able  to  construct  a  building  to  agree  with  the  architect's  designs, 
even  to  the  minutest  particular.  But  he  is  limited  in  his  field  of  usefulness, 
so  long  as  he  must  reproduce  the  designs  of  others,  and  can  not  originate 
designs  himself.  On  the  other  hand,  a  man  may  have  great  ability  at 
designing — he  may  be  able  to  draw  out  and  plan  splendid  buildings — but, 
if  he  lacks  training  in  practical  details  of  construction,  he  can  not  be  called 
an  architect:  he  is  only  a  dreamer. 

The  same  principles  apply  eminently  well  in  writing,  drawing,  and 
other  branches  of  what  are  usually  described  as  "artistic  callings" :  a  man 
must  combine  the  ability  of  conceiving  or  designing  with  that  of  executing. 
He  must  not  burden  his  mind  with  thoughts  and  ideas  that  "can  find  no 
expression."  Any  ignoramus  can  do  that.  The  place  of  art  is  to  enable 
the  expression  of  ideas;  to  supply  the  requisite  talent  to  the  innate  genius 
which  dreams,  conceives,  designs.  Art  is,  in  brief,  the  ability  to  express 
nature;  and  the  greater  the  art,  the  closer  to  nature  the  produced  effects. 

NECESSARY  PRINCIPLES  OF  FICTION   WRITING 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  WRITING.— 
The  technique  of  writing  has  already 
been  explained  in  the  section  on  "How  to 
Write  Good  English."  It  is  unnecessary  to 
add  more  for  the  theoretical  instruction  of 
the  would-be  story-writer.  What  most  con- 
cerns him  is  the  nature  of  the  subjects  to 
be  chosen  and  the  proper  methods  of  treat- 
ing them. 

THE  CHOICE  OF  SUBJECTS. — So  far  as  the 
nature  of  subjects  is  concerned,  it  may  be 
said  that  it  is  quite  immaterial — of  course, 
within  the  limits  of  decency  and  propriety. 
No  subject  is  too  commonplace  to  be  ren- 
dered interesting  by  a  skilful  writer.  In- 
deed, some  of  the  most  successful  writers 
have  based  their  popularity  on  tales  of  the 
(34) 


homeliest  description  —  taking  every-day 
characters,  doing  and  saying  every-day 
things,  and  making  them  acceptable  and 
delightful  to  the  most  critical  readers.  The 
possibilities  of  this  sort  of  writing  are  to 
be  found  in  the  short  stories  of  Mary  E. 
Wilkins,  Eugene  Field,  and  some  others 
of  more  or  less  note.  A  study  of  their 
productions  reveals  the  fact  that  the  charm 
and  true  artistic  quality  lie  in  what  they 
can  find  in  their  characters  and  incidents; 
not  in  what  every  one  can  see  for  himself, 
unaided.  In  this  we  see  how  that  true  art 
expresses  nature,  and  finds  the  most  in 
nature  to  express. 

STUDYING  FROM  LIFE. — For  a  person  am- 
bitious  to   write   fiction,   the   best   training 


HOW   TO   WRITE   FICTION 


35 


in  the  world  is  to  cultivate  the  habits  (i) 
of  observing  people,  their  actions  and  mo- 
tives; (2)  of  writing  down  such  incidents 
as  attract  the  attention  in  any  way.  The 
object  of  constantly  observing  is  to  enable 
the  mind  to  form  clear  ideas  of  life  and 
character.  '  The  object  of  writing  down 
each  little  incident  is  to  obtain  facility  in 
clear  and  forcible  expression,  and  also  to 
put  it  into  shape  for  further  elaboration 
and  embellishment.  The  best  teachers  of 
English  composition  require  their  pupils  to 
write  something  every  day — one  hundred 
words  at  least,  on  trivial  topics,  even,  if 
none  others  be  found — and  then  to  care- 
fully study  and  edit,  to  reduce  to  the 
smallest  possible  compass  in  words  and 
space.  This  was  the  training  of  one  of 
the  cleverest  of  modern  writers  of  short 
stories,  Guy  de  Maupassant,  whose  sketches 
of  every-day  life  and  doings  are  among  the 
most  readable  and  entertaining  to  be  found 
in  any  language.  His  facility  of  expression 
is  immense,  and  his  use  of  words  admirable. 

EXERCISES  IN  WRITING. — The  sort  of 
things  that  an  earnest  student  will  thus 
write  daily,  for  exercise,  are  what  many 
ambitious  young  writers  dare  to  submit  to 
magazine  editors — it  is  needless  to  say,  un- 
successfully. A  careful  study  of  the  stories 
of  noted  writers,  however,  will  show  the 
beginner  exactly  how  serious  a  competi- 
tion he  must  meet,  if  unskilled  in  his  craft 
and  unpracticed  in  his  art,  and  make  him 
careful  to  prepare  thoroughly  for  the  field 
he  desires  to  enter. 

After  he  has  acquired  a  moderate  facil- 
ity at  expression  in  recording  the  bare  in- 
cidents of  a  story,  he  must  give  particular 
attention  to  such  eirbellishments  as  scene 
and  character  description  and  conversa- 
tion. As  previously  stated,  descriptions 
should  be  as  brief  as  possible.  If  of  scenes 
or  persons,  the  important  features  only 
should  be  given  in  an  introductory  passage, 
leaving  necessary  details  to  be  supplied  as 
the  incidents  of  the  narration  require.  The 
lengthy  passages  of  description,  used  by 
some  of  the  best  novelists  of  former  days, 
are  scarcely  acceptable  at  present;  the  in- 
terest of  the  reading  public  being  more 
particularly  centred  on  the  development  of 
character  and  of  dramatic  incident.  Since, 
in  such  passages  as  are  necessary,  force  re- 
quires that  a  few  bold  strokes  should  draw 
the  picture,  it  is  desirable  to  make  them  as 
brief  as  the  necessary  elements  will  permit. 

ON  INTRODUCTIONS  AND  DESCRIPTIONS. — 
To  be  more  precise,  the  consensus  of  prac- 
tice among  the  best  writers  is  to  avoid 


introductions  of  any  kind,  and,  plunging 
into  the  midst  of  the  story,  supply  the  ele- 
ments of  "stage-setting,"  so  to  speak,  as 
the  plot  develops.  This  canon  is  founded 
on  the  observed  fact  that  the  average 
reader  is  liable  to  skip  introductory  pas- 
sages— supposing  them  to  be  written  only 
"for  the  sake  of  setting  off  rhetorical  fire- 
works"— and  that,  if  he  is  to  receive  a 
distinct  impression  of  the  desired  picture, 
its  elements  are  to  be  introduced,  as  far 
as  possible,  as  required.  This  is  more  or 
less  logical  from  the  analogy  of  a  theatre 
play:  the  audience  does  not  note  the  mi- 
nute details  of  the  scenery,  or  stage  settings, 
until  some  turn  in  the  acting  calls  for  the 
use  of  a  certain  piece  of  "business." 

PLAY-WRITING  AS  AN  EXERCISE. — There 
is,  indeed,  a  closer  relation  between  a  well- 
developed  story — particularly  one  filled  with 
incident  and  conversation — and  a  play,  than 
might  at  first  be  supposed.  Nearly  the 
surest  way  to  develop  such  a  plot,  clearly 
and  effectively,  is  to  write  it  first  as  a  play. 
By  keeping  in  mind  the  effects  to  be  pro- 
duced, in  the  event  of  a  dramatic  presenta- 
tion, the  writer  may  hold  his  dialogues 
within  reasonable  limits,  and  also  obtain 
a  clearer  conception  of  the  proper  points 
for  the  introduction  of  descriptive  passages. 
When  the  play  is  then  rewritten  in  narra- 
tive form,  it  is  possible  to  present  every 
detail  in  the  briefest  and  most  effective 
manner. 

DELINEATIONS  OF  CHARACTER. — As  al- 
ready stated,  nearly  the  same  principles 
apply  to  descriptions  of  persons.  These 
should  always  be  as  brief  and  to  the  point 
as  possible.  The  writer  should  have  a 
clear  conception  of  the  character  he  wishes 
to  develop,  and  of  the  traits  most  important 
to  his  story.  He  should  state  these,  leav- 
ing other  matters  unmentioned,  or  to  be 
mentioned  as  the  development  of  the  plot 
requires.  For  example:  if  a  character  ex- 
ists in  a  story  principally  for  the  sake  of 
supplying  the  hero  for  a  love  episode,  it 
is  highly  unnecessary  to  include  in  a  para- 
graph introducing  him,  that  he  seemed  to 
be  "a  man  possessed  of  indomitable  cour- 
age"; or  that  "he  showed  evidence  of 
splendid  self-mastery";  or  that  he  was 
"faultless  in  his  carriage  and  deportment." 
The  reader  can  judge  of  these  points,  if 
necessary,  as  the  plot  progresses.  Consid- 
er, therefore,  what  traits  and  qualities  must 
be  mentioned,  for  the  sake  of  clearness; 
mention  only  these,  and  express  the  de- 
scription in  the  fewest  and  most  forcible 
words. 


86 


HOW   TO   WRITE   FICTION 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  PERSONS. — In  describing 
the  personal  appearance  of  characters,  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  element  of 
force  is  equally  important  with  clearness. 
This  means  that  the  writer  should  speak 
or  refrain  from  speaking,  solely  with  ref- 
erence to  the  emotional  effect  he  desires  in 
his  reader.  If  a  character  is  presented  for 
the  reader's  sympathetic  attention,  particu- 
larly as  the  hero  or  heroine  of  a  love  story, 
the  fewer  the  details  of  personal  appear- 
ance, the  better  for  the  effect.  This  prin- 
ciple holds  good  for  the  very  evident  rea- 
son that  a  well-written  love  story  has  the 
power  to  strongly  picture  the  sentiment  of 
love  to  the  reader's  mind.  Some  readers 
have  strong  preferences,  and,  if  the  too 
precise  description  of  the  hero  or  heroine 
clashes  with  their  own  ideals  of  beauty,  the 
effect  is  less  pleasing.  True  art  expresses 
just  enough  in  these  matters  to  k*ve  many 
important  points  to  the  reader'*  imagina- 
tion. Indeed,  vivid  narration  always  con- 
sists in  the  use  of  words  that  suggest,  rather 
than  in  expressed  details  of  any  variety. 

EVIL  CHARACTERS. — If  the  character  por- 
trayed is  proposed  as  a  villain,  a  marplot, 
or  an  ordinary  scoundrel,  a  greater  license 
of  description  is  allowable  by  the  taste  of 
modern  readers  and  critics.  Two  excellent 
examples  will  suffice.  The  villain  of  the 
story  is  thus  described  in  Anthony  Hope's 
"Phroso":  "He  was  a  tall,  full-bodied 
man,  apparently  somewhat  under  fifty  years 
old;  his  face  was  heavy  and  broad,  in  com- 
plexion, dark  and  sallow;  he  wore  a  short 
black  beard;  his  lips  were  full,  his  eyes 
acute  and  small  I  did  not  like  the  look 
of  him  much;  but  he  meant  law  and  order 
and  civilization,  and  an  end  to  the  wild 
ways  of  Neopalia."  The  villain  is  thus  de- 
scribed in  Du  Manner's  "Trilby":  "A  tall, 
bony  individual,  of  Jewish  aspect,  well- 
featured  but  sinister.  He  was  very  shabby 
and  dirty,  and  wore  a  red  beret  and  a  large 
velveteen  coat,  with  a  big  metal  clasp  at 
the  collar.  His  thick,  heavy,  languid,  lus- 
treless black  hair  fell  down  behind  his  ears 
on  to  his  shoulders,  in  that  musician-like 
way  that  is  so  offensive  to  the  ixx-nal  En- 
glishman. He  had  bold,  brilliant  black 
^res,  with  long  heavy  lids;  a  thin,  sallow 
face,  and  a  beard  of  burnt-up  black  that 
grew  almost  from  his  under  eyelids;  and 
over  it  his  mustache,  a  shade  lighter,  fell 
in  two  long,  spiral  twists."  Both  these  de- 
scriptions are  excellent  in  saying  no  more 
than  necessary — although  the  latter  begins 
to  be  prolix — and  compare  favorably  with 
Dickens's  description  of  Daniel  Quilp,  for 
example,  in  "The  Old  Curiosity  Shop." 


LUDICROUS  CHARACTERS. — In  describing  a 
character  intended  to  be  ludicrous,  it  is 
even  more  important  to  avoid  all  refer- 
ences not  directly  to  the  point.  The  object 
of  this  is  to  avoid,  on  the  one  hand,  re- 
marks that  are  not  humorous,  but  tire- 
some— even  silly— and,  on  the  "other,  such 
as  are  liable  to  excite  pity  for  affliction  or 
poverty.  If  the  pertinent  points  regarding 
a  ludicrous  character  are  that  he  is  "long- 
legged,  raw-boned,  with  bushy  black  hair 
and  a  high-keyed  nasal  voice,"  that  is  all 
that  need  be  said  about  him.  Further 
elaboration  would  tend  to  obscure,  rather 
than  embellish,  the  picture.  If  he  is 
"meek-looking,  hollow-chested,  of  hesitat- 
ing gait,  with  a  sad  expression,  as  though 
conscience-troubled  over  the  sins  none 
would  suspect  he  had  courage  to  com- 
mit," it  is  needless  to  enlarge  upon  other 
physical  or  mental  defects. 

CHARACTERS  FROM  LIFE. — In  the  selec- 
tion of  characters,  the  very  best  procedure 
for  the  young  writer  is  to  "write  up"  peo- 
ple he  knows  in  real  life.  Occasionally  we 
meet,  in  every-day  experience,  men  and 
women  of  such  strongly  developed  traits, 
as  to  excite  the  interest  of  the  most  in- 
appreciative.  Regarding  such  the  remark 
is  often  made,  "He  would  look  well  in  a 
story,"  or  "Charles  Dickens  should  have 
got  hold  of  him."  In  taking  such  people 
as  promising  material  for  future  novels, 
it  is  useless  to  begin  by  attempting  analysis 
of  character,  since  the  majority  of  traits 
appear  only  as  a  large  number  of  anec- 
dotes are  noted  and  studied.  If  interesting 
persons  say  or  do  things  worthy  of  men- 
tion, write  down  their  sayings  or  doings — 
write  down  even  the  least  notable.  After 
a  large  number  of  these  incidents  have  been 
collected,  it  is  possible  to  deduce  some  gen- 
eral characteristics  of  mind  and  tempera- 
ment that  will  serve  the  purposes  of  a  story. 

CREATING  A  CHARACTER,  —  Frequently, 
such  a  systematic  study  of  a  living  per- 
son will  suggest  a  fictitious  character  cor- 
responding to  what  he  or  she  "might  have 
been"  under  different  circumstances.  The 
writer  may  then  venture  to  create  a  char- 
acter, which  does  not  correspond  exactly 
to  any  one  he  has  ever  known.  But  his 
safest  plan  is  to  act  as  a  simple  recorder 
of  persons,  events,  and  conversations,  until 
practice  has  given  him  sufficient  insight  into 
human  nature  to  originate  in  these  par- 
ticulars. Even  then,  the  effective  writer 
continues  to  be  the  student,  the  observer, 
the  man  with  a  notebook;  and,  as  his  ex- 
perience grows  greater,  he  is  the  more  will- 


HOW   TO   WRITE    FICTION 


37 


ing  to  acknowledge  that  often  the  most 
trivial  incidents  have  suggested  plots  and 
situations  for  his  greatest  works. 

ON  CONVERSATIONS. — The  careful  study 
of  characters  and  incidents  from  the  life 
will  restrain  the  beginner  from  one  glaring 
error  of  untrained  writers — the  tiresome 
dialogue.  He  will  observe,  if  he  is  suffi- 
ciently earnest  and  attentive,  that  living 
people  do  not  engage  in  dialogues  calcu- 
lated to  show  out  their  particular  traits — 
these  appear  naturally,  and  more  often  in 
the  manner  than  in  the  spoken  word. 
Thus,  in  attempting  to  conceive  conversa- 
tions in  a  story,  he  avoids  the  "long-winded 
talking  matches"  found  in  many  popular 
novels,  and  follows  nature  in  keeping  his 
dialogues  reasonably  near  to  the  subject  in 
hand.  In  short,  the  successful  dialogist 
is  one  who  has  closely  observed  how  peo- 
ple talk,  when  they  hare  anything  to  say. 
He  does  not  waste  time  recording  the  pain- 
ful efforts  of  several  persons,  who,  judging 
by  some  showings,  must  have  been  paid 
by  the  hour  "to  talk  against  time." 

ON  SCENES  AND  SETTINGS. — The  same 
rules  regarding  careful  study  apply  to 
scenes  and  modes  of  life.  The  careful 
writer — the  one  who  is  destined  to  obtain 
recognition  in  his  calling — will  never  at- 
tempt to  write  a  tale  whose  setting  is  in 
a  country,  a  time  or  a  condition  of  life 
with  which  he  is  not  perfectly  familiar. 
Many  persons  of  good  talents  and  possibil- 
ities in  writing  become  discouraged  at  re- 
peated editorial  rebuffs,  simply  because  they 
have  attempted  to  imitate  some  admired 
author,  rather  than  to  write  on  themes  and 
characters  familiar  to  them.  One  who  has 
been  reared  in  the  quiet  .atmosphere  of  a 
country  village  can  not  possibly  produce 
an  effective  story  of  adventure,  in  the  wild 
West,  in  Africa,  or  in  the  islands  of  the 
sea.  To  construct  a  story  in  any  one  of 
these  settings,  he  must  have  travelled  in 
these  lands,  or  else  have  read  books  de- 
scribing their  conditions  of  life  and  scen- 
ery. After  he  has  read  or  travelled  suffi- 
ciently widely,  he  may  be  able  to  originate 
scenery  and  an  atmosphere  peculiarly  his 
own,  composed  of  generalizations  on  the 
many  and  various  types  familiar  to  him. 
Until  so  advantaged,  his  only  duty  is  to 
work  incessantly  to  develop  his  powers  of 
description,  along  the  lines  already  indi- 
cated. 

THE  TREATMENT  OF  EMOTIONS.  —  The 
final,  although  in  many  respects  the  most 
important,  thing  for  the  story-writer  ^  to 
observe  is,  the  utmost  care  and  attention 


in  describing  human  emotions — most  par-* 
ticularly  those  of  love,  grief,  and  some  of 
the  more  dramatic,  such  as  joy,  despair, 
and  perplexity. 

As  the  emotion  of  love  is  the  one  most 
commonly  treated  in  modern  literature,  it 
is  the  only  one  we  need  discuss  at  length. 
To  say  that  the  treatment  of  this  senfiment 
should  be  carefully  conceived  and  fully  de- 
veloped, means  precisely  that  the  writer 
should  thoroughly  understand  it  from 
study,  observation,  and  reading — if  not 
from  personal  experience — before  attempt- 
ing to  depict  it  in  writing.  This  is  particu- 
larly necessary  to  good  literary  effect,  since 
positively  no  one  can  grasp  the  situation 
between  true  lovers  without  having  direct 
knowledge  from  the  life.  This  fact  is  am- 
ply evidenced  in  the  crude,  green,  and  cal- 
low love  episodes,  so  common  in  school 
and  college  papers,  all  of  which  reveal  a 
knowledge  of  the  subject  quite  as  com- 
pletely adequate  as  the  sinner's  conception 
of  heavenly  beatitudes,  or  the  child's  an- 
ticipations of  maturity.  If  young  people 
had  a  clearer  idea  of  what  constitutes  real 
love,  there  would  be  fewer  glaring  matri- 
monial mistakes.  But,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  their  actions  in  this  particular  are  so 
often  devoid  of  sense,  we  can  not  expect 
that  their  literary  analyses  will  be  much 
more  luminous.  No  emotion  of  the  soul 
requires  deeper  study  and  wider  experience 
to  describe:  and  none  is  so  utterly  uncer- 
tain and  elusive. 

A  LITERARY  ANALYSIS  OF  LOVE.— A  cer- 
tain author,  whose  views  are  evidently 
mature,  writes  as  follows  of  the  sentiment 
of  love:  "It  is  properly,"  he  says,  "the  last- 
ing result  of  true  temperamental  affinity 
between  two  persons,  or  of  such  a  state  of 
congruity  in  their  characters  and  general 
qualities,  as  renders  possible  an  association 
beneficial  in  every  sense.  Instead  of  being 
known  by  the  intensity  of  the  passion  it 
engenders,  it  frequently  begins  and  con- 
tinues far  differently,  because  easily  its 
most  important  attribute  is  mutnal  respect. 
Thus  it  is  that  some  attachments,  whictt 
begin  with  most  exalted  idealizations,  are 
of  the  most  evanescent  description;  con- 
cluding with  an  even  greater  intensity  of 
quite  opposite  sentiments.  As  it  is  the  ex- 
clusive prerogative  of  maturity  to  love  and 
be  loved,  truly  and  completely,  so  it  is  true 
that  a  life-union,  based  on  mutual  regard, 
should  be  contracted  solely  in  obedience  to 
the  dictates  of  mature  judgment  and  in  the 
,  light  of  vital  facts.  The  boy  admires  beautv 
i  ot  person;  the  man— whenever.  Indeed,  th- 


HOW   TO   WRITE    FICTION 


male  human  rises  to  the  dignity  of  that 
title— esteems  noble  character  and  womanly 
traits  quite  as  highly.  Of  these  latter,  how- 
ever, the  boy  has  no  conception." 

If  the  young  writer  can  gain  any  kind 
of  vivid  notion  from  such  an  analysis  as 
this,  he  may  venture  to  handle  the  subject 
in  a  story.  If  it  seems  vague  and  unfa- 
miliar, he  should  certainly  study  and  ob- 
serve more  closely,  and  read  good  love 
stories  more  carefully.  In  any  event,  the 
barest  outlines  only  should  be  treated,  un- 
til a  mature  experience  gives  a  clew  to  the 
real  conditions.  The  same  is  true  of  very 
many  other  emotions  and  sentiments. 

REGARDING  NAMES. — Some  authorities 
would  advise  the  young  writer  to  be  care- 
ful about  the  names  appended  to  his  char- 
acters. This  is  desirable  for  two  impor- 
tant reasons.  In  the  first  place,  some  writ- 
ers of  keen  sensibility  have  complained  that 
an  ill-chosen  name — one  having  uncomfor- 
table associations,  one  that  is  cacophonious 
or  too  commonplace — will  cause  them  to 
detest  the  character  before  the  work  is 
done,  and  often  to  lay  the  story  aside.  In 
the  second  place,  a  name  is  a  very  definite 
and  important  part  of  the  reader's  impres- 
sion of  the  character.  Thus  it  is  that  we 
find  such  a  profusion  of  Adairs,  Lees,  and 
other  euphonious  names  in  poetical  literature. 

As  a  good  general  rule,  we  may  say  that 
the  heroine  of  a  story  should  never  have 
a  harsh  or  ignoble  name — although  the  con- 
trary extreme  is  often  as  bad — and  no 


character  intended  to  be  admired  should 
be  called  by  a  name  frequently  used  in 
comic  narrations.  Descriptive  names  should 
always  be  avoided,  except  in  comic  stories; 
since  the  effect  produced  is  most  often  of 
that  description.  Dickens  often  violates 
this  rule:  but  every  writer  does  not  possess 
his  genius. 

SUMMARY. — Enough  has  already  been 
said  to  convince  the  aspiring  story-teller 
that  he  must  work  and  study  hard  to  gain 
proficiency.  He  must  study  scenes,  char- 
acters, conversations,  emotions,  both  in  na- 
ture and  in  literature  He  must  write 
frequently  and  regularly  to  perfect  both 
his  ideas  and  his  style,  and  he  must  con- 
stantly revise  and  rewrite,  in  order  to  se- 
cure the  all-important  end  of  force,  both  in 
general  and  in  particular. 

Sir  Walter  Besant,  the  English  novelist, 
gives  the  following  rules  for  the  guidance 
of  the  aspiring  author:  "i.  Practice  writ- 
ing something  original  every  day.  2.  Cul- 
tivate the  habit  of  observation.  3.  Work 
regularly  at  certain  hours.  4.  Read  no  rub- 
bish. 5.  Aim  at  the  formation  of  style.  6. 
Endeavor  to  be  dramatic.  7.  A  great  ele- 
ment of  dramatic  skill  is  selection.  8. 
Avoid  the  sin  of  writing  about  a  character. 
9.  Never  attempt  to  describe  any  kind  of 
life  except  that  with  which  you  are  famil- 
iar. 10.  Learn  as  much  as  you  can  about 
men  and  women.  II.  For  the  sake  of 
forming  a  good  natural  style  and  acquir- 
ing command  of  language,  write  poetry." 


HE  WRITING  OF  POETRY 


POETRY  is  really  the  oldest  form  of  literature,  dating,  in  fact,  from 
times  prior  to  the  invention — or  common  use — of  writing.  It  con- 
sists essentially  of  a  peculiar  use  of  language  and  figures  of  speech, 
as  will  be  presently  explained,  and  of  certain  metrical  forms  that  ren- 
der a  poetical  composition  capable  of  being  sung  to  appropriate  music. 
Thus,  the  development  of  poetry  has  progressed,  hand  in  hand,  with  that 
of  music :  the  more  elaborate  the  music  of  a  time  or  nation,  the  more  various 
the  embellishments  of  its  poetry.  The  crudity  of  ancient  music  thus  gives 
us  a  clew  to  the  deficiencies  in  ancient  poetry. 

The  peculiar  constructions  and  rhythm  of  poetry  serve  another  use 
— to  enable  a  readier  memorizing — since,  in  early  times,  the  bards  were 
accustomed  to  commit  wonderfully  lengthy  passages,  sometimes  entire 
books,  and  to  sing  the  words;  accompanying  their  voices  on  their  harps, 
lyres,  or  other  instruments.  The  ease  with  which  even  the  crudest  poetry 
may  be  committed  to  memory  makes  it  superior  to  prose — or  unrhythmatic 
composition — as  a  vehicle  for  the  perpetuation  of  ideas  among  unliterary 
peoples. 

The  Hebrew  literature  furnishes  examples  of  nearly  the  most  primitive 
order  of  poetry.  Here  we  find  only  a  very  rudimentary  kind  of  rhythm, 
but  a  large  number  of  poetical  forms  or  variations  of  prepositions,  pre- 
fixes, and  word  terminations.  The  construction  of  sentences  is  also  dif- 
ferent. However,  the  peculiar  use  of  parallelism — or  repetitions  of  a 
statement  in  different  words — is  nearly  the  most  characteristic  effect. 

In  the  classic  languages,  Latin  and  Greek,  we  find  poetical  rhythm 
.in  a  wide  variety  of  forms,  and  consisting  principally  in  measuring  the 
line  into  so  many  "feet,"  each  composed  of  definite  combinations  of  long 
and  short  syllables.  Classic  poetry,  however,  consists  entirely  of  blank, 
or  unrhymed,  verse.  Perhaps  the  most  common  classic  metres  are  the 
dactylic  hexameter  (six-metre)  and  the  pentameter  (five-metre),  the  former 
being  most  widely  used  for  epic  and  heroic  poetry.  The  difference  is 
vividly  illustrated  in  the  following  English  verses: 


"In  the  hexameter  rises  the  fountain's  silvery  column: 
In  the  pentameter,  aye,  falling  in  melody  back." 


.(39) 


THE   WRITING   OF   POETRY 


The  division  into  feet,  according  to  the  length  of  syllables,  may  be 
shown  in  the  first  line  of  Virgil's  "^Eneid": 

"Arma   virumque  cano   Trojae  qui   primus  ab  oris. 
Arma  vi-|rumque   ca-|no||Tr6-|ja5  qui|prlmus   ab|6rls.|" 

The  single  vertical  lines  indicate  the  separation  of  the  feet :  the  double 
vertical  lines,  the  caesural  pause,  which  is  the  all-important  element  in 
this  kind  of  verse. 

Rhymed  verses  appear  as  a  permanent  variety  of  Latin  poetry  only 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  then  principally  in  hymns  and  religious  odes. 
That  this  language  lends  itself  beautifully  to  such  composition  may  be 
judged  from  the  following  extract  from  the  famous  Hymn  of  Bernard 
of  Cluny,  from  which  the  well-known  "Jerusalem  the  Golden"  was  trans- 
lated. It  is  in  rhymed  hexameter: 

"Hie  breve  vivitur,  hie  breve  plangitur,  hie  breve  fletur; 
Non  breve  vivere,  non  breve  plangere  retribuetur; 
O  retributio!  stat  brevis  actio,  vita  perennis; 
O  retributio!  ccelica  mansio,  stat  lue  plenis; 
Quid  datur  et  quibus?  aether  egentibus  et  cruce  dignis, 
Sidera  vermibus,  optima  sontibus,  astra  malignis." 

The  bulk  of  the  poetry  in  modern  literature  is  in  rhyme;  blank  verse 
being  reserved  almost  exclusively  for  long  narrative  poems,  and  seldom 
used  by  later  writers.  The  high  development  of  music  at  the  present  time 
also  contributes  to  the  number  and  variety  of  poetical  metres. 

Of  the  imitations  of  classical  metres  little  needs  to  be  said,  except 
that  they  are  not  adapted  to  the  genius  of  our  language.  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  render  them  acceptable,  some  with  considerable  success ; 
but  the  great  number  of  our  monosyllables  will  always  prevent  them  from 
coming  into  general  use  or  favor. 

PRACTICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  METRICAL  COMPOSITION 


PROSODY  A  DEPARTMENT  OF  RHETO- 
RIC— The  department  of  rhetoric  and 
grammar  treating  of  poetry — its  classifica- 
tion and  construction — is  called  prosody. 
This  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  pro- 
sodia,  signifying  "accent,"  "tone,"  or  a 
"song."  The  word  poem  comes  from  the 
Greek  verb,  poieo,  "I  make,"  "I  do,"  and  sig- 
nifies, literally,  a  "work,"  "something  done." 
The  principal  subjects  included  under  the 
head  of  prosody  are  accent,  quantity,  rhythm, 
rhyme,  alliteration. 

ACCENT  is  the  stress  laid  upon  one  or 
more  syllables  of  a  word.  Monosyllables 
arfc  capable  of  accents  only  when  they  are 
uttered  with  other  words.  Ex.  Father,  in- 
dustry, nightingale,  himself,  dissever,  Ex- 
quisitely, whatsoever,  voluptuous ; — "there 


is  that  in  his  face  which  leads  one  to  trust 
him." 

QUANTITY  is  the  .time  required  to  pro- 
nounce a  syllable,  and  is  either  long,  marked 
(-),  or  short,  marked  («*).  Seeing,  upright, 
personable,  tutelary,  peerage,  translation, 
not,  note,  at,  ate,  ten,  tend,  full,  cull. 

RHYTHM  is  the  harmonious  arrangement 
of  words  in  lines  of  various  definite  lengths ; 
and  is  one  of  the  chief  elements  of  metre, 
the  quality,  above  all  others,  that  distin- 
guishes poetry  from  prose.  Except  for  the 
fact  that  many  words  are  transposed  from 
the  regular  order  in  poetical  composkion, 
the  verses  (or  lines)  of  many  poems  might 
be  written  together  to  form  very  good  proie. 
The  following  illustration  will  suffice: 

"Now,    when   as    sacred   light   began   to 


THE   WRITING    OF    POETRY 


41 


dawn  in  Eden  on  the  humid  flowers,  that 
breathed  their  morning  incense,  when  all 
things  that  breathe,  from  the  earth's  great 
altar,  send  up  silent  praise  to  the  Creator, 
and  his  nostrils  fill  with  grateful'  smell, 
forth  came  the  human  pair." 

This  passage  is,  in  some  respects,  good 
prose,  but,  when  rearranged  into  the  lines 
of  Milton's  great  poem,  the  effect  of  rhythm 
is  at  once  discerned.  Thus: 

"Now,  when  as  sacred  light  began  to  dawn 
In  Eden  on  the  humid  flowers  that  breathed 
Their    morning    incense,    when    all    things    that 

breathe, 

From  the  earth's  great  altar,  send  up  silent  praise 
To  the  Creator,  and  his  nostrils  fill 
With  grateful  smell,  forth  came  the  human  pair." 

Among  examples  of  rhythmic  lines,  we 
may  choose  the  following: 

"The  willow  leaves  that  danced  in  the  breeze." 

"Full  many  a  glorious  morning  have  I  seen 
Flatter  the  mountain-t6ps  with  sovereign  eye." 

"See  the  day  begins  to  break." 

"Lessons  sweet  of  spring  returning." 

"At  the  close  of  the  day,  when  the  hamlet  is  still." 

RHYME  is  the  correspondence  of  the  final 
sound  in  a  metrical  line,  with  those  of  one 
or  more  other  lines  preceding  or  following, 
immediately  or  alternately.  It  is  distin- 
guished into  assonance  and  consonance;  the 
former  being  the  correspondence  of  the 
vowel  sounds  alone,  the  latter  of  both  vow- 
els and  consonants.  Example : 

"The   baron   he   stroakt   his   dark-brown 

cheeke, 

And  turned   his   heade  asyde; 
To  wipe  away  the  starting  teare 
He  proudly  strave  to  hyde." 

"Have  owre,   have  owe,  to  Aberdour, 

It's  fiftie   fadom   deip, 
And  thair  lies  guid   Sir  Patrick   Spenoe, 
Wi*  the  Scots  lords  at  his  felt." 

"My  cloake  it  was  a  very  good  cloakc, 

It  hath  been  alwayes  true  to  the  weare 
But  now  it  is  not  worth  a  groat; 
I  have  had  it  four-and-twenty  yeere." 

Single  and  double  rhymes  are  also  to  be 
distinguished.  Example : 

"The  Abbot   had   preached   for  many  years, 

With    clear    articu/afr'on, 
As  ever  was  heard  in  the  House  of  Peers, 

Against    Emancipation. 
His   words   had  made  battalions   quake, 

Had  roused  the  zeal   of  martyrs; 
Had  kept  the  Court  an  hour  awake, 

And    the    king   himself   three-quarters." 


ALLITERATION  is  the  commencement  of 
two  or  more  words,  in  the  same  or  adjoin- 
ing lines,  with  the  same  or  closely  allied 
sounds.  Example : 

"The   parted   bosom   clings   to   wonted   home, 
If     aught     that's     feindred     cheer     the     welcome 

/tearth; 

He  that  is  Jonely,  Either  Jet  him  roam, 
And  gaze  complacent  on  congenial  earth, 
Greece  is  no  /ightsome  /and  of  social  mirth: 
But  he  whom  Sadness  jootheth  may  abide, 
And  scarce  regret  the  region  of  his  birth, 
When  wandering  slow  by   Delphi's  jacred   .side, 
Or  gazing  o'er  the  plains,  where  Greek  and  Per- 
sian  died." 

SPECIMENS    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL 
ENGLISH    METRES 

IN  ORDER  to  distinguish  the  different 
kinds  of  metre,  certain  names  are  bor- 
rowed from  the  prosody  of  Latin  and 
Greek.  They  are  the  Iambic,  Trochaic, 
Dactylic,  and  Anapestic,  and,  although  in 
the  classical  languages,  particularly  Greek, 
the  distinction  of  long  and  short  vowels, 
composing  the  feet  of  such  metres,  was  defi- 
nitely discriminated,  they  may  be  used  in* 
English  as  combinations  of  accented  and  un- 
accented syllables — our  vowel  lengths  bein«c 
seldom  distinguished. 

Thus,  an  accented  syllable  preceded  by 
one  unaccented  is  regarded  as  equivalent 
to  a  long  syllable  following  a  short  one, 
and  is  called  an  Iambic.  Ex.  "Away,  or 
away;  rejoice,  or  rejoice."  An  accented  or 
long  syllable  before  an  unaccented  or  short 
one,  is  called  a  Trochee.  Ex.  "Wretched, 
or  wretched ;  rising,'  or  rising."  An  ac- 
cented syllable  followed  by  two  unaccented 
is  called  a  Dactyl.  Ex.  "I'ndustries,  or  in- 
dustries; exquisite,  or  exquisite."  An  ac- 
cented syllable  following  two  unaccented  is 
called  an  Anapest.  Ex.  "Lochinvar,  or 
Lochinvar;  cavalier,  or  cavalier."  Some 
authorities  distinguish  another  metre  in  En- 
glish poetry;  the  Amphibrach,  consisting  of 
a  long,  or  accented,  syllable  both  preceded 
and  followed  by  a  short,  or  unaccented,  one. 
It  is  probable,  also,  that  the  spondee,  con- 
sisting of  two  long,  or  accented,  syllables, 
should  be  occasionally  distinguished,  partita 
ularly  in  imitations  of  the  Latin  dactylic 
hexameter,  in  which,  according  to  rule,  .t 
must  always  end  a  line.  A  troche  is  ofte.il 
used  at  this  point  in  English  verse,  as  in 
Longfellow's  "Evangeline." 

The  most  common  metres  are  varieties  of 
the  iambic,  the  trochaic,  and  the  anapestic: 
the  differences  consisting  in  the  number 
of  iambics,  etc.,  in  each  line.  Further  dif- 
ferences arise  out  of  the  various  kinds  of 


42 


THE   WRITING   OF   POETRY 


lines,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
grouped  so  as  to  form  the  stanzas.  Ac- 
cording as  there  are  one,  two,  three,  four, 
five,  six  or  seven  feet  in  a  line  we  have 
a  monometer,  dimeter,  trimeter,  tetrameter, 
pentameter,  hexameter  or  heptameter. 
However,  in  many  poems,  principally 
hymns,  intended  to  go  with  particular 
tunes,  the  distinction  is  based  on  the  num- 
ber of  syllables  composing  the  lines,  fre- 
quently irrespective  of  the  nature  of  the 
feet.  This  explains  why  one  hymn  of  a 
given  number  of  syllables  per  line  may  be 
sung  to  a  certain  tune,  while  another  of 
the  same  number  does  not  suit  it  at  all. 

Several  authorities  on  English  poetry 
use  a  peculiar  notation  to  designate  the 
various  kinds  of  metres ;  using  the  letter 
a  for  an  accented  syllable,  and  x  for  an 
unaccented  syllable.  Thus,  ax  is  written 
for  a  trochee;  xa,  for  an  iambic;  xxa,  for 
an  anapest;  and  axx,  for  a  dactyl.  A 
trochaic  dimeter  becomes  2.  ax;  an  iambic 
tetrameter,  4  xa;  an  anapestic  pentameter, 
5  xxa;  a  dactylic  hexameter,  6  axx,  etc. 

VARIETIES  OF  VERSE. — Under  the  various 
orders  of  metre  the  following  examples 
may  be  given: 

I.  IAMBIC  METRE 

(4  s. — 2  xa.) 
"With  ravisht  ears,    . 
The  monarch  hears; 
Assumes  the  god, 
Affects  the  nod." 

(6  s. — 3  xa.) 
"What  though  light  Phoe'bus'  beams 

Refresh   the  southern   ground, 
And  though  the  princely  thrones 
With  beauteous  ny'mphs  abound." 

(8  s. — 4  xa.) 

"And  may  at  last  my  weary  age 
Find  out  the  peaceful  hermitage, 
The  hairy  gown  and  m6ssy  rill." 

Heroic.      (10  s. — 5  xa.) 

"Such  sweet  compulsion   doth  in  music  He, 
To  lull  the  diughter  of  necessity', 
And  keep  unsteady  nature  to  her  law, 
And  th£  slow  world  in  measured  motion  draw." 

Alexandrine.      (123. — 6  xa.) 

"A   constant  maiden   still   she   only   did    remain, 
The    last    her    genuine    laws    which    stoutly    did 
retain." 

(148.— 7*0.) 

"If  when  about  the  silver  moon,  when  air  is  free 

from    wind, 
And    st4rs    shine    clear:    to    whose    sweet    beams, 

high   prospects,    and   the   brows 
Of  411  steep  hills  and  pinnacles,  thrust  up  them- 
selves   for   shows." 


The  most  frequent  combinations  of  iambic 
metres  are  those  exemplified  in  the  follow- 
ing stanzas : 

I.  Short.     (6  s.  8  s. — 3  xa.  3  xa.  4  xa.  3  xa.) 
"Thou  know'st  that  twice  a  day 

I've  brought  thee,  in  this  can, 
Fresh    water    from    the    running   brook, 
As  cleir  as  ever  ran." 

a.  Common.       (8s.    6  s. — 4  xa.    3  xa.    4  xa,    3  xa.) 
"Of  a'  the  airts  the  wind  can  blaw, 

I   dearly   like  the   west; 
For  there  the  bonnie  lassie  lives, 
The  lassie  I'  lo'e  best." 

3.  *,ong.     (8  s. — 4  xa.  4  xa.  4  xa.  4  xa.) 
"O  thou  by  whose  expressive  art 

Her  perfect  image  nature  sees, 
In  union  with  the   Graces  start, 

And  sweeter  by*   reflection  please." 

II.  TROCHAIC  METRE 
(33.— i  ax.  +.  o.) 

"Here  we  may 
Think  and  pray 
Before    death 
Stops   our  breath." 

(4  s. — 2  ax.) 
"Rich   the   treasure, 
Sweet  the   pleasure." 

(5  s.   6  s. — 2  ax  +  a.   3  ax.   3  ax.   3  ax.) 
"Fill   the   bumper   fair, 

E'very  drop  we  sprinkle 
O'n  the  br6w  of  cire, 

Smoothes  away  a  wrinkle." 

(7  s. — 3  ox  •+  a-) 

"Love  is  hurt  with  jar  and  fr6t, 
Love  is  made  a  vain  regret. 
E'yes  with  idle  tears  are  wit. 
I'dle   habit  links  us   yet." 

(8  s.— 4  0*.) 

"Bind  the  sea  to  slumber  stilly, 
Bind  its  odor  to  the  lily, 
Bind  the  aspen  ne'er  to  quiver, 
Then  bind  Love  to  last  for  ever." 

The  most  common  use  of  this  metre  is 
in  quatrains  (or  stanzas  of  four  lines)of 
seven  syllables. 

There  is  an  almost  infinite  variety  of 
metres  and  of  stanzas,  produced  by  the 
intermixture  of  iambics  and  trochees,  and 
of  iambic  with  trochaic  metres. 

III.  DACTYLIC  METRE 

The  following  specimen  will  suffice  for  the 
illustration  of  the  varieties  of  this  metre: 

(10  s.  6s.  4  s. — 3  axx  -f  a.  2  axx.  axx  -f  a.) 
"H4d   I   a  cave   on  some  wild  distant   shore, 
Where    the    winds    h6wl    to    the    w4ves'    dashing 
ro4r; 

TheVe  would  I  weep  my  woes, 
The>e  seek   my   lost   repose, 
Till  .grief  my  £yes  should  close. 
Ne'er   to   wake   m6r«." 


THE   WRITING   OF   POETRY 


43 


IV.  ANAPESTIC  METRE. 
The  effect  of  this  metre  can  be  learned 
from  this  illustration: 

(12  s.    ii  s. — 4  xxa.  xa  +  3  xxa.) 
"I  have  16st  for  that  faith  more  than  thou  canst 

bestow, 
As   the    God   who   permits   thee   to   pr6sper   doth 

know; 
In  his  hand  is  my  heart  and  my  hope;  and  in 

thine, 
The  land  and  the  life  which  for  him  I  resign." 

RULES  OF  METRE;  ACCENT.— I.  Since  the 
long  and  short  vowels  are  not  distinguished 
in  our  language,  and  the  same  word  may 
have  the  stress  of  the  voice  in  one  line  and 
be  subordinate  in  another,  it  follows  that 
the  matter  of  accent  is  the  first  and  most 
important  consideration  in  English  verse. 
Therefore,  in  good  poetry  the  proper  accent 
of  a  word  should  never  be  changed.  The 
effect  of  rhythmatic  unity  obtained  by  this 
means  is  most  often  at  the  expense  of  other 
poetic  qualities.  One  example,  selected 
from  an  old  religious  poem,  illustrates  this 
very  well: 

(8  s.  6  s. — 4  xa.  3  xa.) 
"None  but  a  foolish  fanatic, 
Of  weak  and  simple  brains." 

As  will  be  observed,  the  word,  "fanatic," 
which  is  properly  accented  on  the  second 
syllable,  has  that  syllable  unaccented  in  the 
first  verse,  being  accented  on  the  first  syl- 
lable, which  is  impossible  and  grating. 

Another  glaring  example  of  this  error  oc- 
curs in  that  grand  old  hymn,  "The  New 
Jerusalem" : 

(8  s.   6  s. — 4  va.   3  xa.) 
"There  b<§  the  prudent  pr6phets  all, 
Th'  ap6stles  six  and  six, 
The  g!6rious  martyrs  in  a  r6w, 
And  c6nfessors  betwixt." 

In  the  last  verse,  the  word,  "confessors," 
which  properly  carries  the  accent  on  the 
second  syllable,  has  it  thrown  upon  the 
first,  which  is  even  worse  in  effect  than  the 
similar  error  noted  above. 

II.  The  accent,  as  far  as  possible,  should 
be  kept  off  of  short  words,  like  preposi- 
tions and  articles,  and  off  of  adjectives, 
unless  the  sense  requires  emphasis:  al- 
though a  pleasing  effect  may  sometimes  be 
produced  by  accenting  a  preposition  at  the 
beginning  of  a  line.  A  distressing  case  of 
ill -effect  from  this  cause  occurs  in  Long- 
fellow's "Robert  of  Sicily": 
(ios. — 5  xa.) 

"And  when,  once  more,   within  Palermo's  wall, 
And  seated  on  the  throne  in  his  great  hall." 

The  error  lies  in  the  stress  thrown  on  his 
in  the  second  line. 


RULES  OF  METRE;  AUXILIARIES. — III.  The 
use  of  auxiliaries,  particularly  parts  of  the 
verb,  "to  do,"  should  be  avoided,  probably 
under  all  circumstances.  Although  in  prose 
it  is  perfectly  proper  to  use  this  verb  in 
emphatic  expressions — as,  "You  did  say  it" 
— or  in  negative  sentences — as,  "I  did  not 
say  it"— either  construction  is  extremely  in- 
elegant in  verse.  It  is,  in  fact,  very  nearly 
the  best  evidence  of  an  insufficient  knowl- 
edge of  the  language  and  of  the  nature  of 
poetic  composition;  and,  quite  apart  from 
consideration  of  subjects  treated,  is  the 
principal  difference  between  true  verse  and 
"doggerel  rhymes."  Several  glaring  exam- 
ples of  this  fault  occur  in  the  hymn  already 
quoted : 

"There,  there  the  choir  of  angels  sing; 
There  the  supernal  sort 
Of  citizens,  which  hence  are  rid 
From  dangers  deep,  do  sport." 

Again: 

"Young  men  and  maids  that  here  on  earth 
Their  pleasures  did  resist." 
And: 

"Whom  I  do  love,  to  him  myself 
In  glory  will  appear." 

RULES  OF  METRE;  TRANSPOSITION. — IV. 
Although  poetical  composition  requires 
some  transpositions  from  the  natural  order 
of  English  prose,  such  transpositions  should 
never  depart  so  far  from  the  regular  ar- 
rangements as  to  render  the  meaning  ob- 
scure; nor  should  a  subordinate  word,  such 
as  a  preposition,  or  an  auxiliary  verb,  end 
a  line.  A  case  in  point  is  as  follows: 

"Whom   now   as   in   a   glass   I  see, 
There   face   to   face   I   shall." 

The  subject  and  direct  object  of  a  verb 
— in  fact,  all  words  closely  related  in  the 
formation  of  an  idea — should  be  placed  as 
closely  as  the  unities  of  the  metre  will  al- 
low. That  it  is  ever  necessary  to  separate 
the  organic  words  of  a  sentence  as  widely 
as  is  sometimes  done,  is  doubtful.  A  nota- 
ble evidence  of  this  is  found  in  the  poems 
of  Tennyson,  which  are  conspicuous  for 
compactness  of  expression,  grammatical  ac- 
curacy, and  rhetorical  force,  combined  with 
a  complete  mastery  of  metrical  unities. 

The  practice  of  placing  an  adjective  after 
the  noun  with  which  it  agrees  is  frequently 
found  in  the  best  poets.  It  is  doubtful, 
however,  whether  it  is  really  elegant  and 
forceful,  and  should  be  avoided  wherever 
possible:  it  should  always  be  avoided  with 
monosyllabic  adjectives.  In  verses  intended 
to  be  humorous  or  vividly  descriptive,  an 
exception  may  be  allowed  at  times.  The 
best  general  rule,  however,  is  that  an  ad- 


THE   WRITING   OF   POETRY 


jective  in  direct  agreement  with  a  noun 
should  be  placed  before  it,  except  in  cases 
where  inversion  would  be  permissable  in 
prose;  as  "life  eternal,"  "God  Almighty," 
etc.  Such  concessions  to  grammatical 
form  as  "his  wife  so  good,"  for  "his  good 
wife,"  are  inadmissible  in  real  poetry. 

The  effect  of  violating  these  rules  may 
be  judged  from  the  following  stanza: 

"  'O  Father  dear,'  quoth  He,  'let  them 

Which  Thou  hast  put  of  old 
To  me  be  there  where,  lo,  I  am, 

Thy  glory  to  behold; 
Which  /  with  Thee  before  the  world 

Was  made,  in  perfect  wise, 
Have  had;  from  whence  the  fountain  great 

Of  glory  doth  arise.' " 

The  italics  mark  the  most  glaring  depart- 
ures from  pure  diction  and  good  effect. 

PRACTICAL  POINTS  ON  SCANSION. — It  is 
necessary  to  scan,  either  by  knowledge  of 
metrical  elements,  or  by  correctness  of  ear 
and  rhythmic  sense,  just  as  singing  or  play- 
ing a  musical  instrument  requires  either  a 
knowledge  of  notes  or  a  good  memory  for 
melody.  In  order  to  discover  the  metrical 
character  of  a  given  line,  it  is  frequently 
necessary  to  compare  it  with  some  other 
whose  metre  is  known,  or  to  try  each  va- 
riety of  foot  in  turn  until  one  is  found 
giving  the  correct  accents  of  all  words  to 
the  end  of  each  verse  (line). 

Bearing  in  mind  that  a  "long,"  or  ac- 
cented, syllable  corresponds  to  the  musical 
quarter-note,  or  crochet,  and  a  "short,"  or 
unaccented,  syllable  to  the  eighth-note,  or 
quaver,  one  can  gain  some  idea  of  the  stress 


required  by  each,  whether  the  line  is  to  be 
sung  or  not  A  very  good  illustration  of 
this  may  be  seen  in  the  two  following 
twelve-syllable  verses  from  two  familiar 
hymns: 

"At  the  cross,  at  the  cross,  where  I  first  saw  the 
light" 

And: 

"In  the  cross,   in  the  cross,   be  my  glory  ever." 

The  first  scans  easily,  the  accents  falling 
as  regularly  as  in  simple  prose: 

"At  the  cross,  at  the  cross,  where  I  first  saw  the 
light." 

But  to  attempt  the  same  metre  with  the 
second  produces  a  disarrangement  of  the 
natural  accents,  let  alone  the  confusion  to 
the  following  verses.  Thus: 

"In   the  cross,    in   the  cross,   be   my  glory  ever." 

The  impossible  stress  on  the  second  sylla- 
ble of  ever,  gives  us  the  alternative  between 
reading  the  line  as  3  xxa  +  xa,  giving : 

"In   the   cross,    in   the   cross,   be   my   glory   e'er," 

Thus  changing  it  by  abbreviation,  or  of 
adopting  dactyls  and  trochees  instead  of 
anapests.  Thus,  we  have: 

"I'n  the  cross,   in  the  cross,  bi  my  glory  ever," 

or  2  axx  +  3  ax,  or,  as  the  music  seems  to 
indicate,  2  axx  -\-zax-\-aa,  giving  a  spon- 
dee in  the  last  foot. 

The  music   written   for  these  two   lines 
reveals  the  accuracy  of  our  analysis.   Thus : 


At        the          cross,     at       the     cross,     where    I 


first      saw        the          light 


J 


I 


I'n      the     cross,         in     the      cross, 


be      my    glo 


eV     •     •     er 


In  these  lines  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
time  indicated  by  the  musical  notation  in- 
volves the  same  order  of  stress  and  pause 
as  occurs  when  merely  reading  the  verses. 

IRREGULAR  METRES.  —  While  in  most 
hymns  and  ballads,  and  generally  in  ex- 
tended poems,  the  metre  is  moderately  reg- 


ular— so  that  the  compositions  may  be  set 
to  simple  tunes — some  descriptive  poetry  is 
very  irregularly  scanned.  This  is  due 
either  to  carelessness  or  the  necessities  of 
using  varying  feet  for  varying  ideas,  but 
in  either  case  reveals  the  great  flexibility 
of  English  verse.  That  it  would  be  ex- 


THE   WRITING   OF    POETRY 


45 


ceedingly  difficult  to  set  some  such  verses 
to  music  is  evident:  but,  for  purposes  of 
animated  description,  it  is  unsurpassable. 
A  good  example  of  this  mixed,  or  irregu- 
lar, verse  may  be  found  in  Whittier's  "Bar- 
bara Frietchie": 

"U'p   from  the  meadows  rich  with  corn, 
Clear  in  the  cool  September  morn, 
The  clustered  spires  of  Fred'rick  stand, 
Green-walled  by  the   hills  of   Maryland." 

The  rhymic  construction  of  these  four 
verses  may  be  understood  by  the  following 

analysis : 

\axx\ax\ax\a\ 
\axx\ax\ax\a\ 
\xa\xa\xa\xa\ 
\xa\xxa\xa\xa\ 

By  reading  such  a  scheme  as  this,  letter 
by  letter,  giving  particularly  strong  em- 
phasis to  each  a,  and  leaving  each  x  corre- 
spondingly weak,  a  distinct  idea  of  narra- 
tive is  derived  from  the  metre.  The  effect 
is  similar  to  that  obtained  in  some  musical 
compositions,  known  as  "Romances,"  which 
move  precisely  as  though  a  story  were  be- 
ing told,  the  effect  of  beauty  or  grandeur, 
suggestive  of  more  or  less  distinct  scenes 
and  emotions,  being  supplied  by  the  time 
and  tone-coloring.  This  merely  examples 
the  fact  that  certain  metres,  in  both  poetry 
and  music,  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  ex- 
press and  excite  certain  definite  emotions. 

METRE;  EMOTIONAL  EFFECTS. — Just  as 
certain  styles  of  musical  composition — 
those  combining  particular  varieties  of 
time  and  rhythm — are  peculiarly  sugges- 
tive of  certain  definite  emotions,  so  certain 
metrical  elements  in  poetry  are  as  well 
calculated  to  express  them.  In  general,  the 
fewer  the  syllables,  or  the  more  the  feet, 
in  a  line,  the  better  fitted  it  is  to  set  forth 
deep  emotions  or  give  impressive  descrip- 
tions. Thus  we  find  that  the  "heavier" 
portions  of  a  poem  are  expressed  in  lines 
of  few  syllables  or  many  feet — each  foot 
consisting  most  often  of  but  two  syllables. 
Lines  of  fewer  feet,  or  more  syllables,  are 
calculated  to  express  lighter  varieties  of 
emotion,  such  as  joy,  delight,  etc.  For 
this  reason,  the  hymns  most  popular  in  re- 
ligious worship  are  usually  written  with 
short  lines  that  may  be  sung  readily  to 
simple  and  attractive  melodies.  Changes 
of  emotion  may  also  be  expressed  by 
changes  of  metrical  construction  and  length 
of  lines,  just  as  the  theme  of  a  musical 
composition  —  like  Chopin's  "Funeral 
March" — changes  at  intervals,  or  as  a  dif- 
ferent metre  is  taken  for  the  chorus  or, 


refrain  in  most  songs,  religious  and  popu- 
lar. 

To  the  end,  then,  of  depicting  varying 
emotion,  or  of  making  a  definite  emotional 
picture,  many  poems  are  written  in  what 
is  called  mixed  verse,  each  stanza  being  com- 
posed of  several  varieties  of  metre.  A  few 
examples  will  suffice  to  show  what  is  meant : 

"Three  fishers  went  sailing  away  to  the  West, 

Away  to  the  West  as  the  sun  went  down; 
Each  thought  on  the   woman  who   loved  him  the 
best, 

And  the  children  stood  watching  them  out  of 

the    town ; 

For  men  must  work,  and  women  must  weep, 
And  there's  little  to  earn,  and  many  to  keep, 
Though  the  harbor  bar  be  moaning." 

This  particular  form  of  stanza  would 
scarcely  be  chosen  to  express  a  trivial 'or 
comic  subject,  although  it  could  not  be 
said  that  its  construction  necessarily  im- 
plies tragedy.  There  are  so  many  success- 
ful examples  of  verse,  in  every  length  and 
every  variety  of  metre,  used  to  express 
emotions  diametrical  to  those  supposed  to 
belong  to  them,  that  it  is  nearly  impossible 
to  assert  that  any  particular  form  neces- 
sarily belongs  with  any  particular  emotion. 
We  may  distinguish,  however,  between 
verses  merely  descriptive  or  reflective  in 
character  and  those  that  are  animated,  or 
fitted  to  depict  some  feeling.  Thus,  few 
would  attempt  to  express  a  comic  or  emo- 
tional poem  in  the  metre  of  "Paradise  Lost," 
or  in  the  dactylic  hexameter  of  Longfel- 
low's "Evangeline."  On  the  other  hand, 
descriptive  and  reflective  words  would  go 
very  ill  with  such  a  metre  as  the  following: 

"Let  me  have  a  scarlet  maple 
For  the  grave-tree  at  my  head, 
With  the  quiet  sun  behind  it, 
In  the  years  when  I  am  dead. 


"Let   me   have   the   Silent    Valley 
And  the  hill  that  fronts  the  east, 
So  that  I  can  watch  the  morning 
Redden,  and  the  stars  released. 

"Leave  me  in  the  Great  Lone  Country, 
For  I  shall  not  be  afraid, 
With  the  shy  moose  and  the  beaver, 
There  within  my  scarlet  shade." 

This   variety  of  verse  seems  well   adapted 
to  hortatory  or  discursive  subjects. 

METRE;  MUSICAL  QUALITY. — The  emo- 
tional quality  of  a  metre  may  be  judged 
when  it  is  used  with  words  in  a  foreign 
language.  Thus,  from  the  German: 

"Im  wunderschonen  Monat   Mai, 
Als  alle   Knospen  sprangen, 
Da  ist  in  meinem  Hertzen 
Die   Liebe   aufgegangen.  , 


46 


THE   WRITING   OF   POETRY 


•'1m  wunderscbonen  Monat  Mai, 
Als  alle  Vogel  sangen, 
Da  hab*    ich   ihr  gcstanden, 
Mein   Sehnen   und   Vcrlangen." 

Few  could  doubt  that  this  is  precisely  what 
it  is — a  love  ditty. 

Take  this  poem  from  the  Latin,  and 
judge  whether  its  meaning  is  religious  or 
"worldly": 

"Tribus  signis 

Deo   dignis 
Dies  ista  colitur: 

Tria  signa 

Laude  digna 
Ccetus  his  persequitUT. 

Stella  magos 

Duxit  vagos 
Ad  praesepe  Domini; 

Congaudentes 

Omnes  gentes 
Ejus  psallunt   nominL" 

The  following  stanza  in  the  Persian 
seems  to  possess  a  distinct  power  of  sug- 
gesting emotion: 

"Janan-i-man    haman    biyarid 
in  miulahtanam  bado  miyarid 
Agar  boosa  zanad  bar  in  labanam 
Ta  zindah  shavam!   ajab  madarid." 

Several  authors,  undoubtedly  skilled  in 
the  use  of  metres,  notably  Edward  Lear 
and  "Lewis  Carroll,"  have  well  displayed 
the  emotional  qualities  of  certain  metres  by 
arranging  them  with  nonsensical  words. 

VARIETIES  OF  STANZA. — Most  modern  po- 
etry is  arranged  into  collections  of  lines — 
somewhat  like  paragraphs  in  prose — called 
"stanzas."  In  popular  parlance  the  stanza 
is  incorrectly  called  a  verse,  probably  from 
the  Scriptural  divisions  of  "chapters  and 
verses."  The  word,  "verse,"  refers  prop- 
erly to  the  single  line.  It  is  from  the 
Latin  word  vertere,  "to  turn,"  and  desig- 
nates the  point  where  the  metre  turns,  or 
where  the  eye  turns  back  to  begin  another 
complete  element  of  the  poem. 

Properly  speaking,  a  single  line  can  not 
constitute  a  poetic  unity,  although  it  may 
be  poetical  in  conception  and  metrical  in 
form.  Two  rhymed  lines,  of  whatever 
length  or  metre,  constitute  a  couplet  or 
distich.  Thus  : 

"  'Tis  the   place,   and   all   around  it,   while   as  yet 

'tis  early  morn; 

Leave  me   here,   and  when  you  want  m«,  sound 
upon  the  bugle  horn." 

A  stanza  of  three  rhymed  lines  is  called 
a  triplet.  Thus: 

"Thy  silver  locks,  once  auburn  bright, 
Are  still  more  lovely  in  my  sight 
Than  golden  gleams  of  orient  light," 

A  stanza  of  four  lines  is  called  a  qua- 
train. Generally  the  rhyme  is  between  the 


-alternate  lines — the  first  rhyming  with  the 
third,  and  the  second  with  the  fourth;  or 
the  second  and  fourth  rhyming  together, 
leaving  the  first  and  third  unrhymed — very 
seldom,  between  the  four  lines  consecutive- 
ly. There  are  several  pleasing  variations 
from  common  practices.  Thus.  Tennyson's 
"In  Memoriam"  is  composed  of  quatrains 
having  the  first  and  fourth  and  the  second 
and  third  lines  of  each  in  rhyme: 

"I  held  it  truth,  with  him  who  sings 
To  one  clear  harp  in  divers  tones. 
That  men  may  rise  on  stepping-stones 
Of  their  dead  selves  to  higher  things." 

Another  famous  form  of  quatrain,  in  which 
the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lines  rhyme, 
leaving  the  third  unrhymed,  is  borrowed 
from  the  Persian.  This  from  Omar  Khay- 
yam's "Rubaiyat": 

"A    book    of    verses    underneath    the    bough, 
A  jug  of  wine,  a  loaf  of  bread — and  Thou 
Beside    me    singing    in    the    Wilderness — 
Oh,   Wilderness  were  Paradise  enow!" 

SEVEN  AND  EIGHT  LINE  STANZAS. — 
Among  other  special  forms  of  the  stanza 
may  be  mentioned  the  so-called  "Rhythm- 
Royal,"  or  seven-lined  stanza,  invented  by 
Chaucer.  It  is  properly  always  written  in 
iambic  pentameter,  and  has  the  first  and 
third,  the  second,  fourth,  and  fifth,  and  the 
sixth  and  seventh  in  rhyme.  Another  form 
of  iambic  pentameter  is  the  "Ottava  Rima," 
or  eight-lined  stanza,  of  Italian  origin.  It 
has  the  first,  third,  and  fifth,  the  second, 
fourth  and  sixth,  and  the  seventh  and 
eighth  in  rhyme.  The  following  is  an 
example : 

"  'Tis  sweet  to  hear  the  watchdog's  honest  bark 
Bay  deep-mouth' d  welcome  as  we  draw  near 

h6me; 
'Tis  sweet  to  kn6w  there  is  an  eye  will  mark 

Our  coming,  and  look  brighter  when  we  c6me; 
'Tis  sweet  to  W  awakened  by*  the  lark, 

Or  liill'd  by  falling  waters;  sweet  the  hum 
Of  be'es,  the  voice  of  girls,  the  song  of  birds. 
The  lisp  of  children  and  their  earliest  w6rds." 

THE  SPENSERIAN  STANZA. — The  famous 
"Spenserian  Stanza"  is  also  in  iambic  pen- 
tameter, with  the  last  line  in  hexameter. 
It  has  nine  lines,  the  first  of  which  is  in 
rhyme  with  the  third ;  the  second  with  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh,  and  the  sixth  with 
the  eighth  and  ninth.  Thus : 

"The  NioM  of  nations;  there  she  stands, 

Childless  and  crownless,  in  her  voiceless  w6e; 
An   empty  urn  within  her  wither'd   hinds, 

Whose  h61y  dust  was  scatter'd  long  ago; 
Her  Scipio's  t6mb  contains  no  ashes  n6w; 

Her  v£ry  sepulchres  lie  tenantless 
Of  their  heroic  dwellers:  dost  thou  flow, 

Old  Tiber,  through  a  marble  wilderness? 
Rise,   with  thy  yellow   waves,  and   manitle  her  di^ 

tresol" 


THE   WRITING   OF    POETRY 


47 


THE  SONNET  is  a  fourteen-line  stanza 
also  written  in  iambic  pentameter.  It  is 
divided  into  two  distinct  parts,  or  mem- 
bers: the  one,  consisting  of  the  first  eight 
lines,  being  called  the  "major  member,"  or 
"octave";  the  other,  the  remaining  six  lines, 
being  called  the  "minor  member,"  or  "ses- 
tette."  The  major  member  is,  in  construc- 
tion, two  quatrains,  in  each  of  which  the 
rhymes  are  between  the  first  and  fourth 
and  the  second  and  third  lines,  as  in  the 
stanzas  of  "In  Memoriam."  In  order, 
however,  to  make  the  unity  of  this  member 
complete,  the  first  and  fourth  lines  of  the 
first  quatrain  are  in  rhyme  with  the  first 
and  fourth  of  the  second;  and  the  second 
and  third  lines  of  the  first,  with  the  second 
and  third  of  the  second. 

The  minor  member,  or  sestette,  forms  a 
unit  by  itself,  independent,  so  far  as  rhyme 
is  concerned,  from  the  octave.  There  is 
no  invariable  rule  for  the  arrangement  of 
rhymes  between  its  verses,  although  the 
prevailing — perhaps  the  typical — arrange- 
ment is  to  rhyme  the  first  with  the  fourth, 
the  second  with  the  fifth,  and  the  third 
with  the  sixth.  The  continuity  between  the 
major  and  minor  members  is  usually  se- 
cured by  beginning  the  latter  in  the  midst 
of  a  sentence,  or  by  otherwise  forming  a 
logical  or  grammatical  reference  to  the 
ideas  developed  in  the  former. 

A  number  of  poets,  particularly  in  Amer- 
ica, have  produced  fourteen-line  stanzas  in 
iambic  pentameter,  and  have  called  them 
sonnets.  However,  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  the  sequence  of  the  rhymes  is  some- 
what different  from  that  named  above — 
the  octave  generally  consisting  of  two  dis- 
tinct quatrains,  with  the  rhyme  between 
the  first  and  fourth  and  the  second  and 
third  lines  of  each,  and  no  rhyme  from  the 
one  being  carried  over  to  the  other — many 
authorities  contend  that  the  "American  son- 
net" is  not  properly  named. 

The  following  sonnet  from  Lowell  de- 
parts from  the  scheme  of  the  sestette  men- 
tioned above,  in  having  the  rhymes  between 
the  first,  third,  and  fifth,  and  the  second, 
fourth,  and  sixth  lines.  It  is  a  true  sonnet, 
however,  from  the  fact  that  the  construc- 
tion of  the  octave  is  perfectly  regular. 

TO  A  FRIEND 

"True  as  the  sun's  own  work,  but  more  refined, 
It  tells  of  love  behind  the  artist's  eye, 
Of  sweet  companionships  with  earth  and  sky, 
And  summers  stored,  the  sunshine  of  the  mind. 
What  peace!     Surfc,  ere  you  breathe,  the  fickle  wind 
Will  break  its  truce  and  bend  the  grass  plume  high 
Scarcely  yet  quiet  from  the  gilded  fly 
That  flits  a  more  luxurious  perch  to  find. 


Thanks  for  a  pleasure  that  can  never  pall, 
A  serene  moment,  deftly  caught  and  kept 
To  make  immortal  summer  on  my  wall. 
Had  he  who  drew  such  gladness  ever  wept? 
Ask  rather  could  he  else  have  seen  at  all, 
Or  grown  in  Nature's  mysteries  an  adept?" 

ELEGIAC  VERSE.— One  other  use  of  the 
iambic  pentameter  is  in  elegiac  verse,  where 
it  frequently  appears  in  the  form  of  qua- 
trains. Thus  from  Gray: 

"Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 

A  youth  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown1, 

Fair  science  smiled  not  on  his  humble  birth, 

And  melancholy  mark'd  him  for  her  6wn." 

THE  USES  OF  POETRY.— Some  people  as- 
sert that  the  day  of  poetry  has  passed.  If 
they  mean  that  the  lengthy  poems  of  for- 
mer times,  such  as  the  "Paradise  Lost," 
and  the  epic  of  the  classic  languages  is  no 
longer  widely  read,  they  have  some  ele- 
ment of  fact  in  their  contention.  For  the 
shorter  poems;  the  ballad,  the  descriptive 
verse,  songs,  hymns,  and  the  like,  there  is 
still  a  demand  and  an  appreciation;  and  this 
will  probably  continue  to  be  the  case  so 
long  as  humanity  appreciates  rhythm  and 
rhyme,  as  helps  to  imagination,  memory, 
and  even  understanding,  and  so  long  as  an 
idea,  trivial  and  irrelevant  in  prose,  can 
gain  force  and  logical  cogency  through  the 
medium  of  verse. 

Although  poetry,  like  music,  the  drama, 
sculpture,  and  the  other  arts,  has  seen  its 
widest  and  greatest  use  as  a  "handmaid  of 
religion" — serving  as  a  vehicle  for  express- 
ing the  loftiest  thoughts  and  aspirations  of 
mankind,  and  perpetuating  the  memory  of 
its  best  and  noblest  achievements — it  can 
not  be  held  at  the  present  time  that  this  is 
its  sole  and  exclusive  function.  Apart 
from  its  wide  use  in  expressing  human 
love,  the  bulk  of  present-day  poetry  is  oc- 
cupied with  the  homelier  aspects  of  life; 
with  simple  narratives  or  descriptions,  and 
with  subjects  classed  as  comic  or  humor- 
ous. That  such  productions  are  poetry,  in 
the  sense  of  using  properly  constructed  me- 
tres and  effective  language,  is  often  pre- 
eminently true.  That  the  ideas  conveyed 
by  them  are  "poetic" — that  is  to  say,  "ideal," 
ennobling,  worthy  of  preservation  in  the 
beautiful  unities  of  metre — is  frequently 
doubtful. 

If  art  is  to  be  expressive,  it  must  also  be 
broad,  inclusive,  catholic,  like  nature  it 
seeks  to  imitate;  although  its  uses,  on  oc- 
casions, may  be  higher  or  lower,  worthier 
or  unworthier.  However,  these  distinctions 
apply  to  the  subjects  treated,  not  to  the  art 
that  expresses  them. 


ENGLISH  WORDS  OF 
FOREIGN  ORIGIN 


THERE  is  an  old  saying  to  the  effect  that  "language  is  history 
crystallized,"  which  means  that  a  critical  study  of  words  and 
idioms  will  reveal  most,  if  not  all,  the  foreign  influences  that 
have  been  brought  to  bear  upon  a  people  in  the  course  of  history.  Thus, 
the  modern  Greek,  in  addition  to  numerous  idioms  and  constructions 
not  found  in  the  ancient  language,  has  very  many  Turkish  words  that 
distinctly  reveal  the  close  and  painful  connection  subsisting  for  so  many 
years  between  the  two  nations.  So,  also,  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment contains  so  many  constructions  peculiar  to  Hebrew  that  the  nation- 
ality of  its  writers  is  too  evident  for  denial:  its  language  is  the  best 
evidence  of  its  genuineness.  What  is  true  in  these  connections  applies 
with  even  greater  force  to  the  English  language.  The  Romans,  the 
Saxons,  the  French,  have  all  left  monuments  of  their  influence  in  the 
words  we  daily  use  to  express  our  thoughts,  our  aspirations,  and  our 
necessities. 

In  a  certain  sense  it  is  true,  therefore,  that  an  exhaustive  understand- 
ing of  English  requires  a  training  in  several  classical  and  foreign  lan- 
guages. However,  by  intelligent  study,  one  need  not  "go  abroad  to  learn 
his  own  tongue."  The  matter  of  word-derivation  and  construction  is  so 
simple  that  a  very  definite  and  practical  idea  of  its  principles  may  be  readily 
acquired.  These  will  be  set  forth  in  the  following  pages,  in  such  shape 
as  to  simplify  study,  as  far  as  is  possible,  for  average  intelligence  and 
application. 

ANALYSIS  OF  ENGLISH  WORDS 


ELEMENTS  OF  WORD-STRUCTURE. 
— Every  word  has  two  and  very  many 
have  all,  of  three  elements.  The  first  is  the 
root,  which  is  the  simplest  and  most  primi- 
tive sound  to  which  a  definite  meaning  may 
apply  in  any  given  case.  The  second  is  the 
suffix,  or  ending,  which  determines  to  what 
part  of  speech  a  word  belongs — whether  it  is 
a  noun,  concrete  or  abstract,  an  adjective, 
an  adverb  or  a  verb.  The  third  is  the  prefix, 
which  always  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word,  and  modifies  the  meaning.  One  root 
word,  combined  with  the  same  suffix,  may 
in  several  different  cases  have  as  many  di- 
(48) 


verse  meanings,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
a  different  prefix  in  each  case.  Thus,  from 
the  Latin  verb,  tendere,  to  stretch  or  strive, 
we  have  the  words :  attention,  contention, 
dfrtention,  wrtension,  intention,  ^rrtension, 
with  as  many  different  meanings,  as  need 
not  be  explained.  In  the  same  manner, 
from  the  Latin,  trahere,  to  draw  or  pull, 
we  have  the  words:  a&rtraction.  a/traction, 
contraction,  detraction,  tftrtraction,  extrac- 
tion, protraction,  retraction,  «<&traction.  In 
order  to  understand  the  widely  various 
meanings  to  be  supplied  by  a  single  root- 
word—such  as  ten  or  tend,  as  in  the  above 


ENGLISH  WORDS   uF   FOREIGN   ORIGIN 


49 


cases — it  is  necessary  that  one  know  (i) 
the  meaning  of  the  root  in  each  instance 
and  to  be  able  to  identify  it  in  any  word; 
(2)  the  grammatical  significance  of  the  suf- 
fix; (3)  the  force  of  the  prefix.  The  sig- 
nificance of  the  word  in  hand  may  then  be 
reasoned  out,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
without  consulting  the  dictionary. 

COMPOUND  WORDS. — Before  proceeding  to 
the  study  of  prefixes,  suffixes,  and  roots, 
it  is  necessary,  perhaps,  to  mention  an- 
other class  of  words,  known  as  "com- 
pound words."  With  these  words,  syllables 
apparently  prefixes  or  suffixes  vary  the 
meaning  as  in  the  cases  just  noted;  but 
that  they  are  not  prefixes  or  suffixes  in  the 
accepted  sense  of  the  terms  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  two  roots  are  combined  into  one 
idea,  rather  than  one  root,  with  a  preposi- 
tional prefix.  This  is  shown  in  the  use  of 
pure  English  words.  Thus,  from  the  verb, 
see,  we  have  foresee  and  oversee,  with  the 
prepositional  prefixes  fore  and  over,  as 
shown;  their  office  in  either  case  being  to 
tell  how  one  sees.  With  such  a  compound 
word  as  sightseer,  however,  the  word  sight 
is  prefixed  to  seer,  in  order  to  tell  what  one 
sees. 

Thus,  from  the  Greek  word,  metron,  a 
measure,  we  have  the  compounds,  geometer, 
barometer,  chronometer,  and  thermometer; 
signifying,  respectively,  "earth-measurer," 
"air-measurer,"  "time-measurer,"  and  "heat- 
measurer."  These  all  tell  what  is  meas- 
ured. If  we  use  Greek  prefixes,  making 
such  words  as  diameter,  "a  measure 
through,"  Ammeter,  "a  measure  around," 
and  symmetry,  "a  measuring-with,  an  agree- 
ment," we  have  words  telling  how  the 
measuring  is  done.  The  significance  of 
compound  words  derived  from  foreign  lan- 
guages can  best  be  judged  after  the  mean- 
ings belonging  to  the  various  roots  have 
been  found  and  understood. 

RULES  ON  FORMING  WORDS. — A  funda- 
mental rule  applying  alike  to  the  use  of 
prefixes  and  suffixes  and  to  the  formation 
of  compound  words,  is  that  all  the  elements 
of  a  word — prefix,  suffix,  root,  and  com- 
pounded root — shall  be  derived  from  the 
same  language.  This  rule  is  invariable,  ex- 
cept where  all  the  elements  of  the  com- 
pound have  become  so  thoroughly  a  part 
of  the  common  stock  of  English  words  as 
to  be  combined  with  other  roots  and  ele- 
ments of  English  compounds.  That  this  is 
the  case  is  fortunate  for  the  student  of 
words,  preventing  many  errors  that  seem 
natural.  Thus,  we  have  in  English  the  pre- 
fix, mis,  as  in  misplace,  mislead,  mistake, 


etc.,  having  the  meaning  of  "wrongly"  ia 
each  case.  But,  seeing  such  words  as  "mis- 
anthropist," "misogynist,"  in  which  the  body 
of  the  word  is  evidently  borrowed  from  the 
Greek,  the  student  understands  that  the 
"mis"  here  must  also  be  a  Greek  root,  and 
finds  it  to  represent  "misos,"  signifying 
"hatred."  Thus,  he  derives  the  meanings 
"man-hater"  and  "woman-hater." 

PREFIXES 

PREFIXES  IN  ENGLISH. — In  most  languages, 
except  English,  the  prepositional  words, 
used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  verbs  or 
nouns,  are  regularly  compounded-  with 
them  as  prefixes.  This  is  the  invariable 
rule  in  Latin  and  Greek,  and  holds  in  Ger- 
man, except  in  using  the  separable  prefixes, 
where  the  modifying  preposition  or  particle 
is  separable  from  the  verbal  root.  In  very 
many  English  verbs,  so  modified,  the  par- 
ticle, if  of  English  or  Saxon  origin,  is  sep- 
arate from  the  word.  Thus,  we  have  to 
put  or  set  down;  to  hang,  put,  set,  move 
up;  to  look,  go,  take,  walk  over;  to  live, 
run,  take  out.  In  several  cases,  also,  the 
verbs,  so  used  with  particles,  have  a  mean- 
ing opposite  to  that  given,  when  the  par- 
ticles are  prefixes.  Thus,  "set  up,"  means 
to  "establish,  to  found,  to  arrange,"  while 
"upset"  means  "to  throw  down,  to  over- 
turn, to  throw  into  confusion":  so  there  is 
a  wide  difference  between  upsetting  and  set- 
ting up.  The  word  "take  over"  means  "to 
appropriate"  while  "overtake"  means  "to 
catch,  or  come  up  with,"  in  running  or 
walking.  "Look  over"  means  to  "examine 
carefully,"  as  a  book,  an  estate,  but  "over- 
look" means  usually  "to  ignore,"  or  not  to 
look  at,  although  it  also  has  the  force  of 
"to  look  at  from  above,"  as  in  the  expres- 
sion, "the  window  overlooks  the  yard."  So 
also,  when  we  say  that  one  "runs  out"  or 
"takes  out,"  we  see  that  the  out  has  the 
force  of  from;  but,  when  one  "out-runs" 
another,  he  runs  faster  than  that  other. 
Consequently,  he  may  live  out  the  allotted 
"threescore  and  ten  years"  of  human  life, 
and  yet  be  outlived  by  some  one  else  who 
survives  to  "fourscore  years."  The  word, 
with,  has  a  similar  story:  If  I  hold  with 
another,  I  am  either  his  partner  in  holding 
something,  or  else  I  agree  with  him;  or  if 
I  stand  with  him  I  am  by  his  side,  or  am 
his  ally.  If,  however,  I  withhold  something, 
I  keep  it  from  him,  and  if  I  withstand  him, 
I  resist,  oppose,  or  stand  against  him.  Thus, 
with,  as  a  prefix,  has  the  force  of  from  or 
against,  which  seems  peculiar  until  we  con- 
sider the  fact  that  "to  withhold"  means  "to 


60 


ENGLISH   WORDS    OF    FOREIGN   ORIGIN 


hold  with  or  for  one's  self";  that  "with- 
stand" means  to  "stand  with  or  for  one's 
•elf  against  another,"  and  that  "onV/idraw" 
Cleans  to  "draw  with  or  by  one's  self,  away 
from  others."  As  several  such  uses  of  for- 
eign prefixes  will  be  encountered,  it  is  well 
to  understand  the  matter  in  familiar  English 
words. 

SUFFIXES 

USE  OF  SUFFIXES. — A  suffix,  as  already 
stated,  determines  the  part  of  speech  to 
which  a  word  belongs.  It  also  varies  the 
force  with  which  it  is  used  and  determines 
the  precise  meaning  to  be  attributed  to  it 
in  each  case.  Most  of  the  important  suf- 
fixes indicate  nouns  or  adjectives,  leav- 
ing a  very  few  forms  peculiarly  verbal. 

Among  the  suffixes  used  with  foreign 
roots — particularly  Latin  and  Greek — the 
following  list  gives  the  most  important, 
with  their  forms  in  the  original  language. 
In  a  large  number  of  cases,  it  is  necessary 
only  to  change  the  suffix  to  its  Latin  or 
Greek  form  to  find  the  word  borrowed  into 
the  English.  With  words  of  Latin  origin 
borrowed  from  the  French  this  is  not  so 
easy. 

ABSTRACT   NOUNS 

NOUN  SUFFIXES  are  the  most  numerous, 
and  in  nearly  all  cases  retain  the  original 
form  with  sufficient  clearness  to  enable 
ready  translation.  They  are  as  follows : 

-ACY  (Latin,  atio  or  ado;  Greek,  ateia), 
denoting  the  being,  condition,  office,  or 
function  belonging  to  a  given  state  or  qual- 
ity. Thus,  we  have  accuracy  (accuratio), 
obstinacy  (obstinatio) ,  and  curacy  (curatio) 
— the  c  in  nearly  all  cases  representing  the 
Latin  t. 

-ANCE,  -ANCV,  -ENCE,  -ENCY  (Latin,  antia 
and  entia)  have  a  similar  meaning,  as  in 
ignorance,  arrogancy,  impudence,  inno- 
cency. 

-ICE  (L.  t'fta),  also  an  abstract,  as  in 
avarice,  justice,  malice. 

-ION,  -TION  (L.  to,  ionis,  tio,  tionis,  sio, 
sionis),  as  in  aberration,  expulsion,  pre- 
cision. 

-ITY  and  -TY  (L.  itas  and  tas),  as  in  an- 
tiquity, hostility,  sublimity.  Some  such  words 
are  derived  direct  from  the  French,  as  am- 
ity (Fr.  amitie,  L.  amicitia). 

-MENT  (L.  mentum),  as  in  fragment,  ali- 
ment, ligament.  Most  English  words  with 
this  suffix  are  either  adapted  from  French, 
or  are  from  English  roots. 

-MONY  (L.  monium},  as  fri  matrimony, 
patrimony,  testimony,  parsimony,  sancti- 
mony. The  first  three  nouns  have  departed 


from     the     original     abstract     significance, 
which  is  repres«nted  by  the  last  two. 

-TUDE  and  -UDE  (L.  tudo  and  udo),  as  in 
altitude,  beatitude,  fortitude. 

CONCRETE    SUFFIXES 

-CULE,  -CLE,  -ULE  (L.  culus,  ulus)  have 
the  force  of  diminutives,  as  in  animalcule, 
spicule,  etc. 

-ic,  -ics  (Gr.  ikon,  plural,  ika).  The 
first  is  an  adjectival  termination  most  often 
used  for  nouns,  and  generally  used  with  a 
plural  form  and  a  singular  significance 
Thus,  we  have  music  (something  pertain- 
ing to  the  Muses),  physic  (medicine),  dia- 
lectic (logic)  ;  but  ethics,  metaphysics,  eco- 
nomics, optics,  all  of  Greek  origin. 

-ISM  (Gr.  ismos).  This  suffix,  very  largely 
used  to  form  the  names  of  sects,  cults,  and 
religions,  as  Buddhism,  Calvinism,  Catholi- 
cism, etc.,  was  originally  used  in  Greek  for 
nouns  derived  from  verbs  ending  in  izo 
(ist  pers.  pres.  ind.),  and  serves  the  same 
purpose  in  English  with  nouns  from  many 
verbs  in  ize,  as  catechism  (from  catechise), 
dogmatism  (from  dogmatize),  systematism 
(from  systematize).  Its  use  with  a  Greek 
root,  as  in  these  cases,  generally  indicates 
such  a  derivation. 

-IST  (Gr.  istes)  properly  indicates  a  deriva- 
tive of  a  verb  in  izo  (ize),  but  is  used  with 
a  large  number  of  words  of  purely  English 
and  modern  origins.  Its  force  is,  in  all 
cases,  "one  who  is,  does,  or  works  at"  the 
thing  indicated  by  the  root-word. 

-ins  (Gr.  tis)  indicates  a  noun  or  adjec- 
tive-noun derived  from  a  fundamental 
word  having  the  same  root  It  has  the 
force  of  "something  belonging  to,  like, 
etc.,"  but  is  used  in  English  to  signify  an 
inflammatory  disease,  as  laryngitis,  perito- 
nitis, etc. 

-OR  (L.  or)  is  only  the  Latin  counterpart 
of  the  English  er,  signifying  "one  who 
does."  Thus  we  have  in  English  the  pure 
Latin  words,  actor,  auditor,  collector,  factor, 
doctor,  juror,  victor.  In  fact,  most,  if  not 
all,  words  with  this  suffix  are  borrowed  di- 
rect from  the  Latin. 

-URE  (L.  «ro)  is  a  suffix  akin  to  the  par- 
ticiple in  rus,  properly  the  future  participle, 
and  has  the  force  of  "done"  or  "to  be  done," 
the  word  to  which  it  is  joined  being  in 
form  the  stem  of  the  past  participle.  Thus, 
we  have  picture,  creature,  scripture,  rapture, 
capture,  nipture.  We  have,  also,  mixture, 
seizure,  pleasure,  etc.,  not  directly  derived 
from  Latin;  showing  that  this  suffix  is  very 
nearly  adopted  as  a  true  English  termina- 
tion. It  also  occurs  as  ;>.  verb  and  adjec- 


ENGLISH   WORDS    OF   FOREIGN   ORIGIN 


51 


tive  suffix,  as  in  secure,  procure,  endure, 
etc. 

-Y  (L.  ia,  itts;  Gr.  ia,  ios,  eia,  eios),  in 
such  proper  names  as  Italy  (Italia),  Livy 
(Livius),  Pliny  (Plinius),  and  in  such 
common  nouns  as  philosophy  (ia),  orthoepy 
(eia),  prosody  (to).  The  adjective  suffix, 
y,  as  in  bloody,  dirty,  oily,  etc.,  does  not 
seem  to  have  a  direct  classical  origin. 

-LOGY  and  -OLOGY  (Gr.  logos).  This  word, 
as  a  terminative  member  in  compound 
words  of  Greek  origin,  has  come  to  have 
very  much  the  nature  of  a  suffix  in 
English,  and  is  appended  to  many  words 
and  roots  of  modern  origin.  It  always  in- 
dicates science  of,  knowledge  of,  teaching 
of,  as  theology,  biology,  zoology,  geology. 

ADJECTIVES 

ADJECTIVE  SUFFIXES. — Among  adjective 
suffixes  are  a  number  found  also  with 
nouns.  That  is  to  say,  many  adjectives 
with  these  terminations  are  used  also  as 
nouns.  In  this  category  are  four  principal 
suffixes  with  the  common  significance  of 
"pertaining,  relating,  belonging  to"  the  idea 
or  object  represented  by  the  root- word. 
They  are: 

-ABLE,  -IBLE,  -BLE  (L.  obilis,  ibilis)  denote 
"what  may  be,  can  be,  or  is  worthy  to  be," 
as  in  respectable,  accessible,  flexible,  visible, 
and  are  used  with  both  Latin  and  English 
roots. 

-AC  (Gr.  akos)  signifies  "of,  belonging  to, 
pertaining  to,"  as  in  elegiac,  cardiac. 

-ACEOUS  (L.  aceus)  signifies  "like,  of,  or 
belonging  to,"  as  argillaceous,  saponaceous, 
herbaceous. 

-AL  (L.  alis),  as  in  filial,  mental,  regal, 
general,  national,  etc. 

-AN  or  IAN  (L.  anus,  ianus),  as  in  Roman, 
Christian,  veteran;  although  many  such 
words  are  of  English  origin,  as  artisan, 
librarian. 

-ANT  and  -ENT  (Latin  participial  stems) 
are  used  with  verbal  derivatives,  and  have 
the  force  of  "being,"  or  of  "one  who  is  or 
does"  that  indicated  by  the  root-word  to 
which  they  are  appended;  as  in  tenant,  ser- 
vant, ignorant,  ardent,  potent,  pendent,  etc., 
very  many  of  which  are  used  as  both  adjec- 
tives and  nouns. 

-AR  (L.  am)  has  the  force  of  "relating 
or  belonging  to,  having,"  as  in  circular,  in- 
sular, angular,  titular.  It  also  occurs,  as  a 
shortened  form  of  ary,  as  in  vicar;  as  a 
substitute  for  al,  after  roots  with  /,  as  in 
the  above  cases;  and  as  a  form  for  er,  as 
in  beggar. 

-ARY  and  -ORY  (L.  anus  and  orius)  seem 


to  differ  only  by  reason  of  euphony.  They 
give  such  words  as  military,  pulmonary, 
temporary,  transitory,  compulsory;  also 
many  nouns,  as  armory,  factory,  memory, 
library,  vagary,  etc. 

-ATE  (Latin,  at  us)  indicates  a  verbal  de- 
rivative with  the  past  participial  meanings 
of  "having  been,"  or  of  "one  who  has  been," 
as  in  legate,  cognate,  curate,  delegate;  also 
as  a  simple  adjective  termination  indicating 
possession  or  a  state  of  being,  as  corporate, 
fortunate,  passionate,  desperate;  many  of 
both  descriptions  being  used  both  for  nouns 
and  adjectives. 

-ic  and  -ICAL  (Gr.  ikos;  L.  icus,  icalis) 
have  the  force  of  "belonging  or  relating  to." 
These  suffixes  are  often  used  interchange- 
ably, as  with  symbolic  and  symbolical, 
chemic  and  chemical;  but  in  several-  cases 
involve  very  different  meanings  in  the 
words:  Thus,  politic  (tactful,  wary)  and 
political  (relating  to  the  state) — although 
we  say  body  politic;  classic  and  classical; 
economic  and  economical;  philosophic  and 
philosophical,  poetic  and  poetical. 

-ID  and  IDE  (L.  idus)  indicates  the  Latin 
form  of  certain  adjective  endings  with  a 
quasi-participial  significance  of  "being  or 
possessing"  the  quality  indicated  by  the 
root- word;  as  acrid,  frigid,  fervid,  horrid, 
turgid,  etc. ;  also,  with  chemical  terms,  as 
carbide,  oxide,  sulphide,  calcide,  bromide, 
etc.,  which  have  a  significance  peculiar  to 
chemistry. 

-INE  (L.  inus)  is  a  derivative  termination 
signifying  "of,  or  pertaining  to,"  as  in  ca- 
nine, divine,  feminine,  marine,  etc. 

-ITE  (L.  itus;  Gr.  tes)  indicates  a  past 
participial  derivative,  or  a  verb  with  a  past 
participial  form;  also  nouns  with  the  Greek 
derivative  termination,  te,  like  athlete,  aes- 
thete, frequently  made  into  ite,  as  in  Levite. 
Among  Latin  derivatives  is  favorite. 

-IVE  (L.  ivus)  is  another  verbal  derivative 
ending  borrowed  from  Latin,  as  in  captive, 
fugitive,  native,  etc.,  and  has  the  force  of 
"one  who  has  been"  or  "having  been." 

-OID  (Gr.  eidos)  is  a  suffix  derived  from 
a  verbal  stem  signifying  "seeming  to  be, 
appearing,  like,"  and  is  so  used  in  English, 
principally  with  Greek  roots,  as  in  the  words 
anthropoid  (like  a  man),  asteroid  (like  a 
star — hence  a  "little  star"),  pithecoid  (like 
a  monkey),  odontoid  (like  a  tooth). 

-OSE  and  -ous  (L.  osus)  signify  "full  of 
or  consisting  of,"  as  in  verbose,  jocose, 
grandiose,  igneous,  fibrous,  sonorous;  al- 
though occasionally,  "belonging  to,  of,"  as 
in  fallacious,  cutaneous,  vitreous.  These 
suffixes  also  terminate  many  compound  ad- 


52 


ENGLISH   WORDS   OF   FOREIGN    ORIGIN 


Jectives,  and  some  of  later  origin,  such  as 
grievous  and  murderous. 

VERBAL  SUFFIXES. — In  addition  to  the 
verbal  suffixes  already  mentioned — such  as 
ate  and  ite — there  are  several  with  the  gen- 
eral meaning  of  "to  do,  to  make." 

-IZE  and  ISE  (Gr.  iaro)  are  used  very 
largely  with  verbs  indicating  a  change  in 
belief,  habit,  etc.,  as  romanize,  Americanize, 
but  frequently  has  the  force  of  changing  a 
form,  as  in  vulcanize,  particularize,  general- 
ize. Their  derivatives  are  formed  with  ism, 
ist,  ite.  The  suffix,  ise,  is  sometimes  a  va- 
riation of  ize,  and  sometimes  indicates  a 
verb  of  other  than  Greek  origin,  often 
French,  allied  to  verbs  in  ice,  as  suffice,  no- 
tice, etc.  Thus  we  have  the  noun,  prac- 
tice, and  the  verb,  practise.  The  noun,  ad- 
vice, and  the  verb,  advise. 

-FY  (Fr.  Her;  L.  /Ico),  as  though  a 
compound  from  the  Latin  verb,  fieri,  fac- 
t*m,  forms  its  derivatives  with  faction  or 
/ico/ion  as:  satisfy  and  satisfaction;  edify 
and  edification;  justify  and  justification; 
mortify  and  mortification.  The  difference 
will  be  explained  in  connection  with  the 
list  of  roots. 

-UTE  (L  utus)  is  used  with  verbs  having 
the  Latin  past  participial  stem  in  English, 
as  persecute,  prosecute,  institute,  most  of 
which  are  derived  from  the  Latin  verbs 
sequi,  secutus,  "follow,"  and  statuere,  statu- 
twn,  "establish." 

LIST    OF   PREFIXES 

LATIN  AND  GREEK  PREFIXES. — The  most 
prominent  prefixes,  used  with  foreign  words- 
in  the  English  language,  are  given  in  the 
following  paragraphs,  with  their  more  fa- 
miliar word-combinations.  Many  of  them 
undergo  variation  in  the  process  of  combin- 
ing, but  these  are  readily  recognized  after 
the  rules  are  understood. 

Thus,  a,  signifying  "without,"  becomes 
an  before  roots  beginning  with  vowels;  ab 
becomes  abs  before  t,  and  a  before  v;  con 
becomes  co  before  vowels,  cog  before  n,  col 
before  I,  com  before  b,  m,  and  p,  and  cor 
before  r;  dis  becomes  di  before  g,  I,  m,  s,  v; 
in  becomes  il  before  /,  im  before  m,  ir  be- 
fore r;  in  (privative)  becomes  ig  before  n, 
il  before  /,  im  before  m  and  p,  ir  before  r; 
ob  becomes  oc  before  c,  of  before  f,  op  be- 
fore p;  sub  becomes  sue  before  c,  suf  before 
/,  sup  before  p,  sug  before  g,  sus  before  t; 
syn  becomes  sy  before  /,  syl  before  /,  and 
sym  before  m.  Contra  is  frequently  changed 
to  counter,  with  words  of  English  and 
French  origin;  and  the  Latin  prce  is  always 
spelled  pre. 


In  order  to  render  the  following  list 
comprehensible  to  the  student,  the  prefixes 
are  differ entiattd  from  the  root- words  by 
italics.  The  suffixes  may  be  recognized. 

L. — A  or  AN  occurs  properly  only  with 
Greek  roots  corresponding  to  the  Latin  in, 
privative,  also  meaning  "without"  Among 
the  words  in  which  its  use  is  most  familiar 
are  the  following:  abyss  (byssos,  a  bottom), 
anarchy,  acephalous,  anemic,  anomalous 
(omalos,  like),  apathy,  aseptic,  atheistic, 
and  their  derivatives. 

2. — AB  (L)  has  the  force  of  "away  or 
away  from,"  occurring  with  the  following 
words:  abate,  abbreviate,  abdicate,  aberra- 
tion, adject,  ablution,  abrade,  a&rupt,  ab- 
sent, absurd,  absolve,  abstract,  abstain, 
avert,  avocation,  avulsion. 

3.— AD  (L.)  has  the  force  of  "to"  or 
"at,"  and  is  used  with  the  following, 
among  very  many  others:  adapt,  adore,  a- 
scend,  aspire,  accede,  accept,  affix,  afflict, 
aggravate,  aggrandize,  afleviate,  a/lude,  an- 
nounce, awnul,  append,  appertain,  arrange, 
arrogance,  assign,  assume,  attend,  a/test 

4. — AMBI,  sometimes  AM  (L.),  means 
"around,  on  both  sides,"  as  in  ambition, 
ambient,  ambiguous,  ambidextrous,  ampu- 
tate. 

5. — AMPHI  (Gr.)  is  the  correspondent  of 
the  Latin  ambi,  and  occurs  in  the  following 
common  words,  amphibian,  amphitheatre, 
amphora. 

6. — ANA  (Gr.)  means  "up"  or  "again,"  also 
"back."  Thus,  anadromous  means  "running 
up,"  while  anabaptist  means  "one  who  bap- 
tizes again."  Among  common  words  formed 
with  this  prefix  are  analogy,  analysis,  ana- 
tomy, anagram,  awastate,  anathema. 

7. — ANTE  (L.),  "before,"  occurs  in  ante- 
cedent, antedate,  antevert,  and  with  many 
English  words  and  past-Latin  compounds. 

8. — ANTI,  ANT  (Gr.),  "against,  opposed 
to,  opposite,"  occurs  in  anfarctic,  antipodes, 
antipathy,  antiphon,  and  a  large  number  of 
technical  and  scientific  terms. 

9.— APO  (Gr.),  "from,  away  from,"  occurs 
in  apostate,  apostle,  apostrophe,  apologue. 

10. — CATA,  GATE,  CAT  (Gr.  kata),  "down, 
down  upon,  on,"  as  in  catalogue,  catechism, 
catarrh,  category,  cafholic,  cathode. 

n. — CTRCUM  (L),  "around,  about,"  as  in 
circumstance,  circumscribe,  circumspect,  cir- 
cumference, circumflex. 

12. — CON,     CO,     COG,     COL,     COM,     COR     (L.), 

"with,  together,"  as  in  concur,  connect,  co- 
equal, cohere,  cognate,  collect,  compel,  cor- 
rode, congress. 

13- — COKTTRA  (L),  "against,"  as  in  contra- 
dict, controvert,  contravene,  contrary. 


ENGLISH   WORDS   OF   FOREIGN   ORIGIN 


53 


14. — DE  (L.),  "from,  out  of,  away  from," 
as  in  deduce,  deject,  depose,  depend,  de- 
volve. 

15. — DIA  (Gr.),  "through,  apart,  between," 
as  in  diameter,  dialogue,  diaphanous,  dia- 
gonal. 

1 6. — DIS,  DI,  DIP  (L.),  "apart,  asunder, 
away,"  as  in  dissolve,  distend,  disperse,  di- 
verge, digress,  differ,  diffuse. 

17.— EN,  EM  (Gr.),  "in,  on,"  the  Greek 
correspondent  of  the  Latin  in,  as  in  en- 
thuse, emphatic.  The  prefix,  em,  is  also 
used  with  a  large  number  of  purely  English 
words. 

18.— EPI  (Gr.),  "upon,"  as  in  epilogue,  epi- 
gram, epitaph,  epidemic. 

19.— EX,  E,  EC,  EF  (L.  and  Gr.),  "from, 
away  from,  out,  out  of,"  as  in  the  Latin 
derivatives,  exact,  expel,  expose,  extract, 
edict,  emit,  emerge,  efface,  efiulgent,  and 
the  Greek  derivatives,  eccentric,  ecstasy, 
eclogue,  exodus,  exegesis. 

20.— EXTRA  (L.),  "beyond,  outside  of,"  as 
in  ex/ramundane,  extraordinary,  extrava- 
gant, extradite. 

21. — HYPER  (Gr.),  "over  and  above,"  as 
in  /zy/>ercritical,  «y/>ertrophy,  hyperbole. 

22.— HYPO  (Gr.),  "under,"  also  "less 
than,"  as  in  hypothesis,  /zy/>ocritical,  hypo- 
dermic. 

23.— IN,  IL,  IM,  IR  (L.),  "in,  into,  on, 
upon,"  as  in  incline,  iwduce,  invent,  illumine, 
import,  impose,  irritate,  irruption. 

24.— IN,  IG,  IL,  IM,  IR  (L.),  "without,  not, 
un-,"  as  in  indecent,  iwcredible,  ignoble, 
ignominious  (i.e.,  unnamable),  iflegal,  t'/lit- 
erate,  impossible,  impudent,  irregular. 

25. — INTER  (L.),  "between,  among,"  as  in 
interfere,  interlude,  interpose,  intersect,  in- 
tervene. 

26.— INTRA,  INTRO  (L.),  "within,"  as  intro- 
duce, in/rospection,  introvert,  infromit. 

27. — META,  MET  (Gr.),  "beyond,  after,  fol- 
lowing, according  to,"  as  in  metaphor,  meta- 
physics, method,  wefagastric. 

28. — OB,  oq,  OF,  OP  (L.),  "against,  toward," 
as  in  o&ject,  ofctrude,  o&solete,  ofcloquy,  oc- 
casion, occur,  offend,  offer,  oppose,  oppress. 

29. — PARA,  PAR  (Gr.),  "beside,  like,"  as 
in  paracentric,  paraphrase,  parody,  parabola, 
parable,  parallel. 

30. — PER  (L.),  "through,"  as  in  pervade, 
perspire,  permanent,  permutate,  perennial; 
sometimes  meaning  "thoroughly,"  with  an 
intensive  force,  as  in  periect,  pernicious, 
perplex,  perjure. 

31. — PERI  (Gr.),  "around,  about,"  as  in 
perimeter,  period,  peristyle. 

32.— POST  (L.),  "after,"  as  in  postpone, 
postscript,  posthumous. 


33.— PRE  (L.  />rae),  "before,"  as  in  pre- 
cede, predict,  preier,  prevent. 

34. — PRETER  (L.  prater},  "past,  beyond," 
as  in  preterit,  preternatural. 

35. — PRO  (L.  and  Gr.),  "for,  forth,  out, 
forward,"  as  in  proceed,  promote,  propel, 
provoke.  With  Greek  roots  this  prefix  has 
the  same  meanings,  as  in  propaedeutic,  but 
has  also  the  force  of  "before,"  as  in  prophet, 
which  may  mean  "one  who  speaks  for  or 
forth  or  before,"  with  equal  correctness. 

36. — RE  (L.),  "again,  anew,  back,"  as  in 
react,  rebel,  recede,  repel,  resume,  refuse, 
and,  probably  also,  religion. 

37. — RETRO  (L.),  "backward,"  as  in  retro- 
grade, retrospect,  retrovert,  retrocede. 

38. — SE  (L.)  has  the  force  of  "away, 
apart  from,  aside,"  as  in  secede,  seclude, 
seduce,  sedition.  It  is  probably  derived 
from  the  third  personal  pronoun,  se,  "by 
one's  self,"  whence  the  meaning  "away 
from"  others. 

39.— SINE,  SIM,  SIN  (L.),  "without,"  as 
in  sinecure,  simple  ("without  fold"),  sin- 
cere ("without  wax,"  as  pure  honey;  hence 
"unmingled"). 

40.— SUB,    SUC,    SUF,    SUG,    SUP,    SUS     (L.), 

"under"  and  "beneath,"  hence,  with  many 
verbs,  "up."  Thus,  swoscribe,  sw&tract,  suc- 
ceed, succor,  suffer,  suffuse,  support,  sup- 
pose, swggest,  supplant. 

41.— SUBTER  (L.),  "under,"  as  in  subter- 
fuge. 

42. — SUPER  (L.),  "over,  above,"  as  in 
superpose,  supersede. 

43- — SUR  (Fr.  for  Latin  super},  as  in  sur- 
vive, surface,  surrogate. 

44.— SYN,  SYL,  SYM  (Gr.),  "with,  together 
with,"  Greek  correspondent  of  the  Latin 
con,  as  in  synod,  synonym,  syntax,  synopsis, 
syllable,  sympathy,  symmetry. 

45. — TRANS,  TRAN,  TRA  (L.),  "across,  over, 
beyond,  through,"  as  in  transcript,  transfer, 
translate,  traduce,  t reject. 

ROOTS   AND   THE   CHANGES 

DERIVING  WORDS  FROM  ROOTS. — In  deriv- 
ing words  from  Latin  and  Greek  roots, 
there  are  a  number  of  points  that  must  be 
understood  and  constantly  kept  in  mind. 
Among  these  is  the  fact  that  different  de- 
rivatives from  some  given  root  frequently 
vary  in  spelling  from  the  model  given  in 
the  English  dictionary,  even  add  syllables 
to  that  form.  Thus,  from  hospes,  a  "host," 
we  learn  that  the  words  hospitality  and  hos- 
pital are  derived,  but  the  origin  of  the  syl- 
lable, it,  is  not  clear.  The  explanation  is 
that  the  root  word  is  hospit,  as  appears  in 
all  cases  except  the  nominative,  which  is 


ENGLISH   WORDS   OF    FOREIGN    ORIGIN 


— — — — — — — 

probably  abbreviated  from  hospitis.  Thus, 
the  genitive  is  hospitis,  meaning  "of  a  host," 
etc.  So  also  from  caput,  "a  head,"  all  deriv- 
atives, such  as  capital,  decapitate,  etc.,  give 
the  root-word  as  capit,  which  form  is  found 
in  the  genitive,  capitis,  "of  a  head,"  etc. 

With  verbs  the  case  is  the  same.  Thus, 
from  the  verb,  cedere,  "to  go,  to  yield,"  we 
have  accede,  concede,  exceed,  proceed,  pre- 
cede, etc.,  but  also  accession,  concession, 
excess,  process,  etc.  Whence  the  syllable, 
essf  This  is  the  stem  of  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple, which  is  cessum,  formed  by  the 
same  irregularity  that  gives  us  the  English, 
thought,  from  think,  instead  of  "thinked," 
which  should  derive  according  to  the  gen- 
eral rule. 

But  the  spelling  of  stems  is  not  the  only 
variation  in  either  nouns  or  verbs.  We 
have,  for  example,  the  verb,  statuere,  from 
which  statue  and  statute  alike  derive.  When 
we  come  to  institute,  constitute,  substitute, 
we  find  that  the  root  has  been  changed 
from  statu  to  stitu.  This  fact  is  explained 
by  the  rule  that  most  verbs  with  a  in  the 
root  change  it  to  *,  when  preceded  by  a 
prepositional  prefix.  Thus,  from  facere,  "to 
do,"  we  have  eMcere,  afficere,  proficere,  per- 
ficere,  etc.;  from  gradi,  "to  step,  to  go," 
progredi,  ingredi,  etc. 

Again,  certain  words  that  seem  to  be 
directly  derived  from  Latin  have  the  spell- 
ing changed  in  the  process.  Such  are  clear 
(L.  clarus),  chant  (cantum),  claim  (cla- 
mare).  The  explanation  is  that  these,  and 
numerous  other  words,  both  changed  and 
unchanged,  are  derived  through  the  French, 
which  corrupted  or  modified  most  of  the 
Latin  words  adopted  into  its  vocabulary. 
Thus,  clear  derives  from  the  old  French 
cler,  now  clair;  chant,  from  the  French 
chanter,  and  claim  from  the  French 
claimer.  The  same  influence  transformed 
the  Latin  cadens  into  "chance";  cancella 
into  "chancel";  concilium  into  "council,"  etc. 
With  Greek  words  the  derivation  is  far 
more  direct,  probably  because  the  greater 
part  of  them  have  been  added  to  the  lan- 
guage within  the  last  few  centuries,  and 
were  long  used  as  the  common  stock  of 
learned  dialects. 

LIST  OF  COMMON  ROOT- WORDS. 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  the  stu- 
dent may  readily  separate  the  prefixes  and 
suffixes;  understand  the  reasons  for  most 
of  the  common  variations  in  spelling,  and 
be  able  to  identify  the  roots  combined  into 
concrete  words.  In  order  to  gain  a  clear 
understanding  of  meanings,  it  will  be  nec- 


essary only  to  give  a  list  of  the  roots  most 
commonly  used. 

In  the  following  list  the  nouns  are  given 
in  their  root  forms,  the  verbs  in  their  pres- 
ent infinitive  and  past  participle,  except 
where  the  perfect  stem  presents  variations 
adopted  into  English. 

ACERB  (L.  acerbus,  bitter),  as  in  "acerbi- 
ty," bitterness;  "exacerbate,"  to  make  [one] 
bitter. 

ACOU  (Gr.  akouo,  I  hear),  as  in  "acou- 
stics," the  science  of  sounds;  "acoumeter," 
an  instrument  to  test  the  hearing. 

ACRI  (L.  acris,  sharp),  as  in  "acrid," 
sharp,  acid;  "acridity";  "acrimony,"  se- 
verity. 

ACRO  (Gr.  akron,  top,  end,  summit),  as 
in  "acrobat"  (one  who  goes  to  the  sum- 
mit), an  aerial  performer;  "acromegoly,"  a 
disease  in  which  the  extremities  grow  to 
great  size;  "acropolis,"  a  high  place  in  a 
city;  "acrostic"  (end-line),  a  stanza  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  first  letters  of  the  verses 
spell  a  name  or  phrase. 

ACU  (L.  acuo,  acutum,  to  sharpen),  as  in 
"acute,"  sharp,  penetrating;  "acumen,"  in- 
tellectual sharpness. 

AGGER  (L.  agger,  a  heap — ad-gerere),  as 
in  "exaggerate,"  to  pile  up  with  words. 

ACT,  AG,  IG  (L.  agere,  actum,  to  do,  to 
act),  as  in  "act,"  "action,"  "active,"  "actor"; 
"coact,"  to  act  with;  "counteract,"  to  hin- 
der ;  "enact,"  to  decree ;  "exact,"  precise,  ac- 
curate, strict;  "inaction,"  rest;  "react,"  to 
resist  act  with  act;  "transact,"  to  perform, 
as  of  business,  etc.;  "agent,"  one  who  acts 
for  another;  "cogent"  (co-agent),  forcible, 
convincing;  "indigent"  (in-d-agent),  want- 
ing, needy,  poor;  "navigate"  (navigare, 
from  nav-agere),  to  manage  a  ship;  "prodi- 
gal" (one  sent  forth  or  away),  spendthrift, 
wasteful. 

AGOG,  AGON  (Gr.  ago,  I  lead),  as  in  "ag- 
ony," pain,  suffering,  as  in  striving  or  fight- 
ing (hence  "agonize") ;  "antagonist,"  an 
opponent,  one  led  against;  "demagogue," 
a  leader  of  the  people,  a  popular  head ; 
"pedagogue,"  a  leader  of  children,  hence  a 
teacher;  "synagogue,"  a  place  of  coming- 
together  (L.  conventicle),  a  Jewish  place  of 
worship. 

AGRA,  AGRI,  EGRi  (L.  oger,  agri,  a  field, 
land),  "agrarian,"  relating  to  farms;  "agri- 
culture," field-culture,  farming;  "peregri- 
nate," to  wander,  go  through  lands. 

AL,  ALIT  (L.  alere,  alitum,  to  feed),  as 
in  "aliment,"  food;  "alimony,"  allowance 
for  support  in  divorce  cases;  "alms";  "al- 
moner," alms-distributor;  "coalition"  (feed- 
ing with),  union  for  mutual  interest. 


ENGLISH   WORDS    OF   FOREIGN    ORIGIN 


56 


ALI,  ALTER  (L.  alius,  aliettus,  alter,  an- 
other), as  in  "alias,"  otherwise;  "alien," 
foreign;  "inalienable,"  not  transferable; 
"alter,"  to  change. 

ALG  (Gr.  algos,  pain),  as  in  "neuralgia," 
nerve-ache;  "algometer,"  an  instrument  to 
measure  pain. 

ALL,  ALLEL  (Gr.  allos,  another;  allelon, 
one  another),  as  in  "allegory,"  a  parable, 
a  tale  leading  (ago)  to  something  else;  "al- 
lopathy," a  system  of  treating  diseases  by 
drugs  producing  effects  other  than  its  symp- 
toms; "allopylian,"  of  another  tribe;  "al- 
lotropy,"  chemical  property  of  changing; 
"parallel,"  side  by  side. 

ALT  (L.  altus,  high),  as  in  "altitude," 
height;  "exalt,"  to  make  high. 

AM,  AMIC  (L.  amare,  to  love;  amicus,  a 
friend),  as  in  "amiable";  "amicable";  "inim- 
ical," hostile;  "amorous";  "enamor";  and 
through  the  French,  "amity,"  friendship ; 
"enmity,"  hatred;  "amour,"  a  love  affair; 
"amateur,"  one  who  follows  an  art  or  oc- 
cupation for  love  of  it. 

ANG,  A  NX  (L.  anger e,  anxum,  to  vex  or 
annoy),  as  in  "anger,"  "anguish,"  "anxiety." 

ANGEL  (Gr.  aggelos,  a  bearer  of  tidings), 
as  in  "angel";  "evangel"  (good  tidings),  the 
gospel ;  "evangelist." 

ANGL,  ANGUL  (L.  angulus,  an  angle),  as 
in  "angle,"  "rectangle,"  "triangle,"  "angu- 
lar," etc. 

ANIM  (L.  anima,  breath;  animus,  mind, 
courage),  as  in  "animal";  "animate";  "an- 
imadvert," to  turn  the  mind  to,  to  consid- 
er; "animosity,"  (courage-fulness),  hatred; 
"magnanimous,"  noble ;  "pusillanimous" 
(child-minded),  weak,  cowardly;  "unani- 
mous," one-minded,  agreeing. 

ANN,  ENN  (L.  annus,  year),  as  in  "an- 
nals"; "annual";  "anniversary";  "biennial," 
two-yearly;  "triennial,"  three-yearly;  "mil- 
lennium," one  thousand  years ;  "superannu- 
ated," over-yeared,  old  beyond  usefulness,  as 
in  business,  etc. 

ANTHROP  (Gr.  anthropos,  a  man),  as  in 
"anthropometric,"  man-measuring ;  "misan- 
throp'ist,"  man-hater;  "philanthropist,"  a 
lover  of  humanity;  "anthropology,"  science 
of  man. 

ARCH  (Gr.  arche,  beginning,  chief,  head, 
government),  "arch,"  shrewd;  "anarchy," 
lack  of  government;  "archangel,"  a  chief 
angel;  "archbishop";  "architect,"  master 
builder,  designer;  "hierarch,"  chief  priest; 
"monarch,"  one  who  rules  alone,  a  king; 
"patriarch,"  a  father-king. 

ARD,  ARS  (L.  ardere,  arsum,  to  burn),  as 
in  "ardent,"  heated  with  zeal ;  "ardor."  zeal ; 
"arson,"  house-burning. 


AST  (.Gr.  aster  and  astron,  a  star),  as  in 
"astral,"  starry;  "aster,"  a  star-shaped 
flower;  "asteroid,"  a  small  star;  "asterisk," 
a  star-shaped  sign  [*] ;  "astronomy" ;  "as- 
trology"; "disaster,"  evil  fortune,  an  ill- 
starred  happening. 

AUG,  AUCT,  AUT  (L.  augere,  auctum,  to 
cause,  to  make,  to  add  to),  as  in  "augment," 
to  increase;  "author,"  originator;  "author- 
ity," power  to  act  or  make;  "authorize"; 
"auction,"  an  authorized  public  sale. 

AUTO  (Gr.  autos,  self),  as  in  "autograph,'' 
one's  own  writing;  "autocrat,"  one  who 
rules  as  pleases  himself;  "autopsy,"  a  see- 
ing for  one's  self,  examination  of  a  dead 
body;  "automatic,"  self-moving;  "automo- 
bile," a  self-moving  vehicle. 

BALL,  BLE,  SOL  (Gr.  ballo,  I  throw),  as  in 
"ball";  "symbol,"  a  sign;  "emblem,"  a  pic- 
ture; "parable";  "problem"  (thrown- forth), 
a  question  for  solution;  "hyperbole";  "para- 
bola"; "diabolical"  (accusing,  slandering), 
pertaining  to  the  devil,  the  accuser;  from 
the  French  diable,  "devil,"  "devilish." 

BI  (L.  bis,  two,  twice;  bini,  two-by-two), 
as  in  "biennial,"  two-yearly;  "bigamy,"  hav- 
ing two  wives;  "binary"  double;  "biped," 
two-footed  animal;  "combine,"  to  join  to- 
gether; through  the  French,  "biscuit" 
(twice-cooked).  Bi  occurs  as  a  prefix  to 
numerous  other  words,  always  with  the 
meanings,  two  or  twice,  as  in  "binomial," 
"bicycle,"  a  two-wheel. 

BIBL  (Gr.  biblos,  a  book),  as  in  "Bible"; 
"bibliography,"  knowledge  of  books ;  "biblio- 
phile," a  book-lover. 

BIO  (Gr.  bios,  life),  as  in  "biology,"  "bi- 
ography," "amphibious,"  living  in  both  (land 
and  water). 

BBEV  (L.  bre-vis,  short),  as  in  "brevity"; 
"breviary,"  a  shortened  book,  a  prayer  book ; 
"abbreviate,"  to  shorten;  through  '  the 
French,  "brief";  "abridge." 

CAD,  CID,  CAS  (L.  coder  e,  casum,  to  fall; 
with  prefixes  CIDERE),  as  in  "cadence"; 
"decadent";  "accident";  "coincide";  "inci- 
dent"; "occasion";  "Occident,"  the  west, 
place  of  sunset ;  through  the  French,  "case" ; 
"casual";  "decay." 

CANT,  CENT,  CHANT  (L.  canere,  cantum, 
and  cantare,  cantatum,  to  sing,  to  chant; 
with  some  prefixes,  cenere  and  centare),  as 
in  "cant,"  whining  talk ;  "accent" ;  "canticle" 
and  "canto,"  terms  used  in  poetry;  "descant" 
(discanere},  to  sing  or  relate  with  details; 
"recant,"  to  sing  again  (in  religion),  hence 
to  renounce  heresy ;  "incantation,"  a  magical 
song;  through  the  French  "chant,"  "en- 
chant," to  charm ;  also,  "recant." 
CAP,  CAPT,  CEPT  (L.  cap  ere,  cap  turn,  to 


56 


ENGLISH   WORDS   OF    FOREIGN    ORIGIN 


take),  as  "capacity,"  ability  to  take;  "cap- 
tive, captor,  capture";  "accept";  "antici- 
pate"; "emancipate";  "capable";  "recipe"; 
"recipient."  Through  the  French,  "con- 
ceit"; "conceive";  "deceive";  "occupy";  "re- 
ceive" and  "receipt."  From  Latin  deriva- 
tive, princeps  (taken  first),  a  leader, 
"prince" ;  "principal" ;  "principle." 

CAP,  CIP  (L.  caput,  capitis,  head),  as  in 
"cap,"  head-covering;  "capitulate,"  to  give 
heads  of  a  subject;  "decapitate,"  to  cut  off 
the  head;  "precipice,"  a  headlong  steep; 
"precipitate."  Through  the  French,  "cap- 
tain," a  head  man,  chief;  "chapter,"  princi- 
pal division  of  a  book  or  society. 

CEAL  (L.  celere,  to  hide),  as  in  "conceal," 
which  is  derived  through  the  French. 

CEDE,  CEED,  CESS  (L.  cedere,  cessum,  to  go, 
to  yield,  to  cease),  as  in  "cede";  "accede," 
"access,"  and  "accession";  "precede";  "pro- 
ceed," "process,"  and  "procession";  "ex- 
ceed," "excess" ;  "recede,"  "secede" ;  "in- 
cessant," unceasing,  not  going  away;  "suc- 
ceed," to  follow,  to  prosper  {i.e.  to  follow 
good  fortune). 

CEL  (L.  celsus,  high),  as  in  "excel,"  to 
surpass;  "excellent";  "excelsior,"  higher 
still. 

CENT  (L.  centum,  a  hundred),  as  in  "cent," 
a  coin;  "century";  "centurion,"  commander 
of  too  men;  "centennial,"  loo-year;  "centi- 
pede," hundred- foot. 

CENTR  (Gr.  kentron;  L.  centrum,  centre), 
as  in  "centre";  "central";  "concentrate"; 
"eccentric";  "paracentric";  "centrifugal," 
fleeing  from  the  centre;  "centripetal,"  cen- 
tre-seeking; "concentric";  "geocentric,"  and 
"heliocentric." 

CHRON  (Gr.  chronos,  time),  as  in  "chron- 
ic" ;  "chronicle,"  an  historic  record ;  "chro- 
nometer," a  clock;  "chronology,"  science  of 
dates,  etc.;  "anachronism,"  a  custom  op- 
posed to  the  times. 

CIDE,  cis  (L.  ceedere,  ceesum,  to  cut,  to 
kill;  with  prefixes,  cidere,  cisum),  as  in  "de- 
cide"; "excise";  "excision";  "homicide,  par- 
ricide, fratricide,  regicide";  "incision";  "pre- 
cision"; meaning  "cutting"  or  "killing," 
according  to  the  other  elements  in  the  word. 

CIT  (L.  citare,  to  summon,  to  stir  up), 
as  in  "cite";  "excite";  "recite";  "resusci- 
tate" (re-sub-citatum). 

CLAM,  CLAIM  (L.  clamare,  clamatum,  to 
shout,  to  cry),  as  in  "clamor";  "acclama- 
tion"; "exclamation."  Through  the  French: 
"acclaim";  "proclaim";  "exclaim";  "re- 
claim." 

CLAR  (L.  clarus,  clear),  as  in  "declare"; 
"clarify."  Through  the  French:  "clarion"; 
"clear"  (clair). 


CLIN  (L.  clinere,  to  lie,  to  lean),  as  in 
"clinic";  "incline";  "recline."  Through  the 
French:  "declension"  (L.  declinatio). 

CLUD,  CLUS,  CLOS  (L.  claudere,  clausum, 
to  close,  to  shut ;  with  prefixes,  cludere,  clu- 
sum),  as  in  "conclude";  "exclude";  "con- 
clusion"; "exclusion";  "preclude";  "se- 
clude"; "clause."  Through  the  French: 
"close" ;  "enclose"  and  "enclosure" ;  "closet" ; 
"disclose"  and  "disclosure." 

COM  (Gr.  komos,  a  revel,  a  social  gather- 
ing), as  in  "comedy";  "comic";  "encomi- 
um," a  eulogy  given  at  a  feast.  From  the 
Latin,  comes,  comitis,  a  companion:  "com- 
ity" ;  "concomitant,"  accompanying.  Through 
the  French:  "count,"  a  nobleman  (comte), 
and  "county." 

COR,  COUR  (L.  cors,  cordis,  heart),  as  in 
"cordial";  "concord";  "discord";  "record." 
Through  the  French:  "core";  "courage"; 
"discourage." 

CRACY,  CRAT  (Gr.  kratos,  power,  domin- 
ion), as  in  "aristocracy,"  rule  of  the 
best;  "aristocrat";  "democracy,"  rule  of 
the  people;  "autocracy";  "autocrat";  "the- 
ocracy." 

CREA  (L.  ere  are,  creatum,  to  create),  as 
in  "create";  "creation";  "creature";  "recre- 
ation." Through  the  French:  "recreant," 
cowardly,  false. 

CRED,  CREED  (L.  credere,  creditum,  to  trust, 
to  believe),  as  in  "creed";  "credit";  "dis- 
credit"; "credible";  "creditor,"  one  who 
trusts — hence  one  to  whom  money  is  due. 

CREE,  CRIM,  CERT  (L.  cernere,  cretum,  and 
-criminare,  -criminatum,  to  separate,  to  dis- 
tinguish), as  in  "crime,"  something  that 
separates  a  person  from  others;  "discrimi- 
nate"; "incriminate";  "concern";  "discern"; 
"discreet";  "secrete";  "secret";  "secretary." 
Through  the  French:  "decree"  and  "de- 
cretal." 

CRESE,  CREASE,  CRETE  (L.  crescere,  cretum, 
to  grow,  to  increase),  as  in  "concrete";  "dis- 
creet"; "crescent";  "excrescence."  Through 
the  French:  "accrue";  "increase";  "de- 
crease"; "recruit." 

CRIS,  OUT  (Gr.  krisis,  judgment;  krites,  a 
judge),  as  in  "critic";  "criticism";  "crite- 
rion," a  standard  of  judgment;  "crisis,"  a 
deciding  point;  "hypocrite";  "hypercriti- 
cal"; "hypocrisy." 

CUB,  CUMB  (L.  cubere,  cubitum,  to  bend, 
to  lie;  with  some  prefixes,  cumbere),  as  in 
"incumbent" ;  "recumbent" ;  "succumb" ; 
"cubit"  (L.  cubitum,  the  elbow),  a  meas- 
ure on  the  forearm.  Through  the  French: 
"encumber." 

CULT,  COL  (L.  colere,  cultum,  to  till,  in- 
habit, care  for,  worship),  as  in  "cult,"  a 


ENGLISH   WORDS   OF    FOREIGN    ORIGIN 


67 


system  of  worship,  etc.;  "colony,"  a  new 
settlement,  sometimes  a  peculiar  commu- 
nity; "culture,"  "agriculture,"  "floricul- 
ture," etc. 

CUR  (L.  euro,  care),  as  in  "cure,"  to  care 
for,  hence  to  heal;  "curate";  "accurate"; 
"procure";  "secure";  "sinecure."  Through 
the  French :  "curious."  Contracted,  "proxy," 
for  "procuracy." 

CURR,  CURS  (L.  cur  r  ere,  cur  sum,  to  run), 
as  in  "concur" ;  "current" ;  "excursion" ;  "in- 
cur." Through  the  French:  "carry";  "ca- 
reer"; "concourse";  "course";  "courier"; 
"discourse." 

CYCL  (Gr.  kuklos,  a  circle),  as  in  "cycle," 
a  period  of  time,  later,  a  wheel,  as  in  "bi- 
cycle," "tricycle";  "encyclical,"  a  letter  sent 
around;  "cyclopaedia"  and  "encyclopaedia" 
(education-circle),  a  compendium  of  in- 
formation. 

DAT,  DIT  (L.  dare,  datum,  to  give;  with 
some  prefixes,  -dere,  -ditum),  as  in  "date," 
a  given  time;  "mandate"  (L.  mandare), 
"command";  "edit";  "addition";  "perdi- 
tion"; "add"  (L.  addere).  Through  the 
French:  "subdue." 

DEC  (L.  decem;  Gr.  deka,  ten),  as  in  "dec- 
alogue," the  ten  commandments;  "decagon," 
ten-angled  figure;  "decimal";  "decimate," 
to  take  (kill)  every  tenth;  "December." 
Through  the  French :  "decade,"  a  period  of 
ten  years;  "dean"  (L.  decanus),  a  ruler  of 
ten,  now  used  for  eldest  or  head  in  certain 
connections. 

DEM  (Gr.  demos,  people),  as  in  "demo- 
crat" ;  "demagogue" ;  "epidemic" ;  "en- 
demic." 

DENT  (L.  dens,  dentis,  a  tooth),  as  in  "in- 
dent"; "dental";  "trident"  (three-tooth); 
"dent,"  a  mark  as  of  a  tooth. 

DI,  DIS  (Gr.  dis,  two),  as  in  "dilemma"; 
"diploma"  (folded-double),  an  authorita- 
tive document;  "diphthong";  "distich,"  a 
two-line  stanza;  "dissever,"  to  cut  in  two. 

DICAT  (L.  dicare,  dicatum,  to  show,  to 
point  out),  as  in  "abdicate";  "dedicate"; 
"predicate" ;  "index,"  a  pointer,  an  indica- 
tor. Through  the  French :  "predicament." 

DICT  (L.  dicer e,  dictum,  to  say,  to  speak), 
as  in  "addict";  "dictate";  "diction";  "dic- 
tionary"; "interdict";  "jurisdiction";  "con- 
tradict"; "predict";  "edict";  "verdict"  (vere, 
truly ;  dictum,  said)  ;  "benediction." 
Through  the  French:  "indict"  and  "indite." 

DOC,  DOCT  (L.  docere,  doctum,  to  teach), 
as  in  "doctor,"  a  teacher,  learned  man,  a 
physician ;  "doctrine" ;  "document" ;  "do- 
cile"; "docility";  "indoctrinate."  (Gr.  do- 
kco,  I  teach),  as  in  "dogma,"  a  doctrine; 
"orthodox,"  rightly  taught;  "heterodox," 


otherwise  taught;  "paradox,"  a  truth  ap- 
parently absurd;  "doxology"  (Gr.  do.va,  a 
teaching,  also  glory),  an  expression  of 
glory  to  God. 

DUC,  DUCT  (L.  ducere,  ductum,  to  lead), 
as  in  "conduce";  "conduct";  "educate"; 
"educe";  "induce";  "introduce";  "produce"; 
"reduce";  "product";  "production";  "re- 
duction"; "ductile";  "duct,"  a  pipe  for 
water,  etc.;  "aqueduct";  "viaduct";  "duke" 
(L.  dux,  a  leader)  ;  "ducal" ;  "ducat,"  duke's 
money.  Through  the  French:  "conduit." 

EC,  oc  (Gr.  oikos,  a  house),  as  in  "eco- 
nomical" (house-ruling),  thrifty;  "econom- 
ics," the  science  of  statesmanship ;  "diocese," 
an  episcopal  jurisdiction. 

ENS,  ENT  (L.  ens,  entis,  present  participle 
of  esse,  to  be,  in  its  compounds),  as  in  such 
adjectives  as  "absent";  "present";  "potent"; 
and  such  nouns  as  "essence." 

EST  (L.  est,  he  is),  as  in  "interest." 

IT  (L.  ire,  itum,  to  go),  as  in  "ambition" 
(literally,  a  going-about  for  one's  interests)  ; 
"circuit";  "transit";  "transitive";  "trans- 
ient"; "sedition";  "perish"  (L.  perire) ; 
"obituary"  (from  L.  obire). 

FAC,  FEC,  FIC  (L.  facere,  factum,  to  do, 
to  make;  with  prefixes  -ficere,  -fectum),  as 
in  "fact";  "affect";  "effect,"  and  numerous 
other  verbs  and  nouns  with  prefixes;  "de- 
ficient"; "deficit";  "manufacture";  "munifi- 
cent"; "petrifaction";  "proficient";  "suffi- 
cient" ;  and  numerous  verbs  formed  from 
fieri,  factus,  the  passive  form  of  facere,  and 
verbs  ending  in  fy.  The  word,  "preface," 
is  from  fari,  fatum,  to  speak,  and  is  cor~ 
rupted  from  the  Latin  prefatum.  Also,  the 
word,  "fiction,"  is  from  the  verb,  fingere, 
fictum,  to  arrange,  to  put  together;  and 
"fix,"  as  in  "crucifix";  "prefix";  "transfix"; 
"fixture,"  etc.,  from  the  verb,  figere,  fixum, 
to  fix,  to  secure. 

FER,  FERE  (L.  ferre;  Gr.  phero,  to  bear, 
to  carry),  as  in  "fertile";  "confer";  "de- 
fer"; "differ";  "infer";  "offer";  "prefer"; 
"refer";  "suffer";  "transfer."  Many  nouns 
ending  in  fer:  "crucifer" ;  "conifer,"  etc. ; 
also,  "circumference" ;  "vociferous."  Through 
the  French:  "proffer." 

FULG  (L.  fulgere,  to  shine),  as  in  "reful- 
gent"; "effulgent." 

FUND,  FUS  (L.  fundere,  fusum,  to  pour, 
to  melt),  as  in  "refund";  "confuse";  "dif- 
fuse"; "infuse";  "refuse";  "profuse." 
Through  the  French :  "found,"  to  melt  met- 
als ;  "confound,"  to  pour  together,  to  mix 
up,  to  perplex.  (L.  fundus,  bottom,  foun- 
dation), as  in  "fundamental";  "profundity." 
Through  the  French:  "found,''  to  establish; 
"foundation." 


68 


ENGLISH   WORDS    OF    FOREIGN   ORIGIN 


GAM  (Gr.  gamos,  marriage),  as  in  "big- 
amy"; "monogamy";  "polygamy";  "cryp- 
togamous." 

GE  (Gr.  ge,  the  earth),  as  in  "geology," 
science  of  rocks  and  earth  formations;  "ge- 
ography"; "geometry";  "apogee,"  greatest 
height  above  the  earth. 

GEN  (Gr.  genea,  birth),  as  "genealogy," 
family  line;  "genesis,"  beginning;  "hetero- 
geneous," of  various  origins;  "homogene- 
ous," of  like  origin.  Also  many  chemical 
terms:  "oxygen";  "hydrogen";  "cyanogen," 
etc. 

TONER,  GEND,  GENT  (L.  genus,  generis,  race, 
family),  as  in  "generate";  "degenerate"; 
'regenerate";  "generous"  (L.  generosus,  of 
high  birth),  noble,  munificent;  "general." 
Among  other  derivatives  from  Latin:  "gen- 
der" ;  "genial" ;  "genius" ;  "genteel" ;  "gen- 
tile"; "gentle";  "genuine";  "ingenuity"; 
"progenitor." 

\  GER,  GEST  (L.  gerere,  gestum,  to  bear,  to 
\vield,  to  carry  on),  as  in  "congest";  "di- 
gest" ;  "suggest" ;  "gesture" ;  "belligerent," 
waging  war;  "vicegerent,"  a  substitute. 

GNO  (Gr.  gignosko,  I  know),  as  in  "gnos- 
tic," one  of  a  sect  who  claim  to  know  divine 
things;  "agnostic"  (not-knowing),  one  who 
disclaims  knowledge  of  a  subject;  "prog- 
nostic," knowing  beforehand;  "gnomon,"  a 
pointer,  indicator. 

GRAD,  GRESS  (L.  gradior,  gressum,  to  step, 
to  walk;  with  prefixes,  -gredior),  as  in 
"grade";  "degrade";  "retrograde";  "grad- 
ual" ;  "graduate" ;  "congress" ;  "digress" ; 
"ingress";  "progress";  "transgress";  "in- 
gredient." Through  the  French:  "degree." 

GRAM,  GRATH  (Gr.  grapho,  I  write),  as 
in  "anagram";  "epigram";  "diagram"; 
"telegram" ;  "grammar" ;  "geography" ; 
"paragraph" ;  "lithograph" ;  "autograph" ; 
"graphic." 

HAS,  HIB,  AB  (L.  habere,  habitum,  to  hold, 
to  have;  with  prefixes,  hibere,  hibitum),  as 
in  "habit";  "habitation";  "exhibit";  "pro- 
hibit"; '.'habiliment."  Through  the  French: 
"able"  (L.  habilis)  ;  "disable";  "enable." 

HER,  HES  (L.  harere,  heesum,  to  stick), 
as  in  "adhere";  "cohere";  "inhere";  "ad- 
hesive"; "cohesive";  "hesitate"  (L.  hasi- 
tare). 

HETERO  (Gr.  heteros,  other),  as  in  "het- 
erodoxy" ;  "heterogeneous." 

HOL  (Gr.  holos,  whole),  as  in  "catholic," 
universal,  general;  "holophane";  "holo- 
caust," whole  burnt  sacrifice;  "holograph." 

HYD  (Gr.  hudor,  water),  as  in  "hydrant"; 
"hydraulics" ;  "hydrogen" ;  "hydrophobia," 
fear  of  water;  "dropsy"  (formerly  "hy- 
dropsy"). 


JEC  (L.  jacere,  jactum,  to  throw;  with 
some  prefixes,  jicere,  jectum),  "eject";  "in- 
ject"; "object";  "project";  "reject";  "sub- 
ject"; "traject";  "abject";  "adjective";  "de- 
jection"; "conjecture";  "ejaculate"  (L. 
j ocular e). 

JUNC  (L.  jungere,  junctum,  to  join),  as 
in  "juncture";  "subjunctive";  "junction"; 
"injunction";  "conjunction."  Through  the 
French:  "join,"  with  prefixes,  ad,  con,  dis, 
en,  sub. 

LAB  (Gr.  root  of  lambano,  I  take),  "sylla- 
ble"; "astrolabe." 

LATE  (L.  latum,  from  ferre,  to  beat",  to 
carry),  "dilatory";  "legislate";  "superla- 
tive"; "late,"  with  prefixes  col,  e,  re,  trans: 
"prelate" ;  "oblation." 

LEC,  LIG  (L.  legere,  lee  turn,  to  read,  to 
gather;  with  prefixes  -ligere),  as  in  "col- 
lect"; "elect";  "select";  "intellect";  "dia- 
lect"; "elegant";  "lecture";  "legend";  "legi- 
ble"; "neglect";  "lexicon";  "college";  "al- 
legiance." Through  the  French :  "colleague." 

LEG  (L.  lex,  legis,  law),  as  in  "legal"; 
"legislate";  "legitimate";  "privilege,"  a  pri- 
vate law.  (L.  legare,  legatum,  to  de~ 
pute,  to  bequeathe),  as  in  "legate";  "del- 
egate"; "legacy."  Through  the  French: 
"allege." 

LIB  (L.  liber,  free;  liber,  a  book;  libra, 
scales),  as  in  "liberty";  "liberal";  "liber- 
ate"; "liber,"  a  volume;  "libel"  (L.  libellus, 
a  little  book);  "library";  "equilibrium"; 
"equilibrate";  "librate,"  to  tremble,  as  in 
balancing.  "Celebrate"  comes  from  the 
Latin  celeber,  and  is  probably  not  connected 
to  any  of  the  above  words. 

LIC  (L.  licet,  it  is  allowed,  it  is  lawful), 
as  in  "license";  "licentious";  "licentiate"; 
"illicit."  (L.  licire,  licitutn,  to  draw,  to 
lure),  as  in  "elicit,"  to  draw  out. 

LIG  (L.  ligare,  Hgatum,  to  bind,  to  tie), 
"oblige";  "obligate";  "ligament";  "liga- 
ture"; "religion"  (a  binding-back).  Through 
the  French:  "liege";  "league";  "colleague"; 
"liable.  (L.  lignum,  wood),  as  in  "lignite"; 
"ligneous." 

LIM  (L.  limen,  liminis,  a  threshold),  as  in 
"eliminate" ;  "preliminary" ;  "subliminal." 
(L.  limes,  limitis,  a  path,  a  limit),  "limit"; 
"limitation" ;  "illimitable." 

LIN  (L.  linea,  a  line),  as  in  "line";  "lin- 
eal"; "linear";  "lineament";  "lineage";  "de- 
lineate." (Latin  liner e,  to  smear),  "lini- 
ment." 

LING,  LANG  (L.  lingua,  tongue),  as  in  "lin- 
guist"; "lingual."  Through  the  French: 
"language." 

LINQ,  LTCT  (L.  linquere,  lictunt,  to  leave, 
to  desert),  as  in  "relinquish";  "delinquent"; 


ENGLISH   WORDS   OF   FOREIGN    ORIGIN 


59 


"relict";  "derelict."  Through  the  French: 
"relic." 

LJQ  (L.  liquere,  to  melt),  as  in  "liquid"; 
^liquor." 

LIT  (L.  litera,  a  letter),  as  in  "lit- 
eral"; "literary";  "literature";  "obliterate." 
Through  the  French:  "letter." 

LOG,  LOQ  (L.  locus,  place),  as  in  "locate"; 
"local";  "collocate";  "locomotive";  "dislo- 
cate." (L.  loqui,  locutus,  to  speak),  as  in 
"loquacious";  "colloquy";  "eloquent";  "ob- 
loquy" ;  "soliloquy" ;  "elocution" ;  "circum- 
locution." 

LOG  (Gr.  logos,  word,  description),  as  in 
various  words  ending  in  logy  and  ology,  as 
already  noted:  also  in  "logic";  "apologue"; 
"epilogue" ;  "prologue" ;  "euiogium" ;  "eulo- 
gize '  ;  "homologous" ;  "syllogism." 

LUD,  LUS  (L.  ludere,  lusum,  to  play),  as 
in  "allude";  "delude";  "elude";  "prelude"; 
"collusion";  "delusive";  "illusion";  "ludi- 
crous." 

LYSIS,  LYTIC  (Gr.  lusis,  loosing,  breaking- 
up),  as  in  "analysis";  "electrolysis";  "pa- 
ralysis"; "paralytic";  "electrolytic";  "elec- 
trolyte." 

MAG  (L.  magnus,  great;  magister,  mas- 
ter) -  as  in  "magnify" ;  "magnitude" ;  "mag- 
nanimous" ;  "magnificent" ;  "magistrate." 
Through  the  French:  "master"  (maistre). 
(L.  magus,  an  enchanter),  "magic";  "ma- 
gician"; "Magi."  (L.  Magnesia,  a  place 
in  Asia  Minor),  "magnet";  "magnetic"; 
"magnesium." 

MAJ  (L.  major,  greater),  as  in  "major"; 
"majority";  "majestic";  "majesty." 

MAN  (L.  manus,  hand),  as  in  "manual"; 
"manumit";  "manuscript";  "manage";  "ma- 
nipulate" ;  "manacle."  Through  the  French : 
"maintain";  "manreuvre";  "manteau."  (L. 
manare,  manatum,  to  manifest),  as  in  "man- 
ifest" (L.  manifestos)  ;  "emanate." 

MANCY  (Gr.  manteia,  soothsaying),  as  in 
"necromancy" ;  "chiromancy." 

MAND  (L.  mandare,  mandatum,  to  order, 
to  command),  as  in  "command";  "demand"; 
"countermand";  "remand."  Also  "com- 
mend" (L.  commendere,  intensive  of  com- 
mander e},  to  praise. 

MANIA  (Gr.  mania,  madness),  "mania"; 
"maniac" ;  "dipsomania" ;  "kleptomania" ; 
"pyromania,"  desire  to  destroy  by  fire. 

MENS  (L.  mensura,  a  measure),  as  in 
"mensuration" ;  "immense" ;  "dimension" ; 
"commensurate."  The  word,  "commence," 
is  from  the  Latin  cum  and  initium,  to  make 
a  beginning  with,  and  is  derived  through 
the  French. 

MET  (Gr.  metron,  measure),  as  in  "barom- 
eter"; "chronometer";  "geometry";,  "sym- 


metry"; "diameter";  "perimeter,"  etc.;  also 
"metre" ;  "mete" ;  "metric." 

MIC  (Gr.  micros,  small),  as  in  "micro- 
scope"; "micrometer";  "micrograph." 

MIN  (L.  miner e,  to  hang),  "imminent"; 
"eminent";  "prominent."  (L.  minuere, 
minutum,  to  lessen,  to  reduce),  as  in  "di- 
minish"; "minute";  "minuend."  (L.  minor, 
minus,  less),  as  in  "minor";  "minus";  "mi- 
nority." (L.  minimum,  least),  "minimum"; 
"minimal."  The  word,  "miniature,"  com- 
monly used  as  a  synonym  for  small,  comes 
from  the  Latin  minium,  red  lead,  formerly 
used  in  ornamenting  manuscripts. 

MIR  (L.  mirus,  wonderful),  as  in  "ad- 
mire"; "mirror";  "miracle." 

MIS,  MIX  (L.  miscere,  mix-turn,  to  min- 
gle), as  in  "miscellany";  "promiscuous"; 
"mix";  intermix";  "mixture."  The  words, 
"mingle"  and  "commingle,"  are  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin.  (L.  miser,  miserable),  as  in 
"miser";  "miserable";  "commiserate";  "mis- 
ery." 

MIT,  MIS  (L.  mittere,  misum,  to  send),  as 
in  "admit";  "commit";  "emit";  "permit"; 
"omit";  "remit";  "intermit";  "mission"; 
"commission" ;  "remission" ;  "admission" ; 
"promise." 

MON  (L.  monere,  monitum,  to  advise,  to 
warn),  as  in  "monitor";  "summon";  "ad- 
monish"; "premonitory";  "premonition"; 
"monument,"  something  that  puts  in  mind 
of.  (L.  mons,  montis,  a  mountain),  as  in 
"promontory."  Through  the  French:  "dis- 
mount" ;  "surmount" ;  "mountain" ;  "mound." 
(Gr.  monas,  alone),  as  in  "monad";  "mo- 
notonous"; "monody";  "monarch";  "mo- 
nopolize"; "monastery";  "monk"  (Gr.  mo* 
nachos) . 

MORPH  (Gr.  morphe,  form),  as  in  "morph- 
ology" ;  "amorphous" ;  "metamorphose." 

MOT,  MOB  (L.  movere,  mo  turn,  to  move; 
mobilis,  moving),  as  in  "motion";  "commo- 
tion"; "motive";  "emotion";  "mobile"; 
"promote";  "remote";  "remove";  "move." 

MULT  (L.  multtts,  many),  as  in  "multi- 
ply"; "multiple";  "multitude";  "multiplex." 

NOM  (Gr.  nomas,  law),  as  in  "astron- 
omy"; "economy." 

on  (Gr.  odos,  a  road,  a  way),  as  in  "epi- 
sode"; "method";  "synod";  "period"; 
"anode";  "cathode."  (Gr.  ode,  a  song), 
as  in  "ode,"  a  kind  of  poem;  "prosody."  (L. 
odor,  a  smell),  "odor";  "odoriferous"; 
"malodorous." 

ON  (Gr.  onoma,  a  name),  as  in  "anony- 
mous" ;  "synonym" ;  "patronymic." 

ORTH  (Gr.  orthos,  straight,  right),  "ortho- 
doxy"; "orthoepy";  "orthopedic,"  child- 
straightening  ;  "orthography." 


60 


ENGLISH  WORDS   OF   FOREIGN   ORIGIN 


OR  (L.  or  are,  oratum,  to  ask,  to  beg,  to 
pray,  to  worship),  as  in  "adore";  "orison"; 
"orator";  "inexorable."  (L.  os,  oris,  mouth), 
as  in  "oral";  "orifice." 

ox  (Gr.  oxus,  sharp,  violent,  sour),  as  in 
"oxygen";  "oxide";  "paroxysm." 

PAN  (Gr.  pan,  pantos,  all),  as  in  "pan- 
oply"; "panacea";  "pantheist";  "panorama"; 
"pan-American."  (L.  pandere,  pansum,  to 
spread),  as  in  "expanse";  "expand."  (L. 
pants,  bread),  as  in  "pantry";  "companion," 
one  who  eats  bread  with;  "company";  "ac- 
company." (L.  panellus,  cloth),  as  in  "pan- 
el"; "impanel." 

PAR  (L.  par,  equal,  like),  as  in  "compare"; 
"disparage";  "par,"  even.  Through  the 
French:  "peer";  "peerage";  "peerless"; 
"pair."  (L.  par  ere,  paritum,  to  appear),  as 
in  "apparent";  "transparent."  Through  the 
French:  "appear";  "disappear."  (L.  pario, 
partum,  to  bring  forth,  give  birth  to),  as  in 
"parent" ;  "oviparous" ;  "viviparous."  (L. 
parare,  paratum,  to  make  ready),  as  in  "pre- 
pare"; "separate";  "apparatus";  "apparel"; 
"imperative" ;  "imperial" ;  "imperious." 
Through  the  French :  "repair" ;  "sever" ; 
"several";  "emperor"  (L.  imperator)  ;  "sev- 
er" (L.  se parare).  (L.  pars,  partis,  a  part), 
as  in  "part";  "apart";  "participate";  "par- 
ticle"; "depart";  "impart";  "participle"  (L. 
particeps,  a  part-taker)  ;  "particular" ;  "por- 
tion"; "repartee." 

PATH  (Gr.  pathos,  feeling,  pain),  as  in 
"pathos";  "pathetic";  "antipathy";  "sym- 
pathy"; "apathy";  "pathology"  (disease- 
science);  "homeopathy";  "allopathy." 

FED  (L.  pes,  pedis,  a  foot),  as  in  "biped"; 
"expedient";  "expedite";  "impede";  "quad- 
ruped"; "pedestal";  "pedestrian."  Through 
the  French:  "pedigree."  (Gr.  pats,  paidos, 
a  child),  as  in  "pediatrics,"  child-healing; 
"orthopedic";  "pedant,"  a  schoolmaster; 
"pedagogue" ;  "pedobaptist." 

PEL,  PULS  (L.  pellere,  pulsum,  to  drive), 
as  in  "expel";  "expulsion";  "compel"; 
"compulsion";  "dispel";  "impel";  "im- 
pulse"; "repel";  "repulse";  "pulse";  "pulsa- 
tion." (L.  pellare,  pellatum,  to  call  by 
name),  "appellation."  Through  the  French: 
"appeal." 

PEND,  PENS  (L.  pendere,  pensum,  to  hang), 
as  in  "append";  "appendix";  "depend"; 
"impend";  "suspend";  "suspense";  "perpen- 
dicular"; "pendulum";  "propensity."  (L. 
pendere,  pensum,  to  weigh),  as  in  "com- 
pend";  "compensate";  "dispense";  "ex- 
pend"; "expense";  "recompense";  "pensive," 
weighing,  whence  thoughtful. 

PET  (L.  peter e,  petitum,  to  seek),  as  in 
"appetite";  "compete";  "competent";  "pe- 


tition."    (L.  petare,  petatum,  to  fall  upon), 
as  in  "impetus";  "impetuous." 

PHAN,  PHEN  (Gr.  phaino,  I  appear,  I 
show),  as  in  "phantom";  "phantasm"; 
"epiphany" ;  "phenomenon" ;  "theophany" ; 
"phase,"  aspect  (phao,  I  shine). 

PHAS  (Gr.  phasis,  a  saying),  as  in  "em- 
phasis"; "prophesy";  "emphatic." 

PHOR  (Gr.  phero,  I  bear),  as  in  "meta- 
phor"; "phosphorus,"  light-bearer;  "periph- 
ery." 

PLE,  PLI  (L.  plere,  pletum,  to  fill),  as  in 
"complete" ;  "complement" ;  "implement" ; 
"replete." 

PLIC,  PLEX  (L.  plicare,  plicatum,  to  fold), 
as  in  "complex";  "triplex";  "duplex"; 
"quadruplex" ;  "simplex" ;  "application" ; 
"supplication";  "perplex";  "explicit";  "ap- 
plicable." Through  the  French:  "apply"; 
"supply";  "imply."  (Gr.  plectos,  struck), 
as  in  "apoplexy." 

POD  (Gr.  pous,  podos,  foot),  as  in  "tri- 
pod" ;  "gasterpod" ;  "antipodes." 

POLY  (Gr.  polus,  many),  "polygon"; 
"monopoly" ;  "polygamy" ;  "polytheism" ; 
"polypus,"  many-footed. 

PON,  POS  (L.  ponere,  positunt,  to  place), 
as  in  "component" ;  "compose" ;  "depose" ; 
"deposit";  "oppose";  "opponent";  "pro- 
pose"; "suppose";  "transpose";  "deponent." 
Through  the  French :  "expound." 

PORT  (L.  pontare,  portatum,  to  carry), 
"comport";  "import";  "export";  "report"; 
"transport."  (L.  portus,  a  door),  as  in 
"port" ;  "portal."  Whence,  we  have  "por- 
ter," a  carrier;  also,  a  doorkeeper. 

POSS,  POT  (L.  posse,  to  have  power,  to  be 
able),  as  in  "possible";  "possess";  "posse"; 
"potent." 

PRAC,  PRAG  (Gr.  practos  and  pragma, 
deed),  as  in  "practice";  "practicable"; 
"pragmatic." 

PROB  (L.  probare,  probatum,  to  prove,  to 
try),  as  in  "probate";  "probe";  "reprobate"; 
"approve" ;  "disprove" ;  "improve" ;  "re- 
prove." 

QUER,  QUIRE,  QUis  (L.  qucerere,  quasi- 
turn,  to  seek),  as  in  "inquire";  "require"; 


conquer 


inquest 


query 


inquisi- 


tive"; "question";  "request";  "requisite." 
(L.  queror,  I  complain),  "quarrel";  "queru- 
lous." The  word,  "sequester,"  is  probably 
derived  from  sequi,  to  follow,  but  its  ety- 
mology is  uncertain. 

REG,  REC  (L.  regere,  rectum,  to  right,  to 
rule),  as  in  "correct";  "erect";  "direct"; 
"rector";  "regent";  "regimen";  "regiment"; 
"regular";  "regulate";  "rectify";  "recti- 
tude." (L.  rex,  regis,  king),  as  in  "regal"; 
"regalia." 


ENGLISH   WORDS    OF    FOREIGN   ORIGIN 


61 


RH,  RHY,  RHEU  (Gr.  rheo  and  rhuo,  I 
flow),  "catarrh";  "hemorrhage,"  flow  of 
blood;  "diarrhoea";  "rheum";  "rhyme"; 
"rhythm." 

ROG  (L.  rogare,  rogatum,  to  ask,  to  seek), 
as  in  "rogation";  "abrogate";  "arrogant"; 
"derogate" ;  "interrogate" ;  "prerogative." 

RUP  (L.  rump  ere,  ruptum,  to  break,  to 
burst),  as  in  "eruption";  "corrupt";  "dis- 
rupt"; "interrupt";  "rupture." 

SCOP  (Gr.  skopeo,  I  see),  as  in  "episco- 
pal," pertaining  to  a  bishop  or  "overseer" 
(Gr.  episkopos);  '"scope";  "telescope"; 
"gyroscope." 

SCRIB,  SCRIPT  (L.  scribere,  scriptum,  to 
write),  as  in  "scribe";  "scripture";  "script"; 
"ascribe";  "describe";  "prescribe";  "pro- 
scribe"; "transcribe";  "postscript";  "manu- 
script" ;  "conscript." 

SED,  SID,  SESS  (L.  sedere,  sessum,  to  sit), 
as  in  "assess" ;  "consider" ;  "preside" ;  "re- 
side"; "subside";  "supersede";  "session"; 
"sediment";  "sedentary";  "president." 

SERV  (L.  servire,  servitum,  to  serve,  to 
obey),  as  in  "servile";  "serve";  "servitude"; 
"subserve."  Accordant  to  meaning,  also, 
"servant,"  which  in  form  belongs  to  the 
next  root.  (L.  servare,  servatum,  to  keep, 
to  preserve),  as  in  "conserve";  "preserve"; 
"reserve";  "observe."  Through  the  French: 
"reservoir." 

SIST  (L.  sistare,  sistatum,  to  stand,  to 
stop;  from  stare,  statum"),  as  in  "resist"; 
"persist";  "insist";  "consist";  "desist";  "ex- 
ist." 

SOLV,  SOLUT(L.  solvere,  solutum,  to  loose), 
as  in  "absolve";  "absolute";  "dissolve"; 
"dissolute";  "resolve";  "resolute";  "solve"; 
"solution";  "solvent";  "absolution." 

SOPH  (Gr.  sophos,  wise),  as  in  "sophist"; 
"philosophy" ;  "sophism" ;  "theosophy." 

SPEC,  SPIC  (L.  specere,  spectum,  to  look 
at),  as  in  "aspect";  "circumspect";  "in- 
spect"; "retrospect";  "suspect";  "inspec- 
tion"; "suspicion";  "perspective";  "spec- 
tacular"; "spectacle";  "specious";  "species"; 
"speculate" ;  "spectator." 

SPIR  (L.  spirare,  spiratum,  to  breathe),  as 
in  "spirit";  "aspire";  "inspire";  "expire"; 
"suspire" ;  "respire" ;  "perspire" ;  "conspire" ; 
"spiritual" ;  "spiritous." 

STA,  STI  (L.  stare,  statum,  to  stand),  as 
in  "state";  "station";  "statue";  "statute"; 
"standard";  "static";  "circumstance";  "con- 
stitute"; "substitute";  "instant";  "sub- 
stance." (Gr.  sta,  root  of  verb  to  stand), 
as  in  "apostasy";  "ecstasy,"  a  standing  out 
of  one's  self;  "system";  "hydrostatic." 

STOL,  STL  (Gr.  stello,  I  sen'd),  as  in 
"apostle";  "epistle";  "diastole" ;  "systole." 


SUM  (L.  sumere,  sumptum,  to  take,  to  as- 
sume), as  in  "assume";  "consume";  "pre- 
sume"; "resume";  "sumptuary";  "sumptu- 
ous." (L.  summus,  highest),  as  in  "sum"; 
"summit" ;  "consummate" ;  "summary." 

TAC,  TEG,  TEC  (L.  tangere,  tactum,  to  touch, 
to  attain),  as  in  "contact";  "tact";  "integer"; 
"integrity."  Als*o,  "tangible";  "contingent"; 
"contagion."  (L.  tegere,  tectum,  to  cover), 
as  in  "detect";  "protect";  "integument." 
(Gr.  tektos,  a  builder),  as  in  "architect." 
(Gr.  techne,  science,  art),  as  in  "technical"; 
"polytechnic" ;  "pyrotechnic." 

TEL  (Gr.  tele,  afar),  as  in  "telegraph"; 
"telescope" ;  "telephone." 

TEND,  TENS  (L.  tendere,  tensum,  to  reach, 
to  stretch),  as  in  "attend";  "contend";  "ex- 
tend"; "intend";  "portend";  "pretend"; 
"intense";  "intent";  "tense";  "tension"; 
"tent."  (L.  tenere,  tentum,  to  hold),  as  in 
"tenacious";  "tenet";  "tenement";  "tenure"; 
"pertinent";  "content";  "abstain";  "con- 
tain"; "appertain";  "pertain";  "retain";  "de- 
tain"; "obtain";  "sustain."  (L.  tentare, 
tentatum,  to  try),  as  in  "tentative";  "at- 
tempt"; "tempt."  (L.  tennis,  thin),  as  in 
"tenuity";  "attenuate";  "extenuate." 

THEM,  THES,  THET  (Gr.  them  and  thes, 
roots  of  verb,  to  place,  to  set),  as  in 
"anathema";  "theme";  "thesis";  "antithe- 
sis"; "parenthesis";  "hypothesis";  "synthe- 
sis"; "epithet";  "synthetic." 

TOM  (Gr.  tomos,  a  cut),  as  in  "anatomy"; 
"atom,"  what  can  not  be  cut;  "epitome." 

TON  (Gr.  tonos,  a  sound),  as  in  "intone"; 
"tone";  "monotony";  "syntonic";  "tune"; 
"tonic,"  something  to  "tune"  the  body,  as 
if  a  musical  instrument. 

TORT  (L.  torquere,  tor  turn,  to  twist),  as 
in  "contort";  "distort";  "retort";  "tortu- 
ous"; "torture." 

TRAH,  TRAC  (L.trahere,  tractum,  to  draw), 
as  in  "tract";  "traction";  "attract";  "sub- 
tract"; "extract";  "protract";  "retract"; 
"distract."  Through  the  French:  "trait"; 
"treat." 

VAL  (L.  valere,  to  be  strong,  to  be  well), 
as  in  "avail";  "invalid";  "prevail";  "valid"; 
"valor";  "value";  "valedictory";  "equiva- 
lent." (L.  vallum,  a  valley),  as  in  "inter- 
val." 

VEN  (L.  venire,  ventum,  to  come),  as  in 
"advent";  "prevent";  "convent";  -"event"; 
"invent";  "intervene";  "vent."  (L.  venter, 
the  belly),  as  in  "ventriloquist."  (L.  ven- 
tus,  wind),  as  in  "ventilate."  (L.  venenum, 
poison),  as  in  "venom." 

VER,  VERS  (L.  vertere,  versum,  to  turn), 
as  in  "advert";  "avert";  "adversity";  "ad- 
vertise"; "revert";  "pervert";  "verse";  "uni- 


ENGLISH   WORDS   OF   FOREIGN   ORIGIN 


verse";  "versatile";  "diverse";  "converse"; 
"reverse,"  (L.  verus,  true),  as  in  "aver"; 
"verity";  "verify";  "veracity";  "verisimili- 
tude." 

vi  (L.  via,  a  way),  as  in  "obviate";  "de- 
viate"; "previous";  "viaduct";  "impervious." 

vn>,  vis  (L.  viderf,  visum,  to  see),  as  in 
"evident";  "provident";  "provide";  "visit"; 
"vision";  "advise";  "supervise";  "revise." 
(L.  viduare,  viduatum,  to  part,  to  deprive 
of),  as  in  "divide";  "devoid";  "void";  "in- 
dividual"; "device." 

voc  (L.  vocare,  vocatum,  to  call),  as  in 
"advocate";  "convoke";  "provoke";  "re- 
voke"; "invoke";  "evoke";  "vocal." 


VOL  (L.  volare,  volotum,  to  fly),  as  in 
"volatile."  (L.  voile,  to  wish;  volitis,  will- 
ingness), as  in  "volition";  "benevolent" ; 
"voluntary";  "malevolent"  (L.  volvere, 
volutum,  to  roll),  as  in  "involve";  "re- 
volve"; "devolve";  "revolt";  "evolution"; 
"involution" ;  "revolution." 

VOR  (L.  vorare,  to  eat),  as  in  "voracious"; 
"voracity" ;  "carnivorous" ;  "devour" ; 
"herbivor." 

zo  (Gr.  soon,  a  living  being,  an  ani- 
mal), as  in  "zoology";  "zodiac,"  so  called 
from  the  animal  figures  anciently  rep- 
resenting the  constellations;  "zoophyte"; 
"hylozoism." 


,ANGUAGES 


THE  number  of  languages  and   dialects,   ancient  and  modern,   has 
been   computed   by   Adelung   to   be   3,064,    namely:    Belonging   to 
Asia,  987;  to  Europe,   587;  to  Africa,   276;  to  America,    1,214. 
Total,  3,064.      It  would  take  more  space  than  our  limits  permit  to  give 
a  tabular  view  of  all  languages :  the  following  summary  contains  the  prin- 
cipal families,  and  the  classes  in  which  they  are  generally  placed: 

I.  Monosyllabic  Class. — Chinese,  Siamese,  Avanese,  Japanese. 

II.  Shemitic  or  Semitic  Class. — Araemean  (Chaldee-Syriac),  Hebrew, 
Phoenician,  Arabic. 

III.  Indo-European  or  Indo-Germanic  Class. — Sanskrit,  Celtic,  Teu- 
tonic or  Gothic,  Pelasgic  or  Greco-Latin,  Sclavonic,  Hungarian,  Tartarian 
or  Turkish. 

IV.  The    Polynesian    Class,    consisting    of    the    dialects    spoken    in 
the  Indian  archipelago  and  islands  of  the  South  Seas. 

V.  The    African    Class. — Remains    of    the    ancient    Libyan    in    the 
north;   Soosoo  and  Foulah    (between  the  rivers   Senegal  and  Gambia); 
Ashantee;    Amaaric,    spoken   in   parts   of   Abyssinia;    Hottentot,    in    the 
south;  Kaffir,  extending  from  the  south  along  the  east  coast  as  far  as 
Delagoa  Bay. 

VI.  Polysynthetic   Class,    extending    from    north    to    south    of   both 
continents    of    America,    and    comprising    Chilian,    Peruvian,    Brazilian, 
Mexican,  Western  dialects  of  North  America,  Boreal  dialects  of  North 
America,  etc. 

The  contrast  between  the  first  and  the  last  of  these  classes  presents  an 
apparent  anomaly.  The  Chinese  languages  have  existed  among  a  polished 
people  from  very  remote  antiquity,  and  yet  are  as  rude  and  simple  as  if 
they  had  been  just  devised  for  the  use  of  a  nation  but  recently  emerged 
from  barbarism;  whereas  the  languages  in  common  use  among  the  wild 

(63) 


LANGUAGES 


tribes  of  America  are  complex  and  difficult  in  their  structure,  and  seem 
as  if  they  had  been  invented  by  a  people  who  had  made  great  advances 
in  civilization.  It  has  consequently  been  surmised  that  America  was  at 
one  time  the  residence  of  a  civilized  people,  of  whom  the  Indian  tribes 
are  the  degenerated  remains. 

SPECIMENS  OF  LANGUAGES;  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 


WITH  the  view  of  affording  the  un- 
learned reader  an  idea  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  some  of  the  principal  languages, 
dead  and  living,  we  append  the  passages 
from  the  New  Testament  composing  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  in  Greek,  Latin,  Italian, 
Spanish,  French,  German,  Dutch,  and  En- 
glish— for  the  sake  of  clearness  the  Greek 
is  printed  in  the  Roman  alphabet,  the  aspi- 
rate at  the  beginning  of  certain  words  being 
represented  by  the  letter  h.  The  reader  is 
called  on  to  observe  the  difference  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  words,  and  how  evi- 
dently the  Latin  is  the  parent  of  the  Italian, 
Spanish,  and  French,  the  latter,  however, 
possessing  the  least  resemblance  in  orthog- 
raphy and  arrangement  to  its  original.  He 
will  also  have  an  opportunity  of  comparing 
the  German  with  its  kindred  tongue,  the 
Dutch,  and  both  with  their  relation  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  or  English. 

GREEK 

Pater  hemon  ho  en  tois  ouranois,  hagias- 
theto  to  onoma  sou.  Eltheto  he  Basileia 
sou.  Genetheto  to  thelema  sou,  hos  en 
ourano,  kai  epi  tes  ges.  Ton  arton  hemon 
ton  epiousion  dos  hemin  semeron.  Kai 
aphes  hemin  ta  opheilemata  hemon,  hos  kai 
hemeis  aphiemen  tois  opheiletais  hemon. 
Kai  me  eisenengkes  hemas  eis  peirasmon, 
alia  rusai  hemas  apo  tou  ponerou;  hoti  sou 
estin  he  Basileia,  kai  he  dunamis  kai  he 
doxa,  eis  tous  aionas.  Amen. 

LATIN 

Pater  noster,  qui  es  in  coelis,  sanctificetur 
nomen  tuum.  Adveniat  regnum  tuum.  Fiat 
voluntas  tua,  sicut  in  coelo,  et  in  terra. 
Panem  nostrum  quotidianum  da  nobis 
hodie.  Et  remitte  nobis  debita  nostra, 
sicut  et  nos  remittimus  debitoribus  nostris. 
Et  ne  nos  inducas  in  tentationem,  sed  libera 
nos  a  malo.  Tibi  enim  est  regnum,  et  po- 
tentia,  et  gloria,  in  sempiternum.  Amen. 

ITALIAN 

Padre  nostro,  che  sei  ne'  cieli,  sia  san- 
tificato  i'  tuo  nome  II  tuo  regno  venga. 
La  tua  volonta  sia  fatta  in  terra  come  in 


cielo.  Dacci  oggi  il  nostro  pane  cotidiano. 
E  rimettici  i  nostri  debiti,  come  noi  ancora 
gli  rimettiamo  a'  nostri  debitori.  E  non 
indurci  in  tentazione,  me  liberaci  dal  ma- 
ligno.  Percioche  tuo  e  il  regno,  e  la  po- 
tenza,  e  la  gloria,  in  sempiterno.  Amen. 

SPANISH 

Padre  nuestro,  que  estas  en  los  cielos,  sea 
sanctificado  tu  nombre.  Vega  tu  reyno ;  sea 
hecha  tua  volontad  como  en  el  cielo,  ansi 
tambien  en  la  tierra.  Danos  oy  nuestro  pan 
quotidiano.  Y  sueltanos  nuestras  deudas, 
como  tambien  nosotros  soltamos  a  nuestros 
deudores.  Y  no  nos  metas  en  tentacion, 
mas  libranos  de  mal.  Porque  tuyo  es  el 
reyno,  y  la  poteeia,  y  la  gloria,  por  todos 
los  siglos.  Amen. 

FRENCH 

Notre  Pere  qui  es  aux  cieux,  ton  nom 
soit  sanctifie.  Ton  regne  vienne;  ta  volonte 
soit  faite  sur  la  terre,  comme  au  ciel. 
Donne-nous  aujourd'hui  not  re  pain  quoti- 
dien.  Pardonne-nous  nos  peches,  comme 
aussi  nous  pardonnons  a  ceux  qui  nous  ont 
offenses.  Et  ne  nous  abandonne  point  a 
la  tentation,  mais  de"livre  nous  du  malin. 
Car  a  toi  appartient  le  regne,  la.  puissance, 
et  la  gloire,  a  jamais.  Amen. 

GERMAN 

Unser  Vater  in  dem  Himmel,  dein  Name 
werde  geheiliget  Dein  Reich  komme. 
Dein  Wille  geschehe  auf  Erden  wie  im 
Himmel.  Unser  tagliches  Brod  gieb  uns 
heute.  Und  vergieb  uns  unsere  Schulden, 
wie  wir  unsern  Schuldigern  vergeben.  Und 
ftihre  uns  nicht  in  Versuchung,  sondern 
erlose  uns  von  dem  UebeL  Denn  dein  ist 
das  Reich,  und  die  Kraft,  und  die  Herrlich- 
keit,  in  EwigkeiL  Amen. 

DUTCH 

Onze  Vader,  die  in  de  Hetnelen  zijt,  uw 
naam  worde  geherligd.  Uw  Koningrijk 
kome.  Uw  wil  geschiede,  gelijk  in  den 
hemel,  alzoo  ook  op  de  aarde.  Geef  ons 
heden  ons  dagelijksch  brood.  En  vergeef 
ons  onze  schulden,  Gelijk  ook  wij  vergeven 


LANGUAGES 


65 


onzen  schuldenaren.  En  lied  ons  nict  in 
verzoeking,  Maar  verlos  ons  van  den  boozen. 
Want  Uw  is  het  koningrijk,  Eii  de  kracht, 
en  de  heerlijkheid,  In  de  eeuwigheid. 
Amen. 

ENGLISH 

Our  father  which  art  in  heaven,  hallowed 
be  thy  name.  Thy  kingdom  come.  Thy 
will  be  done  in  earth,  as"  it  is  in  heaven. 
Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread.  And 
forgive  us  our  trespasses,  as  we  forgive 
them  that  trespass  against  us.  And  lead 
us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver  us  from 
evil.  For  thine  is  the  kingdom,  the  power, 
and  the  glory,  for  ever  and  ever.  Amen. 

LANGUAGE   DEFINED 

Language,  in  the  largest  sense  of  the 
term,  may  be  defined  as  the  means  by  which 
thought  is  expressed.  Thought,  as  is  well 
known,  may  be  expressed  by  means  of  mute 
signs,  as  frowns,  sighs,  kind  looks,  gestures' 
of  the  body,  or  by  inarticulate  sounds,  as 
groans,  cries,  sobs,  laughter.  The  first  are 
usually  called  natural  language,  and  the 
second  inarticulate  language;  and  these 
means  of  expression  partly  belong  to  the 
lower  animals.  Finally,  there  is  articulate 
language,  peculiar  to  man  alone,  and  con- 
sisting of  a  multitude  of  sounds,  each  of 
which  represents  a  distinct  idea.  To  this 
last  mode  of  expression,  generally  known 
by  the  simple  term  language,  our  attention 
is  for  the  present  to  be  directed. 

ORIGINAL    FORMATION    OF 
LANGUAGE 

It  is  sufficiently  clear  that  the  vocal  or- 
gans of  man  are  constituted  with  a  view 
to  his  expressing  himself  by  speech.  The 
larynx,  epiglottis,  pharynx,  tongue,  palate, 
and  lips,  are  all  of  them  framed  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  show  incontestably  that  they 
were  designed  for  producing  such  sounds 
as  we  employ  in  articulate  language. 

The  first  language  of  a  child  is  that  of 
inarticulate  sounds ;  it  cries  when  it  is 
hungry,  screams  when  it  is  angry,  and 
moans  when  it  is  in  pain.  The  strong  re- 
semblance which  subsists  between  the 
words  in  different  languages  expressive  of 
the  first  social  ties,  is  worthy  of  observa- 
tion. Thus  the  word  mother  is 

Em  and  am  in  Hebrew     Modor  in  Anglo-Saxon. 

and  Arabic.  Moder  in  Swedish. 

Madr  in  Persian.  Moder  in  Danish. 

Matr  in  Sanskrit.  Moeder  in  Dutch. 

Meter  in  Greek.  Mutter  in  German. 

Mater  in  Latin.  Mater  m  Russian. 

Madre,  in  Italian.  Mathair  in  Celtic. 
Mire  in  French. 


When  the  primitive  men,  advancing  from 
early  necessities  and  simple  tangible  ideas, 
found  it  necessary  to  have  words  to  repre- 
sent the  abstractions  of  the  mind,  they  still 
proceeded  according  to  the  dictates  and 
analogies  of  nature. 

In  all  languages,  every  term  expressive  of 
mental  operations  is  borrowed  from  the  ma- 
terial world.  Some  of  the  terms  thus  ap- 
plied are  signally  appropriate. 

In  the  present  stage  of  language  we  have 
become  so  habituated  to  the  use  of  terms 
applied  metaphorically  that  we  seldom  re- 
flect on  their  original  import.  There  are 
many  instances  in  which  the  metaphorical 
word  remains,  when  its  primary-  significa- 
tion has  been  forgotten.  For  instance,  the 
word  capricious  does  not  suggest  the  idea 
of  a  goat,  although  it  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  caper,  a  goat,  to  denote  the  character 
of  a  person  who  bounds  from  subject  to 
subject,  without  paying  due  attention  to 
any;  like  a  goat,  which  bounds  from  rock 
to  rock,  without  settling  long  in  any  one 
spot. 

ON    LEARNING    FOREIGN    LAN- 
GUAGES 

The  work  of  mastering  a  foreign  lan- 
guage involves  a  number  of  considerations, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  acqui- 
sition of  a  vocabulary,  the  identification  of 
the  peculiar  pronunciation  and  the  com- 
mitting of  noun  and  verb  paradigms.  This 
is  only  half  the  work,  however,  the  mere 
collection  of  the  necessary  raw  materials. 
The  real  understanding  of  the  language 
comes  with  the  mastery  of  idioms,  or  the 
peculiar  ways  of  expressing  ideas,  and  the 
number  of  these  that  are  alike  in  two  lan- 
guages is  by  far  the  smallest  proportion  of 
the  total  number  in  any  case.  Thus,  nearly 
the  most  important  thing  that  the  student 
learns,  on  entering  the  study  of  a  new 
language,  is  that  a  sentence  perfectly  ex- 
pressing a  given  idea  in  English  would 
possibly  have  a  far  different,  if  not  a  com- 
pletely contrary,  significance  in  the  tongue 
he  is  attempting  to  acquire. 

It  is  essential,  therefore,  that  he  study 
not  only  the  grammar  and  dictionary,  but 
also  the  works  of  the  best  authors  of  the 
new  language,  in  order  to  familiarize  him- 
self with  the  proper  methods  of  expression. 
This  caution  is  particularly  necessary  for 
the  English-speaking  student  of  another 
language;  since,  as  he  will  discover  after 
his  studies  have  progressed  sufficiently  far, 
the  English  differs  from  nearly  every  other 
tpngue  in  point  of  idioms  and  expressions. 


66 


LANGUAGES 


In  acquiring  another  language,  therefore, 
the  aspiring  student  must  literally  unlearn 
his  native  tongue,  to  the  extent,  at  least, 
of  ceasing  to  think  in  its  forms,  when 
attempting  to  express  himself  in  the  new 
dialect 

In  the  following  pages  are  given  short 
and  explicit  resumes  of  French,  German, 
and  Spanish  grammar  and  syntax,  specially 
arranged  with  a  view  to  enabling  a  student 
to  lay  the  foundations,  at  least,  of  a  knowl- 
edge of  speaking,  reading,  and  writing.  The 
usual  method  of  arranging  the  subject  into 
lessons  has  been  abandoned;  since,  as  it 
seems,  the  earnest  student  can  far  more 
readily  master  a  language  by  carefully 
reading  the  rules  of  construction,  arranged 
in  a  logical  sequence,  than  would  be  pos- 
sible with  the  common  plan  of  administer- 
ing the  same  knowledge  in  small  doses, 
without  that  same  logical  arrangement. 

If  the  student  will  carefully  study  each 
branch  of  the  subject,  as  it  is  developed, 
not  attempting  to  burden  his  mind  by  com- 
mitting rules,  lists,  and  paradigms,  until 


he  has  a  good  general  idea  of  what  he 
must  master,  in  order  to  become  proficient, 
he  will  find  that  the  terrors  and  difficul- 
ties of  the  subject  rapidly  disappear. 

Language,  like  religion,  must  be  accepted 
mostly  on  authority.  There  is  no  use  in 
trying  to  "reason  out"  many  of  the  rules 
and  usages  of  talk:  they  are  stated  as  facts, 
and  one  must  be  content  to  learn  and  use 
them. 

In  point  of  pronouncing  a  foreign  lan- 
guage, the  English  correspondents  of  the 
separate  sounds  have  been  given,  wherever 
possible.  When  such  sounds  as  the  French 
u,  the  German  modified  vowels  or  ch 
sound,  or  the  French  guttural  n  are  en- 
countered, the  matter  is  treated,  as  far 
as  possible,  by  giving  directions  for  ar- 
langing  and  using  the  vocal  organs.  If 
these  rules  are  carefully  followed,  the  stu- 
dent will  find  that  sounds  totally  foreign 
to  English  will  result  in  each  case,  and, 
provided  he  is  sufficiently  careful,  he  may 
rest  assured  that  his  pronunciation  is  the 
correct  one. 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT 


IN  attempting  to  gain  a  clear  understanding  of  a  foreign  language,  with- 
out the  help  of  a  competent  teacher,  the  first  difficulty  will  be  found 
in  the  pronunciation  of  the  various  vowels  and  diphthongs — occa- 
sionally, also,  of  the  consonants — which  differ  from  the  English.  The 
advantage  of  learning  pronunciations  from  a  teacher,  or  from  one  expert 
in  the  language,  is  that  the  separate  sounds  may  be  carefully  discriminated, 
and,  if  possible,  imitated.  One  thing  must  be  remembered,  however,  and 
this  is  that  very  many  people  lack  the  ability  to  imitate  sounds  correctly, 
just  as  very  many  others  have  no  "ear  for  music."  If,  therefore,  we  wish 
to  teach  the  pronunciation  of  a  language,  it  is  quite  as  necessary  that  the 
principles  involved  in  the  use  of  the  vocal  organs  be  explained,  as  that  a 
student  of  the  piano,  or  other  instrument,  be  instructed  in  reading  notes 
and  in  properly  manipulating  the  keys. 

Since  it  is  assumed  that  the  student  is  sufficiently  well  acquainted  with 
the  pronunciations  of  English  words  to  identify  and  reproduce  the  sounds 
they  represent,  the  equivalents  of  the  French  alphabet,  as  far  as  possible, 
will  be  given  with  corresponding  sounds  in  our  language.  Where  this  is 
not  possible,  from  the  fact  that  a  sound  is  not  found  in  English,  the  method 
of  making  it  will  be  explained  as  clearly  as  possible. 

THE  FRENCH  ALPHABET  AND  PRONUNCIATIONS 


•THE  FRENCH  ALPHABET  lacks  the 
••>  w,  found  in  the  English  and  Germanic 
languages,  and  hence  has  but  twenty-five 
letters.  The  names,  as  adopted  in  recent 
years,  are  formed  largely  with  the  French 
*t-sound,  which  will  be  explained  later,  as 
the  English  has  no  exact  equivalent.  The 
sound  of  «  in  "fur"  is  the  nearest  approach. 
The  values  are  given  as  nearly  as  possible 
in  English  words. 

A,  a  (ah). 
Pronounced  like  a  in  the  English  word 

"father." 

B,  b  (bM). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 


C,  c   (SM). 

Pronounced  like  ^  before  e  and  i;  like  k 
before  a,  o,  u,  unless  written  with  cedilla — g. 

D,  d  (d«). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

E,  e  («). 

e  (unaccented),  pronounced  like  u  in 
"but,"  before  d,  r,  t,  z,  like  at  in  "bait"; 
e  (grave  accent),  like  e  in  "bet";  e  (acute 
accent),  like  ai  in  "bait."  In  certain  con- 
sonant combinations  it  has  the  force  of 
a  as  in  "man,"  or  as  in  "father." 

F,  f  (fw). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

(67) 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


G,  g  (JM). 

Pronounced  as  in  English,  except  before 
e  and  i,  where  it  sounds  like  ;'  in  "jet." 
So  sounded  like  French  /  in  a  word  with  «. 

H,  h   («h). 

Is  generally  silent,  pronounced  as  in  the 
English  words  "humor,"  "honor." 

I,  i  (ee). 

Pronounced  like  e  in  "me,"  except  in  oi 
(pronounced  "wah")  and  before  n,  when 
it  has  the  sound  of  a  in  "van,"  "man,"  as 
vingt  (20),  cinq  (5),  etc. 

J,  j   (zhu) 

Pronounced  like  s  in  "pleasure";  has  the 
supposed  sound  of  zh,  or  of  zi  in  "glazier." 

K,  k  (ku) 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

L,  1  0«). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

M,  m  (raw). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

N,  n  (nw). 
Pronounced   as   in   English. 

O,  o  (oh). 

Short  o,  pronounced  like  aw  in  "paw"; 
long  o,  au,  and  eau,  like  o  in  "open." 

P,  p  (p«). 

Pronounced  as  in  English;  often  mute 
at  end  of  words. 

Q,  q  (k«). 

Pronounced  like  k  (u  never  sounded 
after  q). 

R,  r  (r«). 

Pronounced  like  r  in  "rut";  should  be 
sounded  carefully;  never  silent  except  at 
the  end  of  words — thus,  er,  like  ay  in 
"bay." 

S,  s  (SM). 

Pronounced  as  in  English;  occasionally 
like  z. 

T,  t  (ttt). 

Pronounced  lik«  the  first  t  in  "tent";  is 
silent  at  the  end  df  words — thus  et,  like  ay 
in  "say." 

U,  u  («). 

This  sound  does  not  occur  in  English  and 
will  be  explained  later. 

V,  v  (VM). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 


X,  x  (kz«). 

Pronounced  like  gz,  or  kz;  silent  at  end 
of  words. 

Y,  y  (ee). 

Pronounced  like  e  in  "me." 

Z,  z  (zu). 

Pronounced  like  soft  s  in  "say";  is  silent 
at  the  end  of  words,  as  ez,  like  ay. 

VOWEL    PRONUNCIATIONS 

THE  FRENCH  u,  which  some  foreigners 
pronounce  like  u  in  "fur,"  "but,''  "hut," 
etc.,  and  others,  like  ee  in  "feet,"  "beet," 
"meet,"  etc.,  is  really  a  compromise  be- 
tween these  two  errors.  Its  pronunciation 
is  virtually  the  same  as  that  of  the  German 
modified  u,  which  is  really  a  combination 
with  the  short  e  sound  (like  e  in  "bet"). 
Because  this  compound  sound  does  not 
occur  in  English,  the  only  means  for  identi- 
fying it,  in  the  absence  of  a  teacher,  is  to 
observe  the  proper  conformation  of  the 
vocal  organs,  particularly  the  lips.  Having 
thoroughly  identified  the  sounds  of  oo,  as  in 
"fool,"  "tool,"  "school,"  and  of  e,  as  in  "bet," 
"wet,"  sound  the  former  until  the  position, 
of  the  lips  and  teeth  are  fully  understood. 
Having  done  this,  change  the  sound  from 
oo  to  short  e,  without  moving  the  lips,  and 
prolong  it  until  thoroughly  identified.  The 
rule  given  usually  is  to  "fix  the  lips  to  say 
oo,  and  say  short  e,  or  to  say  ee,  as  in  feet, 
with  the  lips  fixed  to  say  oo"  but  it  is 
necessary  to  practice  both  the  component 
sounds  carefully  before  attempting  to  com- 
bine them,  as  stated. 

THE  SOUNDS  OF  DIPHTHONGS  AND  TRIPH- 
THONGS in  French  are  as  peculiar  as  those 
of  the  vowels. 

Thus,  AU  and  EAU  have  the  sound  of  o 
in  the  English  exclamation  "oh !" 

On  the  other  hand,  EU  and  u  have  the 
sound  of  M  in  "but,"  "much,"  "such,"  etc. 

At,  AY,  EI,  and  EY  sound  like  a  in  "late," 
"rate,"  etc. 

Oi,  like  English  iva,  as  in  "warrant,"  or 
as  if  a  w  were  prefixed  to  the  exclamation 
"ah !"  In  combining  oi  into  words,  the  ef- 
fect after  consonants  is  as  if  short  u,  as  in 
"but,"  "hut,"  etc.,  were  sounded  before  it 
Thus,  the  word,  droit,  has  the  sound  of 
dru-wah  run  into  a  monosyllable;  the  « 
merging  into  iva  so  rapidly  as  to  form  one 
vowel  sound.  When  sounded  before  an- 
other syllable,  oi  or  oy  give  the  effect  of 
consonant  y.  Thus,  moyen  is  sounded 
wwah-yanh. 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


The  sound  of  ui  and  out  is  like  the  En- 
glish pronoun  "we." 

When  *  and  e  occur  together  they  are 
sounded  separately,  the  pronunciation  vary- 
ing as  the  consonant  following.  Thus  in 
mien,  the  e  has  the  sound  of  a  in  "man," 
while  in  mienne,  that  of  e  in  "men." 

The  sound  of  ou  is  the  same  as  that  of 
oo  in  the  English  "moon." 

CONSONANT   PRONUNCIATIONS 

Among  consonant  sounds  there  are  sev- 
eral important  variations  from  the  En- 
glish pronunciations.  Thus,  ch  before  a 
vowel  has  the  sound  of  sh,  but,  before 
a  consonant  of  k,  as  in  Chretien  (kray- 
tyanh). 

GN  in  the  midst  of  a  word  always  has 
the  sound  of  ny,  as  in  "canyon,"  except 
in  a  very  few  words  seldom  used. 

S  final  is  silent,  except  in  such  words  as 
atlas,  fils,  gratis,  and  in  Greek  and  Latin 
names. 

DRE  final  has  the  approximate  sound  of 
dr,  omitting  the  e. 

ABLE  and  IBLE,  as  suffixes,  have  the  sound 
of  abl  and  ibl,  as  in  English,  except  for 
the  fact  that  the  vowel  a  or  t  is  usually 
long  (a  as  in  "father";  *  as  ee  in  "beet"), 
thus  thowing  the  bl  still  further  into  ob- 
scurity. 

FINAL  N  AND  ND  are  frequently  made 
equivalent  to  ng — thus  prends  is  repre- 
sented as  "prong" — but  this  combination 
hardly  represents  the  French  sound  to  the 
average  student.  The  e  in  the  above  word 
has  nearly  the  sound  of  o  in  "prong,"  but 
the  final  consonants  form  the  sound  ofwA, 
made  in  the  throat,  and  approaching  the 
sound  of  nk,  far  more  nearly  than  ng. 
Considering  that  the  h  has  the  force  of 
suddenly  terminating  the  sound  of  n,  as  if 
another  consonant,  like  d,  g,  k,  t,  were  to 
follow,  but  without  giving  a  distinct  con- 
sonant sound,  we  have  very  nearly  the 
quality  required.  Since  the  vowel  is  given 
a  guttural  (or  throat)  quality,  the  con- 
sonants following  will  naturally  be  thrown 
as  far  back  in  the  mouth  as  possible,  thus 
giving  the  sound  popularly  supposed  to 
come  "through  the  nose." 

In  trying  to  learn  this  sound,  the  best 
method  is  to  sound  the  vowel  fully  and  as 
long  as  is  necessary  to  render  it  perfectly 
definite  to  the  mind ;  then  to  give  the  con- 
sonant following  it,  with  as  few  changes 
as  possible  in  the  position  of  the  tongue, 
palate,  lips,  etc.  This  is  a  mechanical  rule, 
but  it  can  not  fail  to  identify  the  sound, 


and  finally  enable  its  ready  production,  if 
persistently  followed  in  practice. 

Final  consonants,  d,  g,  r,  s,  t,  x,  are  regu- 
larly silent;  n,  as  in  ban  (bawnh),  is  much 
abbreviated,  being  scarcely  more  than  a 
breathing. 

Since  it  is  the  rule  in  French  to  make 
the  final  .s  and  t  silent,  it  follows  that  the 
sound  of  a  final  s  or  t  is  thrown  forward, 
so  as  to  be  the  first  sound  of  a  succeeding 
word  in  a  sentence,  provided  that  word  be- 
gin with  a  vowel  or  silent  h.  Thus:  les 
(lay),  "the"  (PLUR.),  but  les  hommes  (lay 
zaum),  "the  men."  Final  silent  t  is  sim- 
ilarly  thrown  forward  in  all  cases  except 
with  et,  "and."  Thus:  C'est  un  homme 
(say  tunh  aum)  ;  but,  Une  femme  et  un 
homme  (Une  famm  ay  unh  aum). 

These  pronunciations  for  vowels  and 
consonants  are  as  nearly  correct  as  it  is 
possible  to  state  them  on  paper.  Learning 
a  language  is  like  learning  singing:  to  ob- 
tain the  correct  intonation  it  is  highly  de- 
sirable, if  not  necessary,  to  have  assistance 
from  a  master.  It  is  possible,  however,  to 
learn  to  read  and  express  one's  self  cor- 
rectly, and  to  leave  the  more  difficult  points 
of  pronunciation  to  be  "learned  by  ear." 
Nearly  every  educated  person  knows 
French,  and  those  who  study  without  a 
master  ought,  when  an  opportunity  occurs, 
to  ask  the  pronunciation  of  a  difficult  word ; 
by  such  means  it  is  possible  to  arrive  at 
correct  pronunciation,  which  no  description 
of  words  is  fully  capable  of  conveying. 

ACCENTS 

There  are  three  accents  in  the  FrencK 
language:  the  acute,  thus,  e;  the  grave, 
thus,  e;  and  the  circumflex,  e.  The  cir- 
cumflex accent  simply  denotes  the  elision 
of  a  silent  (generally  an  "s")  after  it,  thus 
tete,  originally  written  teste;  depot  for 
depost,  etc.  The  acute  and  grave  accents 
belong  exclusively  to  the  letter  "e";  an 
accented  e  must  have  the  acute  accent,  if  at 
the  end  of  a  word,  as  cafe;  or  followed  by 
a  pronounced  syllable,  as  metal;  a  grave 
accent  when  followed  by  a  silent  syllable, 
as  mere,  lievre. 

The  grave  accent  is  used,  however,  on  the 
a  of  the  adverb  la  (there  and  its  compounds 
voila,  etc.)  ;  but  it  is  thus  employed  merely 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  article  la  (the), 
and  not  for  any  effect  in  pronunciation. 
Similarly,  it  is  used  on  the  preposition,  a, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  third  person  sin- 
gular present  of  avoir;  and  on  the  adverb, 
ou,  "where,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  con- 
junction, ou,  "or." 


70 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


VOCABULARY  OF  COMMON  AND  USEFUL  WORDS 


OBSERVE  CAREFULLY. — In  order  to  make 
the  pronunciation  of  French  words  as  clear 
as  possible  the  following  equivalents  will 
be  given  in  this  vocabulary:  u  for  French 
u;  uh  for  u,  as  in  "but";  oo  for  u,  as  in 
"flute."  As  the  h  following  a  vowel  or 
consonant  is  commonly  supposed  to  have 
the  force  of  a  consonant,  without  giving  a 
distinct  sound,  shortening  a  vowel  and  ab- 
ruptly checking  the  sound  of  m  and  n,  it 
will  be  used  thus  in  the  following  vocabu- 
lary: Thus,  the  French  le,  in  which  the  e 
has  the  sound  of  e  in  "bet,"  is  given  as  leh. 
Long  a,  as  in  "father,"  is  ah,  or  italicized 
(o)  :  short  a,  as  in  "hat"  is  roman  (a)  ;  so 
with  o,  long  (o)  and  short  (o). 

In  numerous  words  ending  in  eille,  while 
the  //  and  final  e  are  properly  silent,  the 
voice  makes  a  sound  resembling  the  sylla- 
ble, yeh,  very  much  abbreviated.  In  the  fol- 
lowing vocabulary,  this  is  expressed  by  -y/t, 
the  y  being  sounded  as  a  consonant.  Thus : 
la  corneille  (lah  cornay-yh).  The  same 
closure  of  the  vocal  organs  ends  words  with 
final  gne.  Thus :  la  campagne  (lah  comh- 
pan-yh),  la  montagne  (lah  monh-tan-yh) . 

The  definite  Article  is  "le"  before  a 
masculine  noun,  and  "la"  before  a  femi- 
nine noun ;  they  are  both  written  "/' "  before 
a  noun  commencing  with  a  vowel  or  silent 
"h."  The  indefinite  Article  is  "un"  mascu- 
line, and  "une"  feminine. 

THE  UNIVERSE 

God,  Dieu,  Deeyuh 

the  world,  le  monde,  leh  maund 

the  sky,  le  del,  leh  seeyel 

the  sun,  le  soleil,  leh  so-layee 

the  moon,  la  lune,  lah  Iwne 

a  star,  une  etoile,  une  aituh-ohl 

the  air,  I' air,  1'air 

the  earth,  la  terre,  lah  tayr 

the  water,  I'eau,  \'o 

the  fire,  le  feu,  leh  fuh 

the  sea,  la  mer,  lah  mare 

an  island,  une  tie,  une  eel 

a  lake,  un  lac,  unh  lahc 

a  stream,  un  fteuve,  unh  fluhv 

a  river,   une  riviere,  une  reeveeair. 

the  animals,  les  animaux,  laiz-  aneemo 

the  metals,  les  metaux,  lai  maito 

the  gold,  I'or,  1'orr 

the  silver,  Yargent,  1'arjonh 

the  iron,  le  fer,  leh  fayr 

the  steel,  I'acier,  1'asseayh 

the  copper,  le  cuivre,  leh  cweevr 

the  tin,  I'etain,  1'aytanh 


MAN    AND    THE    PARTS    OF    THE    BODY 

man,   I'homme,  1'omm 

the   body,    le   corps,   leh   cor 

the  head,  la  tete,  lah  tait 

the  face,  le  visage,  leh  veesaj 

the  forehead,  le  front,  leh  fronh 

the  eye,  I' ceil,  luh-yee 

the  eyes,  les^yeux,  laiz  yuh 

the  nose,  le  nez,  leh  nay 

the  ears,  les  oreilles,  laiz  oray-yee 

the  chin,  le  menton,  leh  mantonh 

the  beard,  la  barbe,  lah  barb 

the  mouth,  la  bouche,  lah  boosh 

the  lips,  les  levres,  lai  layvr 

the  tooth,   la  dent,  lah  danh 

the  tongue,   la  langue,   lah   langh 

the  neck,  le  cou,  leh  coo 

the  shoulders,  les^epaules,  laiz  aipole 

the  arm,  le  bras,  leh  brah 

the  hand,  la  main,  lah  manh 

the  fingers,  les  doigts,  lai  duah 

the  nails,  les^ongles,  laiz  aungl 

the  chest,  la  poitrine,  lah  puahtreen 

the  heart,  le  cceur,  leh  keuhr 

the  lungs,  les  poumons,  leh  poomonh 

the  leg,  la  jambe,  lah  zhahmb 

the   foot,  le  pied,  leh  peeay 

the  bones,  les^os,  lay  zoh 

FOOD  AND  DRINK 
the  bread,  le  pain,  leh  panh 
the  flour,  la  farine,  lah  fareen 
meat,  de  la  viande,  de  lah  veeandh 
roast  meat,  du  roti,  du  rotee 
beef,  du  boeuf,  du  buff 
veal,   du  veau,  du  vo 
mutton,  du  mouton,  du  mootonh 
lamb,  de  I'agneau,  deh  1'anyo 
pork,  du  pore,  du  pork 
bacon,  du  lard,  du  lar 
ham,  du  jambon,  du  zhahmbonh 
the  soup,  la  soupe,  lah  soop 
rice,   du  riz,  du   ree 
eggs,  des^ceufs,  daiz  uhff 
salad,  de  la  salade,  deh  lah  salahd 
mustard,  de  la  tnoutarde,  deh  lah  mootard 
salt,  du  sel,  du  sel 
oil,  de  I'huile,  deh  1'weel 
vinegar,  du  vinaigre,  du  veenaigr 
pepper,  du  poivre,  du  puahvr 
butter,  du  beurre,  du  buhr 
cheese,  du  fromage,  du   fromahj 
the  breakfast,  le  dejeuner,  leh  dayzhuhnai 
the  dinner,  le  diner,  leh  deenai 
the  supper,  le  souper,  leh  soopai 
hunger,  la  faint,  la  fanh 
thirst,  la  soif,  lah  suof 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


71 


water,  de  I'eau,  deh  \'o 

wine,  du  vin,  du  vanh 

beer,  de  la  biere,  deh  lah  beeair 

milk,  du  lait,  du  lay 

tea,  du  the,  du  tay 

gin,  du  genievre,  du  jenyavr 

brandy,  de  I'eau  de  vie,  deh  10  deh  vee 

THE  DRESS 

a  coat,   un   surtout,   unh   swrtoo 

a  cloak,  un  manteau,  unh  manto 

a  waistcoat,  un  gilet,  unh  jeelay 

the   trousers,   la   culotte,   la   kwlott 

the  braces,  les  bretelles,  lai  bretell 

the  cap,  le  bonnet,  leh  bonnay 

the  hat,  le  chapeau,  leh  shapo 

the  comb,  le  peigne,  leh  peine 

gloves,  des  gants,  dai  gonh 

a  ring,  une  bague,  tme  bog 

a  watch,  une  montre,  «ne  monhtr 

the  stocking,  le  bas,  leh  bah 

the  boots,  les  bottes,  lai  bot 

the  bootjack,  le  tire-botte,  leh  teer  bot 

the  slippers,  les  pantoufies,  lai  pauntoofl 

the  shoes,  les  souliers,  lai  soolyai 

a  shirt,  une  chemise,  wne  shemeeze 

a   pocket   handkerchief,   un  mouchoir,  unh 

mooshouah 

the  cothes  brush,  la  brosse,  lah  bross 
the  umbrella,  le  parapluie,  leh  paraplu-wee 
the  parasol,  le  parasol,  leh  parasol 

HOUSE    UTENSILS 

a  table,  une  table,  wne  tahbl 

a  chair,  wne  chaise,  wne  shayse 

an  armchair,  un  fauteuil,  unh  foh-tuh-yuh 

a  looking-glass,  un  miroir,  unh  meeruahr 

a  clock,  wne  horloge,  wne  orloje 

a  trunk,  wn  coffre,  unh  cofr 

a  box,  wne  boite,  «ne  buaht 

the  bed,  le  lit,  leh  lee 

the  counterpane,  la  couverture,  lah  coovair- 

tyure 

a  pillow,  wn  oreiller,  unh  oraylyai 
the  sheets,  /es  drops  de  lit,  lai  drah  deh  lee 
the  mattress,  le  matelas,  leh  matlah 
the  plate,  I'assiette,  1'assyet 
the  candlestick,  un  chandelier,  unh  shande- 

lyai 

the  lamp,  une  lampe,  wne  lamp 
a   spoon,   une  cuiller,   une  kww-yay 
a  fork,  une  fourchette,  wne  foorchett 
a  knife,  un  couteau,  unh  cooto 
a  cup,  une  tasse,  wne  tass 
a  saucer,  la  soucoupe,  lah  soocoop 
the  tablecloth,  la  nappe,  lah  nap 
the  towel,  un  essuie-main,  unh  esswee  manh 
a  glass,  un  verre,  unh  vair 
the  tea-pot,  la  theiere,  lah  taiyair 


RELATIONS 

the  family,  la  famille,  lah  fameel 

the  husband,  le  mari,  leh  maree 

the  wife,  la  femme,  lah  fam 

the  father,  le  pere,  leh  pare 

the  mother,  la  mere,  lah  mare 

the  child,  I'enfant,  1'anhfanh 

the  son,  le  fils,  leh  feess 

the  daughter,  la  fille,  lah  feel 

the  brother,  le  frere,  leh  frair 

the  sister,  la  sceur,  lah  suhr 

the  uncle,  I'oncle,  1'awnkl 

the  aunt,   la  tante,  lah  tont 

the  cousin,  le  cousin,  leh  coosanh 

the  marriage,  le  mariage,  leh  mareeahj 

OCCUPATIONS 

an  occupation,  un  metier,  maytyai 

a  workman,  un  artisan,  arteesonh 

a  baker,  un  boulanger,  boolanh-zhay. 

a  miller,  un  meunier,  meuhnyai 

a  butcher,  un  boucher,  booshai 

a  brewer,  un  brasseur,  brassuhr 

a  tailor,   un  tailleur,  ti-yur 

a  shoemaker,  un  cordonnier,  cordonyai 

a  smith,  un  forgeron,  forjehronh 

a  saddler,  un  sellier,  say-yay 

a  carpenter,  un  menuisier,  mennweesyai 

a  mason,  un  magon,  massonh 

a  bookbinder,  un  relieur,  relleeuhr 

THE  TOWN 

the  town,  la  ville,  lah  veel 

the  bridge,  le  pont,  leh  ponh 

the  tower,  la  tour,  lah  toor 

the  gate,  la  porte,  lah  port 

the  street,  la  rue,  lah  ru 

the  market,   le  marche,  leh  marshay 

the  building,  le  batiment,  leh  bahteemonh 

the   townhouse,   I'hotel  de  ville,  1'otel   deh 

veel 

the  theatre',  le  theatre,  leh  tayahtr 
the  post-office,  la  paste,  lah  post 
the  church,  I'eglise,  1'aygleeze 
the  cathedral,  la  cathedrale,  lah  cataydral 
the  school,  I'ecole,  laycoll 
the  prison,  la  prison,  lah  preesonh 
the  exchange,  la  bourse,  lah  boorse 
the  palace,  le  palais,  leh  pallay 
the  hotel,  I'hotel,  1'otel 
the  inn,  I'auberge,  1'obayrj 
the  public  house,  le  cabaret,  leh  cabbaray 
the  coffee  room,  le  cafe,  leh  caffay 

THE  HOUSE 

the  house,  la  maison,  lah  maysonh 
the  door,  la  porte,  lah  port 
the  lock,  la  serrure,  lah  serrwr 
the  key,  la  de,  lah  clay 


72 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


the  bell,  la  sonnette,  lah  sonnet 

the  staircase,  I'escalier,  1'escallyai 

the  drawing-room,  la  salle,  lah  sal 

the     dining-room,     la    salle -a-manger,    lah 

salah-manzhai 

the  room,  la  chambre,  lah  shambr 
the    bedroom,    la    chambre-a-coucher,    lah 

shombr-a-cooshay 

the  window,  la  fenetre,  lah  fennaitr 
the  wall,  la  paroi,  lah  pahruah 
the  kitchen,  la  cuisine,  lah  cweezeen 
the  roof,  le  toil,  leh  tuah 
the  cellar,  la  cave,  lah  caav 
the  garden,  le  jardin,  leh  zhardanh 

ANIMALS 

an  animal,  un  animal,  unh  aneemal 

a  horse,  un  cheval,  unh  sheval 

a  donkey,  un  one,  unh  ahn 

the  dog,  le  chien,  leh  sheeanh 

the  cat,  le  chat,  leh  shah 

the  rat,  le  rat,  leh  rah 

the  mouse,  la  souris,  lah  sooree 

an  ox,  un  bceuf,  unh  beuh 

a  cow,  une  vache,  une  vash 

a  calf,  un  veau,  unh  vo 

a  sheep,  une  brebis,  «ne  brebbee 

a  lamb,  un  agneau,  unh  anyo 

a  pig,  un  cochon,  unh  coshonh 

the  hare,  le  lievre,  leh  leeayvr 

a  monkey,  un  singe,  unh  sanj 

a  wolf,  un  loup,  unh  loo 

a  bear,  un  our.y,  unh  oorse 

a  lion,  un  /ton,  unh  leeonh 

an  elephant,  un  elephant,  unh  aylayfonh 

a  tiger,  un  tigre,  unh  teegr 

BIRDS 

a  bird,  un  oiseau,  unh  wahzoh 

a  cock,  un  cog,  unh  cock 

a  hen,  une  poule,  «ne  pool 

a  chicken,  un  poulet,  unh  poolay 

a  swan,  un  cigne,  unh  s.inyh 

a  goose,  une  oie,  une  wha 

a  duck,  un  canard,  unh  canar 

a  lark,  une  alouette,  une  alwett 

a  nightingale,  un  rossignol,  unh  rosseenyol 

the  swallow,  Vhirondelle,  1'eeronhdel 

•lie  sparrow,  le  moineau,  leh  muano 

the  raven,  le  corbeau,  leh  corbo 

the  crow,  la  corneille,  lah  cornay-yh 

the  parrot,  le  perroquet,  leh  perrokay 

the  eagle,  I'aigle,  1'aygl 

FISHES  AND  INSECTS 

a  fish,  un  poisson,  unh  puassonh 
a  pike,  un  brocket,  unh  broshay 
a  salmon,  un  saumon,  unh  somonh 
a  carp,  une  carpe.  «ne  car^. 


an  eel,  une  anguillt,  une  onggheel 

a  trout,  une  truite,  Mne  trweet 

a  herring,  un  hareng,  unh  harronh 

oysters,  dej  hultres,  dai  zweetr 

a  crab,  un*  ecrevisse,  une  aycreveese 

a  turtle,  une  tortue,  une  tortyu 

a  whale,  une  baleine,  une  ballayn 

a  serpent,  un  serpent,  unh  sairponh 

a  frog,  une  grenouille,  une  granooeeyh 

a  worm,  un  t/er,  unh  vair 

an  insect,  un  insecte,  anh 

a  spider,  un?  araignce,  une  arraynyai 

a   moth,    une   teigne,   unh    taine 

a  fly,  une  mouche,  une  moosh 

a  gnat,  un  moucheron,  unh  moosheronh 

a  bee,  une  abeille,  une  abbay-yh 

the  honey,  /e  miel,  leh  meeyell 

a  wasp,  une  guepe,  une  gwape 

a  butterfly,  un  papillon,  unh  pap-pee-yonh 

VEGETABLES 

beans,  des  feves,  dai  faive 
peas,  des  pois,  dai  puah 
cabbage,  des  choux,  dai  shoo 
cauliflower,  des  choux-fieurs,  dai  shoo-fluhr 
carrots,  des  bettera-ves,  dai  betrahve 
asparagus,  des  asperges,  daiz  aspairj 
spinach,  des  epinards,  daiz  aipeenar 
radishes,  des  radis,  dai  raddee 
celery,  du  celeri,  du  selleh-ree 
a  melon,  un  melon,  unh  mellonh 
cucumber,     de.s     concombres,     dai     konh- 
komhbr 

TREES  AND  FLOWERS 

a  tree,  un  arbre,  unh  arbr 

a  branch,  une  branche,  une  brawnhsh 

a  leaf,  une  feuille,  une  fuh-eel 

an  apple,  une  pomme,  une  pomm 

a  pear,  une  poire,  une  puah 

a  plum,  une  prune,  une  prune 

a  cherry,  une  cerise,  une  serreeze 

a  nut,  une  noix,  une  nuah 

a  currant,  de  la  groseille,  de  lah  grozah-yh 

a  gooseberry,  rfe  la  groseille  verte,  deh  lah 

grozah-yh  vert 

a  strawberry,  une  fraise,  une  fraize 
a  chestnut,  un  marron,  unh  marronh 
the  oak-tree,  le  chene,  leh  shane 
the  fir-tree,  le  pin,  leh  panh 
the  birch,  le  bouleau,  leh  boolo 
the  willow,  le  saule,  leh  sole 
a  flower,  une  fleur,  une  fluhr 
a  rose,  une  rose,  une  rose 
a  pink,  un  ceillet,  unh  uh-yay 
a  tulip,  une  tulipe,  une  tuleep 
a  lily,  un  Us,  unh  lee 
a  violet,  une  violette,  une  vee-oh-lett 
a  bouquet,  «n  bouquet,  unh  bookay 


FRENCH   SELF-TAUGHT 


73 


THE   SCHOOL 

a   school,   I'tcole,  1'aycol 

the  teacher,  le  maitre,  leh  maytr 

the  book,  le  livre,  leh  leevr 

the  paper,  le  papier,  leh  papyai 

a  pen,  une  plume,  «ne  plum 

an  inkstand,  une  encrier,  unh  onh-kree-yay 

the  ink,  I'encre,  lonh-kr 

the  pencil,  le  crayon,  leh  crayonh 

a  letter,  une  lettre,  «ne  lettr 

an  envelope,  une  enveloppe,  wne  onhvellope 

TIME    AND    SEASONS 
the  time,  le  temps,  leh  tonh 
a  minute,  la  minute,  lah  meenwt 
an  hour,  une  heure,  une  uhr 
a  quarter  of  an  hour,  un  quart  d'heure,  unh 

kar    derr 
half  an  hour,  une  demie-heure,  wne  demmy 

err 

four  o'clock,  quatre  heures,  katr  err 
a  quarter  of  four,  quatre  heures  moins  le 

quart,  katr  err  mwanh  leh  kar 
a  quarter  past  four,  quatre  heures  et  quart, 

katr  err  ay  kar 
twenty  minutes  past  eight,  huit  heures  vingt, 

wheet  err  vanh 
half-past  six,  six  heures  et  demie,  seece  err 

ay  demmee. 

the  day,  le  jour,  leh  zhoor 
the  morning,  le  matin,  leh  mattanh 
noon,  le  midi,  leh  meedee 
the  afternoon,  I'apres-'midi,  1'apray   meedee 
the  evening,  le  soir,  leh  suahr 
the  night,  la  nuit,  lah  nwee 
a  year,  un  an,  un  anh 
a  month,  un  mois,  unh  mouah 
January,  Janvier,  zhonhveeay 
February,  fevrier,  fayvreeay 
March,  mars,  <narse 
April,  avril,  avreel 
May,  mai,  may 
June,  juin,  jyuanh 
July,  juillet,  jweelyai 
August,  aout,  oo 
September,  septembre,   setawmbr 
October,  octobre,  octobr 
November,  novembre,  no-vahmbr 
December,  decembre,  daysahmbr 
a  week,  une  semaine,  une  semmane 
a  fortnight,  quinze  jours,  kanhze  zhoor 
Monday,   lundi,   Iwndee 
Tuesday,  mardi,  mardee 
Wednesday,  mercredi,  mayrcredee 
Thursday,  jeudi,  zhuh-dee 
Friday,  vendredi,  vonhdredee 
Saturady,  samedi,  samdee 
Sunday,  dimanche,  deemaunshe 
spring,  le  printemps,  leh  pranhtahnh 
summer,  I'ete,  1'aytay 


autumn,   I'automne,  1'otonn 
winter,  I'hiver,  1'eevare 

THE   COUNTRY 

the  country,  la  campagne,  lah  comhpan-yl. 
the  village,  le  village,  leh  veelaj 
the  hut,  la  cabane,  lah  cabanne 
the  soil,  le  sol,  leh  sol 
the  meadow,  le  pre,  leh  pray 
the  barn,  le  grange,  leh  granj 
the  mill,  le  moulin,  leh  moolanh 
the  cattle,  le  betail,  leh  baytale 
the  herds,  le  troupeau,  leh  troopo 
the  shepherd,  le  berger,  leh  bayrjay 
the  mountain,  la  montagne,  lah  monh-tan-yh 
the  hill,  la  colline,  lah  colleen 
the  dale,  la  vallee,  lah  vallay 
the  wood,  le  bois,  leh  bouah 
the  forest,  la  foret,  lah  forray 
the  road,  le  chemin,  leh  shemmanh 
the  high-road,   le  grand-chemin,  leh  granh 

shemmanh 

the  railroad,   le   chemin  de  fer    leh  shem- 
manh deh  fare 
a  mile,  un  mille,  unh  meel 
the  waterfall,  la  cascade,  lah  cascad 
the  fisherman,  le  pecheur,  leh  payshuhr 
the  huntsman,  le  chasseur,  leh  shassuhr 

NATIONS 

an  American,  un  Americain,  Amayreecanh 
a  German,  un  Allemand,  Allh-manh 
Germany,  I'Allemagne  f.,  Lallh-manh 
a  Dutchman,  un  Hollandais,  unh  Ohlahnday 
Holland,  la  Hollande,  lah  Ohlanhnd 
a  Belgian,  un  Beige,  unh  Belj 
Belgium,  la  Belgique,  lah  Beljeek 
a  Swiss,  un  Suisse,  unh  Sweess 
Switzerland,   la  Suisse,  lah   Sweess 
an    Hungarian,    un   Hongrois,    unh    Aunh- 

gruh-wah 

Hungary,   la  Hongrie,  la  Aungree-yh 
an  Englishman,  un  Anglais,  un  Aunglay 
England,   I'Angleterre   f.,  1'Aungltare 
an  Irishman,  un  Irlandais,  un  Eerlaunday 
Ireland,   I'Irlande,   f.,   1'Eerlaund 
a  Scotchman,  un  Ecossais,  un  Aycossay 
Scotland,   I'Ecosse  f.,  PAycoss 
a  Dane,  un  Danois,  unh  Danouah 
Denmark,  le  Danemarc,  leh  Danmark 
a  Swede,  un  Suedois,  unh  Swaydwah 
Sweden,  la  Suede,  lah  Swayde 
a  Russian,  un  Russe,  unh  Russe 
Russia,  la  Russie,  lah  Russee 
a  Spaniard,  un  Espagnol,  unh  Espanyull 
Spain,  I'Espagne  f.,  Lespahn-yh 
a  Frenchman,  un  Frangais,  unh  Fraunhsay 
France,  la  France,  lah  Fraunhse 
an  Italian,  un  Italien,  unh  Eetalyanh 
Italy,  I'ltalie  f,  1'Eetalee 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


ADJECTIVES 

VERBS 

Enflbk 

French 

PronunciattOB 

Engltah 

Frtnch 

PronnncUMtm 

poor 

pauvre 

pohvr 

to  eat 

manger 

maunj  ai 

rich 

riche 

reesh 

to    drink 

boire 

buahr 

clever 

prudent 

prwdonh 

to  be  thirsty 

avoir  soif 

avuahr   s\vahf 

stupid 

stupide 

stupeed 

to  be  hungry 

avoir  faim 

avuahr  fanh 

sharp 

aigu 

ayg* 

to  breakfast 

dejeuner 

day-zhuhnai 

blunt 

obtus 

obtu 

to  dine 

diner 

deenai 

clean 

propre 

propr 

to  sup 

souper 

soopai 

dirty 

sale 

sal 

to  lay  the 

mettre  le  con- 

metr leh  coo- 

hard 

dur 

dure 

tablecloth 

vert 

vair 

soft 

mou 

moo 

to   serve 

servir 

sareveer 

strong 

fort 

fore 

to  carve 

decouper 

duh-coopay 

weak 

foible 

fabbl 

to  smoke 

fumer 

fumai 

well 

sain 

sanh 

to  sneeze 

eternuer 

aytairnuaiv 

ill 

malade 

mallad 

to  cough 

tousser 

toossai 

lean 

maigre 

maygr 

to    think 

penser 

paunhsai 

thick 

gros 

gruh 

to  reflect 

reflechir 

rayflaysheer 

fat 

gras 

grah 

to   speak 

parler 

parlai 

thin 

mince 

manhce 

to  say 

dire 

deer 

polite 

poli 

polee 

to  repeat 

re  peter 

raypaytai 

impolite 

malhonnette 

mallonnate 

to  explain 

declarer 

dayclarrai 

false 

faux 

fo 

to  be  quiet 

se  taire 

sen  tare 

deep 

profound 

profonh 

to  chat 

causer 

cosay 

wide 

large 

larj 

to  tell 

raconter 

racconhtai    * 

narrow 

etroit 

aytrouah 

to  ask 

demander 

demaundai 

round 

rond 

ronh 

to  answer 

repondre 

rayponhdr 

square 

carre 

carray 

to  reply 

rcpliquer 

raypleekai 

short 

court 

coor 

to  be  mistaken 

se  tromper 

seh  trompai 

long 

long 

long 

to   object 

objecter 

objectai 

warm 

chaud 

sho 

to  doubt 

douter 

dootai 

cold 

froid 

frouah 

to  affrm 

affirmer 

affeermai 

fresh 

frais 

fray 

to  prove 

prouver 

proovai 

ripe 

mur 

mwr 

to  assure 

assurer 

assurai 

dry 

sec 

sec 

to  deny 

nier 

neeai 

sour 

aigre 

aygr 

to  maintain 

soutenir 

soot'neer 

sweet 

doux 

doo 

to  dispute 

disputer 

dispwfai 

bitter 

amer 

amair 

to  consent 

consentir 

conhsaunteer 

hungry 

affame 

affammay 

to  approve 

a  p  prouver 

approovai 

thirsty 

altere 

altayray 

to  praise 

louer 

looai 

heavy 

pesant 

pezonh 

to  admire 

admirer- 

admeerai 

light 

leger 

layzhay 

to  blame 

blamer 

blahmai 

wet 

humid  e 

Mmeed 

to  believe 

croire 

cruahr 

content 

content 

conhtonh 

to  know 

savoir 

savuahr 

happy 

heureux 

uhruh 

not  to  know 

ignorer 

eenyorai 

gay 

gai 

gay 

to  imagine 

imaginer 

eemajeenai 

sad 

it  iste 

treest 

to  compare 

comparer 

compahrai 

useful 

utile 

Mteel 

to  imitate 

imiter 

eemeetai 

strange 

ttrange 

aytraunj 

to  forget 

oublier 

oobleeai 

pretty 

joli 

jolee 

to  remember 

se  souvenir 

seh  soovenneep 

ugly 

laid 

lay 

to  wish,  to  will  vouloir 

vool-wahr 

dark 

sombre 

sombr 

to  desire 

desirer 

dayseerai 

open 

ouvert 

oovare 

to  wish 

souhaiter 

sooaytai 

disagreeable 

desagreable 

dayzagrayabl 

to  love  - 

•aimer 

aimai 

proud 

Her 

feeair 

to  flatter 

flatter 

flattai 

arrogant 

arrogant 

arrogonh 

to  embrace 

embrasser 

aumbrossai 

cowardly 

lache 

lahsh 

to  hope 

esperer 

espayrai 

courageous 

courageux 

coorraj  uh 

to  rejoice 

se  rejouir 

seh  rayjooeer 

faithless 

per  fide 

pair  feed 

to  give 

donner 

donnai 

innocent 

innocent 

innosonh 

to  thank 

remercier 

remmairceeai 

FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


75 


English 

French 

Pronunciation 

English 

French 

Pronunciation 

to  esteem 

estimer 

esteemai 

to  cover 

cowvrir 

coovreer 

to  honor 

honorer 

onorai 

to  uncover 

decouvrir 

daycoovreer 

to  despise 

tnepriser 

maypreezai 

to  carry 

porter 

portai 

to  hate 

hair 

a-eer 

to  bring 

ap  porter 

apportai 

to  offend 

offenser 

offonhsai 

to  travel 

voyager 

vwha-yazhay 

to  insult 

insult  er 

anhswltay 

to  depart 

partir 

parteer 

to  quarrel 

quereller 

kerrellai 

to  arrive 

arriver 

arreevai 

to  swear 

jurer 

zhwray 

to  ring  the  bell  sonner 

sonnai 

to  punish 

punir 

pwneer 

to  open 

ouvrir 

oovreer 

to  beat 

battre 

battr 

to  go  in 

entrer 

auntrai 

to  weep 

pleurer 

pluhrai 

to  buy 

acheter 

ashtai 

to  sigh 

soupirer- 

soopeerai 

to  sell 

vendre 

vaundr 

to  regret 

regretter 

regrettai 

to  pay 

payer 

paiyai 

to  repent 

se  repentir 

seh  repaunteer 

to  lend 

preter 

praytai 

to  excuse 

excuser 

excwsai 

to  borrow 

emprunter 

aumprwntai 

to  pardon 

pardonner 

pardonnai 

to  return 

rendre 

raundr 

to  revenge 

venger 

vaunhjai 

to  repay 

rembourser 

raumboorsai 

to  joke 

railler 

rah-yay 

to  exchange 

changer 

chaunh-zhai 

to  laugh 

rire 

reer 

to  pack  up 

empaqueter 

aumpacktai 

to  live 

vivre 

veevr 

to  unpack 

depaqueter 

daypacktai 

to  feel 

sentir 

saunteer 

to    steal 

voler 

volai 

to  touch 

toucher 

tooshai 

to  study 

etudier 

aytudeeai 

to  taste 

gouter 

gootai 

to  learn 

ap  prendre 

appraundr 

to  see 

voir 

vuahr 

to  read 

lire 

leer 

to  hear 

entendre 

auntaundr 

to  calculate 

compter 

conhtai 

to  grow 

croitre 

cruahtr 

to  write 

ecrire 

aye  reer 

to  go 

aller 

allai 

to  sign 

signer 

seenyai 

to  go  out 

sortir 

sorteer 

to  seal 

cacheter 

cashtai 

to  return 

retourner 

retoornai 

to  explain 

expliquer 

expleekai 

to  meet 

rencontre 

raunconhtrai 

to  translate 

traduire 

tradweer 

to  follow 

suivre 

sweevr 

to  begin 

commence? 

commaunsai 

to  run 

courir 

cooreer 

to  continue 

continuer 

conhteenwai 

to  jump 

sauter 

sotai 

to  finish 

finir 

feerieer 

to  fall 

tomber 

tombai 

to  work 

travailler 

trav-vah-yay 

to  dance 

danser 

daunhsai 

to  paint 

peindre 

pahndr 

to  play 

jouer 

zhooai 

to  draw 

dessiner 

desseenai 

to  ascend 

monter 

monhtai 

to  stitch 

coudre 

coodr 

to  descend 

descendre 

dessaundr 

to  spin 

filer 

feelai 

to  sit  down 

s'asseoir 

sassuahr 

to  wash 

lover 

lavai 

to  lie  down 

se  coucher 

seh    cooshai 

to  cook 

cuire 

cweer 

to  rest 

se  reposer 

seh  repozai 

to  roast 

rotir 

roteer 

to  sleep 

dormir 

dormeer 

to  boil 

bouillir 

booeelyeer 

to  dream 

rever 

rayvai 

to  weigh 

peser 

pezai 

to  awake 

s'eveiller 

sayvay-yay 

to  build 

batir 

bahteer 

to  get  up 

se  lever 

seh  levvai 

to  sow 

.  semer 

semmai 

to  dress 

s'habiller 

sab-bee-yay 

to  pluck 

cueillir 

keh-yair 

to  pull 

tirer 

teerai 

to  plant 

planter 

plauntai 

to  show 

montrer 

monhtrai 

to  reap 

moissonner 

mouahssonnaj 

to  present 

presenter 

praysatmtai 

to  take 

prendre 

praundr 

CONJUNCTIONS 

to  accept 

accepter 

acceptai 

or 

ou 

oo 

to  refuse 

refuser 

reffwsai 

either  —  or 

ou  —  ou 

oo  —  oo 

to  receive 

recevoir 

ressevouahr 

neither  —  nor 

ni  —  ni 

nee  —  nee 

to  spoil 

gater 

gahtai 

also 

aussi 

ohsee 

to  throw 

jeter 

zhettai 

but 

mais 

may 

to  lose 

perdre 

pairdr 

however 

cependant 

seppaundonh 

to  look  for 

chercher 

shairshai 

yet 

paurtant 

poortanh 

to  find 

trouver 

troovai 

if 

si 

see 

to  hide 

cacher 

cashai 

if  not 

si  non 

see    nonh 

76 


FRENCH   SELF-TAUGHT 


Knelt* 

ta>* 

Pronunciation 

Englfah 

FnMh 

ProoBBotoUon 

if  only 

pourvu    que 

poorvM  keh 

too  much 

trop 

tro 

even  if 

quand   meme 

kaunh    meym 

little 

peu 

puh 

although 

quoique 

cooahk 

much 

beaucoup 

bocoo 

that  is  to  say  c'cst-a-dire 

sait-ah-deer 

very 

tres,  fort 

tray,    fore 

as 

comme 

kum 

more 

plus 

plu 

except    that 

outre  que 

ootr  kuh 

less 

mains 

mouanh 

for 

car 

car 

at  least 

au   mains 

o  mouanh 

because 

parceque 

parsk 

thus 

si 

see 

why 

pourquoi 

poorkuah 

nearly 

presque 

pressk 

and 

et 

ai 

about 

environ 

aunhveeronh 

therefore 

ainsi 

anhsee 

all 

tout 

too 

consequently 

par  consequent 

par  conhsay- 

altogether 

tout-d-fait 

toot-ah-fay 

conh 

only 

seulement 

suhlmonh 

ADVERBS 

well 
better 

bien 
mieux 

beeanh 
mee-uh 

at  first 
previously 

d'abord 

auparavant 

d'abor 
oparravanh 

so  much  the 
better 

tant-mieux 

taunh  mee-uh 

afterward 

ensuite 

aunsweet 

bad 

mat 

mal 

together 

ensemble 

aunsaumbl 

worse 

pis 

pee 

at  last 

en  fin 

aunfanh 

rather 

plutot 

pluto 

where 

oft 

00 

without  doubt 

sans  doute 

saunh    doot 

here 

id 

eesee 

indeed 

en  effet 

aw-neffay 

there 

Id 

lah 

on   the   con- 

elsewhere 

ailleurs 

aeellyure 

trary 

au   contraire 

o   conhtrare 

above 

dessus 

dessu 

scarcely 

a  peine 

ah   pen 

below 

dessous 

dessoo 

perhaps 

peut-etre 

puh-taitr 

within 

dedans 

deddonh 

all  at  once 

tout-d-coup 

tuht-ah-coo 

•without 

dehors 

dehor 

not  at  all 

point  du  tout 

pouanhdutoo 

everywhere 

partout 

partoo 

not  yet 

pas  encore 

pah-zahnh-core 

nowhere 

nulle   part 

nul  par 

nothing 

rien 

reeanh 

up 

en  haut 

aunh  oh 

nothing  at  all 

Hen  du  tout 

reeanh  du  too 

down 

en  has 

aunh  bah 

with,  near 

chez,  aupres 

shay,   opray 

anywhere 

quelque  part 

kulk  par 

near 

pres 

pray 

already 

dejd 

dayzhah 

in,    within 

dans,    en 

donh,   aunh 

often 

souvent 

souvonh 

before 

avant 

awonh 

sometimes 

quelque  fois 

kulk-fwah 

behind 

derriere 

derriair 

in  future 

a  I'avenir 

ah  1'avneer 

below 

sous 

soo 

always 

toujours 

toozhoor 

over 

sur 

s«r 

never 

jamais 

zhammay 

against 

vers 

vare 

soon 

bientot 

beeanhtoe 

far  from 

loin    de 

luanh  deh 

immediately 
late 

aussitot 
tard 

oss-eetoe 
tar 

on  the  side 
of 

d   cote   de 

ah    cotay   deh 

early 

tot 

toe 

opposite 

vis-d-vis 

veez-ah-vee 

at  present 

a   present 

ah  praysonh 

round  about 

autour   de 

otoor  deh 

quickly 

vite 

veet 

instead  of 

au  lieu  de 

o  leeyw  deh 

at   once 

tout  de  suite 

too  deh  sweet 

in  the  midst  of  au  milieu  de 

o  millyw  deh 

afterward 

puts 

pwee 

on  this   side 

en  deed  de 

aunh-dessahde 

yesterday 
yesterday 
evening 

hier 
hief  au  soir 

yare 
yare  o  suahr 

on  the  oppo- 
site   side 
out  of 

au-deld  de 
hors 

o-dellah-deh 
or 

to-day 

aujourd'hui 

ojoordwee 

after 

apres 

appray 

to-morrow 

demain 

demmanh 

with 

avec 

avvec 

to-morrow 
morning 

demain    matin 

demmanh 
mattanh 

since 
between 

depuis 
entre,  parmi 

deppwee 
aunhtr,  parmee 

to-morrow 

.          • 

demmanh 

without 

sans 

sanh 

dfniain    soir 

evening 

suahr 

for 

pour 

poor 

the  day  after 
to-morrow 

apres   demain 

appray  dem- 
manh 

through,  by 
against 

par 
contre 

par 
conhtr 

enough 

assez 

assay 

during 

pendant 

paundonh 

FRENCH   SELF-TAUGHT 


77 


NUMERAL   ADJECTIVES 

Some  thirty  men,  une  trentaine  d'hommes. 

one,  un,  unh                 80  quatre-vingt, 

Hundreds  of  men,  des  centaines  d'hommes. 

two,  deux,  duh                      katr-vanh 

3  trois,  trouah             81  quatre  -vingt-un, 

ORDINAL   NUMBERS 

4  quatre,  kahtr                     katr-vanhtunh 

the  first,    le  premier           leh  premyai 

5  cinq,  sanh                 82  quatre-vingt-deux 

"  second,  le  second             leh  zeggonh 

6  six,  seece                  83  quatre-vingt-trois 

"  third,     le  troisieme         leh  trouazzeeame 

7  sept,  set                    84  quatre-vingt-quatre 

"  fourth,  le  quatrieme        leh  kattreeame 

8  /jwiY,  wheet               85  quatre  -vingt-cinq 

"  5th,        le  cinquitwie        leh  sahnkeeame 

9  n^tt/,  nuf                  86  quatre-vingt-six 

"  6th,        le  sixieme            leh  seeceeame 

10  rfur,  deece                 87  quatre-vingt-sept 

"  7th,       le  septieme          leh   setteeame 

II  0H2£,  onhz                 88  quatre  -vingt-huit 

"  8th,        le  huitieme         leh  wheeteeame 

12  douze,  dooze            89  quatre-vingt-neuf 

,"  9th,        le  neuvieme        lehneuveeame 

13  treize,  trayz              90  quatre-vingt-dix 

"  loth,      le  dixieme           leh  deezeeame 

14  quatorze,  katorz      91  quatre-vingt-onse 

"  nth,      le  onzieme          leh  ongzeeame 

15  quinse,  kanhz          92  quatre-vingt-douze 

"  I2th,      le  douzieme        leh  doozeeame 

16  j«.stf,  sayz                 93  quatre-vingt-treize 

"  I3th,      le  treizieme         leh  trayzeeame 

J7  dix-sept,  dee-sett     94  quatre-vingt- 

"  I4th,      le  quatorzieme    leh  kattorzeeame 

18  dix-huit,  deez-                  quatorze 

"  isth,      le  quinzieme       leh  kahngzeeame 

wheet                    '95  quatre-vingt- 

"  i6th,      le  seizieme           leh  sayzeeame 

19  dix-neuf,  deez-nuf            quinze 

"  I7th,      le  dix-septieme  leh  deessettiame  ^ 

20  vingt,  vanh              96  quatre-vingt-seize 
21  vingt-et-un,    vanh-  97  quatre-vingt-dix- 

,    ,.     ,    ....        leh  deez-wheetee- 
i8th,      le  dix-huitieme      __._ 

dlllC 

tay-unh                           j£/>£ 

"  I9th,      le  dix-neuvieme  leh  deezneuveeame 

22  vingt-deux               98  quatre-vingt-dix- 

"  2oth,      le  vingtieme        leh  vahnteeame 

23  vingt-trois                          huit 

„               le  vingt-et-         leh  vahng-eh- 

24  vingt-quatre             99  quatre-vingt-dix- 

218  »          unieme                 uneeame 

25  vingt-cinq                           neuf 

"  30th,      le  trentieme        leh  traunteeame 

26  vingt-slx                   100  ctfwf,  saunh 

"  40th,      le  quarantieme    leh  karaunteeame 

27  vingt-sept                 101  cent-un 
28  vingt-huit                  1  10  cewf  dur 

«  f«*u       i                *-i       ^en  sahnkauntee- 
5oth,      le  cinquantieme 
cunc 

29  vingt-neuf                 120  c^nf   z/tngf 

<«  f^t-t.       i       •       .i-i         leh  souahssauntee- 
ootn,      le  soixantieme 

30  trente,  traunh          130  c<?wf  fr^nf 

40  quarante,  karaunh  200  rf^w*   c^wte 

"  7oth       ^  soixante-        leh  souahssaunt- 

50  cinquante,                 300  froij   c^nte 

'         dixidme               deezeeame 

sahnkaunh            400  quatre  cents 

"  8oth       lg  quatre-            leh  kattr-vauntee- 

60  soixante,                    500  cmg    c^wte 

'         vingtidme           ame 

suahsaunh             600  ^tV   c^wte 

H      ..        le  quatre-vingt-  leh  kattr-vaundee- 

70  soixante-dix             700  .££/>£   c^nte 

dixieme              zeeame 

71  soixante-et-onze      800  /zw'f   c^nte 

looth,    le  centieme         leh  saun'teeame 

72  soixante-douze         900   n^ttf   c£«ta 

i,oooth,  le  millieme          leh  milleeame 

73  soixante-treize          1,000  ««//£,  meel 

Firstly,  premierement  or  uniemement. 

74  soixante-quatorze    2,000  tf^M^r  wi7/£ 

Secondly,  secondement  or  deuxiemement. 

75  soixante-quinzz        3,ooo  frow  wti//^ 

76  soixante-seize           10,000   di>   wtV/^ 

FORMATION   OF   NUMERALS.  —  As    may   be 

77  soixante-dix-sept     20,000  zrc'ngf  mt//^ 

seen  from  this  list,  the  numerals  in  French 

78  soixante-dix-huit     a  million,  t«n  million, 

are   formed   precisely   as   in   English,   with 

79  soixante-dix-neuf             unh  meelyonh 

the    exceptions    that,    instead    of    seventy, 

they    say    "sixty-ten";    instead    of    eighty, 

The  half,  /a  moitie  or  demi-  (prefix). 

"four-score";  and,  instead  of  ninety,  "four- 

The third,  /^  ftVrj.    The  fourth,  /^  quart. 

score-ten."     It   will   be  noticed,   therefore, 

The  fifth,  /£  cinquieme,  etc.,  etc. 

that   71,   72,   73,    etc.,   are   given   as   sixty- 

The  double,  fe  double.    The  triple,  /£  fn'/>/^. 

eleven,     sixty-twelve,     sixty-thirteen,     etc., 

Three    (etc.)    times  as  many,  trois   (etc.) 

while   91,    92,    etc.,    are    four-score-eleven, 

fois  autant. 

four-score-twelve,   etc.    In  five  cases  only, 

Three  (etc.)  times  more,  trois  (etc.')  fois  plus. 

the  un  is  connected  to  the  larger  numeral 

Three    (etc.)    times  less,   trois    (etc.)    fois 

by   the   conjunction    et,   and   these  are   21, 

mains. 

31,  41,  51,  61  :  in  one  case  the  onze  takes 

Some    twenty    dollars,    une    vingtaine    de 

the  conjunction  —  71.     In  all  other  cases  the 

piastres. 

un  follows  the  leading  numeral  directly. 

6 

78 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


OUTLINES  OF  FRENCH  GRAMMAR 


DECLENSIONS 

THE  DEFINITE  ARTICLE  is  rendered  by 
"le"  before  a  masculine  noun,  and  by 
"Id'  before  a  feminine  noun,  as  le  pere, 
the  father;  la  mere,  the  mother.  The  plural 
for  both  genders  is  "les,"  as:  les  peres, 
the  fathers;  les  meres,  the  mothers. 

MASCULINE 

Singular 

Nom.  le  (leh)  pere,  the  father 
Gen.  du  (d«)  pere,  of  the  father 
Dat.    au   (o)   pere,  to  the  father 
Ace.    le   (leh)  pere,  the  father 

Plural 

Nom.  les   (lai)   peres,  the  fathers 
Gen.  des  (dai)  />^r«,  of  the  fathers 
Dat.   aux  (o)  peres,  to  the  fathers 
Ace.  les  (lai)  />^rw,  the  fathers 


FEMININE 
Singular 

Nom.   /a  mere,  the  mother 
Gen.    de  la  mere,  of  the  mother 
Dat.  a  /a  m<*re,  to  the  mother 
Ace.    la  mere,  the  mother 

Plural 

Nom.   /«  meres,  the  mothers 
Gen.    d«  meres,  of  the  mothers 
Dat.    aux  meres,  to  the  mothers 
Ace.    les  meres,  the  mothers 

In  the  declension  of  a  word  beginning 
with  a  vowel  or  a  silent  "V  the  definite 
article  becomes  /'  in  the  singular.  Thus: 

Singular 

Nom.   I'homme,  the  man 
Gen.    de  I'homme,  of  the  man 
Dat.    a  I'homme,  to  the  man 
Ace.    I'homme,  the  man 

P/i<ra/ 

Nom.  les  hommes,  the  men 
Gen.    des  hommes,  of  the  men 
Dat.    aux  hommes,  to  the  men 
Ace.    les  hommes,  the  men 

THE  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE  is  merely  the 
numeral  adjective  un,  "one."  It  has  a  suf- 
fixed e  before  feminine  nouns.  Thus  : 

Masculine 

Nom.  un  jardin,  a  garden 
Gen.    d'un  jardin,  of  a  garden 
Dat.    a  un  jardin,  to  a  garden 
Ace.    un  jardin,  a  garden 


Feminine 

Nom.   une  ville,  a   town 
Gen.    d'une  ville,  of  a  town 
Dat.    a  une  ville,  to  a  town 
Ace.    une  ville,   a  town 

In  the  declension  of  proper  names  ar- 
ticles are  omitted,  the  prepositions  being 
used  before  the  nouns.  Thus: 

Masculine 

Nom.  Paris,  Paris 
Gen.    de  Paris,  of  Paris 
Dat.    a  Paris,  to   Paris 
Ace.    Paris,   Paris 

Feminine 

Nom.   Louise,  Louisa 
Gen.    de  Louise,  of  Louisa 
Dat.    a  Louise,  to  Louisa 
Ace.    Louise,  Louisa 

ADJECTIVES 

The  French  adjectives  are  placed  either 
before  or  after  the  noun,  as : 

le  ban  pere,  the  good  father 
la  bonne  mere,  the  good  mother 
un  ban  gargon,  a  good  boy 
une  jeune  •Rile,  a  young  girl 
une  table  ronde,  a  round  table 
c*«  lent  chaud,  warm  milk 

FEMININE  TERMINATIONS. — Most  ad- 
jectives form  their  feminine  declension  by 
adding  e.  However,  if  already  ending  in 
mute  e,  the  feminine  is  the  same  as  the 
masculine.  If  it  be  a  verbal  adjective  (past 
participle)  in  e,  the  feminine  becomes  ee. 

With  adjectives  ending  in  el,  en,  et,  on, 
the  feminines  become  elle,  enne,  ette,  onne. 
But  secret  has  secrete. 

With  adjectives  ending  in  f,  the  femi- 
mines  become  ve. 

With  adjectives  ending  hi  *,  the  femi- 
nines become  se. 

With  adjectives  ending  in  eur,  the  femi- 
nines become  euse. 

With  adjectives  ending  in  teur,  if  not 
derived  from  a  present  participle,  the  femi- 
nines become  trice. 

All  adjectives  conform  to  these  rules  ex- 
cept the  following:  bos,  basse;  blanc, 
blanche;  complet,  complete;  doux,  douce; 
epais,  epaisse;  faux,  fausse;  favori,  fa- 
vorite; frais,  fraiche;  franc,  franche;  gen- 
til,  gentille;  gras,  grasse;  grec,  grecque; 
gros,  grosse;  las,  lasse;  long,  longue; 


FRENCH   SELF-TAUGHT 


79 


inalin,  maligne;  pareil,  pareille;  public 
publtque;  sec,  seche;  secret,  secrete;  sot, 
sotte.  There  are  also  a  few  adjectives  thai 
form  their  feminines  from  obsolete  and 
rare  forms  of  the  masculine.  Thus :  beau 
(bel),  belle;  fou  (fol),  folle;  nouveau 
(nouvel),  nouvelle;  vieux  (viel),  vieille. 
The  same  rules  apply  to  the  formation 
of  feminines  from  masculine  nouns  de- 
noting natural  sex,  unless  a  different  word 
already  express  the  feminine. 

PLURAL  TERMINATIONS. — Most  nouns  and 
adjectives  form  their  plural  by  adding  s, 
as  in  English,  but  there  are  a  number  that 
either  remain  unchanged  or  take  a  plural 
suffix  ending  in  x.  They  may  be  classified 
as  follows : 

(i.)  Nouns  and  adjectives  ending  with 
s,  x,  or  z  in  the  singular  remain  unchanged 
in  the  plural. 

(2.)  Nouns  and  adjectives  ending  with 
au  and  eu  in  the  singular  add  x  to  form 
their  plurals.  Also  six  nouns  in  ou  add  x 
instead  of  s:  bijou,  a  jewel;  caillou,  flint; 
chou,  cabbage;  genou,  knee;  hibou,  owl; 
joujou,  toy. 

(3.)  Nouns  and  adjectives  ending  with 
al  in  the  singular  take  aux  in  the  plural, 
as  do  also  the  following  six  masculine 
nouns  in  ail:  bail,  lease;  cor  ail,  coral; 
I' email,  enamel ;  soupirail,  ventilator ;  tra- 
vail, work;  vitrail,  glass  window. 

Adjectives  agree  in  case,  gender,  and 
number  with  the  nouns  they  govern,  and 
are  declined  precisely  like  nouns  with  the 
articles  and  prepositions.  In  most  cases 
the  position  of  the  adjective  with  the  noun 
is  indifferent,  but  with  some  adjectives 
the  meaning  varies  widely  as  they  pre- 
cede or  follow  the  noun.  This  is  deter- 
mined largely  by  general  usage,  rather  than 
by  any  logical  or  grammatical  reasons,  and 
also  by  the  noun  used.  Thus : 

BON  following  means  good;  preceding, 
it  has  the  force  of  "good"  in  the  sense  of 
familiar  address — "my  good  man" — or  of 
indicating  simplicity,  etc.,  frequently,  so- 
cial advantage,  as  bon  ton. 

BRAVE  following  means  worthy  rather 
than  brave. 

CERTAIN  following  means  positive;  pre- 
ceding, particular. 

COMMUN  following  means  vulgar;  pre- 
ceding, general,  unanimous,  etc. 

FURIEUX  following  means  enraged,  angry; 
preceding,  terrible. 

GENTIL  following  means  polite,  well-bred, 
gay;  preceding  man,  woman,  etc.,  noble. 

GRAND  following  meins  large  physically; 


preceding,    great    morally,    mentally,   or   in 
reputation. 

HAUT  following  means  loud,  high;  pre- 
ceding, Jofty  in  manner,  arrogant. 

HONNETE  following,  polite;  preceding, 
honest. 

MAUVAIS  following,  vulgar,  bad  out- 
wardly; preceding,  bad  morally  or  in- 
wardly, ill-natured. 

MECHANT  following,  naughty,  wicked; 
preceding,  poor,  ill-thought,  "no  good." 

MORTEL  following,  mortal,  liable  to  die; 
preceding,  deadly,  as  of  a  poison,  enemy,  etc. 

NOUVEAU  following,  new,  new-made, 
new-fashioned;  preceding,  different,  of  an- 
other kind  than  the  last. 

PETIT  following,  mean,  morally  small; 
preceding,  little,  physically  small. 

PLAISANT  following,  amusing,  agreeable; 
preceding,  absurd,  ridiculous. 

PROPRE  following,  clean,  proper,  right; 
preceding,  one's  own,  private. 

SEUL  following,  alone,  unaccompanied; 
preceding,  single,  unattached. 

TRISTE  following,  sad,  sorrowful;  pre- 
ceding, of  poor  sort. 

VILAIN  following,  ugly  in  face,  etc. ; 
preceding,  disagreeable,  ugly-tempered. 

Several  other  adjectives  thus  distin- 
guish their  "outer"  and  "inner"  meanings; 
some  giving  the  moral  idea  when  preced- 
ing the  noun;  others,  when  following. 
There  is  no  rule  for  guidance  in  this 
matter. 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 
Adjectives  are  usually  compared  by  pre- 
ceding them  with  plus,  "more,"  and  le  (or 
la)  plus,  "the  most";  or,  with  mains,  "less," 
and  le   (or  la)   mains,  "the  least."     Thus: 
grand,   great;   plus  grand,   greater;    le 

plus  grand,  the  greatest 
petit,  small;  plus  petit,  Smaller;  le  plus 
petit,  the  smallest 

A    few,    however,    are    compared    with    a 
different  word  in  the  comparative  degree ;  as : 
peu,   little;    mains,    smaller;    le  mains, 

the  smallest 
bon,  good ;  meilleur,  better ;  le  meilleur, 

the  best 
mauvais,  bad;  pire,  worse;  le  pire,  the 

worst 
petit,  little;  moindre,  less;  le  moindre, 

the   least 

mal,  bad ;  pis,  worse ;  le  pis,  the  worst 
"Than"  following  the  comparative  is  al- 
ways translated  by  "que."     Thus: 
//   est  plus  poll  que  son  frere — he   is 
more  polite  than  his  brother. 


80 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


.  .    -  PRONOUNS 

THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  are  declined  as 
follows : 

/(.-.  I  tu,  thou  il,  he  ellc,  she 

wot,  me  /o»,  thee  lui,  him  */fe,  her 

me,  me.  te,  thee  te,  him  la,  her 

nouj,  we  z/0fer,  you  Us,  they  £•//*.?,  they 

nous,  us  V0M.T,  5101*  £«*,  them  elles,  them 

»0*r;us  tfouj,  you  les,  them  /«,  them 

The  first  form  in  each  paradigm  is  the 
nominative;  the  third,  the  objective;  the 
second,  the  form  taking  prepositions,  and 
indicating  the  indirect  object. 

When  used  before  verbs,  like  donner,  "to 
give,"  parler,  "to  speak,"  that  should  be 
followed  by  the  preposition  "to"  in  En- 
glish, the  following  forms  occur:  me,  "me, 
to  me";  te,  "thee,  to  thee";  lui,  "to  him, 
to  her";  le,  "him,  it";  la,  "her,  it";  nous, 
"us,  to  us";  vous,  "you,  to  you";  leur,  "to 
them";  les,  "them"  (masc.  or  fern.). 
These  are,  in  general,  the  forms  of  the  in- 
direct object.  Where  two  pronouns,  one 
indicating  the  direct,  the  other,  the  indi- 
rect, object,  occur  with  one  verb — as  Je  le 
leur  rendrais,  si  je  I'avais,  "I  would  return 
it  to  them,  if  I  had  it" — the  first  person 
precedes  the  second  or  third,  and  the  sec- 
ond, the  third,  with  the  forms,  lui  or  leur 
always  last.  With  the  direct  imperative, 
however,  the  pronoun  expressing  the  indi- 
rect object  always  follows  that  expressing 
the  direct  object  Thus:  Donnez-le-moi, 
"Give  k  to  me";  Donnez-le-leur,  "Give  it 
to  them." 

The  first  person  singular  gives  moi,  as 
the  indirect  object  after  a  direct  impera- 
tive, but  me  before  every  verb  and  with  a 
negative  imperative.  Thus,  Ne  me  le  don- 
nez  pas,  "Do  not  give  it  to  me."  So,  with 
other  persons,  the  prepositional  forms  are 
used  in  this  construction. 

The  form,  moi,  is  also  used  after  a  verb, 
in  answer  to  a  question  requiring  the  an- 
swer "I"  or  "myself"  in  English.  Thus, 
moi  or  c'est  moi,  for  "It  is  I."  So,  also, 
test  toi,  c'est  lui,  c'est  vous,  c'est  eux. 

THE  PRONOMINAL  OR  POSSESSIVE  ADJEC- 
TIVES, like  all  other  adjectives,  agree  in 
gender  and  number  with  the  noun  follow- 
ing them,  and  are  declined  like  nouns  and 
adjectives.  Thus:  "my"  is  translated  by 
mon  (M),  ma  (F),  mes  (plural)  ;  "thy," 
by  ton  (M),  ta  (F),  tes  (plural)  ;  "his,  her, 
its,"  by  son  (M),  sa  (F),  ses  (plural)  ; 
"our,"  by  notre  (M  and  F),  nos  (plural)  ; 
"your,"  by  votre  (M  and  F),  vos  (plural)  ; 
"their,"  by  leur  (M  and  F),  leurs  (pljral). 


Pronominal  adjectives  govern  all  nouns, 
subjects,  or  objects,  except  parts  of  the 
body.  In  such  cases,  the  pronoun  of  indi- 
rect object  before  the  verb  is  used,  with 
the  part  indicated  as  direct  object.  Thus, 
instead  of  saying,  "They  broke  his  leg," 
the  French  gives  it,  "They  broke  to  him 
the  leg."  If,  however,  the  sense  is  tha* 
"He  broke  his  [own]  leg,"  the  form  i< 
simply,  "He  broke  the  leg,"  without  the 
pronoun.  With  the  three  words,  mal,  froid, 
and  chaud,  the  verb,  avoir,  is  used  with 
the  noun  of  place  governed  by  d.  Thus, 
"My  feet  are  cold"  becomes,  "I  have  cold 
to  the  feet,"  /'at  froid  aux  pieds;  "His  head 
is  sore,"  77  a  mal  a  la  tete. 

THE  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS  are  If  mien, 
la  mienne,  "mine";  le  tien,  la  tignne, 
"thine";  le  sien,  la  sienne,  "his,  hers,  its"; 
le  or  la  notre,  "ours";  le  or  la  votre, 
"yours" ;  le  or  la  leur,  "theirs."  The 
plural  in  each  case  is  regularly  formed  by 
the  addition  of  s.  These  pronouns  always 
agree  in  gender  and  number  with  the  thing 
possessed,  and  in  person  with  the  pos- 
sessor. 

THE  FRENCH  DEMONSTRATIVE  ADJECTIVE 
is  ce  (before  a  consonant),  cet  (before  a 
vowel),  cette,  feminine,  and  means  "this" 
or  "that";  with  the  plural  for  both  gen- 
ders, ces,  meaning  "these"  or  "those."  In 
order  to  distinguish  "this"  from  "that," 
when  two  like  nouns  are  compared,  ci 
(here)  is  appended  to  the  one,  and  la 
(there),  to  the  other.  Thus:  Cet  homme- 
ci  est  plus  jeune  que  cet  homme-la,  "This 
man  is  younger  than  that  man." 

THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  are  celui 
(M),  celle  (F),  ceux  (sc  plural),  celles 
(F  plural).  They  may  be  used  in  simple 
contrast  with  demonstrative  adj  ectives ;  as, 
Ces  hommes  sont  meilleurs  que  ceux,  or 
in  contrasting  "this"  and  "that"  by  ap- 
pending ci  and  la,  as  already  explained. 
Thus :  Celui-ci  est  meilleur  que  celui-la; 
or  Cet  homme-ci  est  plus  fort  que  celui-la. 
When,  however,  the  subject  of  the  verb 
is  indicated,  but  not  expressed,  or  is  un- 
derstood from  previous  reference,  ceci  or 
cela  is  used.  Thus :  Je  prendrai  ceci,  jt 
vous  donnerai  cela,  "I  shall  take  this,  I 
shall  give  you  that." 

THE  RELATIVE  PRONOUN,  "who,  which, 
that,"  is  translated  by  qui  in  the  nomi- 
native, when  subject  of  a  verb,  and  "whom, 
which,  that,"  by  que,  when  the  object. 
When,  however,  "which"  is  preceded  by  a 
pronoun,  it  is  rendered  by  lequel  (M), 
laquelte  (F),  lesquels  (M  plural},  lesquelles 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


81 


(F  plural).  Thus,  Void  la  maison  dans 
laquelle  •  je  suis  ne,  "This  is  the  house  in 
which  I  was  born."  The  rule  generally 
followed,  however,  is  to  use  ou,  "where," 
or  d'ou,  or  par  oft,  in  cases  permitting 
"where"  to  be  substituted  for  "which'." 
Thus :  Void  la  maison  ou  je  suis  ne. 

Lequel  as  subject  of  a  verb,  or  in  any 
construction  in  which  it  is  followed  by 
!'of,"  de,  means  "which  one  of,"  and  is  gen- 
erally used  interrogatively.  It  is  declined 
like  the  definite  article.  Thus :  lequel, 
duquel,  auquel;  laquelle,  de  laquelle,  d 
laquelle;  lesquels,  desquels,  auxquels;  les- 
quelles,  desquelles,  auxquelles.  To  illus- 
trate its  use:  Laquelle  de  ces  demoiselles 
est  votre  fille,  "Which  one  of  these  young 
ladies  is  your  daughter?"  Auquel  de  ces 
hornmes  avez-vous  ecrit,  "To  which  one 
of  these  men  have  you  written?" 

The  interrogative  pronoun  is  qui  in  both 
nominative  and  accusative  cases,  when 
"who"  is  the  meaning,  but  quoi  occurs  with 
prepositions  when  "what"  is  understood. 
"Whose"  is  necessarily  rendered  by  a  qui. 
Thus :  "Whose  is  this  house,"  A  qui  est 
cette  maison?  or  A  qui  appartient  cette 
maison  ?  "Of  what"  is  similarly  rendered. 
Thus :  A  quoi  pensez-vous,  "Of  what  are 
you  thinking  ?" 

In  simple  questions  of  "who"  or  "what," 
the  expression  qu'est-ce  qui  occurs  with 
subject  clauses  and  qu'est-ce  que,  with  ob- 
ject clauses.  Thus:  qu'est-ce  qu'il  a  dit, 
"What  did  he  say?"  Qu'est-ce  qui  venit, 
"Who  is  it  that  comes?" 

In  asking  questions  with  "what,"  not  fol- 
lowed by  nouns,  the  regular  construction 
is  to  use  quel  (M),  quelle  (F),  quels  (M 
plural),  quelles  (F»  plural).  Thus,  Quelles 
sont  les  heures  des  repas?  "What  are  the 
hours  for  meals?"  As  may  be  seen,  the 


quelles  in  this  sentence  agrees  in  gender  and 
number  with  heures,  to  which  it  refers. 

PRONOMINAL  IDIOMS. — Among  French 
pronominal  idioms  we  may  mention  the  use 
of  the  indefinite  pronoun  on  or  I' on  in  an 
impersonal  sense.  Thus,  on  dit,  "One  says," 
or,  as  in  colloquial  English,  "They  say." 
This  word  is  often  used,  also,  in  expres- 
sions we  would  render  by  the  impersonal 
passive.  Thus,  we  would  say,  "Do  as  you 
are  told,"  but  the  French  render  it,  Fait 
qu'on  vous  a  commande,  "Do  as  one  has 
commanded  you." 

EN. — Other  idiomatic  constructions  are 
found  in  the  uses  of  en  and  y  with  pro- 
nominal significations.  Thus,  while  "some" 
with  a  noun  is  rendered  by  de  with  or  with- 
out the  definite  article,  as  du  pain,  "some 
bread,"  d'argent,  "some  money/'  it  is  indi- 
cated by  en,  when  the  proper  noun  is  not 
expressed,  but  understood.  Oui,  j'en  ai, 
"Yes,  I  have  some";  Non,  je  n'en  ai  pas, 
"No,  I  have  none."  En  also  expresses 
"some,"  "any,"  and  "many,"  when  referring 
to  plurals.  Thus,  Avez  vous  mes  livres, 
"Have  you  my  books?"  Oui,  j'en  ai,  "Yes, 
I  have  some." 

S'EN. — Some  intransitive  verbs  having  a 
pronominal  form  of  conjugation  take  s'en 
instead  of  se.  Thus,  s'en  aller,  s'en  amuser. 
The  verb  s'en  aller  is  the  idiomatic  form  for 
"to  go  away,"  and  is  conjugated  through  all 
tenses  with  m'en,  t'en,  s'en,  nous  en,  vous 
en,  Us  en. 

Y. — The  adverb,  y,  usually  means  "there," 
as  in  English,  even  in  the  expression  //  y"  a, 
"There  are"  (literally,  "It  has  there"),  but 
it  has  the  force  of  "to  it"  and  "to  them"  in 
very  many  sentences.  Thus,  "You  have 
many  virtues,  but  add  moderation  to  them 
(y),  and  you  will  be  better." 


THE   CONJUGATION   AND   SYNTAX   OF  FRENCH   VERBS 


THE  FRENCH  VERB  is  sufficiently  like  the 
English,  in  its  general  construction,  to  be 
readily  understood  by  the  student,  after  a 
few  preliminary  explanations : 

(i.)  It  has  simple  tenses,  as  in  English, 
formed  by  varying  the  suffixes  attached  to 
the  root;  and  compound  tenses,  formed  with 
inflections  of  the  auxiliary  verb,  "to  have," 
with  the  past  participle  of  the  main  verb. 

(2.)  It  forms  its  passive  voice,  as  in  En- 
glish, with  inflections  of  the  auxiliary  verb, 
"to  be,"  with  the  past  participle  of  the  main 
verb. 

It  does  not,  however,  use  the  verb,  "to 
be,"  with  the  present  participle,  as  in  the 


English  forms,  "I  am  going,"  "I  was  think- 
ing"; nor  does  it  use  the  verb,  "to  do,"  as 
an  auxiliary  in  any  case. 

Thus,  in  rendering  a  question  into  French, 
we  say,  "Think  you,"  not  "Do  you  think" : 
"Loved  you,"  not  "Did  you  love." 

MOODS. — The  French  verb  has  five  moods ; 
the  indicative,  the  conditional,  the  subjunc- 
tive, the  imperative,  and  the  infinitive — the 
participles  not  properly  forming  a  mood. 

The  imperative  is  always  in  the  present 
tense,  as  indicating  that  the  verb-idea  is  ex- 
pressed as  a  command ;  as,  "Do  thou" ;  "Do 
ye  this";  "Let  us  do  this." 

The  infinitive  is  in  two  tenses,  the  present 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


and  the  past,  as  in  English.  Thus,  "to 
have"  and  "to  have  had." 

The  indicative  mood  has  eight  tenses. 
Four  of  these  are  simple  (absolu)  ;  the 
present,  the  imperfect,  the  preterit  (or  past 
definite),  and  the  future.  Four  are  com- 
pounded (anterieur)  with  the  auxiliary  verb, 
"to  have";  the  perfect  (or  present  anterior), 
the  pluperfect,  the  past  anterior  and  the 
future  anterior. 

The  conditional  mood  has  two  tenses ;  one 
simple — the  present — and  one  compound — 
the  past. 

The  subjunctive  mood  has  two  simple 
tenses — the  present  and  imperfect — and  two 
compound  tenses — the  past  and  the  plu- 
perfect. 

TENSES. — Regarding  the  uses  of  the  sev- 
eral tenses, .  there  are  a  number  of  points 
that  should  be  made  clear  to  the  student 
at  the  start. 

The  uses  of  the  present  and  future  tenses 
are  clear  to  any  one :  the  former  signifying, 
"I  do,"  or  "I  am  doing"  anything,  indicat- 
ing either  the  occupation  of  the  present 
moment,  or  a  habit  or  custom  still  followed ; 
the  latter  indicating  what  will  be  in  the  fu- 
ture, in  either  of  these  senses,  as  "I  shall 
do,"  or  "I  shall  be  doing"  anything. 

DESCRIPTIVE  TENSES. — The  imperfect  and 
the  pluperfect  indicate  either  unfinished  or 
customary  or  continued  action,  not  neces- 
sarily finished  or  unfinished,  in  a  past,  less 
or  more  remote.  In  these  respects,  they  re- 
semble the  Latin  tenses  of  the  same  names. 

Thus,  the  imperfect  tense  has  the  force  of 
"I  did,"  "I  was  doing,"  or  "I  used  to  do," 
or  "I  was  accustomed  to  do"  anything  at 
times  previous  to  the  present.  Example :  Je 
travaillais  toutes  cettes  annees,  "I  was  work- 
ing all  these  years." 

The  pluperfect  tense  has  a  precisely  similar 
force  in  referring  to  habits  or  continued  ac- 
tions in  times  previous  to  a  certain  definite 
past.  It  has  the  force  of  "I  had  done,"  or 
"I  had  been  doing"  anything.  Thus,  if  one 
be  speaking  of  the  year  1900,  and  refers,  to 
doings  in  a  time  previous,  he  uses  the  plu- 
perfect. 

In  the  same  way,  the  imperfect  and  plu- 
perfect subjunctive  indicate  continued  or  un- 
finished action  in  a  conditional  past,  less  or 
more  remote,  generally  with  que  (that),  as 
in  "I  wish  that  I  had  been  doing."  The 
pluperfect  subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  as 
a  second  form  of  the  conditional  past,  with- 
out que,  in  the  sense  of  "I  would  have  done" 
so  and  so,  if,  etc. 

NARRATIVE  TENSES.— The  perfect, the  pret- 


erit (or  past  definite),  and  the  past  ante- 
rior of  the  indicative  mood  are  used  in  nar- 
rations to  indicate  actions  performed  at  some 
single  or  definite  time,  and  do  not  indicate 
habits  or  customary  actions. 

Thus,  the  perfect,  while  usually  translated 
"I  have  done,"  has,  more  properly,  a  present 
anterior  force, as  in  Latin;  as  Je  lui  ai  donne 
cette  maison,  "I  gave  him  this  house." 
The  force  of  the  tense  is  either,  that  the 
effect  of  the  actidh  still  continues — thus,  the 
man  is  still  in  possession  of  the  house  given 
him — or,  else,  that  the  matter  of  the  com- 
pleteness or  incompleteness  is  not  referred 
to.  Thus,  -I  may  have  completed  the  action 
indicated  in  the  above  sentence  by  trans- 
ferring the  title  to  the  house,  or  I  may 
merely  have  indicated  my  intention  so  to  do. 

If  the  perfect  tense,  judging  by  the  con- 
text of  the  sentence,  indicates  an  action 
definitely  completed,  the  exact  time  of  the 
action  is  not  indicated.  Thus,  it  is  fre- 
quently called  the  past  indefinite. 

The  preterit  tense  indicates  action  defi- 
nitely completed,  both  in  the  doing  and  in 
the  effect,  and  is  used  in  the  historical  sense. 
It  is  the  true  equivalent  of  the  English  "I 
did"  or  "I  did  do."  Thus,  we  would  not 
say  of  Julius  Caesar,  for  example,  "He  has 
done" — except  in  poetry  or  lively  narrative 
— but  always,  "He  did."  Thus,  Le  roi  donna 
cinq  louis  au  paysan,  et  lui  pardonna  sa 
faute,  "The  king  gave  five  louis  to  the 
peasant,  and  pardoned  his  offence." 

The  past  anterior  tense,  which  is  always 
formed  from  the  preterit  of  the  verb,  "to 
have,"  with  the  past  participle  of  the  main 
verb,  except  with  verbs  conjugated  with  "to 
be,"  indicates  action  at  a  period  previous, 
or  anterior,  to  the  time  of  the  action  nar- 
rated. It  is  always  preceded  by  one  of  these 
adverbs:  a  peine  (scarcely),  aussitot  que 
(as  soon  as),  des  que  (as  soon  as),  lorsque 
(when)  and  quand  (when).  Thus,  Aussi- 
tot qu'il  eut  fini  son  travail,  il  partit  pour  la 
campagne,  "As  soon  as  he  had  finished  his 
work,  he  left  for  the  country." 

The  future  and  future  anterior  tenses  have 
the  same  force  as  the  English  future  and 
future  perfect.  Thus,  when  speaking  of 
some  definite  time,  say  next  week,  we  would 
say,  "Then  I  shall  have  the  money,"  ex- 
pressing what  will  be  present  at  the  time 
referred  to.  But,  if  we  say,  "Then  I  shall 
have  received  the  money,"  we  express  an 
action  anterior  to  the  definite  future,  and 
one  supposedly  complete  at  that  time.  In 
other  words,  the  future  anterior  is  to  the 
future  what  the  perfect  or  preterit  is  to  the 
present. 


FRENCH   SELF-TAUGHT 


83 


THE  CONDITIONAL  MOOD. — The  use  of  the 
conditional  mood  is  to  express  ideas  ren- 
dered with  "would,  could,  should,"  and 
"would  have,  could  have,  should  have"  in 
English.  It  is  also  used  in  very  many  cases 
where  we  give  an  "if,"  or  where  the  nearly 
obsolete  English  subjunctive  should  occur. 
Thus,  "If  I  could  have";  "Might  I  see"; 
"If  I  were";  "Had  I,"  and  other  construc- 
tions expressing  contingency. 

USE  OF  "IF." — It  must  be  carefully  noticed, 
however,  that  neither  the  future  tense  nor 
the  conditional  mood  is  used  with  "if"  (si) 
in  French.  Where  we  would  give  the  future 
after  "if,"  the  French  give  the  present; 
where  we  give  the  conditional,  they  give  the 
imperfect  indicative.  Thus,  Seriez-vous 
(conditional)  aussi  gaie  que  votre  sceur  si 
vous  etiez  (imperfect)  aussi  riche  qu'elle? 
"Would  you  also  be  as  gay  as  your  sister 
if  you  were  also  as  rich  as  she?" 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. — The  subjunc- 
tive mood  in  French — except  in  the  rare 
uses  of  the  pluperfect,  as  noted  above — ful- 
fils its  original  use  as  a  subjoined,  or  de- 
pendent, construction,  as  in  Latin.  Thus,  it 
is  always  inflected  with  que  (that)  preced- 
ing the  subject,  indicating  dependence  upon 
the  main  idea  of  the  sentence — as  "I  wish" ; 
"I  desire,"  etc. — expressed  or  implied. 

CONJUGATION    OF   AUXILIARIES 
THE  VERB,  "AVOIR,"  TO  HAVE 

INFINITIVE    MOOD 
Present  Past 

Avoir,  to  have  Avoir eu,toha.veha.d 

PARTICIPLES 

Ayant,   having  Eu,  had 

ayant  eu,   having  had 

INDICATIVE    MOOD 

Present 

I   have  J'ai 

thou  hast  tu   as 

he  has  il  a 

we  have  nous  avons 

you  have  vous  avez 

they  have  Us  (elles)  ont 

Imperfect* 

I  had  J'avais 

thou  hadst  tu  avais 

he  had  il  avait 

we  had  nous  avions 

you  had  vous  avies 

they  had  Us  avaient 

*  Note  that  the  ai  in  the  imperfect  indicative 
and  present  conditional  of  all  verbs  is  pronounced 
short,  like  e  in  "yet." 


I  had 
thou  hadst 
he  had 
we  had 
you  had 
they  had 

I  shall  have 
thou  shalt  have 
he  shall  have 
we  shall  have 
you  shall  have 
they  shall  have 


Past  Definite 
J'eus 
tu  eus 
il  eut 

nous  crimes 
vous  eutes 
Us  eurent 
Future 
f'aurai 
tu  auras 
il  aura 
nous  aurons 
vous  aurez 
Us  auront 


CONDITIONAL    MOOD 
Present* 


I  should  have 
thou  shouldst  have 
he  should  have 
we  should  have 
you  should  have 
they  should  have 


J'aurais 
tu  aurais 
il  aurait 
nous  aurions 
vous  auriez 
Us  auraient 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

Present 

That  I  may  have         Que  j'aie 
that  thou  mayst  have  que  tu  aies 
that  he  may  have         qu'il  ait 
that  we  may  have        que  nous  ayons 
that  you  may  have        que  vous  ayez 
that  they  may  have     qu'ils  aient     • 

Imperfect 

That  I  might  have       Que  j'eusse 
that  thou  mightst  have  que  tu  eusses 
that  he  might  have      qu'il  eut 
that  we  might  have     que  nous  eussions 
that  you  might  have     que  vous  eussiez 
that  they  might  have  qu'ils  eussent 


Have 

let  us  have 

have  (ye) 


IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

Aie 

ayons 

ayez 


All  the  other  tenses  are  "compound,"  or 
formed,  as  in  English,  with  the  present,  im- 
perfect, past  definite,  future,  conditional  pres- 
ent, and  subjunctive  perfect  and  imperfect, 
as  auxiliaries  to  the  past  participle  eu. 

As  this  verb  is  typical  of  the  construction 
of  all  others,  the  following  examples  of 
compound  tenses  are  given  for  the  student's 
guidance  in  expression : 

PERFECT  INDICATIVE 

I  have  had,  fat  eu 

PLUPERFECT  INDICATIVE 

I  had  had,  j'avais  eu 


84 


FRENCH   SELF-TAUGHT 


PAST    ANTERIOR 

CONDITIONAL  MOOD 

I  had  had,  j'eus  eu 

Present 

I  should  be                 Je  serais 

FUTURE    ANTERIOR 

thou  shouldst  be          tu  serais 

I  shall  have  had,  j'aurai  eu 

he  should  be                il  serait 

we  should  be                nous  serions 

PAST   CONDITIONAL 

you  should  be              vous  series 

I  should  have  had,  j'aurais  eu 

they  should  be             ils  seraient 

PERFECT    SUBJUNCTIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE     MOOD 

That  I  may  have  had,  que  j'aie  en 

Present 

That  I  may  be              Que  je  sois 

PLUPERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE 

that  thou  mayst  be      que  tu  sois 

That  I  might  have  had,  que  j'eusse  eu 

that  he  may  be            gu'il  soit 

The  inflection  of  all  these  tenses  proceeds 
precisely  as  in  the  paradigms  already  given 

that  we  may  be            que  nous  soyons 
that  you  may  be          que  vous  soyez 
that  they  may  be          gu'ils  soient 

above. 

Imperfect 

THE  VERB,  "ETRE,"  TO  BE 

That  I  might  be          Que  je  fusse 

that  thou  mightst  be    que  tu  fusses 

INFINITIVE   MOOD 

that  he  might  be         gu'il  fut 

Present                               Past 

that  we  might  be        que  nous  fussions 

Eire,  to  be                   Avoir  et  6,  to  have  been 

that  you  might  be       que  vous  fussiez 

PARTICIPLES 

that  they  might  be      gu'ils  fussent 

Etant,  being                  Ete,  been 

IMPERATIVE     MOOD 

ay  ant  ete,  having  been 

Be                                      Sois 

let  us  be                          soyons 

INDICATIVE     MOOD 

be   (ye)                             soyez 

Present 

REGULAR   VERBS 

I  am                              Je  suis 

thou   art                      tu  es 

THE  INFINITIVES  of  verbs  in  the  French 

he  is                              */  est 

language  have  the  four  following  termina- 

she is                            elle  est 

tions  : 

we  are                          nous  sommes 

er  —  as  in  donner,  to  give, 

you  are                         vous  etes 

ir  —  as  in  nnir,  to  finish, 

they  are                        Us  (elles)  sont 

evoir  —  as  in  recevoir,  to  receive, 

re  —  as  in  vendre,  to  sell. 

Imperfect 

All    that    precedes    this    infinitive    termina- 

I was                             J'etais 

tion  is  called  the  "root"  of  the  verb. 

thou  wast                      tu  etais 

Verbs    that    change    only    their   termina- 

he was                           il  etait 

tions,     and     not     their     roots,     are    called 

we  were                        nous  etions 

"regular  Verbs";  those  which  change  their 

you   were                      vous  etiez 

roots,  "irregular  Verbs." 

they  were                      Us  etaient 

The  Verbs  ending  in  "oir"  are  all  irregu- 

Past Definite 

lar,  and  the  French  language,  therefore,  has 

I  was                             Je  fus 

in  reality  only  three  regular  Conjugations. 

thou  wast                      tu  fus 

The  first  Conjugation  ends  in  "er." 

he  was                          il  fut 

The  second  Conjuagtion  ends  in  "ir." 

we  were                        nous  fumes 

The  third  Conjugation  ends  in  "evoir." 

you  were                       vous  jutes 

The  fourth  Conjugation  ends  in  "re." 

they  werfe                     Us  furent 

THE  PAST  PARTICIPLE  is  formed  by  add- 

Future 

ing  to  the  root  of  the  first  Conjugation  an 

I  shall  be                    Je  serai 

"6"  to  that  of  the  second  an  "i,"  to  the 

thou  shalt  be                tu  seras- 

third  and  fourth  a  "u,"  as  : 

he   shall   be                  il  sera 

Donn-er,  to   give;   donni,  given. 

we  shall  be                   nous  serons 

Fin-ir,  to  finish  ;  nni,  finished. 

you  shall  be                 vous  seres 

Recevoir,  to   receive;   regu,   received. 

they  shall  be                ils  seront 

V  end-re,  to  sell;  vendu,  sold. 

FRENCH   SELF-TAUGHT 


85 


FIRST  CONJUGATION 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

INFINITIVE   MOOD 

Present                       Past  Definite 

Present                                Past 

I  finish                         I    finished 

Donner,  to  give        Avoir  donne,tohave  given 

Je  finis                          Je  %  finis 

PARTICIPLES 

tu  finis                          tu  finis 

Donnant,  giving    Donne,   given 
ayant  donne,  having  given 

il  finit                            il  finit 
nous  finissons              nous  fimmes 
vous  finissez                 vous  Unites 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 

Us  finissent                   Us  finirent 

Present                       Past  Definite 

Imperfect                           Future 

I  give                            I  gave 

I  finished                    I  shall  finish 

Je  donne                       Je  donnai 

Je  finissais                   Je  finirai 

tu  donnes                      tu  donnas 

tu  finissais                    tu  finiras 

il  donne                        il  donna 

il  finissait                     il  finira 

nous  donnons              nous  donnames 

nous  finissions             nous  finirons 

vous  donnez                 vous  donnates 

vous  finissiez                vous  finirez 

Us  donnent                   Us  donnerent 

Us  finissaient                Us  finiront 

Imperfect                           Future 

CONDITIONAL   MOOD 

I  gave                          I  shall  give 

Present 

Je  donnais                    Je  donnerai 

I  should  finish 

tu  donnais                    tu  donneras 

Je  finirais 

il  donnait                     il  donnera 

tu  finirais 

nous  donnions              nous  donneront 

il  finirait 

vous  donniez                vous  donnerez 

nous  finirions 

Us  donnaient               Us  donneront 

vous  finiriez 

CONDITIONAL   MOOD 

Us  finiraient 

Present 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

I  should  give 

Present                          Imperfect 

Je  donnerais 

That  I  may  finish        That  I  might  finisbi 

tu  donnerais 

Que  je  finisse              Que  je  finisse 

il  donnerait 

que  tu  finisses              que  tu  finisses 

nous  donnerions 

qu'il  finisse                   qu'il  finit 

vous  donneries 

que  nous  finissions     que  nous  finissions 

Us  donneraient 

que  vous  finissiez         que  vous  finissies 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

qu'ils  finissent              qu'ils  finissent 

Present                           Imperfect 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

That  I  may  give          That  I  might  give 

Finis,  finish              Finissons,  let  us  finish 

Que  je  donne              Que  je  donnasse 

finisses,    finish    ye 

que  tu  donnes             que  tu  donnasses 

qu'il  donne                   qu'il  donnat 

THIRD  CONJUGATION 

que  nous  donnions      que  nous  donnassions 

INFINITIVE    MOOD 

que  vous  donnies        que  vous  donnasses 

Present                                  Past 

qu'ils  donnent              qu'ils  donnassent 

Recevoir,  to  re-       Avoir  regu,  to  have  received 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

ceive 

Donne,  give  thou    Donnons,  let  us  give 

PARTICIPLES 

donnez,  give  ye 

Recevant,re-          Regu  (ressw),  received 

ceiving                 ayant  regu,  having  received 

SECOND  CONJUGATION 

INFINITIVE   MOOD 

INDICATIVE    MOOD 

Present                                  Past 

Present                        Past  Definite 

Finir,   to   finish         Avoir   fini,  to   have 

I  receive                         I  received 

finished 

Je  reqois                       Je  requs 

tu  reqois                       tu  requs 

PARTICIPLES 

il  regoit                        il  requt 

Finissant,  finishing  Fini,  finished 

nous  recevons             nous  resumes 

ayant  nni,  having 

vous  recevez                 vous  refutes 

finished 

Us  regoivent                Us  refurent 

86 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


Imperfect                           Futurg 

CONDITIONAL   MOOD 

I  received                  I  shall  receive 

Present 

Je  recevais                  Je  recevrai 

I  should  sell 

tu  recevais       \-^      tu  recevras 

Je  vendrais 

il  recevait                    il  recevra 

tu  vendrais 

nous  recevions            nous  recevront 

il  vendrait 

vous  recevies                vous  recevrez 
Us  recevaient               Us  recevront 

nous  vendrions 
vous  vendriez 

CONDITIONAL   MOOD 

Us  vendraient 

Present 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

I  should  receive 

Present                           Imperfect 

Je  recevrais 
tu  recevrdis 

That  I  may  sell            That  I  might  sell 

il  recevrait 

Que  je  vende               Que  je  vendisse 

nous  recevrions 

que  tu  vendes               que  tu  vendisses 

vous  recevriez 

qu'il  vende                   qu'il  vendit 

Us  recevraient 

que  nous  vendions      que  nous  vendissions 

que  vous  vendiez        que  vous  vendissiez 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

qu'ils  vendent              qu'ils  vendissent 

Present                          Imperfect 

That  I  may  receive      That  I  might  receive 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

Que  je  refoive            Que  je  regusse 

Vends,  sell  thou          Vendons,  let  us  sell 

que  tu  refoives            que  tu  refusses 

vendez,  sell  ye 

qu'il  refoive                 qu'il  rec.ut 

que  nous  recevions     que  nous  regussions 

THE  PASSIVE  VOICE 

que  vous  receviez         que  vous  requssiez 

of  French  verbs  is  formed,  as  in  English, 

qu'ils  resolvent            qu'ils  refussent 

with  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  and  the 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD 

several  parts  of  the  auxiliary,  etre,  "to  be." 

Refois,  receive  thou        Recvons,  let  us  receive 

Thus,  for  the  verb,  aimer,  "to  love": 

receves,  receive  ye 

INFINITIVE   MOOD 

Present 

FOURTH  CONJUGATION 

Etre  aime,  to  be  loved 

INFINITIVE    MOOD 

Past 

Present                                  Past 

Avoir  ete  aime,  to  have  been  loved 

Vendre,  to  sell            Avoir  vendu,  to  have 

sold 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Present 

PARTICIPLES 

Je  suis  aime,  I  am  loved 

Vendant,  selling          Vendu,  sold 
ay  ant  vendu,  having  sold 

Imperfect 
J'etais  aime,  I   was  loved 

INDICATIVE    MOOD 

Preterit 

Present                       Past  Definite 

I  sell                               I  sold 

Je  fus  aime,  I  was  loved 

Je  vends                       Je  vendis 

Future 

tu  vends                        tu  vendis 

Je  serai  aime,  I  would  be  loved 

il  vend                           il  vendit 

CONDITIONAL    MOOD 

nous  vendons               nous  vendimes 

vous  vendez                 vous  vendites 
Us  vendent                   Us  vendirent 

Present 
Je  serais  aime,  I  would  be  loved 

Imperfect                           Future 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

I  sold                         I  shall  sell 

Present 

Je  vendais                    Je  vendrai 

Que  je  sots  aime,  that  I  be  loved 

tu  vendais                     tu  vendras 

Imperfect 

il  vendait                      il  vendra 
nous  vendions              nous  vendrons 

Que  je  fusse  aime,  that  I  might  be  loved 

vous  vendiez                vous  vendrez 

The    tenses    compounded    in    the    active 

Us  vendaient                Us  vendront 

voice  with  inflections  of  avoir,  "to  have," 

FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


are  formed  with  the  past  participles  of  both 
etre  and  aimer.  Thus : 

INDICATIVE    MOOD 

Past  Indefinite 
J'ai  ete  aime,  I  was  or  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect 
J'avais  ete  aime,  1  had  been  loved 

Past  Anterior 
J'eus  ete  aime,  I  had  been  loved 

Future  Anterior 
J'aurai  ete  aime,  I  shall  have  been  loved 

CONDITIONAL    MOOD 

Past 
J'aurais  ete  aime,  I  would  have  been  loved 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 

Past 

Que  j'aie  ete  aime,  that  I  may  have  been 
loved 

Pluperfect 

Que  j'eusste   ete   aime,   that   I   might   have 
been  loved 

The  inflections  in  all  persons  are  the 
same  as  in  the  models  of  the  auxiliary 
verbs.  With  a  feminine  subject  the  aime 
is  changed  to  aimee,  and  in  the  plural  it 
becomes  aimes,  except  where  but  one  per- 
son is  indicated  in  the  second  person. 

THE   SYNTAX   OF  VERBS 

AGREEMENT  OF  PARTICIPLES. — The  past 
participle  used  with  an  active  verb  agrees 
with  the  object  when  the  object  precedes 
the  verb  in  the  sentence.  Thus :  Voila  la 
maison  que  j'ai  achetee,  "There  is  the  house 
that  I  have  bought."  When  the  object  fol- 
lows the  verb,  the  participle  agrees  in  gen- 
der and  number  with  the  subject.  Thus, 
Nous  avons  achetes  cette  maison. 

USE  OF  THE  PASSIVE. — The  passive  in 
French  is  not  used  as  freely  as  in  English. 
Hence  many  passive  sentences  are  to  be 
translated  into  the  active  constructions. 
Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "He  was  punished 
by  his  father,"  it  is  more  idiomatic  to  say: 
Son  pere  I'a  puni,  "His  father  punished 
him." 

The  active  construction  is  always  sub- 
stituted for  the  English  passive  when  the 
subject  is  impersonal  or  unexpressed. 
Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "Have  you  done 
what  you  were  ordered?"  the  French  has, 
Avez  vous  fait  ce  qu'on  vous  a  ordonne? 
"Have  you  done  that  which  one  has  or- 
dered you?"  The  active  with  on  or  I' on, 


according  to  euphony,  with  an  active  verb 
forms  the  regular  construction  in  such 
cases.  Frequently,  also,  as  in  English,  in- 
stead of  saying  that  a  thing  "is  sold"  for 
so  much,  it  is  customary  to  say  "it  sells." 
So,  'it  moves,"  "it  runs,"  etc.,  instead  of 
the  logical  passive  forms. 

NEGATION  is  regularly  expressed  by  ne — 
pas.  Thus :  Je  n'aime  pas,  "I  do  not  love." 
A  stronger  negation  is  obtained  by  using 
point  instead  of  pas.  Thus :  Je  n'aime 
point,  "I  do  not  love  at  all."  The  adverbs, 
plus  and  jamais,  give  the  force  of  "no 
more"  or  "no  longer,"  and  of  "never,"  re- 
spectively. The  word,  pas,  is  the  most 
usual  of  the  four,  and  is  sufficiently  em- 
phatic for  ordinary  purposes.  Several 
verbs,  pouvoir,  to  be  able;  oser,  to  dare; 
cesser,  to  cease;  and  savoir,  to  know,  may 
be  used  without  pas.  With  pouvoir  this 
construction  is  regular;  thus,  Je  ne  puis 
finir  ce  travail,  "I  can  not  finish  this  work." 
On  the  other  hand,  savoir  generally  takes 
pas,  when  the  meaning  is  "not  to  have 
learned";  "not  to  have  found  out."  Savoir 
frequently  means  "to  be  able,"  in  the  sense 
of  "to  know  how." 

Many  grammars  give  complete  conjuga- 
tions of  model  verbs  with  negative  con- 
structions, but,  for  the  purposes  of  the 
present  treatise,  it  is  necessary  only  to  say 
that  in  simple  tenses  the  word,  pas,  al- 
ways closes  the  verb,  as  in  the  above  sen- 
tence. Thus,  Je  ne  suis  pas,  "I  am  not"; 
Je  ne  fus  pas,  "I  was  not";  Que  je  ne  sois 
Pas,  "That  I  be  not."  In  the  compound 
tenses,  pas  precedes  the  past  participle. 
Thus,  Je  n'ai  pas  ete,  "I  have  not  been"; 
Qu'il  n'eut  pas  ete,  "That  he  might  not 
have  been." 

In  asking  questions,  the  words  are  merely 
inverted,  as  in  the  English  classic  usage. 
Thus,  A-t-il  parle,  "Has  he  spoken?"  The 
t  here  is  introduced,  for  sake  of  euphony, 
before  the  il,  when  the  third  person  sin- 
gular ends  in  a  vowel.  When  that  person 
ends  in  a  consonant,  the  il  is  merely  ap- 
pended with  a  hyphen.  In  the  first  per- 
son singular  indicative  of  all  verbs,  except 
avoir  and  etre,  the  form  of  direct  questions 
is  like  this  model,  Est-ce  que  je  parle  f 
"Am  I  speaking?"— literally,  "Is  it  [truej 
that  I  speak."  But,  Suis-je,  "Am  I";  Ai-je, 
"Have  I." 

With  negative  questions  the  same  con- 
structions hold  good ;  the  negative  particles 
being  combined  with  the  inverted  verb  ele- 
ments. Thus :  Est-ce  que  je  ne  parle  pas, 
"Am  I  not  speaking";  N'ai  je  pas  vendu, 
"Did  I  not  sell" ;  N'aimerait-il  pas,  "Would 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


he  not  love."-    But;  Ne  suis-je  pas,  "Am 
I  not";  and  N'ai-je  pas,  "Have  I  not" 

Negative  expressions  rendered  in  En- 
glish by  "but"  or  "only,"  as,  "He  has  only 
[or  "but"]  one  hat,"  are  translated  into 
French  with  ne — que.  Thus:  Ne  nous  ap- 
portez  qu'une  demi-bouteille  de  vin,  "Bring 
us  only  one  small  bottle  of  wine,"  or  "Don't 
bring  us  but  one,"  etc.  Also,  //  n'a  que 
nous,  "He  has  [no  one]  but  us";  Les  en- 
fcnts  ne  paient  que  moitie  prix,  "Children 
pay  only  half  price";  Je  croyais  que  les 
places  n'etaient  que  de  vingt  sous,  "I 
thought  that  the  [railway]  tickets  were 
only  twenty  sous." 

VERBS  WITH  AUXILIARY  "TO  BE." — As  in 
German  and  classic  English,  intransitive, 
or  neuter,  verbs  take  etre  instead  of  avoir, 
as  the  auxiliary.  Among  such  verbs  are 
aller,  "to  go" ;  arriver,  "to  arrive" ;  d e- 
scendre,  "to  descend";  entrer,  "to  enter"; 
monter,  "to  ascend" ;  partir,  "to  leave, 
start,  depart" ;  rentrer,  "to  re-enter" ;  rester, 
"to  remain,  stay" ;  retourner,  "to  return" ; 
revenir,  "to  come  back" ;  sortir,  "to  go  out" ; 
tomber,  "to  fall";  venir,  "to  come."  Thus, 
we  say,  Je  suis  arrive,  "I  am  come"; 
Us  sont  partis,  "They  are  gone";  Nous 
sommes  alles,  "We  are  gone." 

In  addition  to  this  list,  the  verbs,  naitre, 
"to  be  born,"  and  mourir,  "to  die,"  take 
etre  in  the  compound  tenses,  giving  //  est 
mort,  "He  is  dead,  or  has  died,"  and  Elle 
est  nee,  "She  was  born." 

However,  the  verbs  monter,  meaning  "to 
carry  up,"  "lift  up,"  "ride,"  etc.,  and  de- 
scendre,  meaning  "to  take  down,"  "to  bring 
down,"  "to  put  down,"  being  transitive  in 
these  meanings,  take  the  verb  avoir  in  the 
compound  tenses. 

PRONOMINAL  VERBS. — All  the  pronomi- 
nal verbs,  called  reflexive,  take  etre  in  the 
compound  tenses.  Reflexive  verbs  express 
what  one  does  to  himself,  and  are  always 
conjugated  with  the  personal  pronoun  of 
the  subject.  Thus,  the  irregular  reflexive 
verb,  s'asseoir,  "to  sit,"  or  "to  seat  one's 
self,"  is  inflected  Je  m'assieds,  tu  t'assieds, 
il  s'assied,  nous  nous  asseyons,  vous  vous 
asseyez,  Us  s'asseyent.  Since  these  verbs, 
taking  two  pronouns  in  the  paradigm,  or 
a  pronominal  object  of  the  same  person 
and  number  as  the  subject,  are  very  nu- 
merous, and,  also,  indicate  many  acts  ren- 
dered by  perfectly  regular  verbs  in  En- 
glish, a  partial  list  is  appended.  Thus: 
se  cacher,  to  hide  (one's  self)  ;  se  porter, 
to  be  (well  or  ill) ;  se  rendre,  to  surrender 
(self);  s'abbaisser,  to  stoop  to;  s'accorder, 


to  agree;  s'appreter,  to  prepare;  s'assuje- 
tir,  to  submit ;  s'attendre,  to  expect ;  se  deter* 
miner,  to  determine;  s'obstiner,  to  be  obsti- 
nate; s'occuper,  to  be  engaged;  se  resondre, 
to  resolve.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are 
a  large  number  of  true  reflexive  verbs, 
such  as  appear  in  English  with  the  gram- 
matical objects,  "myself,"  "yourself,"  "him- 
self," "herself,"  "itself,"  and  "ourselves," 
"yourselves,"  "themselves." 

Of  the  pronominal  verbs,  known  as  re- 
ciprocal, the  transitive  take  avoir  in  the 
compound  tenses,  and  the  intransitive  take 
etre;  such  verbs  being  merely  specially  con- 
structed like  reflexives.  Thus,  while  the 
expression  Nous  nous  aimous  means  "We 
love  ourselves,"  the  addition  of  I'un  I'autre 
(or  I'une  I'autre),  where  two  persons  are 
concerned,  or  les  uns  (or  les  unes)  les 
autres,  where  there  are  more  than  two, 
give  the  reciprocal  meanings  of  "each 
other."  Thus:  Nous  nous  aimons  les  uns 
les  autres. 

IDIOMS  WITH  "AVOIR." — Several  varieties 
of  physical  and  mental  condition,  expressed 
in  English  by  an  adjective  with  the  verb, 
"to  be,"  are  rendered  in  French  by  a  noun 
with  the  verb,  avoir,  "to  have."  Thus: 

To   be   afraid,    avoir   peur. 
To  be  ashamed,  avoir  honte. 
To  be  cold,  avoir  froid. 
To  be  hungry,  avoir  faim. 
To  need,  avoir  besoin. 
To  be  right,  avoir  raison. 
To  be  sleepy,  avoir  sommeil. 
To  be  thirsty,  avoir   soif. 
To  be  warm,  avoir  chaud. 
To  be  wrong,  avoir  tort. 

Each  of  these  expressions  may  be  in- 
flected through  all  the  tenses  of  avoir,  al- 
ways followed  by  the  appended  noun,  as 
direct  object.  The  noun  or  clause,  then, 
that  should  be  the  direct  object  in  English 
becomes  the  indirect  object  in  French, 
being  governed  by  some  preposition  to  be 
translated  "for,"  etc.  Thus:  Vous  avez 
besoin  de  vos  amis,  "You  need  your 
friends"  (have  need  for  your  friends)  ;  77 
a  honte  de  ses  fautes,  "He  is  ashamed  of 
his  faults";  J'ai  plus  de  chaud,  "I  am 
warmer." 

In  the  same  construction  occurs  the  ques- 
tion as  to  age.  Thus:  Quel  age  a-t-il, 
"How  old  is  he?"  The  answer  is  usually 
expressed  in  the  same  idiom — thus,  //  a 
dix-sept  ans,  "He  is  seventeen" — but  the 
adjective,  age,  is  often  used,  as  in  Je  suis 
age  de  rf»'«  ans,  "I  am  ten  years  old." 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


89 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS. — As  in  English,  nu- 
merous impersonal  constructions  are  used. 
Such  an  expression  consists,  in  general,  of 
the  third  person  singular  indicative  of  a 
verb,  with  il,  "it" — as  "It  rains";  "It 
snows" — but  a  proper  impersonal  verb 
should  be  followed  by.  the  conjunction, 
"that,"  with  a  verbal  clause,  or  by  "for," 
with  an  infinitive.  In  French,  as  in  En- 
glish, very  many  impersonal  expressions 
are  formed  with  il  est,  "it  is,"  and  an  ad- 
jective. Thus :  //  est  ban  que,  "It  is  good 
that";  //  est  vrai  que,  "It  is  true  that"; 
II  est  sur  que,  "It  is  sure  that";  II  est 
clair  que,  "It  is  evident  (clear)  that," 
etc.;  also,  //  est  temps  que,  "It  is  time 
that."  Others  are  formed  from  special 
verbs.  Thus :  II  resulte,  "It  follows" ;  II 
s'ensuit,  "It  follows";  //  parait,  "It  ap- 
pears." Also :  //  convient  or  //  est  con- 
venable,  "It  behooves";  //  vaut  mieux  or 
II  est  preferable,  "It  is  better";  II  importe 
or  //  est  important,  "It  is  of  consequence." 

Two  common  impersonal  forms,  quite 
foreign  to  English  syntax,  occur  regularly 
in  French.  They  are  //  faut,  "It  is  neces- 
sary," or  "It  must  be  that";  and  //  se 
peut,  "It  may  ber"  or  "It  is  possible  that." 
Thus,  in  using  the  expressions,  "I  must" 
or  "He  must,"  the  regular  idiom  is  II  faut 
que,  followed  by  a  subjunctive.  Also,  in 
many  cases  of  doubt,  etc.,  "I  may"  or  "He 
may"  is  expressed  by  //  se  peut  que,  with 
the  subjunctive.  This  is  the  invariable 
construction  when  a  noun  is  the  logical 
subject  of  the  sentence. 

However,  when  the  proposition  of  the 
sentence  is  either  general  or  self-evident, 
and  a  pronoun  is  the  subject,  expressed  or 
understood,  il  faut  may  be  used  with  the 
infinitive.  This  construction,  therefore, 
expresses  general  sayings,  mottoes,  etc.,  as 
"To  prosper,  we  must  work,"  Pour  pros- 
perer,  il  faut  travailler.  Also,  in  such  ex- 
pressions as  "It  is  time  to  go"  or  "We 
must  go,"  without  particular  reference  to 
the  definite  persons  concerned.  Thus :  II 
faut  partir.  With  expressed  pronouns,  the 
same  construction  holds,  as :  77  me  faut 
partir  aujourd'hui,  "I  must  go  away  to- 
day." Quand  lui  faut  il  envoyer?"  "When 
must  he  send?"  (When  to  him  is  it  neces- 
sary to  send?).  In  the  same  way  with  other 
conjugations  of  falloir:  "How  much  would 
you  need  for  rebuilding  the  house?"  Com- 
bien  vous  faudrait-il  pour  faire  rebatir  la 
maison? 

MUST. — In  conversations,  this  imper- 
sonal construction  implies  both  "must" 
and  "need."  Thus :  //  faut  que  je  fosse 


des  achats,  "I  must  make  some  purchases"; 
but,  Combien  vous  faut-il?  "How  much 
[money]  do  you  need  ?"  //  me  faut  environ 
dix  francs,  "I  need  about  ten  francs." 
Again :  Je  vous  quitte  bien  a  regret,  mats  il 
faut,  "I  leave  you  much  to  [my]  regret, 
but  it  must  [be]." 

While  speaking  of  French  renderings 
of  the  English  "must,"  we  may  give  an- 
other form,  which  differs  from  il  faut,  as 
claimed  by  grammarians,  in  expressing 
inner  or  moral  obligation,  rather  than  the 
outer,  circumstantial,  or  physical.  Thus, 
if  one  say,  "I  must  pay  him,"  giving  the 
"must"  a  particular  emphasis  as  of  a  moral 
obligation,  the  translation  would  be  Je  dois 
le  payer.  The  conjugations  of  devoir, 
however,  more  properly  express  the  idea 
of  the  English  "ought." 

CONSTRUCTIONS  WITH  IMPERSONALS. — All 
impersonal  verbs  expressing  right,  fitness, 
necessity,  or  uncertainty,  are  followed  by 
que  with  a  subjunctive.  But  most  verbs 
expressing  consequence,  evidence,  or  cer- 
tainty are  followed  by  que  with  the  indica- 
tive. This  rule  is  evidently  carried  out  to 
a  large  extent  in  classic  English.  Thus,  we 
say:  "It  is  right  that  he  be";  but  "It  is 
certain  that  he  is." 

SUBJUNCTIVES  AND  INFINITIVES. — An  im- 
portant subject  in  French  grammar  is  the 
construction  of  subjunctive  and  infinitive 
clauses,  expressing  dependence,  consequence, 
purpose,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  CONSTRUCTIONS. — In  addi- 
tion to  the  constructions  already  speci- 
fied, the  following  verbs  are  followed  by 
que  with  the  subjunctive:  complaining, 
doubting,  fearing,  enjoying,  expecting,  for- 
bidding, permitting,  sorrowing,  being  sur- 
prised, willing,  wishing,  and  of  emotions  in 
general.  These  verbs,  however,  regularly 
take  ne,  "lest,"  before  the  subjunctive: 
avoir  peur,  craindre  and  trembler,  all 
meaning  "to  fear,"  and  prendre  garde, 
"to  beware,"  and  empecher,  "to  prevent." 
Used  negatively  or  interrogatively,  they 
omit  the  ne,  except  in  the  negative  clause, 
with  pas,  and  are  followed  by  que  with 
the  subjunctive.  All  other  verbs  used 
negatively  or  interrogatively  are  followed 
by  que  with  the  subjunctive;  as,  Croyez 
vous  que  j'aie  fini  le  travail,  "Do  you  be- 
lieve that  I  have  finished  the  work." 

The  subjunctive  introduced  by  que  fol- 
lows all  superlative  expressions  with  "that" 
— also  le  seul,  "the  only  one" — except  where 
the  superlative  is  followed  by  a  genitive 
plural  (the  partitive  genitive).  Thus: 


90 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


Elle  est  la  plus  belle  femme  que  j'aie  jamais 
vu,  "She  is  the  most  beautiful  woman  I 
ever  saw";  but  //  est  le  plus  noble  de  touts 
Us  homtnes  que  je  connais,  "He  is  the 
noblest  of  all  the  men  that  I  know." 

The  subjunctive  follows  these  conjunc- 
tions :  afin  que,  and  pour  que,  "in  order 
that";  pouruu  que,  "provided  that";  sup- 
post  que,  "supposing  that,"  as  in  English. 
It  also  follows  these  conjunctions,  usually 
taking  a  participle  in  English:  avant  que, 
"before";  quoique  and  bien  que,  "although"; 
jusqu'a  ce  que,  "until,"  and  sans  que,  "with- 
out." The  conjunctions,  d  moins  que,  "un- 
less," and  de  craintre  que  and  de  pour  que, 
"lest,"  take  the  subjunctive  preceded  by  ne. 

SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES. — Except  in  sen- 
tences implying  a  condition  in  the  main 
clause,  the  present  subjunctive  always  fol- 
lows the  present  or  future  indicative.  With 
compound  tenses  of  the  subjunctive,  the 
auxiliary  verb  takes  the  present  tense  after 
a  present  or  future  indicative.  The  im- 
perfect subjunctive  follows  a  simple  past 
tense  of  the  indicative  or  conditional,  and 
its  compound  tenses,  when  required  by  the 
sense,  take  the  imperfect  of  the  auxiliary, 
under  the  same  conditions.  Thus :  //  par- 
lait  beaucoup,  bien  qu'il  fut  .si  malade,  "He 
talked  a  great  deal,  although  he  was  so 
sick." 

USE  OF  INFINITIVES. — In  many  sentences 
having  the  same  general  form  as  those  in- 
cluding a  subjunctive  clause,  the  infinitive 
is  used  instead: 

(i.)  When  two  verbs  come  together,  the 
second  is  put  into  the  infinitive,  unless  the 
first  be  avoir  or  etre. 

(2.)  When  two  verbs  have  the  same 
subject,  the  second  is  put  into  the  infini- 
tive. 

(3.)  The  second  of  two  verbs  goes  into 
the  infinitive,  when  its  subject  is  different 
from  that  of  the  first,  but  perfectly  ob- 
vious. 

In  these  cases  we  have,  instead  of  the 
subjunctival  conjunctions  given  above,  any 
one  of  the  following  correspondent  prepo- 
sitions: afin  de,  pour,  avant  de  or  avant 
que  de,  sans,  a  moins  de  or  a  moins  que  de, 
de  crainte  de  or  de  peur  de  and  jusque, 
with  the  same  English  meanings  as  the 
similar  conjunctions. 

As  in  English,  the  usual  construction  is 
to  use  the  infinitive  in  such  sentences  with 
a  preposition  meaning  to  or  for  to.  Many 
verbs,  however,  are  followed  by  the  infini- 
tive, without  a  preposition,  as  in  the  English 
sentences:  "Let  us  go  call  him";  "We  will 


come  see  you."  Of  other  verbs  some  take 
d,  "to,"  and  others  de,  "of.". 

THE  VERBS  "AVOIR"  AND  "ETRE"  take  either 
a  or  de  before  an  infinitive,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. Thus,  avoir  is  followed  by  de 
with  the  infinitive,  when  the  sense  requires 
that  the  infinitive  be  active,  and  not  pas- 
sive, as  with  such  expressions  as  "have  the 
kindness  to" ;  "have  opportunity  to" ;  "have 
the  intention  to";  and  the  idioms  for  "be 
hot";  "be  cold";  "be  right,"  etc.,  as  al- 
ready given.  Avoir  takes  a  before  the  in- 
finitive of  the  second  verb,  when  that  infini- 
tive can  be  expressed  by  the  passive  infini- 
tive, although  the  passive  may  not  be  used ; 
as,  J'ai  trois  amis  a  visiter,  "I  have  three 
friends  to  visit"  (or  "to  be  visited"). 

The  verb  etre  takes  de  with  an  infinitive 
when  used  impersonally  with  an  adjective, 
as  //  est  plaisant,  etc.  It  takes  a  before  the 
infinitive  when  used  with  ce  or  cela  before 
an  adjective,  as  c'est  facile,  etc. 

The  use  of  infinitive  constructions  is 
preferable  in  both  French  and  English,  for 
the  purpose  of  simplifying  sentences,  and, 
as  a  consequence,  they  are  used  in  both 
languages  for  expressing  very  nearly  the 
same  line  of  ideas.  Thus,  purpose  clauses 
are  regularly  expressed  by  the  infinitive, 
most  generally  preceded  by  the  preposition 
pour,  as  in  older  English,  "He  went  for  to 
see,"  etc. 

THE  AUXILIARY  "TO  GO." — The  French 
reproduces  the  English  use  of  the  verb, 
"to  go,"  as  an  auxiliary  expressing  inten- 
tion or  futurity,  as  in  "I  am  going  to  do 
it."  Thus,  the  verb,  alter  is  used  as  an 
auxiliary  in  expressing  actions  to  be  im- 
mediately performed:  "I  am  coming  at 
once"  Je  vais  venir;  "I  was  just  going  out," 
J'allais  sortir. 

THE  AUXILIARY  "TO  COME." — On  the 
other  hand,  the  French  has  a  construction 
lacking  in  English,  in  the  use  of  the  verb, 
venir,  "to  come,"  in  expressing  an  act  just 
newly  performed.  Thus :  Je  viens  de  sortir, 
"I  have  just  come  out."  Just  as  alter  in 
this  use  means  "going  to  the  to-do,"  so 
venir  means,  "coming  from  the  to-do" — 
hence,  "having  done." 

USES  OF  "DEVOIR." — Several  constructions 
besides  those  expressing  direct  obligation 
are  expressed  by  the  verb,  devoir.  Thus, 
intention  and  "social  obligation"  are  so 
expressed,  as  //  doit  visiter  chez  nous,  "He 
intends  to  visit  us";  Nous  devons  alter  au 
theatre  ce  soir,  "We  intend  to  go  (or 
'going')  to  the  theatre  this  evening." 
Devoir  also  means  "must,"  in  the  sense  of 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


91 


a  contingent  conclusion,  as  "You  must  be 
tired  after  so  much  work,"  Vous  devez  las 
apres  tant  de  travaille. 

AUXILIARY  USES  OF  "TO  DO." — Although 
the  verb,  "to  do,"  is  not  used  as  an  auxil- 
iary in  the  same  way  as  in  English,  it  ap- 
pears in  this  use  in  many  constructions 
rendered  in  English  by  "to  have  it  done," 
"to  make  him  do."  Thus,  Nous  ferons 
venir  votre  fere,  "We  shall  send  for 
["make  come"]  your  father."  Also,  Je  fats 
rebatir  ma  maison,  "I  am  building  ["make 
to  build"]  my  house."  But,  Vous  faites 
dire  a  moi  une  chose  que  j'e  n'a  jamais 
dit,  "You  make  [it  appear]  me  to  say  a 
thing  that  I  have  never  said." 

IRREGULAR   VERBS 

In  order  to  acquire  even  the  rudiments  of 
French  conversation,  the  student  must  have 
a  moderately  clear  idea  of  the  irregulari- 
ties in  conjugation  found  in  many  of  the 
verbs  in  most  familiar  use.  The  follow- 
ing list  includes  all  the  most  notable  irregu- 
larities, and  should  be  carefully  studied 
before  attempting  any  very  lengthy  sen- 
tences. 

TLe  principal  irregularities  occur  in  the 
following  tenses,  which  are  designated  by 
proper  numbers  in  the  appended  list:  (i) 
present  and  past  participles;  (2)  present  in- 
dicative; (3)  future  indicative;  (4)  imper- 
fect indicative;  (5)  preterit  indicative;  (6) 
present  subjunctive. 

ABSOUDRE,  to  absolve,  (i)  absolvant,  ab- 
sous,  absoute;  (2)  j'absous,  tu  absous,  il 
absout,  nous  absolvons,  vous  absolvez,  ils 
absolvent;  (3)  j'absoudrai;  (4)  j'absolvais; 
(6)  que  j 'absolve. 

ACQUERIR,  to  acquire,  (i)  acquerant,  ac- 
quis, -e;  (2)  j'acquiers,  tu  acquiers,  il 
acquiert,  nous  acquerons,  vous  acquerez,  ils 
acquierent;  (3)  j'acquerrai;  (4)  j'acquerais; 

(5)  j'acquis;   (6)  que  j'acquiere. 

ALLER,  to  go,  (i)  allant,  alle, -e;  (2)  je 
vais,  tu  vas,  il  va,  nous  aliens,  vous  allez,  ils 
vont;  (3)  j'irai;  (4)  j'allais;  (5)  j'allai; 

(6)  que  j'aille,  que  nous  allions,  qu'ils  ail- 
lent. 

ASSAILLIR,  to  assail,  (i)  assaillant,  assail- 
li, -e;  (2)  j'assaille,  tu  assailles,  il  assaille, 
nous  assaillons,  vous  assaillez,  ils  assaillent; 
(3)  j'assaillirai;  (4)  j'assaillais;  (5)  j'as- 
saillis;  (6)  que  j'assaille. 

ASSEOIR,  to  seat,  (i)  asseyant,  assis, -e; 
(2)  j'assieds;  tu  assieds,  il  assied,  nous  as- 
seyons,  vous  asseyez,  ils  asseyent;  (3)  j'as- 


sierai,    or  j'asseyerai;    (4)    j'asseyais;    (5) 
j'assis;    (6)   que  j'asseye. 

BATTRE,  to  beat.  All  tenses  regular  ex- 
cept (2)  je  bats,  tu  bats,  il  bat. 

BOIRE,  to  drink,  (i)  buvant,  bu, -e;  (2) 
je  bois,  tu  bois,  il  boit,  nous  buvons,  vous 
buvez,  ils  boivent;  (3)  je  boirai;  (4)  je 
buvais;  (5)  je  bus;  (6)  que  je  boive,  que 
nous  buvions,  qu'ils  boivent. 

BOUILLIR,  to  boil,  (i)  bouillant,  bouilli, 
-e;  (2)  je  bous,  tu  bous,  il  bout,  nous  bouil- 
lons, vous  bouillez,  ils  bouillent;  (3)  je 
bouillitai;  (4)  je  bouillais;  (5)  je  bouillis; 
(6)  que  je  bouille. 

CLORE,  to  close,  (i)  no  pres.  part.,  clos,  -e; 
(2)  je  clos,  tu  clos,  il  clot  (no  plural)  ;  (3) 
je  clorai;  (4-5  wanting);  (6)  que  je  close. 

CONCLURE,  to  conclude,  (i)  concluant, 
conclu, -e;  (2)  je  conclus,  tu  conclus,  il 
conclut,  nous  concluons,  vous  concluez,  ils 
concluent;  (3)  je  conclurai;  (4)  je  con- 
cluais;  (5)  je  conclus;  (6)  que  je  conclue. 

CONDUIRE,  to  conduct,  (i)  conduisant, 
conduit, -e;  (2)  je  conduis,  tu  conduis,  fl 
conduit,  nous  conduisons,  vous  conduisez, 
ils  conduisent;  (3)  je  conduirai;  (4)  je 
conduisais;  (5)  je  conduisis;  (6)  que  je 
conduise. 

CONFIRE,  to  preserve,  (i)  confisant,  confit, 
-e.  In  all  other  parts  like  suffire. 

CONNAITRE,  to  know,(i~)  connaissant,  con- 
nu, -e;  (2)  je  connais,  tu  connais,  il  con- 
nait,  nous  connaissons,  vous  connaissez,  ils 
connaissent;  (3)  je  connaitrai;  (4)  je  con- 
naissais;  (5)  je  connus;  (6)  que  je  con- 
naisse. 

CONSTRUIRE,  to  construct,  is  conjugated 
like  conduire. 

COUDRE,  to  sew,  (i)  cousant,  consu, -e; 
(2)  je  couds,  tu  couds,  il  coud,  nous 
cousons,  vous  cousez,  ils  cousent;  (3)  je 
coudrai;  (4)  je  cousais;  (5)  je  cousis;  (6) 
que  je  couse. 

COURIR,  to  run,  (i)  courant,  couru;  (2) 
je  cours,  tu  cours,  il  court,  nous  courons, 
vous  courez,  ils  courent;  (3)je  courrai;(4) 
je  courais;  (5)  je  courus;  (6)  que  je  coure. 

CRAINDRE,  to  fear,  (i)  craignant,  craint, 
-e;  (2)  je  crains,  tu  crains,  il  craint,  nous 
craignons,  vous  craignez,  ils  craignent;  (3) 
je  craindrai;  (4)  je  craignais;  (5)  je  crai- 
gnis;  (6)  que  je  craigne. 

CROIRE,  to  believe,  (i)  croyant,  cru,  -e; 
(2)  je  crois,  tu  crois,  il  croit,  nous  croyons, 
vous  croyez,  ils  croient;  (3)  je  croirai;  (4) 
je  croyais;  (5)  je  crus;  (6)  que  je  croie, 
que  nous  croyions. 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


CROITRE,  to  grow,  (i)  croissant,  cru,  crue; 
(2)  je  crois,  tu  crois,  il  croit,  nous  croissons, 
vous  croissez,  ils  croissent;  (3)  je  croitrai; 
(4)  je  croissais;  (5)  je  crus;  (6)  que  je 
croisse. 

CUEILLIR,  to  gather,  (i)  cueillant,  cueilli, 
-e;  (2)  je  cueille,  tu  cueilles,  il  cueille,  nous 
cueillons,  vous  cueillez,  ils  cueillent;  (3)  je 
cueillerai;  (4)  je  cueillais;  (5)  je  cueillis; 
(6)  que  je  cueille. 

CUIRE,  to  cook,  (i)  cuisant,  cuit, -e.  The 
other  tenses  are  conjugated  like  conduire, 
or.it  may  be  used  in  the  infinitive  with  faire 
as  an  auxiliary. 

DECHOIR,  to  fall,  (i)  pres.  part,  wanting, 
dechu, -e;  (2)  je  dechois,  tu  dechois,  il  de- 
choit,  nous  dechoyons,  vous  dechoyez,  ils 
dechoient;  (3)  je  decherrai;  (4)  je  de"- 
choyais;  (5)  je  dechus;  (6)  que  je  dechoie. 

DEVOIR,  to  owe  (must),  (i)  devant,  du, 
due;  (2)  je  dois,  tu  dois,  il  doit,  nous 
devons,  vous  devez,  ils  doivent;  (3)  je 
devrai;  (4)  je»davis;  (5)  je  dus;  (6)  que 
je  doive,  que  nous  devions. 

DIRE,  to  say,  (i)  disant,  dit, -e;  (2)  je 
dis,  tu  dis,  il  dit,  nous  disons,  vous  dites, 
ils  disent;  (3)  je  dirai;  (4)  je  disais;  (5) 
je  dis;  (6)  que  je  disc. 

DORMIR,  to  sleep,  (i)  dormant,  dormi; 
(2)  je  dors,  tu  dors,  il  dort,  nous  dormons, 
vous  dormez,  ils  dorment;  (3)  je  dormirai; 
(4)  je  dormais;  (5)  je  dormis;  (6)  que  je 
dorme. 

ECRIRE,  to  write,  ( I )  ecrivant,  ecrit,  -e ; 
(2)  j'ecris,  tu  ecris,  il  ecrit,  nous  ecrivons, 
vous  ecrivez,  ils  ecrivent;  (3)  j'ecrirai;  (4) 
j'ecrivais;  (5)  j'ecrivis;  (6)  que  j'ecrive. 

ENVOYER,  to  send,  (i)  envoyant,  envoye, 
-e;  (2)  j'envoie,  tu  envoies,  il  envoie,  nous 
envoyons,  vous  envoyez,  ils  envoient;  (3) 
j'enverrai;  (4)  j'envoyais;  (5)  j'envoyai; 
(6)  que  j'envoie. 

FAILLIR,  to  fail,  (i)  pres.  part,  wanting, 
failli;  (2)  il  faut,  ils  faillent;  (3)  je  fau- 
drai;  (5)  je  faillis. 

FAIRE,  to  do,  (i)  faisant,  fait, -e;  (2)  je 
feis,  tu  fais,  il  fait,  nous  faisons,  vous  faites, 
fls  font;  (3)  je  ferai ;  (4)  je  faisais;  (5) 
ie  fis;  (6)  aue  je  fasse. 

FALLOIR,  to  be  necessary,  (i)  pres.  part, 
wanting,  fallu;  (2)  il  faut;  (3)  il  faudra; 
(4)  il  fallait;  (5)  il  fallut;  (6)  qu'il  faille. 

FUIR,  to  Aee,  (i)  fuyant,  fui.  In  the  other 
tenses  *  becomes  3;  before  a  vowel,  except 
before  -e,  -es,  -ent. 

GESIR,  to  lie,  (i)  gisant;  (2)  il  git,  nous 
gisons,  vous  gisez.  ils  gisent;  (4)  je  gisaU- 


JOINDRE,  to  join,  (i)  joignant,  joint, -e. 
The  other  tenses  are  conjugated  like 
craindre,  substituting  oi  for  ai. 

LIRE,  to  read,  (i)  lisant,  lu, -e;  (2)  je 
lis,  tu  lis,  il  lit,  nou^isons,  vous  lisez,  ils 
lisent;  (3)  je  lirai;  (4)  je  lisais;  (5)  je 
lus;  (6)  que  je  Use. 

LUIRE,  to  shine,  (i)  luisant,  lui.  Other 
tenses  are  conjugated  like  conduire,  except 
that  the  preterit  is  wanting. 

METTRE,  to  put,  (i)  mettant,  mis, -e;  (2) 
je  mets,  tu  mets,  il  met,  nous  mettons,  vous 
mettez,  ils  mettent;  (3)  je  mettrai;  (4)  je 
mettais;  (5)  je  mis;  (6)  que  je  mette. 

MOUDRE,  to  grind,  (i)  moulant,  moulu, 
-e;  (2)  je  mouds,  tu  mouds,  il  moud,  nous 
moulons,  vous  moulez,  ils  moulent;  (3)  je 
moudrai;  (4)  je  moulais;  (5)  je  moulus; 
(6)  que  je  moule. 

MOURIR,  to  die,  (i)  mourant,  mort, -e; 
(2)  je  meurs,  tu  meurs,  il  meurt,  nous 
mourons,  vous  mourez,  ils  meurent;  (3) 
je  mourrai;  (4)  je  mourais;  (5)je  mourus; 
(6)  que  je  meure,  que  nous  mourions,  qu'ils 
meurent. 

MOUVOIR,  to  move,  (i)  mouvant,  mu, 
mue;  (2)  je  meus,  tu  meus,  il  meut,  nous 
mouvons,  vous  mouvez,  ils  meuvent;  (3)  je 
mouvrai;  (4)  je  mouvais;  (5)  je  mus;  (6) 
que  je  meuve,  que  nous  mouvions,  qu'ils 
meuvent. 

NAITRE,  to  be  born,  (i)  naissant,  ne,-e. 
The  other  tenses  are  conjugated  like  con- 
naitre,  except  the  preterit.  (5)  je  naquis. 

NUIRE,  to  injure,  (i)  nuisant,  nui.  This 
verb  is  conjugated  like  conduire. 

OFFRIR,  to  offer,  (i)  off  rant,  off  ert, -e. 
This  verb  is  conjugated  like  ouvrir. 

OUIR,  to  hear,  ( i )  oui,  -e.  This  verb  oc- 
curs only  in  the  infinitive  and  the  compound 
tenses. 

OUVRIR,  to  open,  (i)  ouvrant,  ouvert, -e; 
(2)  j'ouvre,  tu  ouvres,  il  ouvre,  nous  ou- 
vrons,  vous  ouvrez,  ils  ouvrent;  (3)  j'ouvri- 
rai;  (4)  j'ouvrais;  (5)  j'ouvris;  (6)  que 
j'ouvre. 

PAITRE,  to  graze,  (i)  paissant,  no  past, 
part.  This  verb  is  conjugated  like  connaitre 
in  all  tenses,  but  has  no  preterit. 

PARTIR,  to  set  out,  (i)  partant,  parti, -e; 
(2)  je  pars,  tu  pars,  il  part,  nous  partons, 
vous  partez,  ils  partent;  (3)  je  partirai; 
(4)  je  partais;  (5)  je  partis;  (6)  que  je 
parte. 

PEINDRE,  to  paint,  (i)  peignant,  peint, -e. 
This  verb  is  conjugated  like  craindre,  sub- 
stSjutin?  ei  for  ai. 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


93 


PLAIRE,  to  please,  (i)  plaisant,  plu;  (2) 
je  plais,  tu  plais,  il  plait,  nous  plaisons,  vous 
plaisez,  ils  plaisent;  (3)  je  plairai;  (4)  je 
plaisais;  (5)  je  plus;  (6)  que  je  plaise. 

PLEUVOIR,  to  rain,  (i)  pleuvant,  plu;  (2) 
il  pleut;  (3)  il  pleuvra;  (4)  il  pleuvait;  (5) 
il  plut;  (6)  qu'il  pleuve. 

POURVOIR,  to  provide,  (i)  pourvoyant, 
pourvu,  -e;  (2)  je  pourvois,  tu  pourvois,  il 
pourvoit,  nous  pourvoyons,  vous  pourvoyez, 
ils  pourvoient;  (3)  je  pourvoirai;  (4)  je 
pourvoyais;  (5)  je  pourvus;  (6)  que  je 
pourvoie. 

POUVOIR,  to  be  able,  (i)  pouvant,  pu;  (2) 
je  peux  (puis),  tu  peux,  il  peut,  nous  pou- 
vons,  vous  pouvez,  ils  peuvent;  (3)  je 
pourrai;  (4)  je  pouvais;  (5)  je  pus;  (6) 
que  je  puisse. 

PRENDRE,   to   take,    (i)    prenant,  pris,-e; 

(2)  je  prends,  tu  prends,  il  prend,  nous  pre- 
nons,    vous    prenez,    ils    prennent;    (3)    je 
prendrai;   (4)  je  prenais;   (5)  je  pris;   (6) 
que   je   prenne,    que   nous    prenions,    qu'ils 
prennent. 

SE  REPENTIR,  to  repent,  (i)  repentant, 
repenti,  -e.  Conj  ugated  like  partir. 

R£SOUDRE,  to  resolve,  (i)  resolvant,  re- 
solu, -e;  (2)  resous;  je  resous,  tu  resous,  il 
resout,  nous  resolvons,  vous  resolvez,  ils 
resolvent;  (3)  je  resoudrai;  (4)  je  resol- 
vais;  (5)  je  resolus;  (6)  que  je  resolve. 

RIRE,  to  laugh,  (i)   riant,  ri;   (2)  je  ris, 

tu  ris,  il  rit,  nous  rions,  vous  riez,  ils  rient; 

(3)  je  rirai;   (4)  je  riais;   (5)  je  ris;   (6) 
que  je  rie. 

ROMPRE,  to  break,  (i)  rompant,  rompu, 
-e;  (2)  il  rompt.  All  the  rest  of  the  verb 
is  regular. 

SAILLIR,  to  project,  to  gush  forth,  is  con- 
jugated like  assaillir. 

SAVOIR,  to  know,  (i)  sachant,  su, -e;(2)je 
sais,  tu  sais,  il  sait,  nous  savons,  vous  savez, 
ils  savent;  (3)  je  saurai;  (4)  je  savais; 
(5)  je  sus;  (6)  que  je  sache. 

SENTIR,  to  feel,  ( I )  sentant,  senti,  -e.  This 
verb  is  conjugated  like  partir. 

SERVIR,  to  serve,  ( i )  servant,  servi,  -e ; 
(2)  je  sers,  tu  sers,  il  sert,  nous  servons, 
vous  servez,  ils  servent;  (3)  je  servirai; 

(4)  je  servais;   (5)   je  servis;   (6)   que  je 
serve. 

SORTIR,  to  go  out,  ( i )  sortant,  sorti,  -e. 
This  verb  is  conjugated  like  partir. 

SOUFFRIR,  to  suffer,  (i)  souffrant,  souf- 
fert,  -e.  Other  tenses  conjugated  like 

ouvrir. 


SUFFIRE,  to  suffice,  (i)  suffisant,  suffi;  (2) 
je  suffis,  tu  suffis,  il  suffit,  nous  suffisons, 
vous  suffisez,  ils  suffisent;  (3)  je  suffirai ; 

(4)  je  suffisais;   (5)   je  suffis;    (6)   que  je 
suffise. 

SUIVRE,  to  follow,  (i)  suivant,  suivi, -e; 
(2)  je  suis,  tu  suis,  il  suit,  nous  suivons, 
vous  suivez,  ils  suivent;  (3)  je  suivrai;  (4) 
je  suivais;  (5)  je  suivis;  (6)  que  je 
suive. 

TAIRE,  to  keep  silent,  ( I )  taisant,  tu,  -e. 
Conjugated  like  plaire. 

TENIR,  to  hold,  (i)  tenant,  tenu, -e;  (2) 
je  tiens,  tu  tiens,  il  tient,  nous  tenons,  vous 
tenez,  ils  tiennent;  (3)  je  tiendrai;  (4)  je 
tenais;  (5)  je  tins;  (6)  que  je  tienne,  que 
nous  tenions,  que  vous  teniez. 

TRAIRE,  to  milk,  (i)  trayant,  trait, -e; 
(2)  je  trais,  tu  trais,  il  trait,  nous  trayons, 
vous  trayez,  ils  traient;  (3)  je  trairai;  (4) 
je  trayais;  no  preterit;  (6)  que  je  traie, 
que  nous  trayions,  que  vous  trayiez. 

TRESSAILLIR,  to  start,  (i)  tressaillant,  tres- 
sailli, -e.  Is  conjugated  like  assaillir. 

VAINCRE,  to  overcome,  (i)  vainquant, 
vaincu, -e;  (2)  je  vaincs,  tu  vaincs,  il  vainc, 
nous  vainquons,  vous  vainquez,  ils  vain- 
quent;  (3)  je  vaincrai;  (4)  je  vainquais; 

(5)  je  vainquis;   (6)  que  je  vainque. 

VALOIR,  to  be  worth,  (i)  valant,  valu; 
(2)  je  vaux,  tu  vaux,  il  vaut,  nous  valons, 
vous  valez,  ils  valent;  (3)  je  vaudrai;  (4) 
je  valais;  (5)  je  valus;  (6)  que  je  vaille, 
que  nous  valions,  que  vous  valiez. 

VENIR,  to  come,  ( i )  venant,  venu,  -e. 
This  verb  is  conjugated  like  tenir. 

VETIR,  to  clothe,  (i)  vetant,  vetu, -e;  (2) 
je  vets,  tu  vets,  il  vet,  nous  vetons,  vous 
vetez,  ils  vetent;  (3)  je  vetirai;  (4)  je  ve- 
tais;  (5)  je  vetis;  (6)  que  je  vete. 

VIVRE,  to  live,  (i)  vivant,  vecu;  (2)  je 
vis,  tu  vis,  il  vit,  nous  vivons,  vous  vivez, 
ils  vivent;  (3)  je  vivrai;  (4)  je  vivais;  (5) 
je  vecus;  (6)  que  je  vive. 

VOIR,  to  see,  (i)  voyant,  vu, -e;  (2)  je 
vois,  tu  vois,  il  voit,  nous  voyons,  vous 
voyez,  ils  voient;  (3)  je  verrai;  (4)  je 
voyais;  (5)  je  vis;  (6)  que  je  voie,  que 
nous  voyions,  que  vous  voyiez. 

VOULOIR,  to  be  willing,  (i)  voulant,  voulu, 
-e;  (2)  je  veux,  tu  veux,  il  veut,  nous  vou- 
lons,  vous  voulez,  ils  veulent;  (3)  je  vou- 
drai;  (4)  je  voulais;  (5)  je  voulus;  (6) 
que  je  veuille,  que  nous  voulions,  que  vous 
vouliez.  . 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


EASY  EXPRESSIONS  AND  SHORT  SENTENCES 


FAMILIAR  PHRASES 

I  wish  you  a  good-  Je  vous  souhaite  le 

Tell  me                          Dites-moi 

morning                         bon  jour 

If  you  please                S'il  vous  plait 
Have  the  goodness     Ayez  la  bonte 
Yes,  Sir                        Out,  Monsieur 

Good-evening               Bon  soir 
Good-night                    Bonne  nuit 
I  wish  you  good-       Je  vous  souhaite  une 

Yes,   Madam                Out,  Madame 

night                                bonne  nuit 

Yes,   Miss                    Out,  Mademoiselle 

My  compliments  to     Saluez  Monsieur  vo- 

No,  Sir                        Non,  Monsieur 

your  father                   tre  pere  de  ma  part 

No,  Madam                  Non,  Madame 

I  will  not  fail              Je  n'y  manquerai  pas 

No,  Miss                      Non,  Mademoiselle 

Will  you                       Voulez-vous 

VISITS   . 

tell  me                          me  dire 

There  is  a  knock        On  frappe 

I  thank  you                 Je  vous  remercie 

It  is  Mrs.  B.                 C'est  Madame  B. 

Do  you  speak             Parles-vous 

I  am  very  glad  to       Je  suis  charme  de 

English?                       anglais? 

see  you                          vous  voir 

French  ?                         franfais  ? 

Pray,  be  seated            Asseyez-vous,  je  vous 

I  do  not  speak  French  Je  ne  parle  pas  fran- 

prie 

fais 

What  news  is  there?    Que  dit-on  de  nou- 

I  speak  it  a  little       Je  le  parle  un  pen 

veauf 

I  understand                 Je   comprends 

Good  news                    De  bonnes  nouvelles 

I  do  not  understand      Je  ne  comprends  pas 

Do  you  believe  it?      Le  croyez-vous? 

Do  you  understand?  Comprenez-vousf 

I  believe  it                   Je  le  crois 

Give  me                        Donnez-moi 

I  don't  believe  a          Je  n'en  crois  pas  un 

some  bread                  du  pain 

word  of  ft                     mot 

some   meat                    dc  la  viande 

I  think  so                     Je  crois  que  out 

some  wine                    du  vin 

I  think  not                    Je  cros  que  non 

some  beer                    de  la  biere 

Who  told  you?             Qui  vous  I'  a  dit? 

Bring  me                      'Apportez-moi 

It  is  no  such  thing    //  n'en  est  rien 

some  coffee                  du  cafe 

Have  you  heard  from  Avez-vous  refu  des 

some  tea                       du  the" 

home?                            nouvelles  de  chez- 

some  milk                     du  lait 

vousf 

some  butter                 du  beurre 

The  postman                Le  facteur  m'appor- 

some  cheese                 du  fromage 

brought  me  a  let-        ta   une   lettre   ce 

Thank  you                    Merci 

ter  this  morning           matin 

They  write  sad  news   On  m'ecrit  de  mau- 

MEETING 

vaises  nouvelles 

Good-morning              Bon  jour 
How  do  you  do  ?        Comment  vous  portez- 
vous? 

Will  you  stay  and       Voulez-vous  rester  a 
dine  with  us?              diner  avec  nous? 
No,  thank  you             Merci 

Very  well                      Tres-bien 

I  can  not  stay               Je  ne  peux  pas  restir 

I  am  very  well             Je  me  porte  fort  bien 

I  must  go                     //  faut  que  je  m'en 

milt* 

How  is  your  father?  Comment  se  porte 
Monsieur  votre 

at  lie 
You  are  in  great          Vous  etes  bien  pressi 

pere? 
How  is  your  mother  ?  Comment  se  porte 

hurry 
I  have  a  great  deal    J'ai  bien  des  chases  a 

Madame   votre 

to  do                             faire 

mere? 

She  is  not  well           Elle  ne  se  porte  pas 

EXPRESSIONS  OF  SURPRISE 

bien 

What!                            Comment! 

She  is  ill                       Elle  est  malade 

Is  it  possible?               Serait-il-possible? 

He  is  very  ill              //  est  bien  malade 

Who  would  have  be-  Qui  I'aurait  cru! 

She  has  a  cold           Elle  est^enrhumte 

lieved  it  ! 

I  must  go                      //  faut  partir 

Indeed                           En  verite 

Good-by                          Au  plaisir 

It  is  impossible             Cela  est  impossible 

Farewell                        Adieu 

That  can  not  be          Cela  ne  se  peut  pas 

Your  servant               Votre  serviteur 

I  am  astonished  at  it  J'en  suis  bien  etonne 

FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


95 


You  surprise  me          Vous  me  surprenez 

I  don't  speak  to  you   Ce  n'est  pas  a  vous 

It  is  incredible             C'est   incroyable 

que  je  parle 

It  is  unheard  of          Cela  est  inoui 

Do  you  understand    Me  comprenez-vous? 

I  am  sorry  for  it        J'en  suis  fache 

me? 

I  am  quite  vexed       J'en  suis  desole 

Listen                            Ecoutez 

about  it 

Come  here                   Approchez  —  venez  id 

What  a  pity!              Quel  dommage! 

What  is  that?              Qu'est-ce  que  cela? 

It  is  a  great  pity        C'est  bien  dommage 

Why  don't  you  an-     Pourquoi  ne  repondez- 

It  is  a  sad  thing        Cela  est  bien  facheux 

swer?                             vous  pas? 

It  is  a  great  misfor-  C'est  un  grand  wo/- 

What do  you  mean?  Que  voulez-vous  dire? 

tune                               heur 

Don't  you  speak          Ne  parlez-vous  pas 

I  am  very  glad             Je  suis  bien  aise 

French?                         f  ran  fais? 

I  am  very  glad  of  it  J'en  suis  fort  aise 

Very  little,  sir               Bien  peu,  Monsieur 

It  gives  me  great  joy     J'en  ai  bien  de  la  joie 

Do  you  know  Mr.  H.  ?  Connaissez-vous  Mon- 

How happy  I  am         Que  j'e  suis  heureux 

sieur  H.f 

I  wish  you  joy             Je  vous  felicite 

I  know  him  by  sight  Je  le  connais  de  vue 

I  congratulate  you'  Je  vous  en  fais  mon 

I  know  him  by  name  Je  le  connais  de  nom 

on  it                              compliment 

What  do  you  call        Comment  appelezvous 

that?                              cela? 

ANGER  AND  BLAME 

What  does  that           Qu'est-ce  que  cela  veut 

He  is  very  angry        //  est  bien  en  colere 

mean?                            dire? 

I  am  in  a  bad  temper  Je  suis  de  mauvaise 

What  is  that  good      A  quoi  cela  est-il  ban? 

humeur 

for? 

She  is  furious  about  Elle  en  est  furieuse 

MORNING 

it 
Hold  your  tongue        Taisez-vous 
You  are  very  wrong   Vous  avez  bien  tort 

What  o'clock  is  it?     Quelle  heure  est-il? 
It  is  near  eight            //  est  pres  de  huit 
heure  s 

What  a  shame!            Quelle  hontc! 
How  could  you  do     Comment  avez-vous 
so?                                 pu  faire  cela? 
I  am  ashamed  of  you  Vous  me  faites  honte 

Light  the  fire              Faites  du  feu 
I  am  going  to  get  up  Je  vais  me  lever 
Get  me  some  hot        Allez  me  chercher  de 
water                             I'eau    chaude 

For   shame!                  Fi  done! 
You  are  very  much     Vous  etes  bien  a  bid- 

Make  haste                   Ne  soyez  pas  long- 
temps 

to  blame                       mer 
His  patience  is  tired  La  patience  lui 

How  have  you  slept?  Comment  avez-vous 
dormi  ? 

out                                   echappe 
Don't  answer              Ne  repliquez  pas 

Did  you  sleep  well?    Avez-vous  bien 
dormi? 

AGE 

Very  well,  thank  you  Tres-bien,  je  vous 

remercie 

How  old  are  you?        Quel  age  avez-vous? 

Not  very  well              Pas  tres-bien 

I  am  twenty-two         J'ai  vingt-deux  ans 

I  never  woke  all          J'ai  dormi  tout  d'un 

I  shall  soon  be  thirty  J'ai  bientot  trente  ans 

night                              somme 

He  looks  older            //  parait  plus  age 

I  could  not  sleep          Je  n'ai  pas  pu  dormir 

I  did  not  think  you    Je  ne  vous  croyais  pas 

I  never  closed  my       Je  n'ai  pas  ferme 

were   so   old                 si  age 

eyes                                 I'  ceil 

She  is  at  least  sixty   Elle  a  au  mains  soi- 

I  have  been  up  this    II  y  a  une  heure  que 

xante  ans 

hour                               je  me  suis  leve 

How  old  is  your        Quel  age  peut  avoir 

You  are  an  early         Vous  etes  matinal 

uncle?                            Monsieur  votre 

riser 

oncle 

I  generally  rise  early  Je  me  leve  ordinaire- 

He  is  nearly  eighty    II  a  a  peu  pres  quatre- 

ment  de  bonne  heure 

vingt  ans 

Is  he  so  old?              Est-il  si  age  que  cela? 

BREAKFAST 

It  is  a  great  age        C'est  un  grand  ag$ 

Breakfast  is  ready       Le  dejeuner  est  pret 

He  begins  to  grow     II  commence  a  vieillir 

Is  breakfast  ready?      Le  dejeuner  est-il 

old 

Pret? 

Come  to  breakfast       Venez  dejeuner 

TO  ASK  QUESTIONS 

Does  the  water  boil?  L'eau  bout-elle 

What  do  you  say?       Que  dites-vous? 

This  watT  has  not     Cette  eau  n'a  pas 

Do  you  hear  me?        M'entendez-vous? 

boiled                             bouilli 

96 


FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


Is  the  tea  made?         Le  the  est-il  fait? 

What  wines  will  you  Quel  vins  Monsieur 

Shall  I  put  some         Mettrai-je  du  ihe  vert 

have?                             desire-t-il? 

green  tea  in  the  tea-       dans  la  theiere? 

Let  us  see                     Voyons 

pot? 

Have  you  the  best      Avez-vous  des  vins 

Very  little                    N'en  mettez  que  tres- 

wines?                           fins? 

peu 

Here  is  the  list          En  void  la  liste 

That  is  enough            Cela  est  assez 

We  shall  dine  at  six  Nous  dinerons  a  six 

Some  rolls                    Des  petits  pains 

o'clock                           heures 

Do  you  drink  tea  or    Prenez-vous  du  thl 

Be  punctual                  Soyez  exacte 

coffee?                           ou  du  cafe? 

What  shall  I  help      Que  vous  servirai-jet 

This  cream  is  sour     Cette  creme  s'est  agrie 

you  to? 

Will  you  take  an        Voulez-vous   manger 

Will  you  take  some     Voulez-vous  un  peu 

egg?                               un  aeuf? 

soup?                            de  soupe? 

These  eggs  are  hard   Ces  ceufs  sont  durs 

No,  thank  you            Merci  bien 

We  want  another  egg-  //  nous  faut  un  outre 

Willingly                       Tres-volontiers 

cup                                 coquetier 

Help  yourself              Servez-vous 

Give  me  the  salt         Donnez-moi  le  sel 

Well  done,  if  you      Bien  cuit,  s'il  vous 

Pass  me  the  butter     Passez-moi  le  beurre 

please                             plait 

This  butter  is  not       Ce  beurre  n'est  pas 

It   is   excellent             77  est  excellent 

fresh                              frais 

Do   you  take  pepper  ?  Prenez-vous  du 

Bring  some  more        Allez-nous   en   cher- 

poivre? 

cher  a  autre 

Cayenne  pepper           Le  poivre  rouge 

Give  me  a  spoon        Donnez-moi  une 

Here  are  spinach  and   Void  des  epinards  et 

cuiller 

brocoli                           des  brocolis 

Is  the  coffee  strong    Le  cafe  est-il  assez 

Peas                               Des  petits  pois 

enough?                        fort? 

Cauliflower                   Du  choufieur 

We  want  more  cups   II  nous  manque  des 

Artichokes                    Des   artichauts 

tosses 

Potatoes                       Des  pommes  de  terre 

Take  some  more         Prenez  encore  du 

The  mustard  pot        Le  moutardier 

sugar                             sucre 

Change  the  plates        Changes  les  assiettes 

A  piece  of  toast          Une  rotie 

Give  me  a  clean  fork    Donnez-moi  une 

Cold  meat                   De  la  viande  froide 

fourchette   propre 

The  tablecloth             La  nappe 

Are  you  hungry?         Avez-vous  faim? 

The    sugar   basin         Le  sucrier 

I   am  hungry                J'ai  faim 

Chocolate                      Du  chocolat 

You  don't  eat              Vous  ne  manges  pas 

A  knife                         Un  couteau 

Are  you  thirsty?          Avez-vous  soif? 

This  knife  is  blunt     Ce  couteau  ne  coupe 

I  am  very  thirsty        J'ai  bien  soif 

pas 

I  am  dying  of  thirst   Je  meurs  de  soif 

We  have  done  break-  Nous   avons  fini  de 

Take  a  glass  of  wine     Prenez  un  verre  de 

fast                                dejeuner 

vin 

You  can  take  away     Vous  pouvez  desser- 

Bring  me  a  glass  of  Apportez-moi  un 

the  things                     vir 

water                             verre  d'eau  fraiche 

Give  me  something    Donnez-moi  a  botre 

ORDERING  DINNER 

to  drink 

Have  you  ordered      Avez-vous  commande 

This  wine  tastes  of     Ce  vin  sent  le  bouchon 

dinner?                          le  diner? 

the  cork 

Show  me  the  bill  of    Montrez-moi  la   carte 

It  is  flat                        II  est  evente 

fare 

A  cork-screw                Un  tire-bouchon 

What  soup  will  you   Quelle  soupe  vous 

have?                            servirai-je? 

TEA 

Macaroni  soup             De  la  soupe  au  maca- 

Tea is  quite  ready     Le  the  est  tout  pret 

roni 

They  are  waiting  for  On  vous  attend 

Have  you  any  roast-  avez-vous  du  bceuf 

you 

beef?                             roti? 

I   am  coming               Me  void 

Not  to-day                   Pas  aujourd'hui 

The  tea  is  very  strong  Le  the1  est  tres-fort 

We  have  very  fine      Nous  avons  de  tres- 

Pour  out  the  tea        Versez  le   the 

fish                                 bon  poisson 

Bring  a  saucer            Apportez  une  sou- 

Fried   soles                  Des  soles  f  rites 

coupe 

A  dozen  of  prawns    Une  douzaine  de  sali- 

Where  are  the  sugar-  Ou  sont  les  pinces? 

coques 

tongs  ? 

FRENCH    SELF-TAUGHT 


97 


Ring,  if  you  please    Sonnez,  s'il  vous  plait 

EVENING 

A  little  more  milk      Encore  un  peu  de  lait 

It  is  late 

//  est  tard 

What  will  you  take?  Que  prendrez-vous? 

It  is  not  late 

II  n'est  pas  tard 

A  slice  of  bread  and  Une   beurree.  —  une 

What  o'clock  is  it? 

Quelle  heure  est-il? 

butter                            tartine  de  beurre 

It  is  still  early 

II  est  encore  de  bonne 

Hand  the  plate           Passes  I'assiette 

heure 

Will   you   take  some  Voules-vous  du  ga- 

Are  you  tired? 

Etes-vous  fatigue? 

cake?                             teau? 

Not  at  all 

Point  du  tout 

A  small  piece              Un   petit  morceau 

Not    much 

Pas  beaucoup 

Make  more  toast        Faites  encore  des 

It  is  only  ten 

II  n'est  que  dix 

roties 

heures 

Make  haste                  Depeches-vous 

It  is  time  to  go  to 

II  est  1'  heure  de  se 

This  is  excellent  tea  Voila   d'excellent   the 

bed 

coucher 

The  tea-tray                Le  cabaret 

Is  my  room  ready? 

Ma  chambre  est-elle 

The   milk-jug              Le  pot  au  lait 

pret? 

A  set  of  tea-things     Un  service 

Go  and  see 

Allcs-voir 

Have  you  finished?    Aves-vous  deja  fini? 

Draw   the   curtain 

Fermes  cerideau 

Take   another   cup      Prenez  encore  une 

A   blanket 

Une  couverture  de 

tasse 

laine 

No,  thank  you             Merci  bien 

I    am   sleepy 

J'ai  sommeil 

Brown  bread                Du  pain   bis 

Are   you    sleepy  ? 

Avez-vous   sommeil? 

White  bread                Du  pain  blanc 

I  wish  you  a  good- 

Je vous  souhaite  une 

Stale  bread                   Du  pain  rassis 

night 

bonne  nuit 

New  bread                   Du  pain  frais 

Good-night 

Bon  soir 

GERMAN   SELF-TAUGHT 


WHILE  the  German  language  belongs  to  the  same  family,  or  class, 
as  the  English,  and  the  two  have  a  very  large  number  of  their 
root-words  in  common,  the  English-speaking  student  will  find 
his  first  and  most  serious  difficulty  in  mastering  its  laws  of  syntax  and 
in  learning  all  the  idioms  required  for  even  ordinary  conversation.  In 
respect  to  these  two  matters,  he  stands  at  an  even  greater  disadvantage 
with  German  than  with  French.  In  a  large  number  of  cases  an  English 
sentence — words,  order,  and  idioms — may  be  translated  direct  into  French, 
and  remain  perfectly  correct  and  comprehensible.  To  follow  this  practice 
very  far  with  the  German  would  involve  the  commission  of  grave  errors, 
producing  sentences  either  wholly  meaningless  or  having  quite  contrary 
significance. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  German  language  is  particularly  easy  of  acqui- 
sition, on  account  of  the  uniformity  of  pronunciation,  and  on  account 
of  the  simple  construction  of  the  verb.  The  gender  of  nouns  is  a  source 
of  perplexity  to  the  average  student,  but  by  following  the  habit  of  learning 
the  definite  article  in  connection  with  each  word  memorized — thus:  der 
Tag,  die  Stadt,  das  Haus — the  matter  may  be  very  greatly  simplified. 
In  learning  the  proper  use  of  verbal  auxiliaries,  particularly  such  as 
mean  "ought,"  "should,"  "must,*  etc.,  the  student  must  understand  at 
the  start  that  certain  idiomatic  usages  in  German  prevent  the  direct  trans- 
lation of  most  English  clauses;  obliging  him  to  commit  to  memory  certain 
lists  of  expressions  conveying  the  desired  meanings.  Indeed,  apart  from 
acquiring  the  rules  of  syntax,  no  better  method  of  learning  the  language 
could  be  followed  than  memorizing  idiomatic  stanzas  of  poetry  and  prose 
sentences,  in  order  to  have  a  stock  of  model  phrases  at  hand. 

In  regard  to  pronunciation,  it  may  be  stated  that  no  such  grave  diffi- 
culties are  involved  but  what  careful  attention  to  the  rules  herein  given 
may  result  in  intelligent  mastery.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  only  real  diffi- 
culties that  confront  the  student  lie  in  the  fact  that  a  few  characteristic 
German  sounds  are  not  found  in  English. 

(98) 


GERMAN   SELF-TAUGHT 


THE  ALPHABET  AND  PRONUNCIATIONS 


THE    GERMAN    ALPHABET   consists 
of  the  following  26  letters: 

A,  a;  H,  o,  (ah). 
Pronounced  long,  like  a  in  "father";  short, 

like  o  in  "hot." 

B,  b;  S3,  b,  (bay). 
Pronounced  as  in  English;  final,  like  p. 

C,  c;  (5,  c,  (tsay). 

Pronounced  hard,  like  c  in  "cure,"  if  be- 
fore a,  o,  o,  u,  a  consonant,  or  when  final; 
like  ts  in  "tsar,"  before  e,  i,  a,  it. 

D,  d;  5),  b,  (day). 
Pronounced  as  in  English;  final,  like  t. 

E,  e;  <g,  e,  (ay). 

Pronounced  as  a  in  "name"  when  long; 
as  e  in  "tell"  when  short;  when  final,  al- 
most like  e  in  "bed,"  or  like  ay  spoken 
rapidly. 

F,  f,  ff;  g,  f,  ff,  (ef). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

G,  g;  ®,  fl,  (gay). 

Pronounced  as  g  in  "go" ;  final,  in  ig,  gs, 
gt,  gd,  gst,  like  the  German  ch. 

H,  h;  $,*,  (hah). 
Pronounced  like  h  in  "horse." 

I,  i;3,t,  (e). 

Pronounced  as  »  in  "fit,"  when  short;  as 
ee  in  "meet,"  when  long.  The  long  sound 
of  i  is  found  principally  in  the  diphthong  it. 

J,  j ;  3,  i,  (yot). 

Pronounced  as  y  in  "yes." 

K,  k;  a,  !,  (kah). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

L,  1;  5,  t,  (el). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

M,  m;  3W,  tn,  (em). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

N,  n;  91,  n,  (en). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

O,  o;  O,  o,  (o). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

P,  p;  $,  *,  (pay). 

Pronounced  as  in  English 


Q,  q;  O,  q,  (koo). 

Pronounced  like  English  k.  Qu  has  the 
sound  of  kw. 

R,  r;  «,  t,  (err). 

Pronounced  as  in  English,  only  sounded 
distinctly,  never  slurred. 

S,  s;  ©,  f,  9,  (es). 

Pronounced  as  s  in  "sin";  like  the  En- 
glish 2  at  the  beginning  of  a  word. 

T,  t;  X,  t,  (tay). 

Pronounced  as  t  in  "table"  ;  like  ts  before 
i  followed  by  another  vowel,  as  in  Nation 
(nattseeyone). 

U,  u;  U,  u,  (oo). 

Pronounced  as  oo  in  "stool,"  when  long; 
as  u  in  "full"  or  "pull,"  when  short. 

V,  v;  »,  »,  (fow). 
Pronounced  as  f  in  "far." 

W,  w;  ffi,  to,  (vay). 

Pronounced  as  v  in  "very." 

X,  x;   X,  5,  (iks). 
Pronounced  as  x  in  "fox." 

Y,  y;  8,  t),  (ypsilon). 
Pronounced  as  y  m  "system." 


z,  z;  3.  s. 

Pronounced  as  ts  in  "fits." 

Ordinary  consonant  combinations  used  in 
German  type  are  as  follows: 

$  =  ch.  &=«. 

3  =  ck.  1$  =  ts. 

The  form,  B,  is  used  instead  of  ff,  after 
long  vowels,  diphthongs,  and  at  the  end  of 
words. 

SHORT  AND  LONG  VOWELS 

The  rule  for  shortening  or  lengthening 
the  sound  of  a  German  vowel  is  practi- 
cally the  same  as  in  English.  A  vowel 
is  short  before  a  double  consonant  (as 
ft)  or  two  consonants  (as  Id,  nd),  and 
long,  when  doubled,  or  when  followed  by 
a  single  consonant  or  silent  h. 

The  short  sounds  of  the  vowels,  i,  e,  u, 
have  been  given  above.  The  short  sound 
of  o  is  like  the  sound  of  au  or  our  in  the 
English  words,  "naught,"  "taught,"  "paw," 
"saw."  The  English  short  o,  as  in  "hot," 


100 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


^ 


"lot,"  etc.,  is  more  properly  that  of  short  a 
in  German,  as  in  das  Wasser,  "the  water." 

THE   MODIFIED   VOWELS 

The  three  modified  vowels,  a,  o,  ii,  writ- 
ten with  the  Umlaut,  or  two  dots,  like  the 
English  diaresis,  represent  combinations  of 
the  primary  vowel  sound  with  e. 

The  rule  for  identifying  each  of  these 
sounds  is  the  same  as  that  given  in  con- 
nection with  the  French  u. 

In  order  to  find  the  sound  of  d  (<?,  or 
"a-Umlaut"),  say  long  a,  as  in  "father," 
then  suddenly  change  to  short  e,  as  in 
"bed,"  and  sound  it,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
without  changing  the  position  of  the  lips. 
The  resulting  sound  resembles  short  e,  as 
in  "men,"  pronounced  with  the  lips  much 
more  open  than  is  required  by  that  sound. 

The  sound  of  o  (ae,  or  "o-Umlauf")  is 
found  by  similarly  changing  the  sound  of 
o,  as  in  "boat,"  to  e,  as  in  "bet,"  without 
altering  the  position  of  the  lips.  The  re- 
sulting sound  closely  resembles  the  French 
eu,  or  the  English  u  in  "fur,"  "but,"  "nut," 
pronounced  with  the  lips  arranged  to  say 
"o." 

The  sound  of  u  (ue  or  "u-Umlaut")  is 
found  by  arranging  the  lips  to  say  oo  as 
in  "boot,"  and  saying  e  as  in  "bet."  The 
resulting  sound  resembles  e  in  "bet,"  rather 
than  ee  in  "beet,"  but  retains  an  unmis- 
takable suggestion  of  u  that  differentiates 
it  from  either. 

Briefly  described,  the  German  modified 
vowels  represent  the  effort  to  give  two 
vowel  sounds  at  once,  and  differ  from 
diphthongal  sounds  in  the  fact  that  the 
voice  does  not  automatically  separate  the 
two  components,  no  matter  how  long  the 
vocalization  may  be  continued. 

DIPHTHONGS 

AI  pronounced  like  »  in  "like,"  "mite,"  etc., 
only  giving  the  o-sound  more  promi- 
nently. 

AU,  like  ow  in  "cow,"  "how,"  "now." 

AU  or  AEU,  like  oi  in  "loiter,"  or  oy  in 
"boy." 

KI,  always  like  $  in  "bite,"  "like,"  etc. 

EU,  like  oy  in  "boy,"  "toy,"  etc. 

IE  (not  properly  a  diphthong),  always  like 
the  German  long  i,  or  the  English  ee  in 
"beet,"  "meet,"  etc.,  except  when  in  the 
last  syllable  of  a  word,  when  it  is  pro- 
nounced separately.  Thus:  ten  is  given 
like  English  ee-en. 
If  the  student  will  always  remember  that 

«'  and  ie  never  interchange  their  respective 


sounds  in  any  case,  he  will  avoid  a  fer- 
tile source  of  perplexity  to  beginners  in 
German.  While  aeu  and  eu  represent  sounds 
slightly  different  from  the  English  oi  or 
oy,  the  equivalents  given  above  are  suf- 
ficiently close  for  practical  purposes. 

DOUBLE  CONSONANTS 

Since  the  proper  sounds  of  the  conso- 
nants have  already  been  given,  it  remains 
only  to  note  a  few  sounds  proper  to  Ger- 
man in  consonant  combinations. 

CH  is  a  sound  peculiar  to  German,  and 
without  a  close  correspondent  in  English. 
The  sound  is  either  palatal,  with  the  vowel 
i,  or  guttural,  with  the  vowel  a.  The  pala- 
tal sound,  as  in  the  first  personal  pronoun, 
ich,  is  given  by  some  foreigners  as  "ik," 
by  others  as  "ish."  The  true  sound  is  be- 
tween the  two.  To  identify  it,  the  student 
should  pronounce  the  sound  "ik"  several 
times,  until  the  position  of  the  vocal  or- 
gans, particularly  the  tongue  and  lips,  is 
thoroughly  understood.  Then,  let  him  try 
to  say  "ish"  without  altering  the  position 
of  the  lips  at  all,  or  of  the  tongue  any  more 
than  possible.  The  result  is  short  i  fol- 
lowed by  a  rough  breathing  resembling  the 
sound  made  by  one  attempting  to  imitate 
the  "spitting"  of  a  cat.  The  sound  of 
guttural  ch  after  a  is  the  same  rough 
breathing  made  as  far  back  in  the  mouth 
as  possible  without  "gurgling"  in  the 
throat.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  compromise  be- 
tween hard  ch,  as  in  "much,"  and  "k." 
At  the  beginning  of  a  word,  ch  has  about 
the  sound  of  k.  Followed  by  s,  it  has  the 
sound  of  x. 

PF  has  the  sound  of  both  letters  made 
with  compressed  lips. 

TH  has  the  sound  of  /,  the  h  being  silent. 
It  is  never  given  like  the  English  th,  which 
is  a  sound  very  difficult  to  Germans. 

SCH  has  the  sound  of  sh,  as  in  the  En- 
glish words,  "ship,"  "sheep,"  etc. 

Tz  is  written  for  sz,  and  has  the  same 
sound  of  ts.  It  occurs  only  after  vowels. 

Such  consonantal  combinations  as  ck  and 
ph  have  the  same  values  as  in  English. 

In  consonant  combinations,  such  as  kn 
and  gn,  at  the  beginning  of  words  both  let- 
ters are  sounded  fully,  somewhat  as  if  a 
very  short  e  or  i  sound  were  between  them. 
Thus  the  word  knabe  is  pronounced 
"k'nahbeh,"  the  almost  imperceptible  vowel 
being  represented  by  the  apostrophe. 

DT  at  the  end  of  a  word  is  sounded  like 
tt  in  English. 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


101 


RULES   OF   ACCENT 

REGULAR  ACCENT. — The  accent  in  Ger- 
man words  regularly  falls  on  the  root- 
syllable,  or  that  syllable  which  gives  the 
meaning  to  the  word.  Thus,  we  have  lieb 
from  the  word  lieben,  "to  love,"  in  the  fol- 
lowing, always  taking  the  accent: 

Geliebt,  \erliebt,  LtV&ling,  lieblich,.  Lieb- 
lichkeit. 

VOCABULARY  OF  FAMILIAR  AND  USEFUL  WORDS 


IN  COMPOUND  NOUNS  and  adjectives  the 
accent  falls  on  the  first,  as  in  Regenschirm, 
Gasthaus,  Schaffskopf,  Friihstuck,  seekravk. 

IN  COMPOUND  PARTICLES  the  accent  falls 
on  the  second  member.  Thus :  damit,  davon, 
vielleicht. 

WORDS   BORROWED  FROM   OTHER  LANGUAGES, 

particularly  French,  take  the  accent  on  the 
last  syllable  as  in 


PRONUNCIATION.  —  In    the    following   vo- 
cabulary   the    pronunciation    of    words    is 
given,   as   far   as   possible,   in   the   English 
equivalent  sounds.    Where  these  do  not  ex- 
ist, as  in  the  modified  vowels,  a,  o,  it,  the 

Engltah 

the  winter 
the  summer 
weather 
the  winter 

German 

der  Winter 
das  Sommer- 
wetter 
das  Winter- 

Pronunciation 

dair  vinter 
dos  sommer- 
vetter 
dos  vinter 

vowels  are  given  in  italics;  so,  also,  with 
the  German  ch  sound.  Wherever  these  oc- 
cur, therefore,  the  student  may  learn  the 
proper    pronunciation     by    consulting    the 
foregoing  discussion  of  the  alphabet. 
In  the  case  of  long  sounds  of  a  and  o, 
the    combinations    "ah"    and    "oh"    are   al- 

weather 
the  wind 
the  rain 
the  storm 
the  hail 
the  frost 
the  snow 
the  ice 

wetter 
der  Wind 
der  Regen 
der  Sturm 
der  Hagel 
der  Frost 
der  Schnee 
das  Eis 

vetter 
dair  vint 
dair  regen 
dair  stoorm 
dair  hahgel 
dair  frosst 
dair  shnay 
dos  ice 

ways    given;    the    pronunciation   being   the 
same  as  in  the  English  interjections  spelled 
in  these  ways.    Long  i  sound,  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  German  diphthong  ei,  is  given 
as  y  or  as  *  followed  by  silent  e  after  a 

the  thunder 
the  morning 
the  day 
the  midday 
the  night 

der  Donner 
der  Morgen 
der  Tag 
der  Mittag 
die  Nacht 

dair  dohnner 
dair  morgen 
dair  tahg 
dair  mittahg 
dee  nacht 

consonant     Thus  :  ein  is  given  "ine." 

the  moon 

der  Mond 

dair  mohnt 

The   student    should    remember   that   the 

the  sun 

die  Sonne 

dee  sonneh 

final  e  in  German  words,  while  given  as  ay, 

the  star 

der  Stern 

dair  stairn 

pronounced    as    in    "hay,"    "may,"    etc.,    is 

the  light 

das  Licht 

dos  lie/it 

somewhat  shorter,  as  of  in  "bait." 

the  year 

das  Jahr 

dos  yahr 

THE  ARTICLE.  —  Since  every  German  noun 

has  a  gender,  whether  it  represent  natural 

THE  WORLD  AND  ITS 

ELEMENTS 

sex  or  not,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  stu- 

God 

Gott 

got 

dent  to  understand  the  significance  of  the 

the  Creator 

der  Schopfer 

dair  shopfer 

definite   article   placed  before   it.     The  ar- 

Nature 

die  Natur 

dee  natoor 

ticle  has  three  genders  —  masculine,  feminine, 

the  sky 

der  Himmel 

dair  himmel 

and   neuter.     Thus  : 

the  world 

die  Welt 

dee  velt 

Masculine              Feminine               Neuter 

the  air 

die  Luft 

dee  looft 

der  (dair)         die  (dee)        das  (dos) 

the  cloud 

die  Wolke 

dee  volkay 

Every  German  substantive  is  written  with 

3  Ccioitcil  letter. 

the  storm 
the  lightning 

das  Gewitter 
der  Blitz 

dos  gevitter 
dair  blitz 

the  rainbow 

der  Regen- 

dair  raygen- 

NOUNS  INDICATING  PARTS  OF  THE 

bogen 

bogen 

EARTH 

the  fog 

der  Nebel 

dair  naybel 

English                               German                          Pronunciation 

the  river 

der  Fluss 

dair  floos 

The  earth         die  Erde            dee  airday 

the  brook 

der  Bach 

dair  bach 

the  fire              das  Feuer         dos  foyer 

the  lake 

der  See 

dair  zay 

the  water          das  Wasser       dos  vosser 

the  sea 

das  Meer 

dos  mare 

the  rainwater   das  Regen-       dos  raygen- 

the  tide 

die  Fluth 

dee  floot 

wasser              vosser 

the  ebb 

die  Ebbe 

dee  ebbay 

the  stream        der  Strom         dair  strome 

the  shore 

das  Ufer 

dos  oofer 

the  sea               die  See              dee  say 

the  mountain 

der  Berg 

dair  bairg 

the  weather      das  Wetter        dos  vetter 

the  meadow 

die  Wiese 

dee  veesay 

the  summer      der  Sommer     dair  sommer 

the  forest 

der  Wald 

dair  vollt 

102 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


THE  HUMAN  BODY 

KofUU 

Gcraua 

Praiu>d*NMi 

MUb 

The  body 

Gfrm«n 

der  Korper 

PronuwUUoa 

dair  korper 

supper 

das  Abend- 
fa  rod 

dos  abent- 
brote 

the  skin 
the  face 

die  Haut 
das  Gesicht 

dee   hout 
dos  gesic/»t 

boiled  meat 

gekochtes 
Fleisch 

gekochtes 
flishe 

the  head 

der  Kopf 

dair  kopf 

roast  meat 

Braten 

brahten 

the  forehead 

die  Stirn 

dee  steern 

beef 

Rindsfleisch 

rinds  flishe 

the  tongue 
the  tooth 

die  Zunge 
der  Zahn 

dee  tsoong-ay 
dair  zaan 

roast-beef 
veal 

Rinderbraten 
Kalbfleisch 

rinderbrahten 
kalbflishe 

the  arm 
the  beard 
the  blood 

der  Arm 
der  Bart 
das  Blut 

dair  arm 
dair  bait 
dos  bloot 

calves-liver 
veal-cutlets 

Kalbsleber 
Kalbscotelet- 
ten 

kalbs-layber 
kalbs-cottelet- 

ten 

the  bosom 
the  breast 

/  j*lt  *»A.\ 

der  Busen 
die  Brust 

dair  boosen 
dee  broost 

mutton 
a  leg  of  mut- 

Hammelfleisch hamelflishe 
eine  Hammels-  inay  hamels- 

(.chest/ 

ton 

keule 

koylay 

the  eye 
the  ear 

das  Auge 
das  Ohr 

dos  owgay 
dos  ore 

pork 

Schweine- 
fleisch 

»»wj  •«•»./ 

shvinayflishe 

the  chin 

das  Kinn 

dos  kin 

ham 

Schinken 

shinken 

the  eyebrows 

die  Augen- 

dee  owgen- 

bacon 

Speck 

speck 

the  elbows 
the  fist 
the  finger 
the  flesh 

brauen 
der  Elbogen 
die  Faust 
der  Finger 
das  Fleisch 

browen 
dair  elbogen 
dee  fowst 
dair  fing-er 
dos  flysh 

a  sausage 
vegetables 
a  pie 
an   omelet 

eine  Wurst 
Gemiise 
eine  Pastete 
eine  Eier- 
kuchen 

inay  voorst 
gemwsay 
inay  pastatay 
inay  eyer- 
koocAen 

the  foot 

der  Fuss 

dair  foos 

cake 

Kuchen 

koocAen 

the  hair 
the  hand 

das  Haar 
die  Hand 

dos  har 
dee  hont 

cheese 

der  Kase 
Kipr 

casay 

<*vpr 

the  right 

die  rechte 

dee  rechtay 

eggs 
Hock 

J_»1C1 

Rheinwein 

cjrci 

rhinevine 

hand 
the  left 

Hand 
die  linke 

hont 
dee  linkay 

Port-wine 
Sherry 

Portwein 
Xereswein 

port  vine 
kseressvine 

hand 

Hand 

hont 

the  beer 

das  Bier 

dos  beer 

the  heart 
the  hip 
the  knee 
the  lip 
the  under- 

das  Herz 
die  Hufte 
das  Knie 
die  Lippe 
die  Unter- 

dos  hairtz 
dee  hwfte 
dos  k'nee 
dee  lippay 
dee  oonterlip- 

the  glass 
the  flask 
the  bread 
fresh  bread 
the  butter 

das  Glas 
die  Flasche 
das  Brod 
frisches  Brod 
die  Butter 

dos  glahs 
dee  flashay 
dos  brote 
frishes  brote 
dee  bootter 

lip 

the  upper- 
I'.r. 

lippe 
die  Ober- 

pay 
dee  oberlip- 

fresh  butter 
the  honey 

frische  Butter 
der  Honig 

frishay  bootter 
dair  honizh    . 

lip 
the  neck 
the  nose 

lippe 
der  Nacken 
die  Nase 

pay 
dair  nacken 
dee  nazay 

the  milk 
the  butter- 
milk 

die  Milch 
die  Butter- 
milch 

dee  milch 
dee  bootter- 

milc/i 

the  mouth 

der  Mund 

dair  moont 

lit  11  IV 

tVio  nil 

das  Oel 

dos  o\ 

the  stomach 
the  voice 
the  hearing 
the  sight 
the  taste 
the  feeling 
the  smell 
the  neck 
the  back 
the  leg 

der  Magen 
die  Stimme 
das  Gehor 
der  Sicht 
der  Geschmack 
das  Gefiihl 
der  Geruch 
der  Hals 
der  Rticken 
das  Bein 

dair  mahgen 
dee  stimmay 
dos  gehor 
dair  slcht 
dair  geshmack 
dos  gefwhl 
dair  gcrooch 
dair  hals 
dair  rucken 
dos  bine 

lll\_   vMl 

the  fish 
the  punch 
the  water 
the  salt 
the  pepper 
the  salad 
the  soup 
the  pudding 
the  coffee 
the  tea 

der  Fisch 
der  Punsch 
das  Wasser 
das  Salz 
der  Pfeffer 
der  Salat 
die  Suppe 
der  Pudding 
der  Kaffee 
der  Thee 

dair  fish 
dair  poonch 
dos  vosser 
dos  saltz 
dair  pfeffer 
dair  salat 
dee  sooppay 
dair  poodding 
dair  kaffay 
dair  tay 

the  chocolate 

die  Chokolade 

dee  chocolah- 

NUTRIMENTS 

day 

The  meal 

die  Mahlzeit 

dee  mahl-tsite 

the  lemonade 

die  Limonade 

dee  Hmonahday 

breakfast 

das  Friihstuck 

dos  fru-stuck 

dinner 

das  Mittag- 

dos  mittahg- 

EATING  UTENSILS 

essen 

essen 

The  eating 

das  Essen 

dos  essen 

the  refresh- 

die Erfrisch- 

dee  erfrisch- 

the  drinking 

das  Trinken 

dos  trinken 

ment 

um? 

oong 

the  tablecloth 

das  Tischtuch 

dos  tischtoor/i 

GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


103 


English 

German                           Pronunciation 

English 

German                           Pronunciation 

the  napkin 

die  Serviette     dee   serviettay 

the  stick 

der  Stock           dair  stohck 

the  plate 

der  Teller          dair  teller 

the  cravat 

die  Cravatte      dee  cravatay 

the  knife 

das  Messer        dos  messer 

the  cap 

die  Kappe         dee  kappay 

the  fork 

die  Gabel           dee  gahbel 

the  ring 

der  Ring           dair  ring 

the  spoon 

der  Loffel          dair  iMffel 

the  vinegar 

der  Essig           dair  essizh 

RELATIONS 

the  mustard 

der  Senf            dair  zenf 

the  cup 

die  Tasse          dee  tassay 

The  woman 

die  Frau            dee  frow 

the  dish 

die  Schiissel      dee  shwssel 

the  boy 

der  Knabe         dair  knahbay 

the  girl 

das  Madchen   dos  made/ten 

THE  DRESS 

the  child 

das  Kind            dos  kint 

The  clothes 
the  coat 
the  trousers 

die  Kleider        dee  klider 
der  Rock           dair  rohck 
die  Hosen         dee  hozen 

the  old  man 
the  parents 
the  father- 

der  Greis           dair  grice 
die  Eltern         dee  eltern 
der  Schwieger-dair  shveegayr- 

the  pocket 
the  buttons 

die  Tasche        dee  tashay 
die  Knopfe        dee  knopfay 

in-law 
the  mother- 

vater                  fater 
die  Schwieger-  dee  schvee- 

the  dressing- 
gown 

der  Schlafrock  dair  shla  frock 

in-law 
the  brother- 

mutter               gayrmootter 
der  Schwager   dair  shvahger 

*he  slippers 
the  drawers 

die  Pantoffeln  dee  pantofeln 
die  Unterhosendee  oonter- 
hosen 

in-law 
the  cousin 
the  marriage 

der  Vetter         dair  fetter 
die  Heirath       dee  hi-raht 

the  stockings 
the  shirt 
the  braces 

die  Strtimpfe    dee  strwmpfay 
das  Hemd          dos  hemt 
die  Hosen-        dee  hozen- 

the  wedding 
the  father 
the  grand- 

die Hochzeit     dee  hohc/ttzite 
der  Vater          dair  fater 
der  Grossvater  dair  grosfater 

the  waistcoat 
the  boot 

trager                trayger 
die  Weste          dee  ves,tay 
der  Stiefel         dair  steefel 

father 
the  stepfather 
the  fatherland 

der  Stiefvater   dair  steeffater 
das  Vaterland   dos  faterlont 

the  boot  jack 

der  Stiefel-        dair  steefel- 
knecht                knecht 

the  mother 
the  brother 

die  Mutter        dee  mootter 
der  Bruder        dair  brooder 

the  cap 
the  gloves 

die  Miitze          dee  mwtzay 
die  Hand-         dee  hont- 
schuhe               shooay 

the  sister 
the  uncle 
the  aunt 

die  Schwester  dee  shvester 
der  Onkel          dair  onkel 
die  Tante           dee  tantay 

the  handker- 
chief 

das  Taschen-    dos  tashen- 
tuch                   tooch 

the  nephew 
the  niece 

der  Neffe           dair  neffay 
die  Nichte         dee  nic&tay 

the  watch 

die  Uhr             dee  oor 

the  man 

der  Mann          dair  mon 

the  umbrella 

der  Regen-        dair  raygen- 
schirm               sheerm 

the  bride 
the  widow 

die  Braut           dee  browt 
die  Wittwe        dee  vitvay 

the  purse 
the  brush 
the  comb 

die  Borse           dee  borsay 
die  Biirste         dee  bwrstay 
der  Kamm         dair  komm 

the  widower 
the  guest 
the  neighbor 

der.Wittwer     dair  vitver 
der  Gast            dair  gast 
der  Nachbar     dair  nac/tbar 

the  apron 

die  Schiirze       dee  sh«rtzay 

the  friend 

der  Freund        der  froint 

the  fan 

der  Facher        dair  fac/rer 

the  dress 

das  Kleid          dos  klide 

TOWN  AND  COUNTRY,  HOUSE  AND 

the  petticoat 

der  Unterrock  dair  oonter- 

GARDEN 

rohck 

The  house 

das  Haus          dos  house 

the  stays 

der  Schniirleib  dair  shn«rlibe 

the  garden 

der  Garten        dair  garten 

the  veil 

der  Schleier      dair  shlier 

the  land 

das  Land           dos  lont 

the  powder 

•  der  Puder         dair  pooder 

the  market 

der  Markt         dair  markt 

the  soap 

die  Seife            dee  zifay 

the  street 

die  Strasse        dee  strassay 

the  tooth- 

das  Zahnpulverdos  tzonpool- 

the  church 

die  Kirche         dee  keerc/iay 

powder 

ver 

the  bank 

die  Bank            dee  bahnk 

the  jacket 

die  Jacke           dee  yackay 

the  theatre 

das  Theater,      dos  tayahter 

the  shoe 

der  Schuh         dair  shoe 

the  hospital 

das  Hospital     dos  hospital 

the  hat 

der  Hut             dair  hoot 

the  coffee- 

das Kaffee-        dos  kaffay- 

the  hairbrush 

die  Haarburste  dee  hahrtwrs- 

house 

haus                  house 

tay 

the  palace 

der  Palast         dair  palast 

the  frock 

der  Frack          dair  frak 

the  haven 

der  Hafen         dair  hafen 

(coat) 

(harbor) 

the  wool 

die  Wolle          dee  vollay 

the  door 

dieThiir           deetwr 

104 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


Knglkh 

G«nn*n 

Pronunciation 

Eoglbh 

6>rmu 

Proonnclcltoa 

the  bed 

das  Bett 

dos  bet 

the  weaver 

der  Weber 

dair  vayber 

the  mattress 

die  Matratze 

dee  matratzay 

the  king 

der  Konig 

dair  konizh 

the  oven 

der  Of  en 

dair  ofen 

the  prince 

der  Prinz 

dair  prints 

the  beerglass 

das  Bierglas 

dos  beerglahs 

the  baron 

der  Baron 

dair  baron 

the  wineglass 

das  Weinglas 

dos  vineglahs 

the  officer 

der  Officier 

dair  offitseer 

the  stool 

der  Stuhl 

dair  stool 

the  soldier 

der  Soldat 

dair  soldat 

(chair) 

the  pope 

der  Papst 

dair  papst 

the  field 

das  Feld 

dos   felt 

the  archbishop 

der  Erzbischof  dair  ertzbishoff 

the  dale 

das  Thai 

dos  tahl 

the  bishop 

der  Bischof 

dair  bishoff 

(valley) 

the  wood 

derWald 

dair   vahlt 

THE  QUADRUPEDS 

(forest) 

The  hound 

der  Hund 

dair  hoont 

the  bush 

der  Busch 

dair  boosh 

(dog) 

the  heath 

die  Haide 

dee  hiday 

the  cat 

die  Katze 

dee  katzay 

the  hill 

der  Hugel 

dair  liMgel 

the  rat 

die  Ratte 

dee  rattay 

the  corn 

das  Korn 

dos  korn 

the  mouse 

die  Maus 

dee  mouse 

the  straw 

das  Stroh 

dos  shtro 

the  swine 

das  Schwein 

dos  shvine 

(pig) 

THE  PROFESSIONS  AND  TRADE 

the  hare 

der  Hase 

dair  hahzay 

The  baker 

der  Backer 

dair  becker 

the  roe 

das  Reh 

dos  ray 

the  bookbinder  der  Buch- 

dair  booc/tbin- 

the  ox 

der  Ochse 

dair  ocksay 

binder 

der 

the  bull 

der  Bulle 

dair  boollay 

the  book 

das  Buch 

dos  booch 

the  cow 

die  Kuh 

dee  koo 

the  doctor 

der  Doktor 

dair  doktohr 

the  calf 

das  Kalb 

dos  kalb 

the  hat 

der  Hut 

dair  hoot 

the  sheep 

das  Schaf 

dos  shaf 

the  hatter 

der  Hut- 

dair  hoot- 

the  lamb 

das  Lamm 

dos  lorn 

macher 

mahc/ter 

the  fox 

der  Fuchs 

dair  fooks 

the  shoe 

der  Schuh 

dair  shoe 

the  wolf 

der  Wolf 

dair  volf 

the  shoemaker 

der  Schuh- 

dair  shoe- 

the  bear 

der  Bar 

dair  bear 

macher 

mahcher 

the  elephant 

der  Elephant 

dair  elefahnt 

the  beard 

der  Bart 

dair  bart 

the  camel 

das  Kameel 

dos  camale 

the  barber 

der  Barbier 

dair  barbeer 

the  horse 

das  Pferd 

dos  pfayrd 

the  glass 

das  Glas 

dos  glahs 

the  colt 

das  Fullen 

dos  feeyullen 

the  glazier 

der  Glaser 

dair  glahser 

the  donkey 

der  Esel 

dair  aysel 

the  nail 

der  Nagel 

dair  nahgel 

the  goat 

die  Ziege 

dee  tzeegay 

the  saddle 

der  Sattel 

dair  sattel 

the  dog 

der  Hund 

dair  hoont 

the  saddler 

der  Sattler 

dair  sattler 

the  pig 

das  Schwein 

dos  shvine 

the  mill 

die  Miihle. 

dee  mwlay 

the  miller 

der  Muller 

dair  muller 

BIRDS,  FISHES,  AND 

INSECTS 

the  master 

der  Meister 

dair  miceter 

The  swan 

der  Schwan 

dair  shvahn 

dancing 

tanzen 

tantzen 

the  falcon 

der  Falke 

dair  folkay 

the  dancing- 

der  Tanz- 

dair  tantz- 

the  goose 

die  Cans 

dee  gans 

master 

meister 

miceter 

the  stork 

der  Storch 

dair  starch 

the  post 

die  Post 

dee  post 

the  snipe 

die  Schnepfe 

dee  shnepfay 

the  post- 

der Post- 

dair  post- 

the  raven 

der  Rabe 

dair  rahbay 

master 

meister 

miceter 

the  lark 

die  Lerche 

dee  lerc/ray 

the  riding- 

der  Reitmeis- 

dair  ritemice- 

the  nightingale  die  Nachtigal 

dee  nac/itigal 

master 

ter 

ter 

the  cuckoo 

der  Kuckuck 

•  dair  kookook 

the  school 

die  Schule 

dee  shoolay 

the  swallow 

die  Schwalbe 

dee  shvolbay 

the  school- 

der Schul- 

dair  shool- 

the  finch 

der  Finke 

dair  finkay 

master 

meister 

miceter 

the  sparrow 

der  Sperling 

dair  Sperling 

the  smith 

der  Schmid 

dair  shmit 

the  fish 

der  Fisch 

dair  fish 

the  smithy 

die  Schmiede 

dee  shmeeday 

the  carp 

der  Karpfen 

dair  carpfen 

the  nail  smith 

der  Nagel  - 

dair  nagel- 

the  herring 

der  Hering 

dair  hering 

(nailmaker) 

schmid 

shmit 

the  eel 

der  Aal 

dair  ahl 

the  goldsmith 

der  Gold- 

dair  goltshmit 

the  frog 

der  Frosch 

dair  frosh 

schmid 

the  worm 

der  Wurm 

dair  voorm 

the  copper- 

der Kupfer- 

dair  koopfer- 

the  spider 

die  Spinne 

dee  spinnay 

smith 

schnaid 

shmdt 

the  oyster 

lie  Auster 

dee  Owster 

GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


105 


English                                German                           Pronunciation 

English                                German                           Pronunciation 

the  crab             der  Krebs          dair  kreps 

the  bronze         die  Bronze         dee  brontsay 

the  flea              der  Floh            dair  flo 

the  diamond      der  Diamant     dair  deeamont 

the  fly                die  Fliege          dee  fleegay 

the  pearl            die  Perle           dee  pairlay 

the  bee                die  Biene           dee  beenay 

the  coral             die  Koralle        dee  corallay 

the  wasp            die  Wespe         dee  vespay 

the  marble         der  Marmor      dair  marrnor 

the  snail             die  Schnecke    dee  shneckay 

the  gypsum        der  Gyps            dair  gips 

the  duck            die  Ente            dee  entay 

the  lime  (clay)  der  Lehm           dair  lame 

the  pigeon         die  Taube          dee  towbay 

the  chalk            der  Kalk           dair  calk 

the  cock             der  Hahn           dair  hahn 

the  coal              die  Kohle           die  coalay 

the  chicken        das  Hiihnchen  dos  hunchen 

the  earth            die  Erde             dee  airday 

the  eagle            der  Adler          dair  ahdler 

the  sand             der  Sand            dair  sont 

the  hawk            der  Habicht      dair  habicht 

the  stone           der  Stein            dair  stine 

the  pheasant     der  Fasan          dair  fahsan 

the  bat               die  Fleder-        dee  flayder- 

SHIPS  AND   SHIPPING 

maus          •        mouse 

The  ship            das  Schiff          dos  shiff 

the  partridge     das  Rebhuhn     dos  rebhoon 

the  boat             das  Boot            dos  boat 

the  peacock       der  Pfau            dair  pfow 

the  ship  of         das  Linien-       dos  leenee- 

the  lobster         der  Hummer     dair  hoommer 

the  line               schiff                  enshiff 

the  pike             der  Hecht          dair  hec/tt 

the  fisherboat    das  Fischer-      dos  fisherboat 

the  perch            der  Barsch        dair  barsh 

boot 

the  salmon        der  Lachs          dair  locks 

the  anchor         der  Anker         dair  onker 

the  trout            die  Forelle        dee  forellay 

the  deck             das  Deck            dos  deck 

the  snake           die  Schlange     dee  shlongay 

the  flag              die  Flagge         dee  flaggay 

the  ant                die  Ameise        dee  ah-my-say 

the  mast             der  Mast            dair  mast 

the  butterfly      der  Schmetter-  dair  shmetter- 

the  foremast      der  Vorder-      dair  forder- 

Kng                    ling 

mast                   mast 

the  sail               das  Segel           dos  saygel 

TRAVELLING 

the  strand          der  Strand         dair  strant 

The  voyage       die  Seereise       dee  zayreyzay 

the  rudder         das  Ruder         dos  rooder 

the  traveller      der  Reisende     dair  reyzenday 

the  net                das  Netz            dos  netz 

the  road             die  Land-          dee  lontstras- 

the  lading          die  Ladung       dee  ladung 

strasse               say 

(freight) 

the  railroad       die  Eisenbahn  dee  isenbahn 

the  freight        die  Fracht         dee  iracht 

the  station         die  Station        dee  statzione 

the  cliff              die  Klippe         dee  klippay 

the  train            der  Zug             dair  tzoog 

the  downs          die  Dunen         dee  dwnen 

the  engine         'die  Maschine    dee  masheenay 

the  haven          derHafen         dairhafen 

the  carriage      der  Wagen        dair  vahgen 

the  ground        der  Grund         dair  groont 

the  departure     die  Abreise        dee  ah-bry-say 

the  storm           der  Sturm         dair  stoorm 

the  arrival          die  Ankunft      dee  onkoonft 

the  fleet             die  Flotte          dee  flottay 

the  passport       der  Pass             dair  pass 

the  frigate         die  Fregatte      dee  fregatay 

the  inn  (hotel)  der  Gasthof       dair  gasthof 

the  landlord      der  Wirth          dair  veert 

OF  WRITING 

the  waiter          der  Kellner        dair  kelner 

The  paper         das  Papier         dos  papeer 

the  bill       •        die  Rechnung   dee  recAnoong 

the  writing-       das  Schreib-      dos  shribe- 

the  interpreter  der  Dolmet-      dair  dolmet- 

paper                  papier                papeer 

scher                  sher 

the  writing        die  Schrift         dee  shrift 

the  luggage       das  Gepack       dos  gepeck 

the  sheet            der  Bogen         dair  bogen 

the  trunk           der  Koffer         dair  coffer 

the  pen              die  Feder           dee  fayder 

the  carpet-bag  derReisesack    dair  rey-zay- 

the  steel  pen      die  Stahl-          dee  stahlfay- 

sock 

feder                  der 

the  penknife      das  Federmes-  dos  faydermes-^ 

MINERALS  AND  METALS,  ETC. 

ser                     ser 

The  gold            das  Gold            dos  golt 

the  inkstand     das  tintenfass    dos  tintenfoss 

the  silver           das  Silber          dos  silber 

the  ink              die  Tinte            deetintay 

the  copper         das  Kupfer        dos  koopfer 

the  pencil          der  Bleistift       dair  blystift 

the  iron             das  Eisen          dos  izen 

the  scissors       die  Scheere       dee  shayray 

the  tin                das  Zinn             dos  tstnn 

the  seal              das  Petschaft    dos  petshaft 

the  steel             der  Stahl            dair  stahl 

the  sealing-       der  Siegellack  dair  seegellack 

the  zinc             das  Zink            dos  tsink 

wax 

106 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


Koclbh 

Utrmtn 

PromuDcUllou 

Englbh 

Otmao 

ProouorUUon 

the  wafer 

die  Oblate 

dee  oblahtay 

spring 

Fruhling 

fowling 

the  ruler 

das  Lineal 

dos  leenayal 

summer 

Sommer 

sommer 

the  letter 

der  Brief 

dair  breef 

autumn 

Herbst 

hairbst 

the  note 

das  Billet 

dos  bilyet 

winter 

Winter 

vinter 

the  envelope 

das  Couvert 

dos  coovayrt 

January 

Januar 

yanooar 

the  date 

das  Datum 

dos  datoom 

February 

Februar 

febrooar 

the  direction 

die  Adress* 

dee  adressay 

March 

Marz 

marts 

April 

April 

apreel 

THE  SEA 

May 

Mai 

my 

The  Ocean 

der  Ocean 

dair  oatsayan 

June 

Juni 

yoonee 

the  Baltic 

die  Ostsee 

dee  ostsay 

July 

Juli 

yoolee 

the  North-Sea 

die  Nordsee 

dee  nordsay 

August 

August 

owgoost 

the  channel 

der  Kanal 

dair  canal 

September 

September 

September 

the  island 

die  Insel 

dee  insel 

October 

October 

October 

the  shore 

die  Kiiste 

dee  kwstay 

November 

November 

november 

the  waves 

die  Wellen 

dee  vellen 

December 

December 

detzember 

the  tide 

die  Fluth 

dee  floot 

the  days  of 

die  Wochen- 

dee  vocAentah- 

the  rock 

der  Pels 

dair  fels 

the  week 

tage 

gay 

the  beach 

die  Seekuste 

dee  saykMStay 

Sunday 

Sonntag 

sontahg 

the  navy 

die  Marine 

dee  mareenay 

Monday 

Montag 

monetahg 

the  vessel 

das  Schiff 

dos  shiff 

Tuesday 

Dienstag 

deenstahg 

the  steamer 

das  Dampf- 

dos  dampf- 

Wednesday 

Mittwoch 

mittvocA 

boot 

boat 

Thursday 

Donnerstag 

donnerstahg 

the  man-of- 

das  Kriegs- 

dos  kreegs- 

Friday 

Freitag 

fritahg 

war 

schiff 

shiff 

Saturday 

Sonnabend 

sonabent 

the  merchant 

der  Kauffah- 

dair  kowffah- 

a  holiday 

ein  Feiertag 

ine  firetahg 

vessel 

rer 

rer 

Christmas 

Weihnachten 

vine-ahc/»ten 

the  rudder 

das  Ruder 

dos  rooder 

Easter 

Ostern 

ostern 

the  rigging 

das  Takel- 

dos  tackle- 

Whitsuntide 

Pfingsten 

p'fingsten 

werk 

verk 

the  morning 

der  Morgen 

dair  morgen 

the  cabin 

die  Kajute 

dee  ka-ywtay 

noon 

Mittag 

mittahg 

the  stern 

das  Hintertheildos  hintertile 

the  afternoon 

der  Nachmit- 

dair  nachmit- 

the  bow 

der  Bug 

dair  boog 

tag 

tahg 

the  maintop 

der  Mastkorb 

dair  mastkorb 

the  evening 

der  Abend 

dair  ahbent 

the  oar 

das  Ruder 

dos  rooder 

the  night 

die  Nacht 

dee  nacAt 

the  rope 

das  Tau 

dos  tow 

midnight 

Mitternacht 

mitternacAt 

the  captain 

der  Kapitan 

dair  capitan 

sunrise 

Sonnenauf- 

sonnenowf- 

the  boatswain 

der  Boots- 

dair  boatsmon 

gang 

gong 

mann 

sunset 

Sonnenun- 

sonnenoonter- 

the  sailor 

der  Matrose 

dair  matrosay 

tergang 

gong 

the  cabin- 

der  Schiffs- 

dair  schiffs- 

boy 

junge 

yungay 

THE  TOWN 

the  pilot 

der  Lootse 

dair  loatsay 

The  city 

die  Stadt 

dee  stott 

the  light- 

der Leucht- 

dair  loycht- 

the  suburb 

die  Vorstadt 

dee  forstott 

house 

thurm 

toorm 

the  gates 

die  Thore 

dee  toray 

the  harbor 

der  Ha  fen 

dair  hafen 

the  edifice 

das  Gebaude 

dos  geboiday 

the  tower 

der  Thurm 

dair  toorm 

TIME  AND    SEASONS 

the  cathedral 

der  Dom 

dair  dome 

A  century 

ein  Jahrhun- 

ine  yar-hoon- 

the  church- 

der Kirchhof 

dair  keerchhof 

dert 

dert 

yard 

the  year 

das  Jahr 

dos  yar 

the  town  hall 

das  Rathhaus 

dos  rahthouse 

the  month 

der  Monat 

dair  nvonot 

the  arsenal 

das  Zeughaus 

dos  zoyghouse 

the  week 

die  Woche 

dee  voch&y 

the  mint 

die  Miinze 

dee  mwntzay 

the  day 

der  Tag 

dair  tahg 

the  custom- 

das Zollhaus 

dos  zollhouse 

the  hour 

die  Stunde 

dee  stoonday 

house 

the  minute 

die  Minute 

dee  minutay 

the  library 

die  Bibliothek 

dee  bibleeotake 

the  second 

die  Sekunde 

dee  secoonday 

the  university 

die  Universitat  dee  ooniversi- 

the  seasons 

die  Jahres- 

dee  yaresziten 

tate 

zeiten 

the  exchange 

die  Borse 

dee  borsay 

GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


107 


English 

German                           Pronunciation 

FRUITS,    TREES,    AND    FLOWERS 

the  prison 

das  Gefangnissdosgcfang-niss 

English       .                          German                           Pronunciation 

the  square 

der  Platz           dair  platz 

the  apple           der  Apfel           dair  opfel 

the  lane 

die  Gasse          deegassay 

the  apple-tree    der  Apfelbaum  dair  opfelbown 

the  bridge 

die  Briicke        dee  brwckay 

the  pear             die  Birne           dee  beernay 

the  monument 

das  Monument  dos  monoo- 

the  pear-tree     der  Birnbaum  dairbeern- 

ment 

bowm 

the  Mining- 

das  Speisehaus  dos  spysay- 

the  plum            die  Pflaume      dee  pflowmay 

room 

house 

the  plum-tree    der  Pflaumen-  dair  pflowmen- 

the  shop 

der  Laden         dair  lahden 

baum                 bowm 

the  cherry          die  Kirsche        dee  keershay 

THE  HOUSE 

the  chestnut      die  Kastanie      dee  kostonee 

The  bell 

die  Glocke         dee  glockay 

the  peach           der  Pnrsich       dair  pfeersic/z 

the  knocker 
to  open 

der  Klopf  er       dair  klopfer 
offnen                ofnen 

the  apricot         die  Apricose      dee  apreecosay 
the  orange         die  Apfelsine   dee  apfelseenay 

the  servant 
the  staircase 

die  Magd           dee  magt 
die  Treppe        dee  treppay 

the  lemon          die  Citrone        dee  citronay 
the  grape           die  Wein-          dee  vine-trow- 

the  room 

das  Zimmer       dos  tzimmer 

traube                bay 

the  drawing- 
room 

das  Putzzim-     dos  pootstzim- 
mer                   mer 

the  nut               die  Nuss            dee  nooss 
the  walnut        die  Wallnuss     dee  volnooss 

the  sitting- 
room 

das  Wohnzim-  dos  vohntzim- 
mer                    mer 

the  currant        die  Johannis-    dee  yohanis- 
beere                 bayray 

the  dining- 

das  Esszim-      dos  ess-tzim- 

the  gooseberry  die  Stachel-       dee  stachel- 

room 

mer                    mer 

beere                  bayray 

the  sleeping- 
room 

das  Schlafzim-  dos  shlaftzim- 
mer                    mer 

the  raspberry    die  Himbeere    dee  himbayray 
the  blackberry  die  Brombeere  dee  brombay- 

the  kitchen 

die  Kuche         dee  kuchay 

ray 

the  cellar 

der  Keller          dair  keeler 

the  strawberry  die  Erdbeere     dee  erdbayray 

the  window 

das  Fenster       dos  fenster 

the  oak               die  Eiche           dee  i-chay 

the  stove 

derOfen           dairohfen 

the  beech           die  Buche          dee  boochay 

the  chimney 

der  Kamin         dair  kameen 

the  poplar         die  Pappel         dee  pohpel 

the  looking- 
glass 

der  Spiegel        dair  speegel 

the  lime             die  Linde           dee  linday 
the  ash               die  Eshe            dee  eshay 

the  table 

der  Tisch           dair  tish 

the  fir                 die  Tanne          dee  tannay 

the  chair 

der  Stuhl           dair  stool 

the  willow         die  Weide          dee  vy-day 

the  armchair 

der  Armstuhl    dair  armstool 

the  rose              die  Rose             dee  roh-say 

the  carpet 
the  chest  of 

der  Teppich       dair  teppicA 
die  Kommode  dee  commoh- 

the  pink             die  Nelke           dee  nelkay 
the  tulip             die  Tulpe           dee  toolpay 

drawers 

day 

the  lily               die  Lilie             dee  leeleeay 

the  sofa 

der  Sopha         dair  sofa 

the  violet           das  Veilchen     dos  filecAen 

the  candlestick 

der  Leuchter     dair  loyc&ter 

the  lilac             der  Flieder        dair  fleeder 

the  candle 

das  Licht           dos  lic/tt 

the  lily  of  the    das  Maiblum-   dos  my-blttm- 

the  lamp 

die  Lampe         dee  lompay 

valley                 chen                    chen 

the  wick 

der  Docht          dair  docht 

the  oil 

das  Oel              dos  01 

COUNTRIES  AND  NATIONS 

to  light 

anziinden          anzwnden 

The  country      das  Land            dos  lont 

the  bed 

das  Bett             dos  bet 

the  native  land  das  Vaterland  dos  faterlont 

the  counter- 

die Bettdecke    dee  bettdeckay 

the  state             der  Staat           dair  staat 

pane 

the  empire         das  Reich          dos  riche 

the  sheets 

die  Bettucher    dee  bettwr  her 

the  kingdom      das  Konigreichdos  keunizh- 

the  pillow 

das  kopfkissen  dos  kopfkissen 

riche 

the  basin 

das  wasch-        dos  vashbecken 

Europe            •  Europa              Oyropa 

becken 

the  European    der  Europaer    dair  Oyropayer 

the  soap 

die  Seife            dee  si  fay 

America            Amerika            America 

the  towel 

<las  Handtuch  dos  hondtooch 

the  American    der  Ameri-        dair  Ameri- 

warm  water 

warmes  Was-    varmes  vasser 

kaner                  kahner 

ser 

Asia                   Asien                 Azi-en 

cold  water 

kaltes  Wasser  kaltes  vasser 

Africa                Afrika                Afrika 

hot  water 

heisses  Wasser  heyses  vasser 

the  East             Ostindien          Ostindeen 

to  wash 

waschen            vashen 

Indies 

108 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


EagUih                              Qcrauui                         Pronunciation 

Eo(llih 

O«rman                         Pronunciation 

the  West           Westindien       Vestindeen 

the  payment 

die  Bezahlung  dee  betzah- 

Indies 

loong 

the  United        die  Vereinigtendee  fair-ine- 

the  receipt 

die  Quittung     dee  quittoong 

States                Staaten           izhten  Stahten 

the  buyer 

der  Kaufer        dair  koyfer 

England            England            Eng-lont 

the  seller 

der  Verkauferdair  ferkoyfer 

the  English-      der  Englander  dair  Englander 

the  debtor 

der  Debitor       dair  daybeetor 

man 

the  creditor 

der  Creditor     dair  craydeetor 

Ireland              Irland                Eerlont 

the  Irishman     der  Irlander      dair  Eerlonder 

COMMON   ADJECTIVES 

Scotland            Schottland        Shotlont 

Small 

klein                  kline 

the  Scotchman  der  Schotte       dair  Shottay 

narrow 

enge                 engay 

France               Frankreich        Frankryc/» 

low 

niedrig              needrizh 

the  French-       der  Franzose    dair  Frantzo- 

beautiful 

schon                 shon 

man                                            say 

handsome 

hubsch              hwbsh 

Germany           Deutschland     Doytshlont 

ugly 

hasslich            Iwsslich 

the  German      der  Deutsche     dair  Doytshay 

bad 

schlecht            shlecAt  ' 

Holland             Holland            Hollont 

easy 

leicht                 lyc/tt 

the  Dutchman  der   Hollander  dair  Hollander 

heavy 

schwer             schvair 

Austria             Oesterreich       Osterrycfc 

soft 

weich                vych 

the  Austrian    der   Oester-      dairoster- 

true 

wahr                 vahr 

reicher               richer 

short 

kurz                  koorts 

Prussia              Preussen           Proyssen 

far 

weit                   vite 

the  Prussian     der  Preusse       dair  Proyssay 

sweet 

SUSS                             SMS 

Russia               Russland           Roosslont 

hollow 

hohl                  hole 

the  Russian      der  Russe          dair  Roossay 

blunt 

stumpf              stoompf 

Sweden             Schweden         Shvayden 

delicious 

kostlich             kostlich 

the  Swede        der  Schwede    dair  Shvayday 

disagreeable 

unangenehm    oonongenaym 

Denmark          Danemark         Danemark 

honest 

ehrlich              ayrlich 

the  Dane           der  Dane           dair  Daynay 

polite 

hoflich              hofiich 

Switzerland      die  Schweiz       die  Shvytz 

obliging 

gefallig             gefallizh 

the  Swiss           der  Schweizer  dair  Shvytzer 

kind 

giitig                 gutizh 

Spain                  Spanien             Spanyen 

prudent 

klug                   kloog 

the  Spaniard    der  Spanier       dair  Spaneeair 

stupid 

dumni               doom 

Greece               Griechenland    GreecAenlont 

ridiculous 

lacherlich         locherlicA 

the  Greek          der  Grieche       dair  Greec/tay 

reasonable 

verniinftig        fairnunftizh 

Turkey             die  Tiirkei       dee  Twrkye 

happy 

gliicklich           glucklic/t 

the  Turk           derTtirke         dair  Turkay 

unhappy 

ungliicklich       oonglwcklioA 

the  Jew              der  Jude          dair  Yooday 

glad 

froh                   fro 

the  Persian       der  Perser         dair  Perzer 

satisfied 

zufrieden          tsoofreeden 

active 

thatig               totizh 

TRADE 

rude 

grob                  grobe 

The  merchant  der  Kaufmann  dair  kowfman 

proud 

stoltz                 stolts 

the  merchan-     die  Waare         dee  vahray 

bold 

kiihn                  kwn 

disc 

strong 

stark                 stark 

the  wholesale    der  Gross-         dair  gross- 

weak 

schwach            shvach 

merchant           handler             handler 

attentive 

aufmerksam     owfmerksom 

the  retailer        der  Klein-         dair  kline- 

clever 

geschickt          geshickt 

handler              handler 

mild 

gelind                gelint 

the  correspon-  der  Correspon-dair  correspon- 

sick 

krank                kronk 

dent                   dent                   dent 

pale 

blass                 bloss 

the  stock           das  Lager          dos  lahger 

healthy 

gesund              gezoont 

the  daybook      das  Journal       dos  yoornol 

poor 

arm                    arm 

the  ledger          das  Hauptbuch  dos  howpt- 

empty 

leer                   lare 

booch 

light 

hell                   hell 

the  invoice        die  Factur         dee  factoor 

dark 

dunkel               doonkel 

the  bill  of          der  Wechsel      dair  vecJtsel 

dry 

trocken             trocken 

exchange 

wet 

nass                   noss 

the  remittance  die  Rimesse       dee  rimessay 

dirty 

schmutzig         shmootsizh 

the  acceptance  das  Accept        dos  accept 

cheap 

billig                 billizh 

GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


109 


English 

German 

Pronunciation 

English 

German 

Pronunciation 

clean 

rein 

rine 

to  break 

brechen 

brec/ten 

tired 

miide 

mwday 

to  bite 

fbeissen 

bisen 

angry 

bose 

bosay 

to  cost 

kosten 

costen 

merry 

lustig 

loostizh 

to  hear 

horen 

horen 

old 

alt 

olt 

to  help 

helfen 

helfen 

young 

jung 

yoong 

to  give 

geben- 

gayben 

new 

neu 

noi 

to  make  (do) 

machen 

mahc/zen 

great 

gross 

gross 

to  do 

thun 

toon 

good 

gut 

goot 

to  ride 

reiten 

riten 

rich 

reich 

ric/te 

to  say 

sagen 

zahgen 

cold 

kalt 

kolt 

to  send 

senden 

zenden 

warm 

warm 

varm 

to  seek 

suchen 

zoochen 

long 

lang 

lang 

to  breakfast 

fruhstiicken 

frwstMcken 

high 

hoch 

hoch 

to  dine 

speisen 

spyzen 

full 

voll 

fol 

to  arrive 

ankommen 

ankohmmen 

cool 

kiihl 

kwl 

to  depart 

abreisen 

obryzen 

near 

nahe 

nah-ay 

to  meet 

treffen 

treffen 

hard 

hart 

hart 

to  excuse 

entschuldigen 

entshooldigen 

light 

leicht 

lic/tt 

to  understand 

verstehen 

fairstayen 

wild 

wild 

vilt 

to  believe 

glauben 

glowben 

fat 

fett 

fett 

to  know 

wissen 

vissen 

fine 

fein 

fine 

to  write 

schreiben 

shriben 

mild 

mild 

milt 

to  read 

lesen 

layzen 

deep 

tief 

teef 

to  pronounce 

aussprechen 

owssprecAen 

fresh 

frisch 

frish 

to  translate 

iibersetzen 

ttbersetzen 

ripe 

reif 

rife 

to  recollect 

sich  errinnern 

sich  erinnern 

unripe 

unreif 

oonrife 

to  forget 

vergessen 

fairgessen     . 

bitter 

bitter 

bitter 

to  promise 

versprechen 

fairspraic/ien 

small 

schmal 

shmahl 

to  expect 

erwarten 

airvahrten 

wide 

weit 

vite 

to  converse 

unterhalten 

oonterhalten 

open 

offen 

offen 

to  express 

ausdriicken 

owsdrMcken 

loud 

laut 

lout 

to  explain 

erklaren 

airklayren 

right 

recht 

recht 

to  tell 

sagen 

zahgen 

wise 

weise 

visay 

to  call 

rufen 

roof  en 

blind 

blind 

blint 

to  weep 

weinen 

vi-nen 

unwell 

unwohl 

oonvole 

to  recommend 

empfehlen 

empfaylen 

hot 

heiss 

hise 

to  receive 

empfangen 

«mpfangen 

thick 

•  dick 

dick 

to  send 

schicken 

shicken 

neat 

nett 

net 

to  buy 

kaufen 

kowfen 

thin 

diinn 

d«n 

to  pay 

bezahlen 

baytsahlen 

broad 

breit 

brite 

to  order 

bestellen 

baystellen 

round 

rund 

roond 

to  furnish 

liefern 

leefern 

false 

falsch 

falsh 

to  sell 

verkaufen 

fairkowfen 

sour 

sauer 

sour 

to  reply 

antworten 

ontvorten 

sharp 

scharf 

sharf 

flat 

flach 

fiach 

COMMON  ADVERBS 

COMMON 

VERBS 

Yes                | 

ja 
ja  wohl 

yah 
yah  vole 

To  eat 

essen 

essen 

indeed 

in  der  That 

in  dair  tot 

to  drink 

trinken 

trinken 

truly 

wahrlich 

vahrlich 

to  dream 

traumen 

troymen 

certainly 

gewiss 

gayviss 

to  wash 

waschen 

voshen 

surely 

sicherlich 

zicherlich 

to  comb 

kammen 

kemmen 

only 

nur 

noor 

to  go 

gehen 

gayen 

some 

etwas 

etvos 

to  speak 

sprechen 

spraic/ten 

nothing 

nichts 

nichts 

to  laugh 

lachen 

lahc/zen 

much 

viel 

feel 

to  think 

denken 

denken 

quite 

ganzlich 

gantzlich 

to  learn 

lernen 

lernen 

very 

sehr 

zare 

to  bathe 

baden 

bahden 

so 

SO 

zo 

110 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


*wu* 

Gwn*n 

Pronoodatka 

Engltah 

German 

PmamliMiii 

thus 

also 

alzo 

never 

rue 

nee 

how? 

wie? 

vee? 

oft 

oft 

oft 

no 

nein 

nine 

already 

schon 

schone 

not 

nicht 

nicht 

to-day 

heute 

hoytay 

but 

nur 

noor 

yesterday 

gestern 

gestern 

enough 

genug 

genooch 

late 

spat 

spate 

scarcely 

kaum 

kowm 

why? 

warum  ? 

varoom  ? 

all 

ganz 

gonts 

because 

weil 

vile 

almost 

beinahe 

by-nah-ay 

if 

wenn 

ven 

here 

hier 

here 

perhaps 

vielleicht 

feelyc/tt 

there 

da 

da 

where 

wo 

vo 

COMMON    CONJUNCTIONS 

in 

herein 

herine 

And 

und 

oont 

out 

heraus 

herowse 

also 

auch 

owch 

then 

denn 

den 

even 

sogar 

sogar 

now 

jetzt 

yetst 

or 

oder 

oder 

soon 

bald 

ballt 

nor 

noch 

noch 

till 

bis 

bis 

yet 

doch 

doch 

seldom 

selten 

zelten 

because 

weil 

vile 

since 

seit 

zite 

that 

dass 

doss 

ever 

immer 

immer 

therefore 

daher 

dahair 

ELEMENTS    OF. GERMAN    GRAMMAR 


DECLENSIONS 

There  are  four  cases  in  the  declension 
of  German  nouns,  articles,  adjectives,  and 
pronouns :  the  nominative,  used  to  indi- 
cate the  subject  of  a  verb,  or  the  name 
of  a  person  or  thing  addressed;  the  geni- 
tive, used  to  indicate  possession ;  the  da- 
tive, used  to  indicate  an  indirect  object, 
or  the  thing  on,  to,  or  for  which  an  action 
is  performed;  the  accusative,  used  to  in- 
dicate the  direct  object,  or  the  thing  modi- 
fied by  the  action  expressed  in  the  verb. 
The  three  oblique  cases,  genitive,  dative, 
and  accusative,  may  also  be  governed  by 
prepositions,  like  the  English  objective 
case.  Particular  prepositions  belong  with 
each  case,  according  to  meaning;  and 
these,  together  with  the  cases  they  govern, 
should  be  carefully  committed  to  memory 
by  the  student. 

PREPOSITIONS  WITH  CASES 
The  prepositions  governing  the  dative 
signify,  in  general,  states  of  rest  at,  by,  in, 
near,  with,  or  opposite  to  the  object,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  aus,  indicating  mo- 
tion from,  are  most  often  used  to  express 
such  an  idea,  literally  or  figuratively.  All, 
except  10,  14,  15,  16,  are  placed  before 
their  nouns,  and  10  may  either  precede  or 
follow. 

1.  aus,  out  of 

2.  ausser,  out  of,  besides 

3.  bei,  at,  near,  with 


4.  binnen,  within 
,    5.  mit,  with,  together  with 

6.  nach,  to,  after,  according  to 

7.  seit,  since 

8.  von,  of,  from,  by 

9.  zu,  to,  at 

10.  gemass,  according  to 

11.  na.ch.st,  next  to 

12.  nebst,  together  with 

13.  sammt,  together  with 

14.  entgegen,  against,  contrary  to 

15.  gegeniiber,  opposite  to 

16.  zuwider,  contrary  to 

The  prepositions  governing  the  accusa- 
tive indicate  motion,  generally  to  or  toward 
the  object.  All  of  them  precede  their  nouns. 

1.  bis,  as  far  as,  till 

2.  durch,  through,  by 

3.  fur,  for 

4.  gegen,  toward,  to,  against 

5.  ohne,  without,  but  for 

6.  um,  about,  round,  at 

7.  wider,  against 

The  prepositions  governing  the  genitive 
may,  with  four  exceptions,  be  literally  trans- 
lated into  English  expressions  ending  in 
"of."  All  of  them  precede  their  nouns,  ex- 
cept 4,  13,  15,  18.  The  two  latter  of  these 
follow  and  are  compounded  with  their 
nouns,  while  13,  being  two  words,  takes  the 
noun  between. 

1.  anstatt,  or  statt,  instead  of 

2.  diesseit,  on  this  side 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


111 


3.  jenseit,  on  that  side 

4.  halben,  or  halber,  on  account  of 

5.  ausserhalb,  on  the  outside 

6.  innerhalb,  within 

7.  oberhalb,  above 

8.  unterhalb,  below 

g.  kraft,  by  -virtue  of 

10.  entlang,  along 

11.  laut,  according  to 

12.  mittelst,  vermittelst,  by  means  of 

13.  urn — willen,  for  sake  of 

14.  unfern,  unweit,  not  far  from 

15.  ungeachtet,  notwithstanding 

16.  vermoge,  by  dint  of 

17.  wahrend,  during 

18.  wegen,  on  account  of 

Nine  prepositions  take  either  dative  or  ac- 
cusative, according  as  the  place  in  which  or 
the  place  to  which  is  indicated.  They  are: 

1.  an,  at,  on,  close  to,  to 

2.  auf,  on,  upon 

3.  hinter,  behind 

4.  in,  in,  into,  to. 

5.  neben,  near,  beside 

6.  iiber,  over,  across,  concerning 

7.  unter,  under,  among 

8.  vor,  before,  ago,  because  of 

9.  zwischen,  between 

Three  prepositions  take  either  the  geni- 
tive or  the  dative: 

1.  langs,  along 

2.  trotz,  in  spite  of 

3.  zufolge,  according  to 

Although  a  number  of  these  words  are 
rarely  used,  the  student  should  be  familiar 
with  their  meaning  and  use,  in  order  to 
avoid  errors  liable  to  occur  at  a  later  stage 
in  his  studies. 

INFLECTION 

The  nouns,  articles,  pronouns,  and  adjec- 
tives in  German  are  regularly  inflected, 
which  is  to  say,  their  terminations  are 
changed  according  to  case  and  number.  In 
English  the  only  signs  of  inflection  are 
found  in  the  addition  of  's  to  the  root  of 
nouns  to  indicate  the  possessive  (genitive) 
case  and  of  ^  or  es,  regularly,  to  indicate 
the  plural  number:  the  personal  pronouns 
alone  retain  the  regular  inflection  formerly 
found  in  both  nouns  and  adjectives. 

In  German  the  regular  terminations  for 
the  articles,  pronouns,  and  strong  declension 
of  adjectives  are  s  for  the  genitive  mascu- 
line, m  for  the  dative,  and  n  for  the  accusa- 
tive. With  nouns  the  regular  terminations 
are  ^  or  es  for  the  genitive,  and  e  for  the 
dative.  Plurals  are  regularly  formed  by  the 


addition  of  e,  en  or  er,  with  terminal  n  or 
en  always  in  the  dative.  Variations  in  these 
matters  form  the  basis  for  separating  nouns 
into  five  regular  classes  of  declension,  as 
will  be  presently  explained.  In  order  to 
proceed  logically,  the  declension  of  articles 
will  first  be  noticed. 

THE  ARTICLES 

In  German,  as  in  English,  there  are  two 
articles — properly  to  be  classed  as  adjectives 
— the  definite  and  the  indefinite.  The  for- 
mer is  declined  as  follows : 

/ SINGULAR >  PLURAL 

Masc.       Fern.       Neuter  M.  F.  N. 

N.  der       die     das  die,  the 

G.  des       der    des  der,  of  the 

D.  dem     der    dem  den,  to,  for,  at  the 

A.  den      die    das  die,  the 

The  indefinite  article,  as  in  French,  is 
simply  the  numeral,  "one,"  inflected  through 
genders  and  cases,  but  without  a  plural. 
Thus: 


Masc.  Fern. 

N.  ein  eine 

G.  eines  einer 

D.  einem  einer 

A.  einen  eine 


Neuter 
ein,  a 
eines,  of  a 
einem,  to,  for,  at  a 
ein,  a 


The  student  will  notice  that  the  neuter 
form  of  both  articles  is  the  same  as  the 
masculine  in  the  genitive  and  dative  cases, 
but  has  its  accusative  like  its  nominative. 
This  peculiarity  characterizes  the  declension 
of  all  neuter  adjectives  and  nouns,  as  will 
be  seen  later. 

PRONOMINAL   ADJECTIVES 

After  the  inflection  of  the  articles,  that  of 
the  possessive  and  demonstrative  adjectives 
(sometimes    called    pronominal  -adjectives) 
follows  logically.     Among  these, 
mein,  meine,  mein,  my ; 
dein,  deine,  dein,  thy; 
sein,  seine,  sein,  his; 
kein,   keine,   kein,   no; 
follow  exactly  the  declension  of  the  indefi- 
nite article.     Precisely  on  the  same  model 
follow  the  other  possessives : 

unser,  unsere,  unser,  our; 
Ihr,  Ihre,  Ihr,  your; 
euer,  euere,  euer,  your; 
ihr,  ihre,  ihr,  her,  their. 

This  declension  is  as  follows : 

Masc.  .    Fern.  Neut.  Plur. 

N.  unser  unsere       unser  unsere 

G.  unseres         unserer     unseres  unserer 

D.  unserem       unserer     unserem  unseren 

A.  unseren  .     unsere      unser  unsere 


112 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


The  demonstrative  and  determinative  ad- 
jectives, 

dicser,  diese,  dieses,  this; 
jener,  jene,  jenes,  that; 
keiner,  keine,  keincs,  no; 
mancher,  manche,  manches,  many  a; 
jeder,  jede,  jedes,  every,  each, 
are  declined  according  to  this  model: 

Masc.  Fern.  Neut.         Plur. 

N.  dicser      diese          dieses       diese 
G.  dieses       dieser         dieses       dieser 
D.  diesetn     dieser         diesem      diesen 
A.  diesen      diese          dieses       diese 

Since  none  of  these  adjectives  is  used 
with  an  article,  their  case  terminations  are 
always  the  same.  With  the  adjective, 

solcher,  sole  he,  solches,  such, 
however,  the  case  endings  are  like  the  above 
model,  when  used  without  ein;  like  all  other 
adjectives  after  ein,  as  will  be  subsequently 
explained.  When  solch  is  used  before  ein, 
as  in  "such  a  house,"  solch  ein  Haus,  case 
endings  are  omitted. 

Two  adjectives  have  a  plural  form  only, 
like  the  above  paradigm.  They  are  beide, 
both,  and  alle,  all. 

THE   DECLENSIONS    OF   NOUNS 

In  the  matter  of  inflection  in  the  oblique 
cases  and  in  the  formation  of  the  plural, 
nouns  present  very  many  variations  and  sev- 
eral great  departures  from  regular  construc- 
tions. The  subject  seems  complicated  at 
first  sight,  but  a  very  little  attention  to  the 
following  classes  of  declension  will  give  the 
student  a  ready  clew  to  proper  usage.  There 
are  several  schemes  of  classification  in  use 
among  grammarians — such  as  the  division 
into  "strong"  and  "weak"  declensions,  after 
the  analogy  of  adjectives — but  altogether  the 
least  confusing  classification  is  to  separate 
the  five  classes  or  declensions,  as  follows: 

THE  FIRST  CLASS  on  DECLENSION  includes 
all  masculine  and  neuter  nouns  ending  in 
el,  en,  er,  chen,  and  lein.  With  these  the 
terminations  are  the  same  in  the  plural — 
except  in  the  dative,  which  takes  n,  when  it 
is  not  found  already  in  the  nominative  of 
nouns  in  en — and  very  many,  although  not 
all,  modify  the  leading  vowel,  when  possible. 
The  regular  ending  for  the  genitive  singu- 
lar is  s.  A  few  samples  are  as  follows: 


Sing. 

N.  der  Voter 
G.  des   Voters 
D.  dem   Voter 
A.  den  Voter 


FATHER  (M) 

Plur. 

N.  die   Voter 
G.  der  Voter 
D.  den   V Stern 
A.  die  Voter 


Sing. 

N.  der  Adler 
G.  des  Adler  s 
D.  dem  Adler 
A.  den  Adler 


EAGLE  (M) 

Plnr. 

N.  die  Adler 
G.  der  Adler 
D.  den  Adler* 
A.  die  Adler 


APPLE  (M) 

Sing.  Plur. 

N.  der  Apfel  N.  die  Aepfel 

G.  des  Apfels  G.  der  Aepfel 

D.  dem  Apfel  D.  den   Aepfeln 

A.  den  Apfel  A,  die  Aepfel 

GIRL  (N) 

Sing.  Plor. 

N.  das   Mddchen         N.  die  Mddchen 
G.  des   Mddchens        G.  der  Mddchen 
D.  dem   Mddchen        D.  den   Mddchen 
A.  das  Mddchen          A.  die  Mddchen 

Among  the  nouns  that  do  not  modify  in 
the  plural  we  may  mention : 

Adler,  eagle;  Kuchen,  cake; 
Maler,  painter;  Tropfen,  drop; 
Amerikaner,    American. 

Several  nouns  in  en  that  do  not  modify 
in  the  plural  are  more  generally  used  m 
the  singular  with  the  termination  e.  They 
are: 

Samen,  seed;   Glauben,  faith; 

Funken,  spark ;  Haufen,  heap ; 

Gedanken,   thought ;   Frieden,  peace ; 

Willen,  will ;  Namen,  name. 

Felsen,  rock,  is  often  simply  Pels. 

Seven  nouns  of  this  class  depart  from 
the  regular  rule  by  adding  n  in  the  plural, 
without  modifying  the  vowel.  They  are: 

Bauer,    peasant ;    Baier,    Bavarian ; 

Gevatter,  godfather;  Muskel,  muscle; 

Panto ff el,   slipper;   Stachel,   sting; 

Vetter,  cousin. 

THE     SECOND     CLASS     OR     DECLENSION     of 

nouns    includes : 

(i.)  All  one-syllable  masculine  nouns,  ex- 
cept the  seven  mentioned  in  the  third  de- 
clension, and  a  few  following  the  fourth 
declension; 

(2.)  All  masculine  nouns  ending  in  at, 
ich,  ig,  and  ling; 

(3.)  Most  masculine  nouns  of  foreign  ori- 
gin ending  in  al,  an,  ar,  ast,  ier; 

(4.)  One-syllable  masculine  nouns  com- 
pounded with  a  prepositional  prefix,  or  with 
another  noun. 

All  such  nouns  take  the  ending  e  in  the 
nominative,  genitive,  and  accusative  plural, 
en  in  the  dative  plural,  and,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, modify  the  vowel. 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


113 


The  genitive  singular  is  regularly  formed 
with  the  ending  s  or  es,  and  the  dative  with 
e.  A  few  exceptions  in  these  cases  will  also 
be  noted. 

A  few  nouns  regularly  inflected  accord- 
ing to  this  declension  are  as  follows: 

SON  TREASURE     KING  PALACE 

Singular 

N.  der  Sohn        Schats     Konig  Palast 

G.  des  Sohnes   Schatzes  Konigs  Palastes 

D.  dem  Sohne  Schatze    Konig  Palast 

A.  den  Sohn      Schats     Konig  Palast 

Plural 

N.  die  Sohne    Schatze    Konige     Palaste 
G.  der   Sohne    Schatze    Konige     Palaste 
D.  den  Sohnen  Sch'dtzen  Kdnigen  Paldsten 
A.  die  Sohne     Schatze    Konige     Paldsten 

The  use  of  s  or  of  es  in  the  genitive  sin- 
gular is  largely  determined  by  euphony,  as 
is  also  that  of  e  in  the  dative.  As  shown 
by  the  last  two  nouns  in  the  above  para- 
digms, the  final  e  in  the  dative  singular  is 
often  omitted. 

Eleven  one-syllable  masculine  nouns 
form  their  oblique  cases  and  plurals  by 
the  addition  of  en,  without  modifying  the 
vowel,  as  in  the  third  declension.  They 
represent  either  words  formerly  ending 
with  e,  or  else  simple  irregularities  due  to 
usage.  Thus : 


Singular 

der  Bar,   the  bear; 

Fleck,  the  spot; 

Fiirst,   the   prince; 
1    Graf,  the  count; 
"    Held,   the   hero; 
'    Herr,  the  lord; 

Mensch,  the  man; 
[    Narr,  the  fool ; 

Pfau,  the  peacock; 
'     Prins,  the  prince; 
"     Thor,  the   simpleton; 


Plural 
die  Baren 
'    Flecken 
"    Fursten 
"    Graf  en 
"    Helden 
1    Herren 
"    Menschen 
'    Narren 
"    Pfauen 
Prinzen 
"     Thoren 


The  word,  Herr,  forms  the  singular 
oblique  cases  Herrn,  and  the  plural,  Herren. 

Six  words  of  this  declension  take  en  in 
the  plural  cases  and  do  not  modify.  They 
are: 

Der  Staat,  the  state ;  der  Strahl,  the  beam ; 
der  Schmerz,  the  pain;  der  Sporn,  the 
spur;  der  Dorn,  the  thorn;  der  See,  the 
lake. 

Several  nouns  that  logically  belong  in  this 
class  form  their  plural  with  final  er  and 
vowel  modification,  after  the  rule  of  the 
fourth  declension.  Thus: 


MAN  (M)          ERROR  (M)          SPIRIT  (M) 

Singular 

N.  der  Mann  der  Irrtum  der  Geist 

G.  des  Mannes  des  Irrtums  des  Geistes 

D.  dem  Manne  dem  Irrtum  dem  Geiste 

A.  den  Mann  den  Irrtum  den  Gfist 

Plural 

N.  die  Manner    die  Irrtiimer     die  Geister 
G.  der  Manner    der  Irrtiimer    der  Geister 
D.  den  Mdnnern  den  Irrtiimern  den  Geister n 
A.  die  Manner     die  Irrtiimer     die  Geister 

THE  THIRD  CLASS  OR  DECLENSION  of  nouns 
includes : 

(l.)  All  masculine  nouns  ending  in  e; 

(2.)  The  few  monosyllabic  nouns  already 
noted ; 

(3.)  Masculine  nouns  of  foreign  origin — 
other  than  those  noted  in  the  last  class — 
which  take  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable; 

(4.)  Several  irregular  nouns  not  accented 
on  the  last  syllable,  but  forming  their  plurals 
as  in  this  class. 

This  class  is  sometimes  called  the  "weak 
declension"  from  the  fact  that  all  cases, 
except  the  nominative  singular,  regularly 
take  final  n  or  en. 

The  root  vowels  are  not  modified  in  the 
plural.  Thus : 


BOY 


SOLDIER 


STUDENT 
Singular 

N.  der  Knabe     der  Student'       jer  Soldat 
G.  des  Knaben   des  Student  en  des  Soldaten 
D.  dem  Knaben  dem  Student' en  dem  Soldaten 
A.  den  Knaben  den  Student' en  den  Soldaten 

Plural 

N.  die  Knaben    die  Student' en  die  Soldaten 

G.  der  Knaben    der  Student' en  der  Soldaten 

D.  den  Knaben  den  Student' en  den  Soldaten 

A.  die  Knaben    die  Student' en  die  Soldaten 

Several  one-syllable  masculine  nouns,  as 
given  under  the  second  declension,  are  in- 
flected like  nouns  of  this  class.  Several 
others,  as  given  under  the  first  declension, 
have  the  nominative  singular  either  in  e  or 
en,  and  apparently  follow  this  class  in  add- 
ing n  to  all  other  cases,  except  the  genitive 
singular,  which  has  ns.  Seven  nouns  prop- 
erly in  the  first  declension,  according  to  the 
termination  of  the  nominative  singular  take 
n  in  the  plural  cases,  as  already  noted. 
Words  of  Latin  origin  ending  in  or  form 
the  plural  by  adding  en.  Also,  der  Nachbar, 
the  neighbor,  takes  n  in  the  plural  cases, 
although  forming  the  singular  like  nouns  of 
the  first  declension.  Finally,  some  neuter 


114 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


nouns,  properly  belonging  in  the  fourth  de- 

out modifying.     Those  ending  in  the  femi- 

clension, form  their  plurals  in  n. 

nine  termination   in  add   nen  to   form  the 

Specimen  paradigms  of  several  of  these 

plurals.     Thus  : 

exceptions  are  as  follows: 

HANI)  (F)          FEATHEE  (?)          QUEEN  (p) 

NAME  (M)             DOCTOR  (if)              EYE  (N) 

Singular 

Singular 

N.  der  Name        der  Doctor        das  Auge 
G.desNamens     des  Doctors       des  Auges 
D.  dem  Namen     dem  Doctor       dent  Auge 
A.,  den  N  amen      den  Doctor        das  Auge 

N.  die  Hand       die  Feder            die  Kdnigin 
G.  der  Hand       der  Feder           der  -Konigin 
D.  der  Hand       der  Feder           der  Kdnigin 
A.  die  Hand       die  Feder            die  Kdnigin 

Plural 

Plural 

N.  die  Namen      die  Doctoren     die  Augen 
G.  der  Namen      der  Doctoren     der  Augen 
D.  den  Namen      den  Doctoren    den  Augen 
A.  die  Namen       die  Doctoren     die  Augen 

N.  die  Hande      die  Federn     die  Kdniginnen 
G.  der  Hande      der  Federn    der  Kdniginnen 
D.  den  Hdnden  den  Federn   den  Kdniginnen 
A.  die  Hande     die  Federn    die  Kdniginnen 

The   exceptions   in   this   declension   must 

THE     FOURTH     CLASS     OR     DECLENSION     of 

be  carefully  noted,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 

nouns  includes: 

committed  to  memory.    Thus  : 

(i.)  All  neuter  nouns  not  found  in  the 
first  class  ; 

(i.)    All   feminine  nouns   ending  in  niss 

(2.)   A  few  masculine  nouns,  as  already 

and  one  in  sal  take  e  in  the  plural. 

explained  under  the  second  declension. 

Die  Kenntniss,  knowledge;  die  Kenntnisse. 

The  regular  inflection  of  this  class  gives 

Die  Trubsal,  sorrow;  die  Triibsale. 

es  in  the  genitive  and  e  in  the  dative  sin- 

gular. 

(2.)  Two  common  feminine  nouns  ending 

All  nouns  take  n  in  the  dative  plural,  but 

in  er  follow  the  rule  given  under  the  first 

the  one-syllable  nouns  form  the  other  plural 

declension.     They  merely  modify  the  root 

cases  in  err  and  the  remainder  in  e.     The 

vowel  in  the  plural  cases  and  add  en  for  the 

root  vowel  is  regularly  modified.    Thus-: 

dative.     They  are: 

SONG  (N)          BOOK  (N)          GUN  (N) 

Die  Mutter,   the  mother;   die  Mutter,  den 

Singular 

Miittern. 

N.  das  Lied       das  Buck        das  Gewehr 

Die  Tochter,  the  daughter;  die  Tdchter,  den 

G.  des  Liedes      des  Buches     des  Gewehres 

Tdchtern. 

D.  dem  Liede      dem  Buche     dem  Gewehre 

A.  das  Lied         das  Buck        das  Gewehr 

They  are  regular  in  the  singular. 

Plural 

(3.)    Twenty-seven  one-syllable   feminine 

N.  die  Lieder      die  Biicher     die  Gewehre 

nouns  form  their  plural  in  en,  without  modi- 

G. der  Lieder      der  Biicher     der  Gewehre 

fying  the  root  vowel. 

D.  den  Liedern  den  Biicher  n  den  Gewehr  en 
A.  die  Lieder      die  Biicher     die  Gewehre 

Die  Art,  the  kind,        die  Schaar,  the  troop 

species                          die  Schlacht,  the 

Nouns  of  this  declension  ending  in  e  in 

die  Bahn,  the  road            battle 

the  nominative  singular  do  not  add  another 

die  Bucht,  the  bay        die  Schrift,  the  writr 

e  for  the  plural.    Thus: 

die  Burg,  the  old             ing 

Das  Gebirge,  the  mountain;  die  Gebirge 
Das  Gemalde,  the  picture;  die  Gemdlde 

castle                           die  Schuld,  the  debt 
die  Fahrt,  the  pas-       die  Spur,  the  trace, 
satr<»                                      track 

Das  Gebdude,  the  building;  die  Gebdude 

^•I-^V-                                                                      l*»\-*^ 

die  Flur,  the  field         die  That,  the  deed 

dieFluth,  the  flood  •    die  Tracht,  the  cos- 

THE  FIFTH  CLASS  OR  DECLENSION  of  nouns 

die  Form,  the  form           tume 

includes  all  feminine  nouns. 

die  Frau,  the  woman     die  Uhr,  the  watch, 

In    the    singular,    these    nouns    are    un- 

die Gluth,  the  blaze         clock 

changed,  having  no  case  terminations. 

die  Jagd,  the  chase       die  Wahl,  the  choice 

In  the  plural,  monosyllabic  nouns  regu- 

die Last,  the  load          die  Welt,  the  world 

larly  modify  the  root  vowel  and  add  e  for 

die  Pfticht,  the  duty    die  Zahl,  the  num- 

all    cases    except    the    dative,    which    takes 

die  Post,  the  post            ber,  figure 

en.     Nouns    of    more    than    one    syllable 

die  Qual,  the  tor-        die  Zeit,  the  time 

regularly  form  the  plural  in  n  or  en,  with- 

ment,   pang 

GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


115 


DECLENSION    OF    ADJECTIVES 

There  are  three  declensions  of  adjectives; 
that  is  to  say,  every  adjective  may  be 
declined  in  three  ways,  according  to  (i) 
whether  it  is  unqualified  by  an  article  or 
demonstrative;  (2)  whether  it  is  preceded 
by  the  indefinite  article;  or  (3)  whether  it 
is  preceded  by  the  definite  article.  These 
three  considerations  alone  act  to  modify  the 
case  endings. 

In  the  first  state,  the  adjective  takes  the 
strong  declension,  with  the  sole  exception 
of  the  genitive  singular  masculine  and  neu- 
ter, where,  for  the  sake  of  euphony  solely, 
es  is  changed  to  en. 

In  the  second  state,  which  involves  the  use 
of  the  mixed  declension,  the  adjective  is  pre- 
ceded in  the  singular  by  the  indefinite  ar- 
ticle, or  in  either  number  by  one  of  the 
eight  adjectives  inflected  like  it,  as  already 


given.  In  the  nominative  and  accusative 
singular  of  this  declension  the  three  genders 
take  the  forms  already  given  in  the  inflec- 
tion of  dieser.  In  the  genitive  and  dative 
singular  all  genders  take  the  termination  en, 
In  the  plural  all  three  genders  take  en  final 
in  every  case. 

In  the  third  state,  which  is  known  as  the 
weak  declension,  the  adjective  is  preceded 
by  the  definite  article,  or  by  dieser,  jener, 
jeder,  mancher,  welcher.  Then,  because  the 
gender  is  definitely  indicated,  it  follows  the 
rule  of  the  third  declension  of  nouns,  having 
the  final  e  in  the  nominative  singular  of  all 
persons,  and  final  en  in  all  other  cases,  sin- 
gular and  plural,  except  the  accusative 
singular  feminine  and  neuter,  which  take 
final  e. 

These  rules  may  be  understood  from  the 
following  paradigms: 


Masculine 
N.  armer  Mann 
G.  armen  Mannes 
D.  armem  Manne 
A.  armen   Mann 


Masculine 

N.  dein  guter  Voter 
G.  deines  guten    Voter 
D.  deinem   guten    Voter 
A.  deinen  guten  Voter 


Masculine 

N.  der  brave  Mann 
G.  des  braven  Mannes 
D.  dem   braven  Manne 
A.  den  braven  Mann 


STRONG  DECLENSION 

Feminine  Neuter 

schSne  Frau  gutes  Kind 

schoner  Frau  guten  Kindes 

schoner  Frau  gutem  Kinde 

schone  Frau  gutes  Kind 


MIXED   DECLENSION 
Feminine  Neuter 

deine  schone  Mutter 
deiner  schonen  Mutter 
deiner  schonen  "Mutter 
deine  schone  Mutter 


dein  kleines  Kind 
deines  kleinen  Kind 
deinem  kleinen  Kind 
dein  kleines  Kind 


WEAK  DECLENSION 

Feminine  Neuter 


die  siisse  Dame 
der  sussen  Dame 
der  sussen  Dame 
die  siisse  Dame 


das  Hebe  Kind 
des  lieben  Kind 
dem  lieben  Kind 
das  liebe  Kind 


Plural 
arme  Leute 
armor  Leute 
armen  Leuten 
arme  Leute 


Plural 

deine  lieben  Verwandter 
deinen  lieben  Verwandter 
deiner  lieben  Vertvandtern 
deine  lieben  Verwandter 


Plural 

die  guten  Eltern 
der  guten  Eltern 
den  guten  Eltern 
die  guten  Eltern 


Careful  study  of  these  paradigms  will  re- 
veal the  fact  that  one  end  attained  in  the 
proper  use  of  adjectives  is  to  designate  the 
gender  of  the  noun.  For  this  reason  the 
strong  declension  has  the  full  case  endings, 
as  in  dieser  and  other  demonstratives  and 
relatives  not  to  be  preceded  by  an  article. 
With  ein,  or  with  any  one  of  the  several 
adjectives  declined  like  it,  the  proper  desig- 
nation of  gender  is  necessary  in  the  nomi- 
native and  accusative  singular  only;  hence 
this  order  follows  the  "mixed  declension." 
With  the  definite  article,  or  with  one  of  the 
several  adjectives  declined  like  it,  no  fur- 
ther designation  of  gender  is  required  in 
the  following  adjective.  As  in  the  articles, 
definite  and  indefinite,  and  in  the  several 
adjectives  declined  like  them,  the  determi- 
native adjective  preceding  the  noun  is  the 


same  in  any  given  plural  case  for  any  gen- 
der in  the  noun. 

When  two  or  more  adjectives  precede 
one  noun,  the  same  rules  hold,  the  whole 
matter  of  terminations  in  each  case  be- 
ing decided  by  the  definiteness  or  indefi- 
niteness  of  the  article  used  or  the  absence 
of  articles.  Thus : 

guter,  alter  Johann 
ein  guter,  alter  Mann 
der  gute,  alte  Mann,  etc. 

ADJECTIVES  USED  SUBSTANTIVELY 

In  this  connection  it  is  necessary  to  add 
only  a  few  remarks: 

(i.)  When  an  adjective  is  used  as  a 
noun,  or  when  a  noun  is  evidently  derived 
from  an  adjective,  the  rules  regarding  case 


116 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


terminations  after  articles  or  demonstra- 
tives are  always  followed  Thus: 

From  fremd,  "strange,"  we  have  der 
Fremde,  but  tin  Fremder,  "a  stranger" ;  from 
deutsch,  "German,"  we  have  der  Deutsche, 
but  ein  Deutscher;  from  gelthrt,  "karned," 
we  have  der  Gelehrte,  but  tin  Gelehrter. 

Such  words  follow  the  rule  of  the  weak 
or  mixed  declension,  forming  all  the  oblique 
cases  by  adding  en. 

(2.)  When  an  abstract  neuter  noun  is 
formed  from  an  adjective,  the  case  termi- 
nations follow  on  the  declension  proper  in 
its  use  as  an  adjective.  Thus:  das  Gute, 
"the good" ; das Schone, "the  beautiful";  das 
Wahre,  "the  true,"  etc. 

(3.)  Any  adjective-abstract-noun  preceded 
by  etwas,  mehr,  nichts,  viel,  wenig,  takes 
endings  according  to  the  strong  declension 
of  adjectives. 

RULES  FOR  INFLECTION 
Adjectives  ending  in  el  regularly  drop  the 
e  before  the  /,  and  sometimes  the  e  (of  the 
case  ending)  following  the  /.  Thus:  From 
edel,  "noble,"  we  have  die  edle  Fran;  or 
from  eitel,  "vain,"  die  eitle  Frau.  In  the 
oblique  cases  of  the  singular  and  in  the 
plural,  the  e  of  the  root  may  remain  and  the 
e  of  the  ending  be  dropped.  Thus:  die 
edeln  Frauen  or  die  eiteln  Frouen  is  the 
form  occasionally  found. 

Adjectives  ending  in  er  or  en  do  not  regu- 
larly drop  the  e  of  the  root,  but  frequently 
drop  that  belonging  to  the  case  ending. 
Thus:  ein  bitterer  Trank,  but  eines  bittern 
Trankes. 

The  adjective  hoch,  "high,"  gives  its  root 
as  hoh  when  declined.  Thus :  das  hohe  Haus; 
ein  hoher  Berg;  but  das  Haus  ist  hoch,  and 
der  Berg  ist  hoch. 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 

Adjectives  are  compared,  as  hi  English, 
by  the  addition  of  r  or  er  to  the  root  for  the 
comparative,  and  of  st  or  est  for  the  super- 
lative. 

The  root  vowel,  if  a,  o,  in,  is  regularly 
modified  in  the  comparative  and  superla- 
tive degrees,  although  a  number  of  adjec- 
tives do  not  follow  this  rule. 

Adjectives  whose  positive  degree  has  a 
final  e  take  only  r  in  the  comparative. 

The  superlative  of  adjectives  is  regularly 
formed  only  by  adding  st  to  the  root.  The 
ending  est  is  given  mostly  to  those  ending 
in  three  consonants  or  a  sibilant  (z,  s,  or 
sch).  Gross,  "great,"  however,  merely  adds 
t  for  the  superlative. 

Adjectives  ending  in  el  drop  the  e  of  the 


root   in    the   comparative,   but   not    in    the 
superlative. 

While  the  comparatives  and  superlatives 
of  adjectives  are  regularly  declined  with  case 
endings  when  in  agreement  with  nouns, 
such  endings  are  omitted  when  they  are 
merely  used  as  predicates.  Thus: 

Der  hohe  Baum;  der  hoher  e  Bautn;  der 
hochste  Baum.  But,  diescr  Baum  ist  hoher 
and  jener  Baum  ist  am  hochsten. 

Most  predicate  superlatives  use  the  form 
just  given,  as  in  am  schonsten,  "the  hand- 
somest" ;  am  besten,  "the  best" ;  am  dltesten, 
"the  oldest,"  etc.  This  form  is  sometimes 
used,  aufs  schonste;  auf's  beste. 

Among  irregularities  in  comparison  may 
be  mentioned: 

gut,  besser,  am  besten 
gross,  grosser,  am  grossten 
hoch,  hoher,  am  hochsten 
nahe,  naher,  am  n'dchsten 
viel,  mehr,  am  meisten 
viele,  mehrere,  am  meisten 
Adjectives  of  two  or  more  syllables  and 
monosyllables  ending  in  au  never  modify  in 
the    comparative    and    superlative    degrees. 
The   following  one-syllable  adjectives  also 
never  modify: 

Blass,  pale  morsch,  brittle 

bunt,  variegated          nackt,  naked 
fahl,  fallow  plait,  flat 

falsch,  false  plump,  clumsy 

froh,  joyful  roh,  raw 

gerade,  straight  rund,  round 

gesund,  healthy  sanft,  gentle 

glatt,  smooth  satt,  satisfied 

hohl,  hollow  schlaff,   slack 

hold,  kind  schlank,s\ender 

kahl,  bald  Starr,  numb 

karg,  stingy  stolzt  proud 

klar,  clear  straff,  stiff 

knapp,  tight  stumm,  dumb 

lahm,  lame  toll,  mad 

los,  loose  voll,  full 

matt,  wearied  zahm,  tame 

RELATIVE  ADJECTIVES 

There  are  in  German,  as  in  English,  a 
number  of  adjectives,  known  as  "relative 
adjectives, "  which  involve,  as  predicates, 
either  an  oblique  case  of  a  noun  or  the  in- 
finitive of  a  verb.  Many  of  these  words 
are  not  declined;  others  are  ordinary  ("ab- 
solute") adjectives  used  as  predicates  in 
certain  idioms.  Thus,  we  say  in  English, 
"I  am  not  aware  of  it,"  and  "I  am  not  sure 
of  it"  (or  "about  it"). 

Such  adjectives  govern  either  the  geni- 
tive or  the  dative  case. 


GERMAN   SELF-TAUGHT 


117 


The  following  relative  adjectives  govern 

eleven,  elf                     100,  hundert 

the   genitive: 

twelve,  zwolf                101,  hundert  und  eins 

bedurftig,  in  want        gewiss,  certain  of 
of                                kundig,  acquainted 
beflissen,  diligent  in           with 
befugt,  authorized        machtig,  master  of 
benothigt,  in  need  of    miide,  tired  of 
bewusst,  conscious  of  schuldig,  guilty  of 
eingedenk,  remember-   theilhaft,  partaker  of 
ing                             verdachtig,  suspected 

thirteen,  dreizehn        102,  hundert  und  zwei 
fourteen,  vierzehn       200,  zwei  hundert 
fifteen,  funfzehn          300,  drei  hundert 
sixteen,  sechssehn       400,  vier  hundert 
seventeen,   siebenzehn  500,  funf  hundert 
eighteen,  achtzehn        600,  sechs  hundert 
nineteen,   neunzehn     700,  sieben  hundert 
twenty,  zwanzig           800,  acht  hundert 
21,  ein  und  zwanzig    900,  neun  hundert 

fdhig,  capable  of              of 
froh,  happy  in               verlustig,  losing 
gewartig,  in  expecta-  voll,  full  of 
tion  of                       wurdig,  worthy  of 

22,  zwei  und  zwanzig    1000,  tausend 
23,  drei  und  zwanzig    2000,  zwei  tausend 
30,  dreissig                   3000,  drei  tausend 
40,  vierzig                     loooo,  zehn  tausend 

The  following  govern  the  dative: 

50,  funfzig                    a  million, 
60,  sechszig                      eine  Million 

dhnlich,  resembling        lastig,  troublesome 

70,  siebenzig                 1859,  ein   Tausend 

vngemessen,  suited  to     lieb,  dear,  agreeable 

80,  achtzig                       acht  Hundert  neun 

angenehm,  agreeable     nachtheilig,  hurtful 

90,  neunzig                       und  funfzig 

anstdssig,  offensive       nahe,  near 

bekannt,  known             nutzlich,  useful 

ORDINAL  NUMBERS 

bequem,  convenient        schddlich,  injurious 

The  first,  der  Erste  the  2ist,  der  Ein  und 

bewusst,  known             schuldig,   indebted 

the  2d,  der  Zweite          Zwanzigste 

dienlich,  serviceable       treu,  true,  faithful 

the  3d,   der  Dritte      the  22d,  der  Zwei  und 

eigen,  own                      iiberlegen,  superior 

the  4th,  der  Vierte         Zwanzigste 

fremd,  strange               unvergesslich,  ever 

the  fifth,  der  Fiinfte  the  23d,  der  Drei  und 

freundlich,  friendly           memorable  to 

the  6th,  der  Sechste       Zwanzigste 

gegenwartig,  present    verdachtig,  suspected 

the7th,derSiebente    the  3oth,    der    Dreis- 

to                                     by 

the  8th,  der  Achte          sigste 

geldufig,  fluent               verderblich,  destruc- 

the  9th,  der  Neunte   the  qoth,  der  Vier  zigste 

gemdss,  suited  to              tive  to 

the  roth,  der  Zehnte  the  soth,  der  Funf- 

geneigt,  inclined            verhasst,  odious  to 

the  nth,  der  Elfte         zigste 

gewogen,  kind               verwandt,  related 

the  I2th,  der  Zwolf  te    the  6oth,   der  Sechs- 

gewachsen,  equal  to      vortheilhaft,  advan- 

the  I3th,  der  Drei-         zigste 

gleich,  like                          tageous 

zehnte                        the  7oth,   der  Sieben- 

gnddig,  gracious             widrig,  loathsome 

the  I4th,   der   Vier-        zigste 

heilsam,  salutary            willkommen,-welcomz 

zehnte                        the  Soth,  der  Achzigste 

hold,  kind                       zugethan,  addicted  to 

the  isth,  der  Funf-    the  9Oth,    der  Neun- 

Among  these  adjectives   commonly   used 
relatively  the  following  are  never  declined  : 

zehnte                            zigste 
the  1  6th,  der  Sechs-   the  looth,   der  Hun- 

eingedenk,   theilhaft,  verlustig,  gemdss,  ge- 
neight,    gewogen,    gewachsen,    gleich,    zu- 

zehnte                           dertste 
the  I7th,  der  Sieben-  the  loist,    der   Hun- 
zehnte                            dert  und  erste 

gethan. 

the  i8th,    der   Acht-   the  2Ooth,    der   Zwei" 

NUMERICAL  ADJECTIVES 

zehnte                            hundertste 

Among  cardinal  numbers  only  one,  two 

the  igth,   der  Neun-  the  3OOth,   der  Drei- 

and  three  are  inflected,  as  will  be  explained 

Zehnte                           hundertste 

later.     Others  take  the  dative  termination, 

the  2Oth,   der  Zwan-  the  loooth,    der    Tau- 

en,  when  used  substantively.    Ordinals,  when, 

zigste                             sendste 

as  in  general,  following  the  definite  article, 

COLLECTIVE  NUMBERS 

take  case  endings  of  the  weak  declension 

of  adjectives.    The  numerals  are  as  follows: 

A  half,  ein  Halb        two  and  a  half,  dritte- 

a  third,    ein   Drittel        halb 

CARDINAL  NUMBERS 

a  fourth,  ein   Viertel  three  and  a  half, 

One,  ein,  eins          six,  seeks 

a  fifth,    ein  Funftel        viertehalb 

two,  zwei                  seven,  sieben 

a  sixth,  etc.,  ein  Seek-  four  and  a  half, 

three,  drei                 eight,  acht 

stel                                 fiinftehalb 

four,  vier                  nine,  neun 

one   and    a   half,   aw-  five  and   a   half,   etc., 

five,  funf                   ten,  zehn 

derthalb                        sechstehalb  . 

118 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


a  pair,  ein  Poor 
a  dozen,  tin  Dutzend 
a  score,  Zwanzig 
firstly,  erstens 
secondly,  sweitens 
thirdly,  drittens 
the  first  time,  das 

Erstemal 
the  second  time,  das 

Zweitemal 
once,   einmal 
twice,  zweimal 
three  times,  dreimal 
all   times,   allemal 


every  time,  jedesmal 
singly,  cinfach 
many  times,  manchmal 
double,  doppelt 
threefold,   dreifach 
fourfold,   vierfach 
one  sort,  einerlei 
two  sorts,  zweierlei 
ten  sorts,  zehnerlei 
of  all  kinds,  allerlei 
of   many    kinds,    vie- 

lerlei 
of  various   kinds, 

mancherlei 


The  numeral  eins,  "one,"  is  declined: 

(i.)  Like  the  indefinite  article,  when  pre- 
ceded by  no  other  declinable  word.  Thus: 
ein  Mann,  "one  man";  eine  Frau,  "one 
woman";  ein  Kind,  "one  child." 

(2.)  Like  dieser,  when  without  a  follow- 
ing noun,  or  when  referring  to  some  noun 
understood.  Thus:  einer  von  uns,  "one  of 
us";  eine  meiner  Schwestern,  "one  of  my 
sisters." 

(3.)  Like  an  adjective  of  the  weak  de- 
clension, when  preceded  by  the  definite  ar- 
ticle. Thus :  der  eine  Mann,  "the  one  man" ; 
der  eine  gute  Konig,  "the  one  good  king." 

(4.)  Like  an  adjective  of  the  strong  de- 
clension when  preceded  by  a  possessive  .ad- 
jective. Thus:  meine  eine  Schwester,  "my 
one  sister";  dein  eines  Kind,  "thy  one 
child,"  etc. 

The  numerals  zwei  and  drei  are  declined 
when  not  preceded  by  an  article  or  other 
declinable  word.  Thus: 


N.  zwei 
G.  sweier 
D.  zweien 
A.  zwei 


drei 
dreier 
dreien 
drei 


PRONOUNS 

The  German  pronouns  are  declined  regu- 
larly, like  articles  and  demonstrative  and 
possessive  adjectives,  never  changing  their 
endings. 

There  are  five  classes  of  pronouns:  per- 
sonals; possessives,  derived  from  posses- 
sive adjectives;  demonstratives,  from  dem- 
onstrative adjectives;  interrogatives  and 
relatives. 

One  point  that  will  likely  puzzle  the  be- 
ginner is  that  the  third  person  singular  for 
"she"  is  the  same  as  that  for  "you,"  sin- 
gular or  plural,  and  as  that  for  "they," 
plural.  It  is  well  to  remember,  however, 
that  the  pronoun  for  "you"  is  always  capi- 


talized, like  a  noun,  and  that  the  one  for 
"she"  is  declined  differently. 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 


Singular 

ist   Person  ad   Person 

du,  thou 
deiner,  of  thee 


N.  ich,  I 

G.  meiner,  of 

me 

D.  mir,  to  me 
A.  mich,  me 


dir,  to  thee 
dich,  thee 

Singular 
3d  Person 
Fern. 

sie,  she 
ihrer,  of  her 


Masc. 

N.  er,  he 
G.  seiner,  of 

him 

D.  ihm,  to  him  ihr,  to  her 
A.  ihn,  him        sie,  her 

Plural 
ist  Person  ad  Person 

N.  wir,  we         ihr,  ye 
G.  unser,  of  us  euer,  of  you 
D.  uns,  to  us   euch,  to  you 
A.  uns,  us  euch,  you 


Sing,  and  Plur. 
ad   Person 

Sie,  you 
Ihrer,  of  you 

Ihnen,  to  you 
Sie,  you 


Neut 

M,it 

seiner,  of  it 

ihm,  to  it 
es,  it 

3d  Person 

sie,  they 
ihrer,  of  them 
ihnen,  to  them 
sie,  them 


In  addition  to  these,  we  have  the  reflex- 
ive pronoun,  sich,  "self,"  only  in  the  dative 
and  accusative  cases. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  used  with 
proper  case  prepositions,  when  referring  to 
persons,  when  inanimate  objects  are  desig* 
nated  the  adverb  do,  "there,"  is  prefixed  to 
the  preposition.  Thus : 

Mit  mir,  with  me;  von  dir,  from  thee; 
fur  ihn,  for  him ;  ohne  Sie,  without  you ; 
damit,  with  it;  daftir,  for  it;  davon,  from 
it,  of  it;  darin,  in  it. 

In  the  last,  it  will  be  noticed  that  da 
becomes  dar  for  sake  of  euphony. 

The  pronoun,  Ihr,  "you,"  is  used  as  the 
plural  of  du,  in  addressing  several  per- 
sons familiarly.  Sie  is  used  in  formal 
discourse  in  addressing  either  one  or  sev- 
eral persons. 

The  reflexive,  sich,  is  used  only  with  the 
third  personal  pronouns  and  with  Sie, 
"you."  With  the  first  and  second  personal 
pronouns,  the  dative  or  accusative  cases 
serve  all  uses  of  reflexives. 

POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS 

The  possessive  pronouns,  properly  so 
called,  are  as  follows: 

der,   die,   das  meinige,   or,  meiner,   meine, 

meine s,  mine 
der,    die,    das    deinige,    or,    dtiner,    deint, 

deines,  thine 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


119 


der,  die,  das  seinige,  or,  seiner,  seine,  seines, 

his,  its 
der,  die,  das  ihrige,  or,  ihrer,  ihre,  ihres, 

hers 
der,  die,  das  unsrige,  or,  unserer,  unseret 

unseres,  ours 
der,  die,  das  eurige,  or,  euerer,  euere,  eueres, 

yours 
der,  die,  das  Ihrige,  or,  Ihrer,  Ihre,  Ihres, 

yours 
der,  die,  das  ihrige,  or,  ihrer,  ihre,  ihres, 

theirs 

DEMONSTRATIVE    PRONOUNS 

The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  merely 
the  demonstrative  adjectives  dieser,  "this," 
and  jener,  "that,"  used  without  nouns.  It 
is  common,  also,  to  use  dies,  "this,"  and 
das,  "that,"  in  very  indefinite  pronominal 
sentences.  Thus :  Das  ist  ein  Deutscher, 
"That  is  a  German";  Dies  ist  mein  Haus, 
"This  is  my  house." 

INTERROGATIVES  AND  RELATIVES 

German  interrogative  and  relative  pro- 
nouns, as  in  English,  are  usually  the  same 
words.  The  two  leading  relatives  are  der, 
die,  das,  and  welcher,  welche,  welches. 
They  are  used  in  very  much  the  same  kind 
of  sentences,  although  the  former  is  used 
much  in  the  same  way  as  the  English  rela- 
tive "that."  They  are  .declined,  as  fol- 
lows, and  it  is  necessary  to  note  that  the 
former  differs  from  the  definite  article  in 
the  genitive  singular  and  in  the  genitive 
and  dative  plural : 


Masc. 

N.dtr 
G.  dessen 
D.dem 
A.  den 

Masc. 
N.  welcher 

G.  -. 

D.  welchem 
A.  welchen 


Fem. 

die 

deren 

der 

die 

Fern. 

welche 


welcher 
welche 


Neut. 

das 

dessen 

dem 

das 

Neut. 

welches 

welchem 
welches 


Plur. 

die 
deren 
denen 
die 

Plur. 
welche 

welchen 
welche 


Although  the  genitives,  singular  and 
plural,  of  welcher  are  frequently  given,  the 
approved  custom  is  to  use  the  genitives 
of  the  relative  der  wherever  required  in  a 
sentence.  The  relative,  welcher,  may  be 
used  as  an  adjective  with  a  noun,  after 
the  fashion  of  the  English  "which";  as  in 
"which  thing  he  did." 

Two  other  relatives  are  frequently  used; 
the  first,  wer,  "who,"  most  often  as  the 
English  "he  who,"  never,  except  in  oblique 


cases,  as  a  true  relative  in  a  consecutive 
clause;  the  second,  was,  "what,"  like  the 
first,  or  like  a  true  relative.  The  distinc- 
tion between  the  use  of  der  and  welcher 
and  that  of  was  is  that  the  former  relate 
most  often  to  the  noun  in  the  principal 
clause,  as  with  the  English  "which"  and 
"that,"  while  the  latter  relates  to  the  clause 
as  a  whole,  or  to  the  idea  expressed  by  it. 
It  is  often  used,  however,  with  such  words 
as  alles,  "everything";  nichts,  "nothing," 
etc.,  just  as  the  other  relatives  aften  nouns. 
Thus : 

Alles  was  nicht  angebunden  ist,  ist  los, 
"Everything  that  is  not  tied  down  is  loose." 

Kaufe  fa  nichts  was  von  keinen  Ntitzen 
ist,  "Never  buy  anything  that  is  of  no  use." 

Wer  and  was  are  declined,  as  follows: 


Masc.  and  Fem. 
wer,  who 
wessen,  whose 
wem,  to  whom 
wen,  whom 


Neuter 
was,  what 
wessen,  of  what 


was,  what 


The  dative  of  wer  and  was  is  occasion- 
ally supplied  by  a  prepositional  compound 
of  precisely  the  same  class  as  are  used  in 
referring  to  things  with  personal  pronouns. 

Among  such  compounds  are  worauf,  wo- 
raus,  wofiir,  worin,  womit,  woruber,  wovon, 
wozu;  all  combinations  of  the  conjunction 
wo,  rendered  often  war  for  euphony. 

RELATIVE   CLAUSES 

In  a  relative  clause,  just  as  in  one  in- 
troduced by  a  so-called  "subordinating  con- 
junction," the  verb  comes  last,  and,  if  of 
a  compound  tense,  the  auxiliary  is  last 
Thus: 

Es  giebt  mane  he  Thieren,  die  nur  einen 
Tag  leben,  "There  are  many  animals  that 
live  only  one  day." 

Hier  ist  das  Buch,  das  (or  welches")  Sie 
mir  gebracht  haben,  "Here  is  the  book 
that  you  brought  me." 

The  principal  "subordinating  conjunc- 
tions" are  as  follows : 


als,  when,  as 

auf  doss,  in  order  that 

bis,  till 

da,  as,  since 

doss,  that,  in  order 

that 

damit,  in  order  that 
ehe,  bevor,  before 
falls,  wofern,  in  case 

that 

indem,  as,  while 
;V—  (  desto  )  ,the—  ( the) 


nachdem,  after 
ob,  whether,  if 
'obgleich,  obschon, 

although 

obwohl,  although 
sett,  seitdem,  since 
sobald,  as  soon  as 
so  doss,  so  that 
so  oft  als,  whenever 
um  dass,  in  order  that 
ungeachtet,  notwith- 
standing 


120 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


wdhrend,  while  wie,  as,  how 

utann,  when  weshalb,  weswegen, 
warum,  why  wherefore 

wenn,  if,  when  wie—auch,  however 

wenn — auch,  although  wo,  where 
weil,  because 

The  uses  of  wer  and  was  are  illustrated 
in  the  following  sentences: 

Wer  nicht  horen  will,  muss  fiihlen,  "He 
who  will  not  hear,  must  feel." 

Das,  was  er  ers'dhlt  hat,  ist  vollkommen 
wahr,  "What  he  has  related  is  perfectly 
true." 

The  relatives,  welcher,  wer,  and  was,  are 
also  used  as  interrogatives,  in  about  the 
same  fashion  as  in  English.  The  preposi- 
tional combinations  are  also  used  for  the 
oblique  cases  of  wer  and  was  in  asking 
questions. 

One  notable  idiom  of  the  German  lan- 
guage is  formed  with  was.  That  is  in  ask- 
ing a  question  beginning  "What  kind  of," 
which  is  rendered  in  German  with  was  fiir. 
Thus: 

Was  fur  ein  Mensch  ist  dies?  "What 
sort  of  a  person  is  this?" 

Occasionally  was  fiir  is  used  where  the 
English  has  merely  "what"  (sometimes 
"which")  in  an  indefinite  question.  Thus, 
the  above  sentence  may  also  mean,  "What 
(or  which)  man  is  this?" 

This  construction  is  also  used  in  ex- 
clamations. Thus : 

Was  fiir  ein  Mensch!  "What  a  person!" 

THE  VERB 
i 

The  conjugation  of  the  German  verb  is 
very  simple  and  depends  upon  only  a  few 
general  principles.  It  includes  five  moods 
— the  infinitive,  indicative,  subjunctive,  con- 
ditional, imperative,  also  present  and  past 
participles.  The  indicative  and  subjunctive 
moods  have  each  six  tenses — present,  im- 
perfect, perfect,  pluperfect,  first  future  and 
second  future  (or  future  perfect).  The 
conditional  mood  has  two  tenses — the  first 
and  second,  corresponding,  respectively,  to 
the  English  "I  should  (be)"  and  "I  should 
have  (been)."  The  infinitive  has  a  pres- 
ent and  a  past,  while  the  imperative,  as  in 
English,  is  altogether  in  the  present. 

The  present  tense,  as  in  English,  is 
formed  direct  from  the  present  infinitive, 
and  the  imperfect  tense  comes  direct  from 
it  by  the  addition  of  the  ending  te  or  ete, 
as  euphony  may  require. 

The  perfect  participle  is  formed  by  pre- 
fixing the  syllable  ge  to  the  root  or  per- 


fect stem,  and  adding  the  ending  t  or  en 
to  the  same. 

All  other  tenses,  as  in  English,  are 
formed  by  using,  as  auxiliaries,  tenses  of 
the  verb,  werden,  "to  become,"  for  the  fu- 
ture, "shall"  and  the  conditional  "should"; 
and  tenses  of  the  verbs,  haben,  "to  have," 
or  of  sein,  "to  be,"  for  the  perfect,  pluper- 
fect, and  future  perfect  tenses. 

The  imperfect,  and  often  the  present,  of 
the  subjunctive  of  auxiliary  and  strong 
verbs,  with  a,  o,  u,  as  root  vowel  is  modi- 
fied. 

The  verb,  werden,  is  also  used  in  form- 
ing the  passive  tenses,  where  we  use  the 
verb  "to  be." 

The  verb,  haben,  is  used  regularly  in 
forming  the  compound  tenses  of  transitive 
verbs,  while  the  verb,  sein,  is  used  with 
intransitive  verbs. 

There  are  a  number  of  variations,  how- 
ever, subject  to  the  following  rules: 

Haben  is  used  with  (a)  impersonal  and 
reflexive  verbs;  (b),  all  the  modal  auxil- 
iaries, to  be  given  later;  (c)  intransitive 
verbs  followed  by  the  genitive  or  dative 
or  by  the  accusative  with  a  preposition; 
(d)  intransitive  verbs  denoting  a  perma- 
nent state  or  action  without  motion  to  or 
from,  except  sein,  "to  be,"  bleiben,  "to 
stay,"  legen,  "to  lie,"  schlafen,  "to  sleep," 
schwimmen,  "to  swim,"  stehen,  "to  stand," 
wohnen,  "to  dwell";  (e)  with  verbs  de- 
noting actions  -or  states  that  impress  the 
five  senses,  i.e.  do  things  that  are  heard, 
seen,  smelt,  tasted,  felt,  with  weinen,  "to 
weep,"  and  a  few  others. 

Sein  is  used  (a)  with  its  own  compound 
tenses,  as  ich  bin  gewesen,  "I  have  been"; 
(b)  with  verbs  expressing  motion  to  or 
from  a  place,  or  transition  to  or  from  a 
state ;  (c)  with  most  such  verbs  having  the 
prefixes  er  and  ver. 

In  addition  to  the  three  auxiliaries  of 
tense,  which  are  regularly  used  in  forming 
the  compound  tenses,  there  are  six  aux- 
iliaries of  mood,  not  necessarily  used  in 
the  conjugation  of  any  verb,  and  expressing 
the  ideas  of  the  English  verbs,  "can," 
"may,"  "must,"  "ought,"  "will"  (intend), 
and  "let"  (permit).  They  are  konnen, 
mogen,  miissen,  sollen,  wollen,  diirfen.  In 
addition  we  have  the  verb,  lassen,  "to  let 
(do),  to  have  (a  thing)  done,"  which  is 
generally  called  the  "causative  auxiliary." 

While  the  English  equivalents  given  to 
these  words  are  correct  for  general  use, 
special  expressions  can  be  learned  only 
from  idiomatic  sentences,  such  as  will  be 
given  later. 


GERMAN   SELF-TAUGHT 


121 


THE    AUXILIARIES     OF    TENSE 
THE  AUXILIARY  "HABEN,"  TO   HAVE 

Principal  Parts :  present  infinitive,  haben; 
imperfect  indicative,  hatte;  past  participle, 

gehabt. 

INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present  Present 

ich  habe,  I  have          ich  hdbe,  I  have,  or 
(that)  I  may  have, 
etc. 

du  hast,  thou  hast        du  hdbest,  thou  have 
er  hat,  he  has  er  habe,  he  have 

wir  haben,  we  have  wir  haben,  we  have 
ihr  habt,  you  h'ave  ihr  habet,  you  have 
Sie  haben,  you  have  Sie  haben,  you  have 
sie  haben,  they  have  sie  haben,  they  have 

Imperfect  Imperfect 

ich  hatte,  I  had          ich  hatte,  I  had,  or 

(that)  I  might  have, 
etc. 

du  hottest,  thou  hadst  du  h'dttest,  thou  hadst 
er  hatte,  he  had         er  hatte,  he  had 
wir  hatten,  we  had     wir  h'dtten,  we  had 
ihr  hattet,  you  had     ihr  hdttet,  you  had 
Sie  hatten,  you  had  Sie  hatten,  you  had 
sie  hatten,  they  had    sie  hatten,  they  had 

Future  Future 

ich  werde  haben,  I      ich  werde  haben, 

shall  have  (that)  I  shall  have 

du  wirst  haben,  thou  du  werdest  haben, 

wilt  have  thou  wilt  have 

er  wird  haben,  he      er  werde  haben,  he 

will  have  will  have 

wir  werden  haben,      wir  werden  haben,  we 

we  shall  have  shall  have 

ihr  werdet  haben,       ihr  werdet  haben,  you 
you  will  have  will  have  , 

Sie  werden  haben,     Sie  werden  haben,  you 

you  will  have  will  have 

sie  werden  haben,      sie  werden  haben,  they 
they  will  have  will  have 

The  compound  and  conditional  tenses  are 
formed  as  follows.  As  in  English,  only  the 
auxiliaries  are  inflected : 

PERFECT. — Indicative,  "I  have  had,"  Ich 
habe  gehabt,  etc.  Subjunctive,  "I  have  had" 
(preceded  by  wenn,  "if,"  dass,  "that,"  or 
some  other  suitable  conjunction),  Ich  habe 
gehabt,  inflected  like  present  subjunctive. 

PLUPERFECT.— Indicative,  "I  had  had,"  Ich 
hatte  gehabt,  inflected  like  imperfect  indica- 
tive. Subjunctive,  "I  had  had,"  Ich  hatte 
gehabt,  inflected  like  imperfect  subjunctive. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. — Indicative,  "I  shall  have 
had",  Ich  werde  gehabt  haben.  Subjunctive, 
"I  shall  have  had,"  Ich  werde  gehabt  haben, 
inflected  like  subjunctive  present  of  werden. 

CONDITIONAL. — First,  "I  should  have,"  Ich 


wiirde  haben.    Second,  "I  should  have  had," 
Ich  wiirde  gehabt  haben. 

IMPERATIVE 

habe,  have  thou 

habe  er,  let  him  have 

haben  wir,  let  us  have 

lasst  uns  haben,  let  us  have 

habt,  have  (you) 

haben  Sie,  have  you 

haben  sie,  let  them  have 

INFINITIVES 

Present:  haben,  to  have 
Perfect:  gehabt  haben,  to  have  had 

PARTICIPLES 

Present:  habend,  having 
Past:  gehabt,  had 

THE  AUXILIARY  "SEIN,"  TO  BE 

Principal  Parts :  sein,  war,  gewesen 

INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present  Present 

ich  bin,  I  am  ich  j«,(that)I  may  be 

du  bist,  thou  art       du  seiest,  thou  mayest  be 
er  ist,  he  is  er  set,  he  may  be 

wir  sind,  we  are  wir  seien,  we  may  be 
ihr  seid,  you  are  ihr  seiet,  you  may  be 
Sie  sind,  you  are  Sie  seien,  you  may  be 
sie  sind,  they  are  sie  seien,  they  may  be 

Imperfect  Imperfect 

ich  war,  I  was  ich  wore,  (that)  I  were 

du  worst,  thou  wast  du  wdrest,  thou  wert 
er  war,  he  was  er  ware,  he  were 

wir  waren,  we  were  wir  wdren,  we  were 
ihr  waret,  you  were  ihr  waret,  you  were 
Sie  waren,  you  were  Sie  wdren,  you  were 
sie  waren  they  were  sie  wdren,  they  were 

Future  Future 

ich   werde   sein,   I      ich  werde  sein,  (that) 

shall   be  I    shall    be 

du  wirst  sein,  thou    du  werdest  sein,  thou 

wilt   be  wilt  be 

er  wird  sein,  he  will      er  werde   sein,   he 

be  will  be 

wir  werden  sein,  we      wir  werden  sein,  we 

shall  be  shall  be 

ihr  werdet  sein,  you      ihr   werdet   sein,  you 

will  be  will   be 

Sie  werden  sein,  you    Sie  werden  sein,  you 

will  be  will   be 

sie  werden  sein,  they    sie  werden   sein,  they 
"will  be  will  be 

The  compound  tenses  of  sein  are  formed 
like  those  of  haben,  except  that  tenses  of 
sein  are  always  used  as  auxiliaries.  Thus : 
ich  bin  gewesen,  "I  have  been" ;  ich  sei  ge- 
wesen, "[If  or  that]  I  have  been";  ich  war 
gewesen,  "I  had  been,"  etc.,  etc. 


122 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


THE    AUXILIARY    "WERDEN,"   TO    BECOME 
(TO   GET,   TO   GROW) 

Principal  Parts :  werden,  wurde,  geworden 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

ich  werde,  I  become 
du  wirst,  thou  becomest 
er  wird,  he  becomes 
u'ir  werden,  we  become 
ihr  werdet,  you  become 
Sie  werden,  you  become 
sie  werden,  they  become 

Imperfect 

ich  wurde  (ward),  I  became 
du  wurdest,  thou  becamest 
er  wurde,  he  became 
wir  wurden,  we  became 
ihr  wurdet,  you  became 
Sie  wurden,  you  became 
sie  wurden,  they  became 

Future 

ich  werde  werden,  I  shall  become 
du  wirst  werden,  thou  wilt  become 
er  wird  werden,  he  will  become 
wir  werden  werden,  we  shall  become 
ihr  werdet  werden,  you  will  become 
Sie  werden  werden,  you  will  become 
sie  werden  werden,  they  will  become 

Perfect 

ich  bin  geworden,  I  have  become 
du  bist  geworden,  thou  hast  become 
er  ist  geworden,  he  has  become 
wir  sind  geworden,  we  have  become 
ihr  seid  geworden,  you  have  become 
Sie  sind  geworden,  you  have  become 
sie  sind  geworden,  they  have  become 

SUBJUNCTIVE 
Present 

ich  werde,  (that)  I  (may)  become 

du  werdest,  thou  become 

er  werde,  he  become 

wir  werden,  we  become 

ihr  werdet,  you  become 

Sie  werden,  you  become 

sie  werden,  they  become 
Imperfect 

ich  wurde,  I  became 

du  \viirdest,  thou  becamest 

er  wurde,  he  became 

wir  wurden,  we  became 

ih',-  wurdet,  you  became 

Sie  wurden,  you  became  • 

sie  wurden,  they  became 
Future 

ich  werde  werden,  I  shall  become 

du  werdest  werden,  thou  wilt  become 
er  werde  werden,  he  will  become 
wir  werden  werden,  we  shall  become 


ihr  werdet  werden,  you  will  become 
Sie  werden  werden,  you  will  become 
sie  werden  werden,  they  will  become 

Perfect 

ich  sei  geworden,  I  have  become 
du  seiest  geworden,  thou  hast  become 
er  sei  geworden,  he  has  become 
wir  seien  geworden,  we  have  become 
ihr  seiet  geworden,  you  have  become 
Sie  seien  geworden,  you  have  become 
sie  seien  geworden,  they  have  become 

The  other  compound  tenses  are  formed 
with  proper  tenses  of  sein,  "to  be."  The 
construction  is  so  exactly  like  that  followed 
in  English  that  it  is  necessary  only  for  the 
student  to  remember  that  the  Germans  say 
"I  am  been"  and  "I  was  been,"  for  "I  have 
been"  and  "I  had  been";  or,  "I  am  become" 
and  "I  was  become,"  for  "I  have  become" 
and  "I  had  become." 

If,  in  a  dependent  clause  (introduced  by 
a  relative,  or  by  a  subordinating  conjunc- 
tion), an  auxiliary  (haben,  sein,  werden)  oc- 
curs with  two  infinitives,  the  auxiliary  is 
not  removed  to  the  end  of  the  clause,  but 
immediately  precedes  the  infinitives: 

Der  Wind  blast  meinen  Hut  so  schnell  fort, 
dass  ich  ihn  kaum  werde  fangen  konnen. 

Having  mastered  the  conjugation  of  the 
three  tense  auxiliaries,  we  may  turn  to  gen- 
eral verbs. 

These  are  of  two  classes  of  verbs,  called 
respectively  the  weak  and  the  strong,  or  the 
regular  and  the  irregular.  As  may  be  seen, 
these  terms  are  used  in  a  precisely  opposite 
sense  from  the  French,  where  a  "strong 
verb"  is  one  that  does  not  change  its  root, 
and,  hence,  is  "regular" ;  and  where  a  "weak 
verb"  is  one  that  does  change  its  root, 
and,  hence,  is  "irregular."  In  German  the 
"strong"  verbs  change,  and  the  "weak"  do 
not.  The  "weak"  verbs  follow  the  rules 
for  forming  the  simple  tenses;  the  "strong" 
do  not. 

PARADIGM  OF  A  WEAK  OR  REGULAR  VERB 

"LOBEN,"    TO    PRAISE 

Principal  Parts :  loben,  lobte,  gelobt 

ACTIVE  VOICE 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

ich  lobe,  I  praise 
du  lobst,  thou   praisest 
er  lobst,  he  praises 
wir  loben,  we  praise 
ihr  lobt,  you   praise 
Sie  loben,  you  praise 
sie  loben,  they  praise 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


123 


Imperfect 

ifh  lobte,  I  praised 
du  lobtest,  thou  praisedst 
er  lobte,  he  praised 
wir  lobten,  we  praised 
ihr  lobtet,  you  praised 
Sie  lobten,  you  praised 
sie  lobten,  they  praised 

Future 

ich  werde  lob  en,  I  shall  praise 
du  wirst  loben,  thou  wilt  praise 
er  wird  loben,  he  will  praise 
wir  werden  loben,  we  shall  praise 
ihr  werdet  loben,  you  will  praise 
Sie  werden  loben,  you  will  praise 
sie  werden  loben,  they  will  praise 

Perfect 

ich  habe  gelobt,  I  have  praised 
du  hast  gelobt,  thou  hast  praised 
er  hat  gelobt,  he  has  praised 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

ich  lobe,  I  praise 
du  lobest,  thou  praise 
er  lobe,  he  praise 
wir  loben,  we  praise 
ihr  lobet,  you  praise 
Sie  loben,  you  praise 
sie  loben,  they  praise 
Imperfect' 

ich  lobte,  I  praised 
du  lobtest,  thou  praised 
er  lobte,  he  praised 
wir  lobten,  we  praised 
ihr  lobtet,  you  praised 
Sie  lobten,  you  praised 
sie  lobten,  they  praised 

Future 

ich  werde  loben,  I  shall  praise 
du  werdest  loben,  thou  wilt  praise 
er  werde  loben,  he  will  praise 
wir  werden  loben,  we  shall  praise 
ihr  werdet  loben,  you  will  praise 
Sie  werden  loben,  you  will  praise 
sie  werden  loben,  they  will  praise 

Perfect 

ich  habe  gelobt,  I  have  praised 
du  habest  gelobt,  thou  hast  praised 
er  habe  gelobt,  he  has  praised 

IMPERATIVE 

lobe,  praise  thou 
lobe  er,  let  him  praise 
loben  wir,  let  us  praise 
lasst  uns  loben,  let  us  praise 
lobet,  praise   (you) 
loben  Sie,  praise   (you) 
loben  sie,  let  them  praise 


The  remainder  of  the  compound  tenses 
are  formed  with  inflections  of  either  werde*, 
or  haben,  or  both,  with  loben,  or  gelobt,  as 
the  case  may  be,  instead  of  haben  and  ge- 
habt,  in  the  paradigm  of  haben  given  above. 

THE  PASSIVE  VOICE  of  a  regular  verb  may 
be  understood  from  the  following  synopsis, 
always  remembering  that  the  tenses  of  wer- 
den are  inflected  as  in  the  foregoing  para- 
digms: 

SYNOPSIS  OF  "LIEBEN,"  TO  LOVE 
PASSIVE  VOICE 


INDICATIVE 

Present 

er  wird  geliebt,  he  is 
(becomes)  loved 

Imperfect 

er  wurde  (ward)  ge- 
liebt, he  was  loved 

Future 

er  wird  geliebt   wer- 
den, he  will  be  loved 

Perfect 

er  ist  geliebt  warden 
he  has  been  loved 


SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

er  werde  geliebt,  he 
may  be   loved 
Imperfect 

er  wurde  geliebt,  he 
might  be  loved 

Future 

er  werde  geliebt  wer- 
\     den,  he  will  be  loved 

Perfect 

er  sei  geliebt  war- 
den, he  may  have 
been  loved 

Pluperfect  Pluperfect 

er  war  geliebt  wor-  er  ware  geliebt  -war- 
den, he  had  been  den,  he  might  have 
loved  been  loved 

Future  Perfect  Future  Perfect 

er  wird  geliebt  wor-  er  werde  geliebt  war- 
den sein,  he  will  den  sein,  he  will 
have  been  loved  have  been  loved 

CONDITIONAL 

First  Conditional         Second  Conditional 
er  wurde  geliebt  wer-  er  wurde  geliebt  war- 
den, he  would  be        den  sein,  he  would 
loved  have  been  loved 

IMPERATIVE 

Present 
werde  geliebt,  be  loved 

INFINITIVES 

Present 
geliebt  werden,  to  be  loved 

Perfect 
geliebt  warden  sein,  to  have  been  loved 

PARTICIPLES 

Perfect 
geliebt  warden,  having  been  loved 

As  will  be  noticed  here,  the  prefix  gc  of 
the  auxiliary  past  participle  is  omitted  after 
the  past  participle  of  the  main  verb.  This 


124 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


rule  is  always  observed  by  the  past  par- 
ticiple of  every  verb  logically  and  gram- 
matically following  the  past  participle  of 
another. 

In  the  STRONG,  or  IRREGULAR,  verbs  the 
principal  irregularities  occur  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  imperfect  tenses  and  in  the  im- 
perative mood.  The  subjunctive  imperfect 
also  modifies  a,  o,  or  u,  like  haben.  In  the 
compound  tenses  and  in  the  passive  voice 
the  construction  is  perfectly  regular,  as  in 
the  foregoing  paradigms. 

PARADIGM  OF  A  STRONG,  OR  IRREG- 
ULAR, VERB 

"GEBEN,"    TO    GIVE 
Principal  Parts :  geben,  gab,  gegeben 


INDICATIVE 

Present 

ich  gebe,  I  give 
du  giebst,  thou  givest 
er  giebt,  he  gives 
wir  geben,  we  give 
ihr  gebt,  you  give 
Sie  geben,  you  give 
sie  geben,  they  give 

Imperfect 
ich  gab,  I  gave 
du  gabst,  thou  gavest 
er  gab,  he  gave 
wir  gaben,  we  gave 
ihr  gabt,  you  gave 
Sie  gaben,  you  gave 
sie  gaben,  they  gave 


SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

ich  gebe,  I  give 
du  gebest,  thou  give 
er  gebe,  he  give 
wir  geben,  we  give 
ihr  gebet,  you  give 
Sie  geben,  you  give 
sie  geben,  they  give 

Imperfect 
ich  gdbe,  I  gave 
du  g'dbest,  thou  gave 
er  gdbe,  he  gave 
wir  gaben,  we  gave 
ihr  gdbet,  you   gave 
Sie  gaben,  you  gave 
sie  gaben,  they  gave 


IMPERATIVE 

gieb,  gebet,  geben  Sie,  give 

VERBAL   PREFIXES 

German  verbs,  like  the  English,  are  fre- 
quently compounded  with  prepositional  par- 
ticles, which  have  the  force  of  modifying 
the  meaning.  There  are,  moreover,  two 
varieties  of  prefixes,  separable  and  insep- 
arable. In  German  such  prepositional  par- 
ticles are  prefixed  to  the  infinitive,  but, 
according  as  they  are  separable  or  insepara- 
ble, they  may  be  used,  as  in  many  of  the 
English  compound  verbs,  in  a  different 
part  of  the  sentence,  or  remain  prefixed  to 
the  verbal  stem. 

A  very  large  number  of  English  com- 
pound verbs  are  derived  direct  from  the 
Latin,  or  from  the  Latin  through  the 
French.  Thus,  from  the  same  Latin  root 
we  have  "accede,"  "precede,"  "proceed," 
"intercede,"  "recede,"  "secede,"  "succeed," 


"exceed."  All  such  prepositions  are  insep- 
arable. We  have  from  English  roots,  also, 
a  number  of  compounds,  like  "bewail," 
"forego,"  "mislead,"  "outline,"  "overlook," 
"withstand,"  "upset,"  which  are  inseparable. 
Many  such  may  be  used  separably,  however, 
in  which  case  a  different  meaning  is  as- 
sumed by  the  verb.  Thus :  "outlive"  and 
"live  out";  "overlook"  and  "look  over"; 
"upset"  and  "set  up,"  etc. 

In  studying  this  matter  of  verbal  pre- 
fixes, we  will  discover  that  the  same  rule 
holds  for  both  English  and  German :  sep- 
arable (or  separated)  prefixes  are  accented; 
the  inseparable  are  not.  Thus,  in  German, 
as  in  English,  a  number  of  particles  may 
be  used  separably  or  inseparably,  taking  or 
missing  the  accent  accordingly. 

The  following  particles  are  always  sep- 
arable; ab,  an,  auf,  aus,  bei,  dar  (da),  ein, 
fort,  her,  hin,  nach,  nieder,  ob,  vor,  weg, 
su,  zuriick  and  the  compounds  of  da,  her, 
hin,  vor — darunter,  davon,  heraus,  herunter, 
herzu,  hinauf,  hinaus,  hinein,  voraus,  vorbei, 
vorher,  voriiber. 

Thus :  from  anfangen,  "to  begin,"  we 
have  er  fdngt  an,  "he  begins" ;  from  heraus- 
kommen,  "to  come  out,"  nichts  kommt 
heraus,  "nothing  comes  out  [of  it]."  The 
separable  prefix  stands  at  the  end  of  the 
clause  with  all  Jhe  inflected  parts  of  such 
verbs,  except  when  standing  in  a  dependent 
clause. 

The  particles  durch,  hinter,  iiber,  urn, 
unter,  voll,  wieder,  are  separable  when  the 
accent  rests  on  the  particle,  inseparable 
when  it  rests  on  the  first  syllable  of  the 
verb.  In  most  cases  the  verb  with  one  of 
these  particles  used  inseparably  has  a  fig- 
urative meaning.  Thus : 

durch'laufen,  to  run  through 

durchlau'fen,  to  peruse  hastily 

ii'bersetzen,  to  cross  over 

uberse'tzen,  to  translate 

um'gehen,  to  go  round 

umge'hen,  to  evade 

un'terhalten,  to  hold  under 
unterhal'ten,  to  entertain 
hin'tergehen,  to  go  behind 
hinterge'hen,  to  deceive 
wie'derholen,  to  recover,  recollect 
wiederho'len,  to  repeat 

The  prefixes  be,  emp,  er,  ge,  ver,  wider, 
zer,  are  always  inseparable;  the  prefix  mis, 
almost  always.  The  student  should  care- 
fully discriminate  between  wider,  "against," 
and  wieder,  "again,"  given  in  a  previous 
list.  Both  are  used  inseparably. 


GERMAN   SELF-TAUGHT 


125 


It  is  important  that  the  student  carefully 
commit  to  memory  the  foregoing  lists  of 
prefixes,  separable  and  inseparable,  since 
several  important  rules  govern  their  proper 
use  with  verbal  roots. 

FIRST,  with  all  compound  verbs  the  par- 
ticle is  always  prefixed  to  the  infinitives 
and  participles,  whether  it  be  separable  or 
inseparable  in  the  other  tenses.  Thus : 

Da  ist  in  meinem  herzen  die  Liebe  aufge- 

gangen. 
Da  hab'  ich  ihr  gestanden. 

The  participle  in  the  last  sentence  is  de- 
rived from  the  verb  gestehen,  "to  con- 
fess," not  from  stehen,  "to  stand." 

SECOND,  separable  prefixes  always  pre- 
cede the  augment  syllable  ge  of  the  past 
participle. 

THIRD,  inseparable  prefixes  are  always 
prefixed  directly  to  the  perfect  stem,  the 
syllable  ge  being  omitted.  Antworten,  "to 
answer,"  however,  has  its  past  participle 
geantwortet. 

FOURTH,  if  a  particle  prefix  may  be  used 
either  separably  or  inseparably,  as  in  the 
list  of  verbs  given  above,  it  is  prefixed  be- 
fore ge,  when  separable,  and  takes  the  ac- 
cent; and  is  prefixed  direct  to  the  stem  of 
the  perfect  participle,  omitting  ge,  the  ac- 
cent being  thrown  upon  the  first  syllable 
of  the  root  word. 

Thus  we  have  the  principal  parts  with 
inseparables : 


durchdri'ngen,  durchdra'ng,  durchdru'ngen, 
to  penetrate 

durchrei' sen,     durchrei'ste,     durchrei'st,    to 
travel  over 

uberfuh'ren,  uberfiih'rte,  uberfuh'rt,  to  con- 
vince 

unterha'lten,  unterhie'lt,  unterha'lten,  to  en- 
tertain 
Also  the  principal  parts  with  separables: 

du'rchdringen,  drang  du'rch,  du'rchgedrun- 
gen,  to  press  through  a  crowd,  etc. 

du'rchreisen,  reiste  du'rch,  du'rchgereist,  to 
travel   through 

uberfiirhen,    fiihrte    iiber,    iibergefuhrt,    to 
convey  over 

unterhalten,    hielt   unter,   untergehalten,   to 
hold   under 

In  addition  to  the  verbs  with  inseparable 
prefixes  and  those  with  separable  prefixes 
used  inseparably,  all  verbs  whose  present 
infinitive  ends  in  ieren,  as  marchieren,  omit 
the  augment  ge  in  the  past  participle. 

Certain  prefixes  require  certain  cases  in 
the  noun  to  follow  the  verb.  Thus,  the 
prefix  be,  as  in  English,  renders  the  verb 
transitive,  even  though  its  simple  form  be 
intransitive,  or  used  with  an  indirect  ob- 
ject. The  same  is  true  of  verbs  with  ver 
and  zer,  although  -vergeben,  verzeihen,  and 
a  few  others,  govern  the  dative,  while  ver- 
blasen,  verbleiben,  verkehren,  and  a  num- 
ber of  others,  are  intransitive.  Most  verbs 
compounded  with  ab,  an,  auf,  aus,  bei,  ein, 
emp  (ent),  entgegen,  mis,  mil,  nach,  unter, 
•vor,  wider,  zu,  govern  the  dative. 


OUTLINES     OF     GERMAN     SYNTAX 


The  uses  of  the  verb  in  German  are 
peculiar  in  a  number  of  particulars,  mak- 
ing it  quite  impossible  to  render  a  sen- 
tence directly  from  or  into  the  English. 
All  the  idioms,  however,  are  very  simple, 
extremely  regular,  and  by  no  means  diffi- 
cult to  remember.  It  will  be  necessary 
for  the  student  to  master  the  rules  thor- 
oughly before  attempting  to  form  even  the 
simplest  sentences  in  German. 

Perhaps  the  most  difficult  matters  in  the 
German  verb  relate  to  the  use  of  the  sub- 
junctive mood,  as  this  mood  is  all  but 
obsolete  in  English.  Since,  in  German  the 
indicative  mood  is  used  only  where  state- 
ments of  positive,  actual,  and  certain  facts 
are  to  be  made,  the  subjunctive  mood  is 
most  often  used  to  express  uncertainty,  con- 
tingency, doubt,  possibility;  in  general,  mat- 
ters on  which  the  speaker  does  not  wish 
to  make  an  unqualified  statement. 


'  CONTINGENT  ASSERTIONS.  —  In  making 
statements  beginning  with  "I  think  that"; 
"I  believe  that" ;  "I  incline  to  think  that" ; 
"I  assume  that,"  etc.,  the  verb  of  the  En- 
glish dependent  clause  should  properly 
stand  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  as  in  Ger- 
man. In  the  latter  language,  however,  it 
is  frequently  the  case  that  only  the  de- 
pendent clause  is  used,  the  main  clause 
being  omitted  and  understood  (logically). 
Thus:  Ich  wtiste  wohl("I  may  know  well"), 
"I  think  I  know";  Ich  d'dchte,  "I  incline 
to  think";  also,  dass  ich  wiisste,  "so  far  as 
I  know." 

WISHES  AND  COMMANDS  are  often  ex- 
pressed by  the  subjunctive  in  German,  as 
in  Latin  and  in  classic  English.  Thus: 
Wdren  mir  nur  Flugel  gegeben,  "Were 
wings  only  given  me";  Das  thue  er  nicht, 
"Let  him  not  do  that";  Lang  lebe  der 
Konig,  "Long  live  the  king."  g 


126 


GERMAN   SELF-TAUGHT 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  is  one  of  the  more 
familiar  uses  of  the  subjunctive  mood.  As 
in  English,  the  clause  indirectly  quoted  is 
often  introduced  by  the  particles  "that" 
(doss),  "whether"  (ob),  etc.,  when,  of 
course,  the  words  take  the  transposed  or- 
der. Thus:  Sie  sagten,  sie  wiissten  die 
Zeit  nicht,  "They  said  they  did  not  know 
the  time";  Ich  riet  ihm,  doss  er  Aeisiger 
werde,  "I  advised  him  that  he  (to)  be- 
come (be)  more  diligent";  Frage  ihn,  ob 
er  schon  meinen  Bruder  gesehen  habe,  "Ask 
him  whether  (if)  he  has  seen  my  brother." 

SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES. — The  proper  se- 
quence of  tenses,  between  the  verbs  of  the 
main  and  dependent  clauses,  generally  fol- 
lows certain  definite  rules,  although  popu- 
lar usage,  as  in  English,  allows  some  varia- 
tions. Thus,  the  present  or  perfect  sub- 
junctive properly  follow  a  past  tense  in 
the  main  clause,  although  the  imperfect  or 
pluperfect  are  often  used,  particularly  when 
the  form  of  the  proper  tense  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  indicative  used  in  the  main 
clause.  To  be  brief,  the  rule  demands 
the  same  tense  of  the  subjunctive  in  in- 
direct discourse  that  the  indicative  would 
take  in  the  direct  discourse,  except  where 
an  assimilation  takes  place  from  the  pres- 
ent to  the  past  in  ordinary  narrations.  Thus, 
in  narrations,  Sie  glaubten  es  ware  (not 
sei)  Herr  Schneider,  "They  thought  it  was 
Mr.  Schneider."  But :  Sie  glauben  es  ware 
Herr  Schneider.  The  past  tense  rendering 
"It  is,"  spoken  in  the  past,  gives  "it  was"; 
but  the  present  tense,  quoting  a  present  re- 
mark about  a  past  event,  takes  the  same 
word.  Thus,  the  German  may  use  the  pres- 
ent or  past  tense  in  the  subjunctive,  where 
the  English  generally  gives  only  the  past. 

USES  OF  THE  TENSES 

THE  PRESENT  TENSE  may  be  used  where 
the  English  gives  the  perfect — as  a  form 
of  "present  anterior" — when  the  action,  re- 
ferred to  past  time,  continues  to  the  present 
in  force  or  effect.  Thus :  Ich  sehe  ihn  nicht 
schon  seit  drei  Monaten,  "I  have  not  seen 
him  for  three  months" ;  Sind  Sie  schan  lange 
in  America?  "Have  you  been  long  in 
America?"  But,  in  speaking  of  an  action 
continuing  to  a  certain  definite  past  time, 
either  the  present  or  imperfect  may  be 
used.  Thus:  Ich  sah  (or  sehe)  ihn  nicht 
scit  drei  Monaten. 

THE  PERFECT  TENSE  is  frequently  used 
for  the  English  preterit,  in  the  sense  of 
simple  past  time;  in  referring  to  an  action 


not  necessarily  habitual  or  continued;  in 
stating  a  general  truth.  Thus:  Ich  habe 
hcute  meinen  Hund  verloren,  "I  lost  my 
dog  to-day";  Gott  hat  die  Welt  erschaffen, 
"God  created  the  world";  Vorige  Woche 
bin  ich  in  Boston  gewesen,  "Last  week  I 
was  in  Boston,"  but  Vorige  Woche  war 
ich  in  Boston,  als  der  Herr  President  das 
Stadthaus  besuchte.  In  the  latter  sentence 
the  notion  of  continued  action — "was  visit- 
ing"—to  be  translated  by  the  English  pro- 
gressive conjugation  involves  that  the  state 
of  the  first  clause  extends  beyond  a  merely 
isolated  point  or  period  of  past  time. 
Hence  the  use  of  the  imperfect  in  both 
clauses. 

THE  FUTURE  TENSE  expresses  not  only 
futurity,  but  also  probability,  as  in  the 
English  "may."  Thus:  Er  wird  dreizig 
Jahre  alt  sein,  "He  may  be  thirty  years 
old."  Futurity  is  very  often  expressed  by 
the  present  tense.  Thus:  Morgen  ist  mein 
Geburtstag,  "To-morrow  will  be  (is)  my 
birthday";  Morgen  bin  ich  swanzig  Jahre 
alt,  "To-morrow  I  shall  be  (am)  twenty 
years  old."  In  very  many  such  cases,  how- 
ever, the  same  idiom  holds  in  English. 

IN     ATTEMPTING     TO     FORM     SENTENCES     in 

German,  the  student  will  soon  find  himself 
puzzled  by  the  numerous  departures  from 
rules  found  in  the  "strong,"  or  irregular, 
verbs,  many  of  the  most  common  of  which 
he  will  find  it  necessary  to  commit  to 
memory.  Full  lists  of  these  verbs  are 
given  in  most  grammars  and  dictionaries. 

MODAL  TENSES 

The  use  of  the  modal  auxiliaries,  or 
auxiliaries  of  mood,  in  German  involves 
numerous  rules,  usages  and  idioms  quite 
foreign  to  anything  found  in  English. 

In  the  first  place,  some  of  the  corre- 
sponding words  in  English — such  as 
"ought,"  "let,"  "permit,"  "intend,"  etc.— 
are  followed  by  .the  infinitive  with  "to." 
This  is  contrary  to  German  usage,  since 
the  preposition  "to"  never  precedes  the  in- 
finitive used  with  a  modal  auxiliary. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  modal  auxil- 
iaries are  as  follows: 

konnen,  konnte,  gekonnt,  be  able 
mogen,  mochte,  gemocht,  may,  might 
miissen,  musste,  gemusst,  must,  be  com- 
pelled 
sollen,  sollte,  gesollt,  ought,  should,  be 

obliged 

ivollen,  wollte,  gewollt,  will,  intend 
diirfen,  durfte,  gedurft,  be  allowed 
lassen,  Hess,  gelassen,  let,  get  to  do 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


127 


One  peculiarity  of  the  modal  auxiliaries, 
most  frequently  of  mussen,  wollen,  sollen, 
is  that,  with  the  infinitive  of  another  verb, 
the  compound  tenses  take  the  form  of  the 
present  participle  with  haben.  Thus:  ich 
habe — sollen;  ich  habe — mussen;  ich  habe 
— wollen,  etc.,  as  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

Am  Ende,  er  hat  die  Aufgabe  lernen 
mussen,  "In  the  end,  he  was  obliged  to 
learn  his  lesson." 

Wir  haben  heute  Morgen  Brief e  schreiben 
sollen,  "We  ought  to  have  written  letters 
this  morning." 

THE    AUXILIARIES    OF    MODE 

THE  AUXILIARY  "MUSSEN"  (MUST),  TO   BE 
OBLIGED,  TO  HAVE  TO 

Principal   Parts :   mussen,  musste,  gemusst 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

ich  muss,  I  must,  am  obliged 
du  musst,  thou  must 
er  muss,  he  must 
wir  mussen,  we  must 
ihr  musst,  you  must 
Sie  mussen,  you  must 
sie  mussen,  they  must 

Imperfect 

ich  musste,  I   was  obliged 
du  musstest,  thou  wast  obliged 
er  musste,  he  was  obliged 
•wir  mussten,  we  were  obliged 
ihr  musst et,  you  were  obliged 
Sie  mussten,  you  were  obliged 
sie  mussten,  they  were  obliged 

Future 

ich  werde  mussen,  I   shall  be  obliged 
du  wirst  mussen,  thou  wilt  be  obliged,  etc. 

Perfect 
ich  habe  gemusst   or   mussen,  I   have 

been  obliged 
du  hast  gemusst  or  mussen,  etc. 

Pluperfect 
ich   hatte   gemusst   or   mussen,   I    had 

been  obliged 
du  hottest  gemusst  or  mussen,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

ich  miisse,    (that)    I   must,  be  obliged 
du  mnssest,  thou  must 
er  musse,  he  must 
wir  mussen,  we  must 
ihr  miisset,  you  must 
Sie  mussen,  you  must 
sie  mussen,  they  must 


Imperfect 

ich  musste,  I  were  obliged 
du  musstest,  thou  wert  obliged 
er  musste,  he  were  obliged 
wir  mussten,   we  were  obliged 
ihr  musstet,  you  were  obliged 
Sie  mussten,  you  were  obliged 
sie  mussten,  they  were  obliged 

Future 

ich  werde  mussen,  (that)  I  shall  be  obliged 
du  werdest  mussen,  thou  wilt  be  obliged,  etc. 

Perfect 
ich  habe  gemusst  or  mussen,  (that)  I  have 

been  obliged 
du  habest  gemusst  or  mussen,  etc. 

Pluperfect 
ich  hatte  gemusst  or  mussen,  (that)  I  had 

been   obliged 
du  hottest  gemusst  or  mussen,  etc. 

INFINITIVES 

Present 
mussen,  to  be  obliged 

Perfect 

gemusst  haben  or  haben  mussen,  to  have 
been  obliged 

PARTICIPLES 

Present 
mussend,  being  obliged 

Past 
gemusst  or  mussen,  been  obliged 

The  other  compound  tenses  are  conju- 
gated like  verbs  with  the  auxiliary  haben, 
except  for  the  peculiar  construction  com- 
mon to  the  use  of  the  perfect  participle 
constructions  with  these  verbs. 

THE  AUXILIARY   "KONNEN"   (CAN),   TO   BE 
ABLE 

Principal  Parts :  konnen,  konnte,  gekonnt 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

ich  kann,  I  can,  am  able 
du   kannst,  thou  canst 
er  kann,  he  can 
wir  konnen,  we  can 
ihr  konnt,  you  can 
Sie  konnen,  you  can 
sie  konnen,  they  can 

Imperfect 

ich  konnte,  I  could,  was  able 
du  konntest,  thou  couldst 
er  konnte,  he  could 
wir  konnten,  we  could 
ihr  konntet,  you  could 
Sie  konnten,  you  could 
sie  konnten,  they  could 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

ich  konne,   (that)   I  can,  be  able 
du  konnest,  thou  canst 
er  konne,  he  can 
wir  konnen,  we  can 
ihr  konnet,  you  can 
Sie  konnen,  you  can 
sie  konnen,  they  can 

Imperfect 

ich  kdnnte,  I  could,  were  able 
du  konntest,  thou  couldst 
er  kdnnte,  he  could 
wir  konnten,  we  could 
ihr  konntet,  you  could 
S»V  konnten,  you  could 
«V  konnten,  they  could 


THE  AUXILIARY  "WOLLEN"  (WILL),  TO  BE 
WILLING  (TO  WISH,  TO  LIKE) 

Principal   Parts:   wollen,  wollte,  gewollt 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

ich  -will,  I  will,  am  willing 
du  willst,  thou  wilt 
er  will,  he  will 
wir  wollen,  we  will 
ihr  wollt,  you  will 
Sie  wollen,  you  will 
sie  wollen,  they  will 

Imperfect 

ich  wollte,  I  would,  was  willing 
du  wolltest,  thou  wouldst 
er  wollte,  he  would 
wir  wollten,  we  would 
ihr  wollt et,  you  would 
Sie  wollten,  you  would 
sie  wollten,  they  would 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

ich  wolle,  (that)  I  will,  be  willing 
du  wollest,  thou  wilt 
er  wolle,  he  will 
wir  wollen,  we  will 
ihr  wollet,  you  will 
Sie  wollen,  you  will 
sie  wollen,  they  will 

Imperfect 

ich  wollte,  (that)  I  would,  were  willing 
du  wolltest,  thou  wouldst 
er  wollte,  he  would 
wt'r  wollten,  we  would 
i'&r  wolltet,  you  would 
5"tV  wollten,  you  would 
jiV  wollten,  they  would 


THE  AUXILIARY  "SOLLEN,"  SHALL 
(OBLIGATORY),  OUGHT 

Principal   Parts:   sollen,  sollte,   gesollt 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

ich  soil,  I  shall,  am  to 
du  sollt,  thou  shalt 
er  soil,  he  shall 
wir  sollen,  we  shall 
ihr  sollt,  you  shall 
Sie  sollen,  you  shall 
jiV  sollen,  they  shall 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


ich  solle,   (that)   I  shall 
du  solle st,  thou  shalt 
er  solle,  he  shall 
wir  sollen,  we  shall 
ihr  sollet,  you  shall 
Sie  sollen,  you  shall 
sie  sollen,  they  shall 

The   imperfects,   indicative   and   subjunc- 
tive, are  like  those  of  wollen. 

THE  AUXILIARY  "DURFEN,"  TO  BE 
ALLOWED  (TO  DARE) 

Principal   Parts:  durfen,  durfte,  gedurft 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

ich  darf,  I  am  allowed 
du  darfst,  thou  art  allowed 
er  darf,  he  is  allowed 
wir  durfen,  we  are  allowed 
ihr  dtirft,  you  are  allowed 
Sie  durfen,  you  are  allowed 
sie  durfen,  they  are  allowed 

Imperfect 

ich  durfte,  I  was  allowed 
du  durftest,  thou  wast  allowed 
er  durfte,  he  was  allowed 
•wir  durften,  we  were  allowed 
ihr  durftet,  you  were  allowed 
Sie  durften,  you  were  allowed 
sie  durften,  they  were  allowed 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

ich  diirfe,  I  be  allowed 
du  diirfest,  thou  be  allowed 
er  diirfe,  he  be  allowed 
wir  durfen,  we  be  allowed 
ihr  diirfet,  you  be  allowed 
Sie  durfen,  you  be  allowed 
sie  durfen,  they  be  allowed 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


129 


Imperfect 

ich  durfte,  I  were  allowed 
du  durftest,  thou  wert  allowed 
er  durfte,  he  were  allowed 
wir  durften,  we  were  allowed 
ihr  diirftet,  you  were  allowed 
Sie  durften,  you  were  allowed 
sie  durften,  they  were  allowed 

THE  AUXILIARY  "MOGEN"  (MAY),  TO   LIKE 

Principal    Parts:    mogen,  mochte,   gemocht 
INDICATIVE 

Present 

ich  mag,  I  may,  like 
du  magst,  thou  mayest 
er  mag,  he  may 
wir  mo  gen,  we  may. 
ihr  mogt,  you  may 
Sie  mo  gen,  you  may 
sie  m'ogen,  they  may 

Imperfect 

ich  mochte,  I  liked 
du  mochtest,  thou  likedst 
er  mochte,  he  liked 
wir  mochten,  we  liked 
ihr  mochtet,  you  liked 
Sie  mochten,  you  liked 
sie  mochten,  they  liked 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

ich  moge,  (that)  I  may,  like 
du  mogest,  thou  mayest 

er  moge,  he  may 

wir  mogen,  we  may 
ihr  moget,  you  may 
Sie  mogen,  you  may 
sie  mogen,  they  may 

Imperfect 
ich  mochte,  (that)  I  might,  liked 

du  mochtest,  thou  mightest 

er  mochte,  he  might 

wir  mochten,  we  might 

ihr  mochtet,  you  might 

Sie  mochten,  you  might 

sie  mochten,  they  might 

THE    CAUSATIVE    AUXILIARY    "LASSEN," 
TO   LET,  TO   LEAVE  (TO  HAVE  DONE) 

Principal   Parts :   lassen,  Hess,  gelassen 


INDICATIVE 
Present 
I  let 
ich  lasse 
du  Idssest 
er  Idsst 
wir  lassen 
ihr  lasset 
sie  lassen 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
Present 

I  may  let 
ich  lasse 
du  lassest 

er  lasse 
wir  lassen 
ihr  lasset 
sie  lassen 


INDICATIVE 
Imperfect 
ich   Hess 

Perfect 
ich  habe  gelassen 

Pluperfect 
ich  hatte  gelassen 

Future 
ich  werde  lassen 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
Imperfect 
ich   Hesse 

Perfect 
ich  habe  gelassen 

Pluperfect 
ich  hatte  gelassen 

Future 

ich  werde  lassen 
Future  Perfect 


Future  Perfect 
ich  werde  gelassen     ich  werde  gelassen 
haben  haben 

FIRST   CONDITIONAL 

ich    wurde    lassen 

SECOND  CONDITIONAL 

ich  wurde  gelassen  haben 

IMPERATIVE 

lassen  wir 
lasset  ihr 
lassen  sie 

SYNTAX    OF    THE    MODAL    AUXILI- 
ARIES 

The  uses  and  meanings  of  the  modal 
auxiliaries  are  numerous,  and  far  more  in- 
clusive than  those  of  their  English  equiva- 
lents. In  fact,  the  equivalents  given  in  the 
above  lists  and  paradigms  represent  only 
a  small  portion  of  the  meanings  actually 
belonging  to  them.  To  be  perfectly  precise, 
we  will  take  each  verb  in  turn,  giving  a 
list  of  the  meanings  commonly  attached  to 
it;  then  arrange  sentences  under  the  En- 
glish equivalents.  Thus : 

THE  AUXILIARY  mtissen  signifies  gener- 
ally moral  necessity,  occasionally,  also  phys- 
ical necessity. 

THE  AUXILIARY  konnen,  on  the  other 
hand,  denotes  (a)  physical  possibility;  (b) 
it  is  used  in  the  sense  of  the  English 
"may,"  as  indicating  a  possibility  or  proba- 
bility admitted  by  a  speaker;  (c)  it  has 
the  force  of  "know"  or  "able  to  speak,"  in 
sentences  referring  to  languages,  as,  ich 
kann  nicht  Englisch,  "I  can  not  speak  En- 
glish." 

THE  AUXILIARY  mogen  expresses  (a) 
permission  or  lack  of  objection  to  an  ac- 
tion; (b)  a  possibility  granted  in  speak- 
ing; (c)  inclination  or  liking;  (d)  wishing. 

THE  AUXILIARY  wollen  expresses  (a) 
desire,  design,  or  intent ;  (b)  with  eben, 
immediate  future  action,  being  about  to 
act;  meaning  or  significance. 


130 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


THE  AUXILIARY  sollen  expresses  (a) 
moral  obligation,  duty;  (b)  significance  or 
value;  (c)  contingent  possibility,  in  the 
sense  of  "would";  (d)  allegation,  in  the 
sense  of  "it  is  said";  (e)  destiny,  in  the 
sense  of  "should,"  "was  to";  (f)  chance, 
in  the  sense  of  "should";  (g)  by  ellipsis, 
should,  with  an  infinitive  ("do,"  etc.)  un- 
derstood. 

THE  AUXILIARY  diirfen  expresses  (a) 
obligation;  (b)  allowance,  or  permission; 
(c)  venturing  or  daring  in  the  moral 
sense;  (d)  as  the  English  "need"  in  "You 
need  not  complain,"  Sie  diirfen  nicht 
dariiber  klagen;  (e)  admitted  probability 
or  possibility. 

THE  CAUSATIVE  AUXILIARY  lassen  signi- 
fies (a)  to  let,  allow,  permit;  (b)  to  leave; 
(c)  to  have  or  get  (before  an  infinitive)  ;  (d) 
to  cause,  to  order  (before  an  active  infinitive)  ; 
(e)  "let,"  as  an  auxiliary  imperative,  as  in 
lasst  uns  singen  und  tanzen,  "Let  us  sing 
and  dance";  (f)  "may"  or  "can"  with  the 
reflective  pronoun  sich. 

In  its  use  as  causative  auxiliary  it  sup- 
plies the  place  of  the  English  phrase  "have 
done."  Thus :  "I  have  had  a  pair  of  shoes 
made."  Ich  habe  ein  Paar  Schuhc  machen 
lassen. 

IDIOMATIC   USES   OP  THE   MODAL,  AUXILI- 
ARIES 

In  learning  the  principles  of  the  German 
language,  it  is  necessary  to  fully  under- 
stand how  to  express  a  number  of  ideas, 
used  in  English  with  proper  verbal  auxil- 
iaries or  with  general  verbs  used  in  an 
auxiliary  manner. 

Prominent  among  these  meanings,  as  we 
have  already  learned,  are  can,  could,  do 
(auxiliary  and  emphatic),  know,  let,  like, 
may,  mean,  might,  must,  need,  ought,  pre- 
tend, "said  to  be,"  shall,  should,  want,  will, 
wish,  would.  As  most  of  these  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  two  or  more  German  auxiliaries, 
the  following  lists  of  modal  idioms  will  be 
arranged  under  the  English  equivalents. 

I.  CAN,  COULD 

I  can  do  it     Ich  kann  es  thun. 

How  can  I  help  it?     Was  kann  ich  dafiir? 

I    can    do    nothing   else.      Ich    kann   nicht 

anders. 

I  can  speak  German.  Ich  kann  Deutsch. 
I  can  not  help  laughing.  Ich  muss  lachen. 
Who  can  it  have  been?  Wer  muss  es  ge- 

wesen  sein? 
He  can  not  be  there.    Er  muss  noch  nicht 

da  sein. 


What  can  (am  I  to)  do?    Was  soil  ich? 
How  could  that  be  possible?     Wie  solltg 

das  moglich  seinf 
Can  that  be  true.    So  lite  das  wahr  seinf 

II.  Do  (auxiliary  emphatic) 
What  do  you  mean  by  that?     Was  wollen 

Sie  damit  sagen? 
That  does  not  quite  please  me.     Das  will 

mir  nicht  recht  gef  alien. 

III.  LET  (Allow,  Permit) 

I  let  him  alone.    Ich  lasse  ihn  stehen. 
We  let  the  children  sleep.     Wir  lassen  die 

Kinder  schlafen. 
Let  us  take  a  cup  of  coffee.    Lassen  Sie  uns 

eine   Tasse  Kaffee  trinken. 
Let  him  take  care.     Er  mag  sich  in  Acht 

nehmen. 

IV.  LIKE  (Incline,  Care) 

He  does  not  like  to  drink  wine.    Er  mag 

keinen  Wein  trinken. 
I  should  have  liked  to  see  him.    Ich  hdtte 

ihn  sehen  mogen. 
I   should  like  to  know.     Ich  mochte  gem. 

wohl  wissen. 
I  incline   (almost)   to  think.     Fast  mochte 

das  nicht  glauben. 
I  did  not  like  to  do  it.     Ich  habe  es  nicht 

thun  mogen. 

V.   MAY 
You  may  come  in.    Du  kannst  herein  kom- 

men. 
He    may    be    a    German.      Er    kann    ein 

Deutscher  sein. 
You  may  read  the  letter.     Sie  mogen  den 

Brief   lesen. 

It  may  be  true.    Es  mag  wahr  sein. 
This  question  may  possibly  be  superfluous. 

Diese  Frage  diirfte  wohl  uberttussig  sein. 
May  I  ask  ?    Darf  ich  fragen. 
He   may   have    forgotten   that.     Er  diirfte 

das  vergessen  haben.      Er  kann  das  vcr-' 

gessen  haben. 
It  may  be  three  months  already.    Es  mogen 

jetzt  drei  Monaten  sein. 
It  may  be  as  you  say.    Es  mag  sein  wie  du 

sagst. 

VI.   MEAN 

What  does  it  mean?     Was  soil  das? 
What  is  it   (does  it  mean)   to  me?     Was 

soil  mir  das? 
What  do  you  mean  by  that?     Was  wollen 

Sie  damit  sagen? 

VII.  MIGHT 
Might  it  not  be  too  late?    Diirfte  es  nicht 

zu  spat  sein. 
That    might    be    dangerous.      Das    konntg 

gefahrlich  sein. 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


131 


VIII.  MUST 

It    n;ust    (needs)    be    so.      Es    muss   nun 

einmal  so  sein. 
He  must   be   sick.     Er  muss  wohl   krank 

sein. 
If  it  must  be  so.     Wenn  es  sein  soil. 

IX.  NEED 

He  needs  fcut  to  command.     Er  darf  nur 

befehlen. 
You  need  not  complain.    Sie  durften  nicht 

dariiber  klagen. 

X.  OUGHT 

He  ought  to  pay  his  debts.    Er  sollte  seine 

Schulden  bezahlen. 
I    ought   to   have   gone.     Ich   hdtte   gehen 

sollen. 

XL  PRETEND   (Profess) 

He  pretends   to   have  known  us.     Er  -will 
uns  bekannt  haben. 

XII.  "SAID  TO  BE" 

He  is  said  to  be  very  poor.     Er  soil  sehr 

arm   sein. 
This   (statue  or  picture)   is  said  to  be  Mr. 

Smith.     Dies  soil  Herr  Smith  sein. 

XIII.  SHALL,  WILL   (about  to  be) 

He  was  about  to  go  out.  '  Er  wollte  eben 

ausgehen. 
He  is  about  to  speak.    Er  will  eben  sprechen, 

or  Er  ist  im  Begriff  zu  sprechen. 
Where    are    you    going?      Wo    wollen   Sie 

hin? 
You  shall  smart  for  it.     Du  sollst  es  em- 

pfinden. 
He  was  about    (destined)    to  experience  a 

greater  misfortune.     Er  sollte  ein  gross- 

eres  Ungliick  erleben. 

XIV.  SHOULD  (Would) 

I   should  like  to  know.     Ich  mdchte  gern 

wohl  wissen. 

I   should  prefer.     Ich  mdchte  gern — lieber. 
One  would  think.     Man  sollte  meinen. 

XV.  TELL  (Bid) 

He  told  the  messenger  to  wait  outside.    Er 
lies  den  Bo  ten  draussen  war  ten. 

Among  other  modal  idioms,  the  following 
may  be  mentioned  as  expressions  of  wish, 
etc.,  such  as :  Please  God.  Wills  Gott. — God 
forbid  it.  Das  wolle  nicht  Gott. — Would 
God  it  were  trite.  Wollte  Gott  es  ware 
wahr. 


STRONG  AND   MIXED   VERBS 

There  are  seven  classes  of  irregular  verbs 
in  German: 

(1)  Those  changing  radical  e  into  a  in 
the    imperfect    indicative    and    resuming    it 
in  the  past  participle;   as,  geben,  gab,  ge- 
geben. 

(2)  Those  changing  radical  e  or  i  to  a  in 
the  imperfect  indicative,  and  into  o  in  the 
past  participle;  as,  nehmen,  nahm,  genom- 
men  and  gewinnen,  gewann,  gewonnen. 

(3)  Those  changing  radical  i  into  a  in 
the  imperfect  and  into  u  in  the  past  par- 
ticiple; as,  schlingen,  schlang,  geschlungen. 

(4)  Those  changing  radical  a  into  ie  in 
the  imperfect  and  resuming  it  in  the  past 
participle;  as,  halten,  hielt,  gehalten. 

(5)  Those  changing  radical  ei  into  ie  in 
both  imperfect  and  past  participle,  but  into 
i  before   a   double   consonant;   as,   bleiben, 
blieb,   geblieben. 

(6)  Those  changing  radical  a,  au,  e,  i,  ie, 
o,  ii,  into  o  in  the  imperfect  and  past  par- 
ticiple. 

(7)  Those  changing  radical  a  into  «  in 
the  imperfect;  as,  wachsen,  wuchs,  gewach- 
sen. 

EXPLANATION. — Compounds  are  not  in- 
cluded in  this  list,  unless  the  simple  verb  is 
not  in  use.  The  letters  (h)  and  (s)  signify 
that  the  auxiliary  is  haben  or  sein.  Where 
a  tense  is  regular,  it  is  omitted  from  the  list. 

The  principal  irregularities  occur  in  the 
present  indicative  (i),  the  imperfect  indica- 
tive (2),  the  imperfect  subjunctive  (3),  and 
the  past  participle  (4),  as  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing list. 

When  there  are  three  forms  under  (i), 
the  first,  second,  and  third  persons  are  in- 
dicated ;  when  only  two,  the  second  and 
third.  Two  forms  under  (2)  and  (3)  indi- 
cate variations  of  the  first  person  singular. 

BACKEN,  (h),  bake,  (i)  backst,  backt; 
(2)  buk;  (3)  biike;  (4)  gebacken. 

BEFEHLEN,  (h),  command, (i)befiehlst,  be- 
fiehlt;  (2)  befahl;  (3)  befahle,  befohle ;  (4) 
befohlen. 

BEFLEISSEN,  (h),  apply,  (2)  befliss;  (3) 
beflisse;  (4)  beflissen. 

BEGINNEN,  (h),  begin,  (2)  begann;  (3) 
beganne,  begonne;  (4)  begonnen. 

BEISSEN,  (h),  bite,  (2)  biss;  (3)  bisse; 
(4)  gebissen. 

BERGEN,  (h),  hide,  (i)  birgst,  birgt;  (2) 
barg;  (3)  barge,  biirge;  (4)  geborgen. 

BERSTEN,  (s),  burst,  (i)  birstest,  birst; 
(2)  barst,  borst;  (3)  barste,  borste;  (4) 
geborstenj 


132 


GERMAN   SELF-TAUGHT 


BEWEGEN,  (h),  induce,  (2)  bewog;  (3) 
bewoge;  (4)  bewogen. 

BIEGEN,  (h  and  s),  bend,  (2)  bog;  (3) 
boge;  (4)  gebogen. 

BIETEN,  (h),  offer,  (i)  beutst,  beut;  (2) 
bot;  (3)  bote;  (4)  geboten. 

BINDEN,  (h),  bind,  (2)  band;  (3)  bande; 
(4)  gebunden. 

BITTEN,  (h),  beg,  (2)  bat;  (3)  bate;  (4) 
gebeten. 

BLASEN,  (h),  blow,  (i)  blasest,  blast;  (2) 
blies;  (3)  bliese;  (4)  geblasea 

BLEIBEN,  (s),  remain,  (2)  blieb;  (3) 
bliebe ;  (4)  geblieben. 

BLEICHEN,  (h),  bleach,  (2)  blich;  (3) 
bliche ;  (4)  geblichen. 

BRATEN,  (h),  roast,  (i)  bratst,  brat;  (2) 
briet;  (3)  briete;  (4)  gebraten. 

BRECHEN,  (h  and  s),  break,  (i)  brichst, 
bricht;  (2)  brach;  (3)  brache;  (4)  ge- 
brochen. 

BRENNEN,  (h),  burn,  (2)  brannte;  (3) 
brennte;  (4)  gebrannt. 

BRINGEN,  (h),  bring,  (2)  brachte;  (3) 
brachte ;  (4)  gebracht. 

DENKEN,  (h),  to  think,  (2)  ich  dachte; 
(3)  ich  dachte;  (4)  gedacht. 

DINGEN,  (h),  to  bargain,  hire,  (2)  ich 
dung;  (3)  ich  diinge;  (4)  gedungen. 

DRESCHEN,  (h),  to  thrash,  (i)  du  dri- 
schest,  er  drischt;  (2)  ich  drosch  (drasch)  ; 
(3)  ich  drosche  (drasche)  ;  (4)  gedroschen. 

DRINGEN,  (s),  to  urge,  insist,  (2)  ich 
drang;  ich  drange;  (4)  gedrungen. 

DURFEN,  (h),  to  be  permitted,  (i)  ich 
darf,  du  darfst,  er  darf;  (2)  ich  durfte; 

(3)  ich  durfte;   (4)  gedurft. 

ESSEN,  (h),  to  eat,  (i)  du  issest,  er  isset, 
or  isst;  (2)  ich  ass;  (3)  ich  asse;  (4)  ge- 
gessen. 

FAHREN,  (s),  to  drive,  (i)  du  fahrst,  er 
fahrt;  (2)  ich  fuhr;  (3)  ich  fuhre;  (4) 
gefahren. 

FALLEN,  (s),  to  fall,  (i)  du  fillst,  er 
fallt;  (2)  ich  fiel;  (3)  ich  fiele;  (4)  ge- 
faJlen. 

FANGEN,  (h),  to  take,  catch,  (i)  du 
fangst,  er  fangt;  (2)  ich  fing;  (3)  ich  finge; 

(4)  gefangen. 

FECHTEN,  (h),  to  fight,  (i)  du  fichtst,  er 
ficht;  (2)  ich  focht;  (3)  ich  fochte;  (4) 
gefochten. 

FINDEN,  (h),  to  find,  (2)  ich  fand;  (3) 
ich  fande;  (4)  gefunden. 

FLECHTEN,  (h),  to  plait,  (i)  du  flichtst, 
er  flicht;  (2)  ich  flocht;  (3)  ich  fiochte; 
(4)  geflochten. 

FLIEGEN,  (s),  to  fiy,  soar,  (i)  reg.  or: 
du  fleugst,  er  fleugt;  (2)  ich  flog;  (3)  ich 
floge;  (4)  geflogen. 


FLIEHEN,  (s),  to  fiee,  (i)  reg.  or: 
du  fleuchst,  er  fleucht;  (2)  ich  floh;  (3) 
ich  flohe;  (4)  geflohen. 

FLIESSEN,  (s  and  h),  to  drop,  How,  (i) 
reg.  or:  fleussest,  er  fleusst;  (2)  ich  floss; 

(3)  ich  flosse;   (4)  geflossen. 

FRAGEN,  (h),  to  ask,  (i)  du  fragst,  er 
fragt;  (2)  ich  frug;  (3)  ich  fruge. 

FRESSEN,  (h),  to  eat  voraciously,  (i)  da 
frissest,  er  frisst;  (2)  ich  frass;  (3)  ich 
frasse ;  (4)  gefressen. 

FRIEREN,  (s  and  h),  to  freeze,  (2)  ich 
fror;  (3)  ich  frore;  (4)  gefroren. 

GAHREN,  (s  and  h),  to  ferment,  (2)  ich 
gohr;  (3)  ich  gohre;  (4)  gegohren. 

GEBAREN,  (h),  to  produce,  to  bear,  (i) 
du  gebierst,  er  gebiert;  (2)  ich  gebar;  (3) 
ich  gebare;  (4)  geboren. 

GEBEN,  (h),  to  give,  (i)  du  giebst(gibst), 
er  giebt  (gibt)  ;  (2)  ich  gab;  (3)  ich  gabe; 

(4)  gegeben. 

GEDEIHEN,  (s),  thrive,  (2)  gedieh;  (3) 
gediehe;  (4)  gediehen. 

GEHEN,  (s),  go,  (2)  ging;  (3)  ginge; 
(4)  gegangen. 

GELINGEN,  (s),  succeed,  (2)  gelang;  (3) 
gelange;  (4)  gelungen. 

GELTEN,  (h),  be  worth,  (i)  giltst,  gilt; 
(2)  gait;  (3)  galte,  golte;  (4)  gegolten. 

GENESEN,  (s),  recover,  (2)  genas;  (3) 
genase;  (4)  genesen. 

GENIESSEN,  (h),  enjoy,  (2)  genoss;  (3) 
genosse ;  (4)  genossen. 

GESCHEHEN,  (s),  happen,  (i)  geschieht; 
(2)  geschah;  (3)  geschahe;  (4)  geschehen. 

GEWINNEN,  (h),  gain,  (2)  gewann;  (3) 
gewanne,  gewonne;  (4)  gewonnen. 

GIESSEN,  (h),  pour,  (i)  geussest,  geusst; 
(2)  goss;  (3)  gosse;  (4)  gegossen. 

GLEJCHEN,  (h),  resemble,  (2)  glich;  (3) 
gliche ;  (4)  geglichen. 

GLEITEN,  (s  and  h),  glide,  (2)  glitt;  (3) 
glitte;  (4)  geglitten. 

GLIMMEN,  (h),  gleam,  (2)  glomm;  (3) 
glomme ;  (4)  geglommen. 

GRABEN,  (h),  dig,  (i)  grabst,  grabt;  (2) 
grub;  (3)  griibe;  (4)  gegraben. 

GREIFEN,  (h),  gripe,  (2)  griff;  (3)  griffe; 
(4)  gegriffen. 

HABEN,  (h),  have,  (i)  hast,  hat;  (2) 
hatte;  (3)  hatte;  (4)  gehabt. 

HALTEN,  (h),  hold,  (i)  haltst,  halt;  (2) 
hielt;  (3)  hielte;  (4)  gehalten. 

HANGEN,  (h),  hang,  (i)  hangst,  hangt; 
(2)  hing,  hieng;  (3)  hinge,  hienge;  (4) 
gehangen. 

HAUEN,  (h),  hew,  (2)  hieb;  (3)  hiebe; 
(4)  gehauen. 

HEBEN,  (h),  raise,  (2)  hob,  hub;  (3) 
hobe,  hiibe;  (4)  gehoben. 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


133 


HEISSEN,  (h),  call,  (2)  hiess;  (3)  hiesse; 
(4)  geheissen. 

HELFEN,  (h),  help,  (i)  hilfst,  hilft;  (2) 
half;  (3)  halfe,  hiilfe;  (4)  geholfen. 

KEIFEN,  (h),  chide,  (2)  kiff;  (3)  kiffe; 
(4)  gekiffen. 

KENNEN,  (h),  know,  (2)  kannte;  (3) 
kennte ;  (4)  gekannt. 

KLIEBEN,  (h  and  s),  cleave,  (2)  klob; 
(3)  klobe;  (4)  gekloben. 

KLIMMEN,  (h  and  s),  climb,  (2)  klomtn; 

(3)  klomme;   (4)   geklommen. 
KLINGEN,    (h),    sound,    (2)    klang;    (3) 

klange,  kliinge;   (4)   geklungen. 

KNEIFEN,  (h),  pinch,  (2)  kniff;  (3) 
kniffe ;  (4)  gekniffen. 

KNEIPEN,  (h),  pinch,  (2)  knipp;  (3) 
knippe;  (4)  geknippen. 

KOMMEN,  (s),  come,  (2)  kam;  (3)  kame; 

(4)  gekommen. 

KONNEN,  (h),  can,  (i)  kann,  kannst, 
kann;  (2)  konnte;  (3)  konnte;  (4)  ge- 
konnt. 

KRIECHEN,   (h  and  s),  creep,  (2)  kroch; 

(3)  kroche;   (4)  gekrochen. 

KUREN,  (h),  choose,  (2)  kor;   (3)  kore; 

(4)  gekoren. 

LADEN,  (h),  load,  invite,  (i)  ladst,  ladt; 
(2)  lud;  (3)  liide;  (4)  geladen. 

LASSEN,  (h),  let,  (i)  lassest,  lasst;  (2) 
Hess;  (3)  liesse;  (4)  gelassen. 

LAUFEN,  (s  and  h),  run,  (i)  laufst,  lauft; 
(2)  lief;  (3)  liefe;  (4)  gelaufen. 

LEIDEN,  (h),  suffer,  (2)  litt;  (3)  litte; 
(4)  gelitten. 

LEIHEN,  (h),  lend,  (2)  lieh;  (3)  liehe; 
(4)  geliehen. 

LESEN,  (h),  read,  (i)  liesest,  liest;  (2) 
las;  (3)  lase;  (4)  gelesen. 

LIEGEN,  (h),  lie,  (2)  lag;  (3)  lage;  (4) 
gelegen. 

LOSCHEN,  (h),  go  out,  (i)  lischest,  lischt; 
(2)  losch;  (3)  losche;  (4)  geloschen. 

LUGEN,  (h),  tell  a  lie,  (2)  log;  (3)  loge; 
(4)  gelogen. 

MAHLEN,  (h),  grind,  (2)  muhl;  (3) 
muhle ;  (4)  gemahlen. 

MEIDEN,  (h),  shun,  (2)  mied;  (3)  miede; 
(4)  gemieden. 

MELKEN,  (h),  milk,  (2)  molk;  (3)  molke; 
(4)  gemolken. 

MESSEN,  (h),  measure,  (i)  missest, 
misst ;  (2)  mass ;  (3)  masse ;  (4)  gemessen. 

MISLINGEN,  (s),  fail,  (2)  mislang;  (3) 
mislange ;  (4)  mislungen. 

MOGEN,  (h),  may,  (i)  mag,  magst,  mag; 
(2)  mochte;  (3)  mochte;  (4)  gemocht. 

MUSSEN,  (h),  must,  (i)  muss,  musst, 
muss;  (2)  musste;  (3)  miisste;  (4)  ge- 
musst. 


NEHMEN,  (h),  take,  (i)  nimmst, 'nimmt ; 

(2)  nahm;  (3)  nahme;  (4)  genommen. 
NENNEN,    (h),    name,    (2)    nannte;    (3) 

nennte;    (4)    genannt. 

PFEIFEN,  (h),  whistle,  (2)  pfiff;  (3) 
pfiffe;  (4)  gepfiffen. 

PFLEGEN,   (h),  cherish,   (2)   pflog,  pflag; 

(3)  pfloge;  (4)  gepflogen. 

PREISEN,  (h),  praise,  (2)  pries;  (3) 
priese;  (4)  gepriesen. 

QUELLEN,  (s  and  h),  gush,  (i)  quillst, 
quillt;  (2)  quoll;  (3)  quolle;  (4)  ge- 
quollen. 

RACHEN,  (h),  avenge,  (2)  roch;  (3) 
roche;  (4)  gerochen. 

RAT(H)EN,  (h),  advise,  (i)  rat(h)st, 
rat(h);  (2)  riet(h) ;  (3)  riet(h)e;  (4) 
gerat(h)en. 

REIBEN,    (h),  rub,   (2)   rieb;    (3)   riebe; 

(4)  gerieben. 

REISSEN,  (h  and  s),  tear,  (2)  riss;  (3) 
risse ;  (4)  gerissen. 

REITEN,  (s  and  h),  ride,  (2)  ritt;  (3) 
ritte;  (4)  geritten. 

RENNEN,  (s  and  h),  run,  (2)  rannte;  (3) 
rennte;  (4)  gerannt. 

RIECHEN,  (h),  smell,  (2)  roch;  (3)  roche; 
(4)  gerochen. 

RINGEN,  (h),  wring,  (2)  rang;  (3)  range; 
(4)  gerungen. 

RINNEN,  (s  and  h),  run,  (2)  rann;  (3) 
ranne,  ronne;  (4)  geronnen. 

RUFEN,  (h),  call,  (2)  rief;  (3)  riefe; 
(4)  gerufen. 

SAUFEN,    (h),    drink,    (i)    saufst,   sauft; 

(2)  soff;   (3)  sdffe;   (4)  gesoffen. 
SAUGEN,   (h),  suck,   (2)   sog;   (3)   soge; 

(4)  gesogen. 

SCHAFFEN,  (h),  create,  (2)  schuf;  (3) 
schiife ;  (4)  geschaffen. 

SCHALLEN,  (h),  sound,  (2)  scholl;  (3) 
scholle;  (4)  geschollen. 

SCHEIDEN,    (s  and  h),  part,   (2)    schied; 

(3)  schiede;    (4)    geschieden. 
SCHEINEN,   (h),  appear,   (2)   schien;   (3) 

schiene ;    (4)   geschienen. 

SCHELTEN,  (h),  scold,  (i)  schiltst,  schilt; 
(2)  schalt;  (3)  schalte,  scholte;  (4)  ge- 
scholten. 

SCHEREN,  (h),  shear,  (i)  schierst,  schiert; 

(2)  schor;   (3)  schore;   (4)  geschoren. 
SCHIEBEN,   (h  and  s),  shove,  (2)   schob; 

(3)  schobe;    (4)   geschoben. 
SCHIESSEN,    (h),  shoot,   (2)   schoss;   (3) 

schosse;   (4)  geschossen. 

SCHINDEN,  (h),  flay,  (2)  schund;  (3) 
schiinde ;  (4)  geschunden. 

SCHLAFEN,  (h),  sleep,  (i)  schlafst, 
schlaft;  (2)  schlief  (3)  schliefe;  (4), 
geschlafen. 


134 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


SCHLAGEN,  (h  and  B),  strike,  (i)  schlagst, 
schlagt;  (2)  schlug;  (3)  schliige;  (4) 
geschlagen. 

SCHLEICHEN,  (s  and  h),  sneak,  (2) 
schlich;  (3)  schliche;  (4)  geschlichen. 

SCHIJEIFEN,  (h  and  s),  grind,  (2)  ;  schliff ; 
(3)  schliffe;  (4)  geschliffen. 

SCHLEISSEN,  (h  and  s),  slit,  (2)  schliss; 
(3)  schlisse;  (4)  geschlissen. 

SCHLIEFEN,     (s),     slip,     (2)     SChloffj      (3) 

schloffe ;    (4)    geschloffen. 

SCHLIESSEN,  (h),  shut,  (2)  schloss ;  (3) 
schlosse ;  (4)  geschlossen. 

SCHLINGEN,  (h),  sling,  (2)  schlang;  (3) 
schlange ;  (4)  geschlungen. 

SCHMEISSEN,  (h),  smite,  (2)  schmiss; 
(3)  schmisse;  (4)  geschmissen. 

SCHMELZEN,  (s),  melt,  (i)  schmilzest, 
schmilzt;  (2)  schmolz;  (3)  schmolze;  (4) 
geschmolzen. 

SCHNAUBEN,  (h),  snort,  (2)  schnob ;  (3) 
£  .mobe;  (4)  geschnoben. 

SCHNEIDEN,  (h),  cut,  (2)  schnitt ;  (3) 
schnitte;  (4)  geschnitten. 

SCHRAUBEN,  (h),  screw,  (2)  schrob ;  (3) 
schrobe ;  (4)  geschroben. 

SCHRECKEN,  (s),  be  afraid,  (i)  schrickst, 
schrickt;  (2)  schrak;  (3)  schrake;  (4) 
geschrocken. 

SCHREIBEN,  (h),  write,  (2)  schrieb;  (3) 
schriebe ;  (4)  geschrieben. 

SCHREIEN,  (h),  cry,  (2)  schrie;  (3) 
schriee ;  (4)  geschrieen. 

SCHREITEN,  (s),  stride,  (2)  schritt;  (3) 
schritte ;  (4)  geschritten. 

SCHWAREN,  (h  and  s),  ulcerate,  (2) 
tchwor;  (3)  schwore;  (4)  geschworen. 

SCHWEIGEN,  (h),  be  silent,  (2)  schwieg; 
(3)  schwiege;  (4)  geschwiegen. 

SCHWELLEN,  (s  and  h),  swell,  (i) 
schwillst,  schwillt ;  (2)  schwoll ;  (3) 
schwolle ;  (4)  geschwollen. 

SCHWIMMEN,  (s  and  h),  swim,  (2) 
schwamm,  schwomm;  (3)  schwamme, 
schwomme ;  (4)  geschwommen. 
»  SCHWINDEN,  (s),  vanish,  (2)  schwand, 
schwund;  (3)  schwande,  schwiinde;  (4) 
geschwunden. 

SCHWINGEN,  (h),  swing,  (2)  schwang, 
schwung ;  (3)  schwange,  schwiinge ;  (4) 
geschwungen. 

SCHWOREN,  (h),  swear,  (2)  schwor, 
schwur;  (3)  schwore,  schwtire;  (4) 
geschworen. 

SEHEN,  (h),  see,  (i)  siehst,  sreht;  (2) 
sah;  (3)  sahe;  (4)  gesehen. 

SEIN,  (s),  be,  (i)  bin,  bist,  ist;  (2)  war; 
(3)  ware;  (4)  gewesen. 

SENDEN,  (h),  send,  (2)  sandte,  sendete; 
(3)  sendete;  (4)  gesandt,  gesendet. 


SIEDEN,  (h),  boil,  (a)  sott;  (3)  siedete; 
(4)  gesotten. 

SINGEN,  (h),  sing,  (2)  sang;  (3)  sange; 
(4)  gesungen. 

SINKEN,  (s),  sink,  (2)  sank;  (3)  sanke; 
(4)  gesunken. 

SINNEN,  (h  and  s),  think,  (2)  sann;  (3) 
sanne,  sonne;  (4)  gesonnen. 

SITSEN,  (h),  sit,  (2)  sass;  (3)  sasse;  (4) 
gesessen. 

SOLLEN,  (h),  should,  (i)  soil,  sollst,  soil; 

(2)  sollte;   (3)  sollte;  (4)  gesollt. 
SPEIEN,    (h),  spit,   (2)   spie;   (3)   spiee; 

(4)  gespieen. 

SPINNEN,  (h),  spin,  (2)  spann;  (3) 
spanne,  sponne;  (4)  gesponnen. 

SPLEISSEN,   (h  and  s),  split,   (2)   spliss; 

(3)  splisse;    (4)   gesplissen. 

SPRECHEN,  (h),  speak,  (i)  sprichst, 
spricht;  (2)  sprach;  (3)  sprache;  (4) 
gesprochen. 

SPRIESSEN,  (s  and  h),  sprout,  (2)  spross; 
(3)  sprosse;  (4)  gesprossen. 

SPRINGEN,  (s  and  h),  spring,  (2)  sprang; 

(3)  sprange;   (4)  gesprungen. 
STECHEN,   (h),  prick,   (i)   stichst,  sticht; 

(2)  stach;  (3)  stache;  (4)  gestochen. 
STECKEN,  (h),  stick,  (2)  stak;  (3)  stake; 

(4)  gestochen. 

STEHEN,    (h   and   s),   stand,    (2)    stand, 

stund;    (3)   stande,  stunde;    (4)  gestanden. 

STEHLEN,  (h),  steal,  (i)  stiehlst,  stiehlt; 

(2)  stahl;   (3)  stable;  (4)  gestohlen. 
STEIGEN,    (s   and  h),  ascend,    (2)    stieg; 

(3)  stiege;   (4)   gestiegen. 

STERBEN,  (s),  die,  (i)  stirbst,  stirbt;  (2) 
starb;  (3)  starbe,  stiirbe;  (4)  gestorben. 

STIEBEN,  (h  and  s),  disperse,  (2)  stob; 
(3)  stobe;  (4)  gestoben. 

STINKEN,  (h),  stink,  (2)  stank,  stunk; 
(3)  stanke,  stiinke;  (4)  gestunken. 

STOSSEN,  (h  and  s),  push,  (i)  stossest, 
stosst;  (2)  stiess;  (3)  stiesse;  (4)  ge- 
stossen. 

STREICHEN,  (h),  stroke,  (2)  strich;  (3) 
striche ;  (4)  gestrichen. 

STREITEN,  (h),  strive,  (2)  stritt;  (3) 
stritte ;  (4)  gestritten. 

THUN,  (h),  do,  (2)  that;  (3)  thate;  (4) 
gethan. 

TRAGEN,  (h),  carry,  (i)  tragst,  tragt; 
(2)  trug;  (3)  triige,  (4)  getragen. 

TREFFEN,  (h),  hit,  (i)  triffst,  trifft;  (2) 
traf;  (3)  trafe;  (4)  getroffen. 

TREIBEN,  (h  and  s),  drive,  (2)  trieb;  (3) 
triebe ;  (4)  getrieben. 

TRETEN,  (h  and  s),  tread,  (i)  trittst, 
tritt;  (2)  trat;  (3)  trate;  64)  getreten. 

TRIEFEN,  (h  and  s).  drip,  (2)  troff;  (3) 
troffe;  (4)  getroflfen. 


GERMAN   SELF-TAUGHT 


135 


TRINKEN,  (h),  drink,  (2)  trank;  (3) 
tranke ;  (4)  getrunken. 

TRUGEN,  (h),  deceive,  (2)  trog;  (3) 
troge;  (4)  getrogen. 

VERDERBEN,  (s  and  h),  spoil,  (i)  ver- 
dirbst,  verdirbt;  (2)  verdarb;  (3)  verdarbe, 
verdiirbe ;  (4)  verdorben. 

VERDRIESSEN,  (h),  vex,  (2)  verdross;  (3) 
verdrosse ;  (4)  verdrossen. 

VERGESSEN,  (h),  forget,  (i)  vergissest, 
vergisst;  (2)  vergass;  (3)  vergasse;  (4) 
vergessen. 

VERLIEREN,  (h),  lose,  (2)  verier;  (3) 
verlore ;  (4)  verloren. 

WACHSEN,  (s),  grow,  (i)  wachsest, 
wachst;  (2)  wuchs;  (3)  wtichse;  (4)  ge- 
wachsen. 

WAGEN,  (h),  weigh,  (2)  wog;  (3)  woge; 
(4)  gewogen. 

WASCHEN,  (h),  wash,  (i)  waschest, 
wascht;  (2)  wusch;  (3)  wiische;  (4) 
gewaschen. 

WEBEN,  (h),  weave,  (2)  wob;  (3)  wobe; 
(4)  gewoben. 

WEICHEN,  (s  and  h),  yield,  (2)  wich; 
(3)  wiche;  (4)  gewichen. 


WEISEN,  (h),  show,  (2)  wies;  (3)  wiese; 
(4)  gewiesen. 

WENDEN,  (h),  turn,  (2)  wandte,  wen- 
dete;  (3)  wendete;  (4)  gewandt,  gewendet. 

WERBEN,  (h),  sue,  (i)  wirbst,  wirbt;  (2) 
warb;  (3)  warbe,  wiirbe;  (4)  geworben. 

WERDEN,  (s),  become,  (i)  wirst,  wird; 
(2)  ward,  wurde;  (3)  wiirde;  (4)  ge- 
worden. 

WERFEN,  (h),  throw,  (i)  wirfst,  wirft; 
(2)  warf;  (3)  warfe,  wiirfe;  (4)  geworfen. 

WIEGEN,  (h),  weigh,  (2)  wog;  (3)  woge; 
(4)  gewogen. 

WINDEN,  (h),  wind,  (2)  wand;  (3) 
wande ;  (4)  gewunden. 

WISSEN,  (h),  know,  (i)  weiss,  weisst, 
weiss;  (2)  wusste;  (3)  wiisste;  (4)  ge- 
wusst. 

WOLLEN,  (h),  will,  (i)  will,  willst,  will; 
(2)  wollte;  (3)  wollte;  (4)  gewollt. 

ZEIHEN,  (h),  accuse,  (2)  zieh;  (3)  ziehe; 
(4)  geziehen. 

ZIEHEK,  (h),  draw,  (2)  zog;  (3)  zoge; 
(4)  gezogen. 

ZWINGEN,  (h),  force,  (2)  zwang;  (3) 
zwange ;  (4)  gezwungen. 


FAAILIAR    AND    SIMPLE    PHRASES    IN    GERAAN 


AFFIRMATIVE    PHRASES 

It  is  not  so                  Es  ist  nicht  so 

It  is  true                      Es  ist  wahr 

It  is  not  true               Es  ist  nicht  wahr 

It  is  so                          Es  ist  so 

I  say  nothing               Ich   sage  nichts 

I  believe  it                   Ich  glaube  es 

I  will  say  nothing      Ich  will  nichts  sagen 

I  think  so                     Ich  denke  es 

I  have  nothing            Ich  habe  nichts 

I  say  yes                      Ich  sage  ja 

He  is  not  here            Er  ist  nicht  hier 

I  say  it  is                     Ich  sage  es  ist 

I  have  it  not                Ich  habe  es  nicht 

I  am  certain                 Ich  bin  gewiss 

He  has  it  not              Er  hat  es  nicht 

I  am  certain  of  it      Ich  bin  dessen  gewiss 

We  have  it  not           Wir  haben  es  nicht 

You  are  right              Sie  haben  Recht 

You  have  it  not           Ihr  habt  es  nicht 

You  are  quite  right   Sie  haben  ganz  Recht 

He  said  no                  Er  sagte  nein 

I  know  it                     Ich  weiss  es 

Has   he   said   no?       Hat  er  nein  gesagt? 

I  know  it  well              Ich  weiss  es  genau 

Has   he   said  noth-     Hat  er  nichts  ge-sagt? 

I  know  him                   Ich  kenne  ihn 

ing? 

I  know  it  positively    Ich  weiss  es  sicher 

I  did  not  hear              Ich  habe  nicht  gehort 

I  promise  it                  Ich   verspreche   es 

I  have  not  heard  it     I  ch  habe  es  nicht  gehort 

I  promise  it  to  you    Ich  verspreche   es 

You  are  quite  wrong  Sie  haben  durchaus 

Ihnen 

Unrecht 

I  give  it                       Ich  gebe  es 
I   give  it  to  you         Ich  gebe  es  Ihnen 

INTERROGATIVE  PHRASES 

"\iri-  -^  0                                            Tir       d 

I  will  give  it  to  you    Ich  will  es  Ihnen  geben 
You  are  wrong           Sie  haben  Unrecht 
He  is  wrong                Er  hat  Unrecht 
I  believe  him               Ich   glaube  ihm 
Very  well                      Sehr  wohl 
Very  well                     Sehr  gut 

Wnor                              Wer? 
Who  was  it?                Wer  -war  es? 
What  is  it?                  Was  ist  es? 
Who  is  it?                   Wer  ist  es? 
Did   you   say  it?         Sagten  Sie  es? 
What  are  you  doing?   Was  thun  Sie? 
What  is  he  doing?     Was  thut  er? 

NEGATIVE   PHRASES 

Tell  me                         Sagen  Sie  mir 

No                                  Nein 

Will  you  tell  me?       Wollen  Sie  mir  sagen? 

I  say  no                       Ich  sage  nein 

How  are  you?             Wie  gehts? 

I  say  it  is  not            Ich  sage  es  ist  nicht 

How  is  he?                Wie  gehts  ihm? 

136 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


What   for?                   Wofur? 

Speak  to  me                Sprechen  Sie  mit  mir 

Why?                             Warum? 

Speak  to  him               Sprechen  Sie  mit  ihm 

Why  do  you  ask?       Warum  fragen  Sie? 

Be   quiet                       Seien  Sie  ruhig 

Why  shall   I  go?        Warum  soil  ich  gehen? 

Go                                 Gehen  Sie 

Why  do  you  speak?  Warum  sprechen  Sie? 

Go  to  him                    Gehen  Sie  zu  ihm 

Why  are  you  silent  ?  Warum  schweigen  Sie 

Go  to  bed                    Gehen  Sie  au  Belie 

Why  did  you  go?      Warum  gingen  Sie? 

Fetch                              Holen 

Is  it  ready?                  1st  es  fertig? 

Fetch  it                       Holen  Sie  es 

Have  you  heard?        Haben  Sie  gehortf 

Bring  it                         Bringen  Sie  es 

Do  you  hear?              Horen  Sie? 

Bring  it  to  me            Bringen  Sie  es  mir 

Where?                          Wo? 

Let  it  be                      Lassen  Sie  es  sein 

Where  is  it?                Wo  ist  es? 

Let  me  have  it          Lassen  Sie  es  mich 

Where  is  he?               Wo  ist  er? 

haben 

Where   is  she?             W  o  ist  sie? 

Where  are  you?           Wo  sind  Sie? 

EXPRESSIONS  OF  JOY 

Where  are  you  going  ?  Wo  gehen  Sie  hin? 

What!                            Wast 

Where  do  you  come  Wo  kommen  Sie  her? 

Is  it  possible!              Ist  es  moglich! 

from? 

Can  it  be!                     Kann  es  sein! 

Where  were  you?       Wo  war  en  Sie? 

How  can  it  be  pos-    Wie  kann  es  moglich 

What?                            Was? 

sible!                              sein! 

What  is  it?                  Was  ist  es? 

Who  would  have  be-  Wer  wiirde  das  ge- 

What  is   that?              Was  ist  das? 

lieved  it!                       glaubt  haben! 

What  time  is  it?         Was  ist  die  Zeit? 

Indeed!                          Wirklich! 

What  o'clock  is  it?     Wie  viel  Uhr  ist  es? 

It  is  impossible           Es  ist  unmoglich 

What  have  you?         Was  haben  Sie? 

That  can  not  be         Es  kann  nicht  sein 

What  do  you  say?      Was  sagen  Sie? 

I   am   astonished   at    Ich  wundere  mich 

What  did  you  say?     Was  sagten  Sie? 

it                                    daruber 

What  do  you  mean?   Was  meinen  Sie? 

You   surprise  me         Sie  iiberraschen  mich 

What  do  you  want?   Was  wollen  Sie? 

It  is  incredible            Es  ist  unglaublich 

What   will   you   do?  Was  wollen  Sie  thun? 

OF    SORROW   AND    JOY 

IMPERATIVE  PHRASES 

I  am  sorry                   Es  thut  mir  leid 

Come  away!                 Kommen  Sie  fort! 

I   am   very  sorry        Es  thut  mir  sehr  leid 

Come  here!                  Kommen  Sie  hierher! 

What  a  pity                  Wie  schade 

Go  there!                      Gehen  Sie  dorthin! 

It  is  a  great  pity       Es  ist  sehr  schade 

Come  back!                  Kommen  Sie  zuruck! 

It  is  a  sad  thing        Es  ist  eine  traurige 

Go  on!                          Gehen  Sie  weiter! 

Sache 

Sit  down!                     Setzen  Sie  sich! 

It   is   a   misfortune     Es  ist  ein  Ungliick 

Stand  still!                   Stehen  Sie  still! 

It   is   a   great   mis-     Es  ist  ein  grosses 

Wait                               Warten  Sie 

fortune                             Ungliick 

Wait  for  me                Warten  Sie  auf  mich 

I  am  glad                    Es  ist  mir  lieb 

Wait  a  little                 Warten  Sie  ein  wenig 

I  am  glad  of  it          Ich  freue  mich  daruber 

Make   haste                  Machen  Sie  schnell 

I  am  very  glad           Es  ist  mir  sehr  lieb 

Be  quick                       Beeilen  Sie  sich 

It  gives  me  pleasure  Es  macht  mir  Ver- 

Follow  me                    Folgen  Sie  mir 

gnugen 

Follow  him                  Folgen  Sie  ihm 

It  gives  me  great  joy  Es  macht  mir  grosse 

Tell   him                       Sagen  Sie  ihm 

Freude 

Call   him                       Rufen  Sie  ihn 

I  am  happy                  Ich   bin  gliicklich 

Speak                              Sprechen  Sie 

How   happy  I  am        Wie  gliicklich  ich  bin 

Eat                                 Essen  Sie 

I  wish  you  joy           Ich  wunsche  Ihnen 

Drink                             Trinken  Sie 

Gliick 

Hear                              Horen  Sie 

I  congratulate   you     Ich  gratulire  Ihnen 

Hear  me                       Horen  Sie  mich 

Look  at  me                  Sehen  Sie  mich  an 

OF  ANGER  AND  BLAME 

Look  at  him                Sehen  Sie  ihn  an 

I  am  angry                   Ich  bin  drgerlich 

Begin                             Fangen  Sie  an 

He   is   angry                Er  ist  drgerlich 

Continue                        Fahren  Sie  fort 

He  is  very  angry       Er  ist  sehr  drgerlich 

Stop                               Halt 

Don't  be  angry           Seien  Sie  nicht  drger- 

Tell me                         Sagen  Sie  mir 

lich 

Tell  it  hirn                   S^sen  Sie  es  ihm 

You  are  wrong          Sie  haben  Unrecht 

GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


137 


You  are  right              Sie  haben  Recht 

TO  ASK  QUESTIONS 

Why  don't  you  doit?    Warum  thun  Sie  es 

What  do  you  say?       Was  sagen  Sie? 

nicht? 

Do  you  hear?              Horen  Sie? 

Be  quiet                        Seien  Sie  ruhig 

Do  you  hear  me?       Horen  Sie  mich? 

What  a  shame!           Welche   Schande! 

I  don't  speak  to  you      Ich  spreche  mii  Ihnen 

How   could   you    do  Wie  konnten  Sie  es 

nicht 

it?                                  thun? 

Do  you  understand     Verstehen  Sie  mich? 

I  am  ashamed  of  you  Ich  schdme  mich  Ihrer 

me? 

You   are  very  much  Sie   sind   sehr  zu 

Listen                            Horen  Sie 

to   blame                       tadeln 

Come   here                   Kommen  Sie  hierher 

Don't  answer               Antworten  Sie  nicht 

What  is  that?              Was  ist  das? 

Be  patient                     Gedulden  Sie  sich 

Answer                         Antworten  Sie 

I  will  improve             Ich  werde  mich  bes- 

Why  don't  you  an-    Warum  antworten  Sie 

sern 

swer?                             nicht? 

EASY   EXPRESSIONS 

What  do  you  mean?  Was  meinen  Sie? 
What   do  you   mean  Was  meinen  Sie 

Tell   me       •                  Sagen  Sie  mir 

by  that?                        damit? 

If  you  please               guttigst  —  gefdlligst 

You  speak  German     Ich   vermuthe  Sie 

Have  the  goodness    Haben  Sie  die  Gute 

I   suppose                     sprechen  deutsch 

Yes,   Sir                        Ja,   mein   Herr 

Very   little,    Sir           Sehr  wenig,  mein 

Yes,    Madam               Ja,  Madam 

Herr 

No,   Sir                         Nein,  mein  Herr 

I  can  understand,       Ich  kann  es  verstehen, 

No,    Madam                 Nein,  Madam. 

but   I   can   not            aber  Sprechen  kann 

No,  Miss                      Nein,  mein  Fr'dulein 

speak   it                        ich  nicht 

Do   you   speak             Sprechen  Sie 

Do  you  know  me?      Kennen  Sie  mich? 

German?                        deutsch? 

Do  you  know  Mr.  H  ?   Kennen  Sie  Herrn  H? 

English  ?                         englisch  ? 

I  know  him                  Ich   kenne  ihn 

or   French?               oder  -fransosisch? 

I  do  not  know  him    Ich   kenne  ihn  nicht 

I  do  not  speak  Ger-  Ich  spreche  nicht 

I  know  you                  Ich  kenne  Sie 

man                                deutsch 

I  know  him  by  sight  Ich  kenne  ihn  -von 

I  speak  it  a  little       Ich  spreche  etwas 

Ansehen 

I    understand                Ich  verstehe 

I  know  him  by  name  Ich  kenne  ihn  bei 

I  understand  it  but      Ich  verstehe  es  aber 

Namen 

I  do  not  speak  it         Ich  spreche  es  nicht 

I  know  him  well         Er  ist  mir  wohl 

I  speak  English          Ich  spreche  englisch 

bekannt 

I  am  an  Englishman  Ich  bin  ein  Engldnder 

What    do   you    call    Wie  nennen  Sie  das? 

I   speak   French  a      Ich  spreche  ein  wenig 

that? 

little                               fransosisch 

What  is  that  in  Ger-  Wie  heisst  das  auf 

I  am  not  a  French-     Ich  bin  kein  Fransose 

man?                             deutsch? 

man 

What   do   you   call      Wie  heisst  das  auf 

Do  you  understand?    Verstehen-  Sie? 

that  in  English?          englisch? 

Can  you  understand?  Konnen  Sie  verstehen? 

What  does  that           Was   heisst  das? 

Speak  slower                Sprechen  Sie  lang- 

mean? 

samer 

What  is  it  good  for?  Wozu  ist  es  gut? 

You  speak  too  fast     Sie  Sprechen  zu  schnell 

It  is  good  for  noth-  Es  ist  zu  nichts  gut 

Give  me                        Geben  Sie  mir 

ing 

some  bread                    Brod 

Is  it  good  ?                  Ist  es  gut? 

some   butter                 Butter 

Is  it  bad?                    Ist  es  schlecht? 

some    water                  Wasser 

Is   it  eatable?          •    Ist  es  essbar? 

some  tea                        Thee 

Is  it  drinkable?           Ist  es  trinkbarf 

some   wine                    Wein 

Is  it  nice?                    Ist  es  schdn? 

some  meat                    Fleisch 

Is  it  fresh?                  Ist  es  frisch? 

something                       etwas 

AGE 

to  eat                              zu  essen 

to  drink                         zu   trinken 

How  old  are  you?      Wie  alt  sind  Sie? 

Bring  me                      Bringen  Sie  mir 

I  am  twenty                Ich  bin  zwanzig  Jahr 

some  coffee                  Kaffee 

alt 

some    milk                     Milch 

I  shall  soon  be  thirty  Ich  werde  bald  dreis- 

some   cheese                 K'dse 

sig  sein 

I  thank  you                 Ich  danke  Ihnen 

He  looks  older            Er  sieht  alter  aus 

138 


GERMAN    SELF-TAUGHT 


She  is  younger           Sie  ist  jiinger 

How  is  your  mother  ?  Wie  befindet  sich  Ihre 

She  can  not  be  so     Sie  kann  nicht  so 

Frau  Mutter? 

young                            j^ng  sein 

I  am  not  well            Ich  bin  nicht  wohl 

He  must  be  older       Er  muss  alter  sein 

I  am  unwell                Ich  bin  unwohl 

I  did  not  think  you        Ich  glaubte  nicht  dass 

She  is  not  well            Sie  ist  nicht  wohl 

were   so   old                 Sie  so  alt  sein 

He  is  not  well            Er  ist  nicht  wohl 

He  is  at  least  sixty     Er  ist  wenigstens 

She  is  ill                      Sie  ist  krank 

sechszig 

He  is  very  ill             Er  ist  sehr  krank 

She  must  be  forty     Sie  muss  vierzig  Jahr 

She  has  a  cold          Sie  hat  sich  erkaltet 

alt  sein 

I  have  the  toothache     Ich   habe  Zahnweh 

How   old   is  your        Wie  alt  ist  Ihr  Voter? 

I  must  go                    Ich  muss  gehen 

father? 

I  am  going  now         Ich  gehe  jetzt 

He  is  nearly  eighty    Er  ist  nahe  achtzig 

It  is  time  to  go           Es  ist  Zeit  zu  gehen 

Is  he  so  old?               Ist  er  so  alt? 

Good-by                         Leben  Sie  wohl 

How  old  is  your         Wie  alt  ist  ihre 

Farewell                        Adieu 

sister?                           Schwester? 

I  wish  you  a  good-     Ich  wiinsche  Ihnen 

She  is  fifteen               Sie  ist  fiinfzehn 

morning                         einen   gnten   Mor- 

Is she  so  young?       Ist  sie  so  Jung? 

gen 

How  old  is  your       Wie  alt  ist  Ihre  Tante 

Good-evening                Guten  Abend 

aunt? 

Good-night                    Cute  Nacht 

She  is  nearly  ninety  Sie  ist  fast  neunzig 

I   wish  you   good-      Ich   wiinsche   Ihnen 

It  is  a  great  age         Esist  ein  hohes  Alter 

night                              gute  Nacht 

He  begins  to  grow     Er  fangt  an  alt  zu 

My  compliments  at     Meine    Empfehlungen 

old                                  werden 

home                              den  Ihrigen 

MORNING 

A  VISIT 

An  early  morning       Ein  friiher  Morgen 

There  is  a  knock        Es  klopft 

Early                             Friih 

It  is  Mr.  A.                Es  ist  Herr  A. 

It  is  a  fine  morning  Es  ist  ein  schoner 

It  is  Mrs.  B.               Es  ist  Madam  B. 

Morgen 

I  am  glad  to  see  you      Ich  freude  mich  Sie 

What  o'clock  is   it?   Wie  viel  Uhr  ist  es? 

zu  sehen 

It  is  nearly  eight       Es  ist  nahe  acht  Uhr 

Pray  be   seated           Bitte  setzen  sie  sich 

It  is  a  quarter  after    Es  ist  viertel  nach 

What  news  is  there  ?     Was  gigbt's  Neues? 

four                               vier 

Good   news                   Gute   Nachrichten 

It  is  half-past  two     Es  ist  halb  drei 

Do  you  believe  it?     Glauben  Sie  es? 

Light  the  fire              Zunden  Sie  das  Feuer 

I    don't   believe   a       Ich  glaube  kein  Wort 

an 

word  of  it                    davon 

Light  a  candle             Zunden  Sie  ein  Licht 

I  think  so                    Ich   denke  (glaube")  so 

an 

I   think   not                  Ich  denke  nicht 

I  am  going  to  get  up  Ich  will  aufstehen 

Who  told  you?            Wer  hat  es  Ihnen  ge- 

Get   me   some   hot      Bringen  Sie  mir  el-was 

sagt? 

water                              heisses    Wasser 

It  is  true                      Es  ist  wahr 

Some  cold  water        Etwas   kaltes   Wasser 

It  is  not  true              Es  ist  nicht  wahr 

Some    spring-water     Etwas  Trinkwasser 

I  doubt  it                     Ich  bezweifie  es 

Make    haste                  Machen  Sie  schnell 

Have  you  heard  from  Haben  Sie  von  House 

home?                            gehort? 

MEETING 

The  postman  brought  Der  Brieftrdger 

Good-morning              Guten  Morgen 

me  a  letter  to-day      brachte  mir  heute 

Good-day                      Guten  Tag 

einen  Brief 

Good-afternoon            Guten  Nachmittag 

Sad  news                      Schlechte  Nachrichten 

How   do   you   do?      Wie  geht's? 

Will   you   dine   with  Wollen  Sie  mit  uns 

How  are  you?            Wie  befinden  Sie  sich? 

us?                                 speisen? 

Very  well                      Sehr  wohl 

No,  thank  you             Nein,  ich  danke  Ihnen 

I  am  very  well          Ich  befinde  mich  sehr 

I  can  not  stay            Ich  kann  nicht  bleiben 

wohl 

I  must  go                     Ich  muss  gehen 

Pretty  well                   Ziemlich  wohl 

You  are  in  a  great    Sie  sind  in  grosser 

Tolerably                        So  ziemlich 

hurry                             Eile 

How  is  your  father?  Wie  befindet  sich  Ihr 

I  have  a  great  deal    Ich  habe  viel  zu  thun 

Herr  Voter? 

to  do 

SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


OF  all  modern  languages,  except  the  Portuguese,  the  Spanish  pre- 
sents the  closest  approximations  to  the  grammar  and  construc- 
tions of  classical  Latin.      Like  French  and  several  other  Euro- 
pean dialects,  it  represents  the  Latin  in  a  more  or  less  advanced  stage  of 
decomposition.     Thus,  as  in  English  and  French,  the  regular  case  endings 
used  in  the  inflection  of  nouns  and  adjectives  have  been  abandoned,  and 
the  oblique  cases  are  formed  with  prepositions.      The  use  of  the  personal 
pronouns  very  much  resembles  that  of  Latin,  since,  when  the  subjects  of 
verbs,  they  are  regularly  omitted  except  where  emphasis  requires  them 
to  be  expressed. 

The  syntax  of  Spanish  is  very  simple,  and  in  very  many  cases  quite 
agrees  with  the  English  usage.  Thus,  the  student  attempting  to  speak  is 
saved  many  errors  arising  from  perplexity  regarding  the  proper  order  of 
words.  While  the  Spanish  verb  presents  some  departures  from  construc- 
tions understood  by  English-speaking  people,  the  idioms  are,  for  the  most 
part,  simple  and  logical  in  theory  and  readily  to  be  understood.  Taken 
all  in  all,  the  Spanish  is  far  easier  of  acquisition  than  even  the  German. 
By  students  thoroughly  grounded  in  Latin  it  may  be  acquired  with  sur- 
prising ease. 

THE    SPANISH   ALPHABET   AND    PRONUNCIATIONS 


THE  Spanish  alphabet  contains  twenty- 
seven  letters,  exclusive  of  K  and  W, 
which  are  used  only  in  foreign  words.  It 
contains,  however,  three  characters,  ch,  II, 
and  n,  which  are  regularly  regarded  as  sep- 
arate letters.  Ch  (tchay)  has  been  con- 
sidered a  separate  letter  since  1803.  LI  and 
n  are  called  "ligatured  consonants,"  both 
having  a  consonant  y  sound  after  the  letter 
represented.  The  alphabet  is  as  follows : 

A,  a   (ah). 

Always  pronounced  like  a  in  the  English 
words  "art"  and  "father." 

B,  b    (bay). 
Pronounced   as   in   English,   although   in 

some  parts  of  Spain  it  is  confused  with  V. 


C,  c  (thay) 

When  followed  by  a,  o,  u,  or  any  conso- 
nant, sounds  like  k;  before  e  and  i,  it 
sounds  like  th  in  "think." 

Ch,  ch   (tchay). 
Pronounced  like  ch  in  "child." 

D,  d   (day). 
Pronounced  as   in   English.     At  the  end 

of   words   it   sounds   somewhat   like   th   in 
"though." 

E,  e   (ay). 

Pronounced  like  the  sound  of  a  in  the 
word  "male." 

F,  f  (ay- fay). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

(139) 


140 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


G,  g  (hay). 

Has  two  distinct  sounds;  before  a,  o,  u, 
er  consonant,  it  sounds  like  g  in  the  En- 
glish words  "girl"  and  "good";  before  e 
and  i,  it  sounds  like  h  in  the  English 
words  "high,"  "hay." 

H,  h   (ah-tchay). 

Is  silent  in  the  Spanish  language,  pro- 
nounced as  if  no  such  h  were  there. 

I,  i    (e). 
Sounds  like  e  in  the  English  word  "evil." 

J,  j    (hoe-tah). 

Is  pronounced  like  h  in  the  English 
words  "horse,"  "hall,"  "hill." 

L,  1  (ai-lay). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

LI,  11  (ail-yay). 

Similar  sound  to  the  English  word 
"William."  At  the  beginning  of  a  word 
the  first  /  is  vocalized;  the  second  given 
with  a  consonant  y  sound  following. 

M,  m  (ai-may). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

N,  n   (ai-nay). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

Sf,  n    (ain-yay). 

Always  pronounced  like  m  in  the  En- 
glish words  "pinion,"  "minion." 

O,  o  (o). 

Pronounced  like  the  English  o  in  the 
word  "organ,"  and  when  accented,  like 
the  o  in  "old." 

P,  P  (pay). 
Pronounced  as  '  in  English. 

Q,  q  (coo). 

Pronounced  as  the  English  k  before  ue 
and  ui,  in  all  other  instances  it  has  been 
replaced  by  c. 

R,  r   (er-ay). 

When  single  is  pronounced  as  in  English ; 
at  the  beginning  of  a  word  and  when 
double,  it  has  a  strong  rolling  sound.  Near- 
est possible  sound:  rr— er'-ray.  Final  r  has 
the  full  rolling  sound,  almost  like  double 
r  in  English. 

S,  s   (ai-say). 

Pronounced  like  the  English  s  in  the 
words  "say,"  "simple,"  "seven." 


T,  t   (lay). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

U,  u   (oo). 

Pronounced  as  the  English  u  m  the  word 
"pull";  it  is  silent  in  the  syllables  gue,  gut, 
except  when  it  has  a  diaeresis  over  it,  thus 
u.  In  the  syllables  que,  qui,  is  always  si- 
lent. 

V,  v  (vay). 
Pronounced  as  in  English. 

X,  x  (ay-kiss). 

Has  the  sound  of  x  in  the  English  word 
flax. 

Y,  y  (e-gree-ai-gah). 
Has  the  sound  of  e  in  the  English  word 
"evil." 

Z,  z  (thay-tah). 

Pronounced  like  th  in  the  English  word 
"thin." 

PRONUNCIATION 

The  pronunciation  of  Spanish  is  easy  of 
acquisition,  since  the  sounds  of  the  vowels 
and  consonants  once  understood,  and  a  few 
simple  rules  of  variation  learned,  it  will  be 
found  that  there  is  positively  no  necessity 
for  uncertainty  regarding  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  any  word.  In  this  respect  it  pre- 
sents many  advantages  over  the  French,  and 
is  certainly  easier  to  learn  than  the  English. 

A  good  general  rule  for  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  Spanish  is  to  remember  that  one 
must  acquire  great  distinctness  in  enuncia- 
tion. There  are  no  silent  consonants  if  we 
except  h;  so  that,  when  the  student  has 
once  mastered  the  sounds  belonging  to  the 
various  letters,  he  may  learn  the  proper 
pronunciation  of  separate  words  by  pro- 
nouncing them  slowly  and  distinctly,  giving 
the  full  sound  and  value  to  each  letter.  By 
cultivating  the  habit  of  clear  and  djstmct 
pronunciation,  giving  each  letter  a  separate 
dynamic  impulse,  the  peculiar  intonation  of 
Spanish  may  be  readily  acquired. 

SPANISH    VOWELS 

In  Spanish,  as  in  other  languages,  the 
vowels  are  long  and  short.  However,  the 
distinction  between  the  two  is  not  in  the 
sounds  belonging  to  them,  but,  properly,  in 
the  time  occupied  in  pronunciation.  Thus, 
the  long  vowels  are  pronounced  fully,  and 
at  length,  while  the  short  vowels  are  given 
rapidly,  although  with  the  same  qualities  of 
sound.  This  rule  should  be  thoroughly  un- 
derstood by  the  student,  and  will  remove 
a  fertile  source  of  perplexity  at  the  begin- 
ning of  his  studies. 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


141 


SPANISH   CONSONANTS 

As  in  English  and  some  other  languages, 
there  are  two  classes  of  vowels  recognized 
in  Spanish.  These  are  called  the  "weak" 
and  the  "strong"  vowels ;  these  names  being 
given  on  account  of  their  influence  upon 
me  sound  of  a  preceding  consonant.  The 
strong  vowels  are  a,  o,  u,  the  weak  vowels 
e,  i.  Thus,  c  before  a  strong  vowel  is 
sounded  like  k,  but  before  a  weak  vowel, 
like  th  in  "think,"  etc. ;  g  before  a  strong 
vowel  is  hard,  but  before  a  weak  vowel  is 
sounded  like  guttural  h.  Since  this  rule  is 
invariable,  hard  c  before  a  weak  vowel  be- 
comes qu,  and  soft  c  before  a  strong  vowel 
becomes  z.  Also,  hard  g  before  weak  vowels 
becomes  gu,  while  soft  g  before  strong 
vowels  becomes  /. 

Y  is  a  consonant  letter.  When  used  as  a 
consonant  at  the  beginning  of  words  or  be- 
tween vowels  it  has  the  same  sound  as 
when  used  in  English  in  the  words  youth 
and  year.  When  it  (y)  stands  alone  it 
serves  as  a  vowel,  used  as  a  copulative  con- 
junction meaning  and;  it  is  also  used  in- 
stead of  the  vowel  *  at  the  end  of  words; 
as  ley,  law;  soy,  I  am;  estoy,  I  am;  rey, 
king.  As  a  conjunction  meaning  and  it  is 
used  as  follows :  Juan  y  Pedro,  John  and 
Peter;  Salud  y  diner  o,  Health  and  money. 


DOUBLE    LETTERS 

In  pure  Spanish  no  letters,  except  e,  i, 
c,  r,  are  written  double — //  being  consid- 
ered one  letter — and  these  occur  only  un- 
der certain  conditions.  Consonant  combi- 
nations are  much  less  numerous,  and  much 
less  frequent,  than  in  almost  any  other 
language.  This  is  an  important  point,  which 
the  student  will  find  of  use  in  comparing 
similar,  or  cognate,  words  from  Spanish 
and  English  in  the  following  vocabulary. 

ACCENT 

Words  ending  in  consonants  are  accented 
on  the  last  syllable :  as  salud,  health ;  cantor, 
to  sing.  Words  ending  in  a  vowel  or  a 
diphthong  are  accented  on  the  penultimate 
syllable :  as  bianco,  white ;  silla,  chair ;  cam- 
pana,  bell ;  ruido,  noise ;  cielo,  heaven ;  reino, 
kingdom.  This  is  called  the  "tonic  accent." 

The  written  accent  is  used  only  on  words 
that  do  not  follow  the  above  two  rules. 
When  the  written  accent  is  used,  it  indicates 
where  to  lay  the  stress  of  the  voice,  as 
azucar,  sugar ;  papa,  papa ;  sdbado,  Saturday. 
The  vowels  d,  e,  6,  u,  when  standing  alone, 
are  always  accented.  This  is  called  the 
"graphic  accent." 

The  acute  accent  (')  is  the  only  one  used 
in  the  Spanish  language. 


VOCABULARY  OF  FAMILIAR  AND  USEFUL  WORDS 


To  THE  STUDENT  familiar  with  Latin, 
the  acquisition  of  a  good-sized  Spanish 
vocabulary  will  be  easy,  after  a  few  simple 
rules  of  vowel  and  consonant  variation  have 
been  understood.  The  English-speaking 
student  is  in  very  nearly  the  same  position 
of  advantage — provided  he  have  an  intelli- 
gent comprehension  of  his  own  language; 
since  both  Spanish  and  English  are  very 
largely  of  Latin  origin.  Thus,  very  many 
English  words  derived  direct  from  Latin 
roots  have  their  counterparts  in  Spanish. 

Several  hundred  English  words,  of  Latin 
origin,  ending  in  tion  and  sion,  are  found 
practically  the  same  in  Spanish,  except  for 
the  change  to  the  ending  cion.  Among 
these  are  accion  (action),  conversation 
(conversation),  declaration  (declaration), 
invention  (invention),  nation  (nation), 
diction  (diction),  ratification  (ratification), 
habitation  (habitation),  etc. 

A  number  of  English  nouns  of  Latin 
origin  ending  in  ty  have  counterparts  in 
Spanish  with  the  ending  tad  or  dad.  Thus : 
libertad  (liberty),  vanii-id  (vanity),  grave- 


dad  (gravity),  necesidad  (necessity),  so- 
ciedad  (  society  ) . 

The  following  brief  vocabulary  will  fur- 
nish the  attentive  student  with  a  number 
of  the  other  common  variations  of  suffixes 
that,  with  close  observation  of  vowel  and 
consonant  changes,  will  soon  enable  him 
to  greatly  increase  his  store  of  ready  words. 

The  pronunciations  appended  to  these 
words  are,  as  far  as  possible,  given  with 
unmistakable  English  combinations.  Note 
that  ah  and  oh  correspond  in  sound  to  the 
English  interjections  so  spelled. 


THE  WORLD  AND  SEASONS 


English 

The   earth 
the   sea 
the  water 
the   fire 
the   wind 
the   rain 
the  snow 
the   ice 
the    day 
the   night 
the  sun 


Spanish 

la  tierra 
el  mar 
el  agua 
el  fuego 
el  vicnto 
la  lluvia 
la  nieve 
el  hielo 
el  dia 
la  noche 
el  sol 


lah  teeayri^ih 
ail  mahr 
ail  ahgooah 
ail  fooaygoh 
ail  veeayntoh 
lah  youveeah 
lah  neeayvay 
ail  eeayloh 
ail  deeah 
lah  nochay 
ail  sohl 


142 


SPANISH   SELF-TAUGHT 


Engbh 

Spuhh 

PronuncUOon 

FOOD 

the  moon 

la  luna 

lab  loonah 

taM 

SyMiah                        PimoBclBttM 

the  stars 

las  estrellas 

lahs  aystrayyahs 

the  meat 

la  came                 lab  carnay 

the  river 

el  rio 

ail  reeoh 

the  bread 

el  pan                    ail  pan 

the  animate 

Io3  animales 

lohs  ahneemah- 

the  flour 

la  karina               lah  ahrecnah 

lays 

veal 

came  de  ternera  carnay  day  tay^ 

the  air 

el  cure 

ail  ah-ceray 

nay  rah 

the  morning 

la  maiiana 

lab  mahnyaynah 

mutton 

carnc  de  camera  carnay  day  car* 

the  evening 

la  tarde 

lah  tahrday 

nayroh 

the  year 

el  ano 

ail  ahnioh 

lamb 

eordero                  cordayroh 

the  century 

el  siglo 

ail  seegloh 

pork 

carnc  de  p*erco  carnay  day  poo- 

the  lake 

el  logo 

ail  lahgoh 

ayrcoh 

the  winter 

el  invierno 

ail  eenveeayrnoh 

bacon 

tocino                      tohtheenoh 

the  summer 

el  verano 

ail   vayrahnoh 

ham 

jamon                      hamohn 

the  fall 

el  otono 

ail  otonyeeoh 

butter 

tnantcquilla            mahntaykee-yah 

the  spring 

la  primavera 

lar  preemahvay- 

cheese 

queso                        kaysoh 

rah 

fish 

pescado                   payscahdoh 

the  heat 

el  color 

ail  cahlohr 

fowl 

ave                           ahvay 

the  seasons 

las  estaciones 

lahs  aystahthee- 

chicken 

potto                        pohl-yoh 

ohnays 

turkey 

pavo                        pahvoh 

the  stream 

la  corriente 

lah  cohrreeayntay 

pigeon 

paloma                    pahlohmab 

quail 

codornis                 codorneeth 

THE   HUMAN   BODY 

partridge       • 

perdis                      payrdeeth 

rice 

arros                       ahr-roth 

the  head 
the  face 
the  arm 
the  eyes 
the  ears 
the  eyebrows 
the  neck 

la  cabeza 
la  car  a 
el  brazo 
los  ojos 
las  orejas 
las  cejas 
el  pescveso 

lah  cahbaythah 
lah  cahrah 
ail  brahthoh 
lohs  ohos 
lahs  ohrayhahs 
lahs  tliayhahs 
ail  payskooaysoh 

eggs 
pie 
oysters 
lobster 
desserts 
ice  cream 

huevos                    ooayvohs 
pastel                     pahstayl 
ostiones                    ohsteeohnays 
langosta                  lalmgostah 
postres                    postrays 
helados                    aylahdohs 

the  chest 
the  hand 

el  pecho 
la  mono 

ail  paychoh 
lah  mahnoh 

VEGETABLES 

the  finger 

el  dedo 

ail  daydoh 

potatoes 

papas                      papas 

the  hair 

el  pelo 

ail  payloh 

beans 

frijoles                    freehohlays 

the  mouth 

la  boca 

lah  bohkah 

carrots 

sanahoria                thanahoreeab 

the  nose 

la  naris 

lah  nahreeth 

turnips 

nabo                       nahboh 

the  foot 

el  pie 

ail  peeay 

lettuce 

lechuga                    laychoogah 

the  lips 

lot  labios 

lohs  lahbeeohs 

celery 

apio                        ahpeeoh 

the  leg 

la  pierna 

lah  peeayrnah 

tomatoes 

tomate                     tomatay 

the  knee 

la  rodilla 

lah    rohdeeyah 

cabbage 

col                          kohl 

the  elbows 

los  codos 

lohs  kohdohs 

cauliflower 

coliflor                     kohleeflor 

the  blood 

la  sangre 

lah  sahngray 

onions 

ccbolla                    thaybolyah 

the  shoulders 

las  paletas 

lahs  pahlaytahs 

parsley 

perejil                     payrayheel 

the  skin 

la  piel 

lah  peeayl 

spinach 

espinaca                  ayspeenahka 

the  tooth 

el  diente 

ail  deeayntay 

cucumber 

pcpino                     paypeenoh 

the  teeth 

los  dientes 

lohs     decayntays 

beet 

remolacha               raymohlahchah 

the  tongue 

la  lengua 

lah  layngooah 

peas 

chicharos                cheechahros 

the  bones 

los  huesos 

lohs  ooaysohs 

radishes 

r&bano                      rahbahnoh 

the  back 

la  espalda 

lah    ayspahldah 

asparagus 

csparragos              aysparrahgohs 

HOUSE  AND   EATING 

UTENSILS 

DRINKS 

the  chair 

la  sitta 

lah  seeyah 

water 

agua                        ahgooah 

the  table 

la  mesa 

lah  maysah 

wine 

vino                       yeenoh 

the  armchair 

el  sillon 

ail  seeyohn 

beer  or  ale 

cervesa                    thayrvaythah 

the  looking-glass 

el  espejo 

ail    ayspayhoh 

milk 

leche                        laychay 

the  pillows 

la   almohada 

la    ahlmohahdah 

coffee 

caff                         cah  fay 

the  sheets 

las  sabanas 

lahs     sahbahnahs 

chocolate 

chocolate               chocohlahtay 

the  towel 

la  toaila 

lah  tohahyah 

tea 

te                          tay 

the  tablecloth 

el  pano  de  rneja 

ail    pahnyeeoh 

gin 

ginebra                   heenaybrah 

day  maysah 

punch 

ponche                    pone  hay 

the  cup 

la  tasa 

lah  tahsah 

rum 

ran    or    aguar-     rohn    or   ahgoo- 

the  knife 

el  cuchillo 

ail    coocheeyoh 

diente                      ahrdeeayntay 

the  spoon 

la  citchara 

lah    coochahrah 

coffee  and  mflk 

caff  con  leche     cahfay  conn 

the  bowl 

la  escudilla 

lah  ayscoodeeyah 

laychay 

the  clock 

el  rehj 

?'l  rayloh 

lemonade 

limonada                leemohnahdah 

the  trunk 

el  haul 

ail  bahool 

orangeade 

naranjada               nahrahnhahdah 

the  box 

la  caja 

lah  cah-hah 

buttermilk 

suero                       sooayroh 

the  mattress 

el  colchon 

ail  cohlchohn 

milk    punch 

ponche  de  leche  ponchay   day 

the  lamp 

la  lampara 

lah    lahmpahrah 

laychay 

the  plate 

el  plato 

ail  plahtoh 

sherry 

vino  de  jeres       veenoh   day 

the  fork 

el  tenedor 

ail    taynaydohr 

hayrayth 

the  candlestick 

el  candelero 

ail     cahndaylay- 

port    wine 

vino    de    oporto  veenoh    day 

roh 

ohportoh 

the  bed 

la  cama 

lah  cahmah 

claret 

vino  tinto               veenoh    teentob 

the  napkin 

la  servilleta 

lah    sayrveeyay- 

champagne 

vino    de    chom-    veenoh  day 

tab 

pafia                       champahnyah 

SPANISH   SELF-TAUGHT 


143 


MEN'S    AND    WOMEN'S 

CLOTHING 

English 

SpanUh 

Pronunciation 

the   young  man 

el  /oven 

ail  hohvaym 

English                             Spantoh 

Pronunciation 

the    young    wo- 

la /oven 

lah   hohvayn 

the  hat                  el  sombrero 

ail  sohmbrayroh 

man 

the  shirt                la  camisa 

lah  cahmeesah 

the  coat                la  levita 

lah  layveetah 

TOWN, 

HOUSE,  AND 

COUNTRY 

the  pants               el  pantaloon 
the  collar               el  cuellu 
the  cuffs                los  punos 
the  cloak               la  capa 
the  necktie            la  corbata 
the  cap                   la  gorra 
the  overcoat          el  sobretodo 

ail   pantahlohn 
ail  kooaylyoh 
lohs  poonyohs 
lah   cahpah 
lah  cohrbahtah 
lah   gohr-rah 
ail   sohbray- 

the  town 
the  country 
my  country 
the  city 
the  village 
the  building 

el  pueblo 
el  campo 
mi  pais 
la  ciudad 
la  villa 
el  edificio 

ail  pooaybloh 

ail  cahmpoh 
mee  pahees 
lah  theeoodad 
lah  veelyah 
ail  ay  dee  fee  - 
theeoh 

the  jacket              la  chaqueta 
the  dress               el  vestido 
the  skirt                las  faldas 

tohdoh 
lah  chahkaytah 
ail    vaysteedoh 
labs  fahldahs 

the  street 
the  house 
the  schoolhouse 
the  church 

la  calls 
la  casa 
la  escuela 
la  iglesia 

lah  cahlyay 
lah  cahsah 
lah  ayskooaylah 
lah  eeglayseeah 

tne  nose             t    .             .. 
the    stockings  f  las  medtas 
the    handker-        el  paKuelo 

labs    maydeeahs 
ail    pahnyooay- 

IrvTt 

the  hospital' 
the  inn 
the  post-office 

el  hospital 
la  posada 
el  correo 

ail  ospeetahl 
lah  pohsahdah 
ail  cohrayoh 

cnici 
the  shoes              los  eapatos 

ion 
lohs  thahpahtohs 

the  theatre 
the  hotel 

el  teatro 
el  hotel 

ail  tayahtroh 
ail  ohtayl 

the  tavern 

la  taberna 

lah  tahbayrnah 

WRITING    MATERIALS 

the  custom- 
house 

la  aduana 

lah  ahdooahnah 

the  paper              el  papel 

ail  pahpayl 

the  library 

la  biblioteca 

lah  beebleeo- 

the  pen                  la  pluma 

lah  ploomah 

taycah 

ihe  ink                   la  tinta 

lah  teentah 

the  bridge 

el  puente 

ail  pooayntay 

the  inkstand          el  tintero 

ail  teentayroh 

the  tower 

la  torre 

lah  torray 

the  pencil               el  lapis 

ail  lahpeeth 

the  castle 

el  Castillo 

ail  casteelyoh 

the    sealing-wax  el  lacre 

ail  lahcray 

the  shop 

la  tienda 

lah  teeayndah 

the  wafer              la  oblea 

lah   ohblayah 

the  exchange 

la  bolsa 

lah  bolsah 

the  ruler                la  regla 

lah  rayglah 

the  prison 

la  carcel 

lah  carthayl 

the  penknife          el  cortaplumas 

ail  cortah-ploo- 
mahs 

the  university 

la  universidad 

lah  ooneevayr- 
seedad 

the  envelope          el  sobre 

ail  sohbray 

the  cathedral 

la  catedral 

lah  cataydrahl 

the    post-stamp     el  sello  de  correo 

ail  saylyo   day 
cohrrayoh 

the  palace 
the  window 

el  palacio 
la  ventana 

ail  pahlahtheeob 
lah  vayntahnah 

the  letter               la  carta 

lah  cartah 

the  door 

la  puerta 

lah  pooayrtah 

a  sheet  of  paper     una  ho/a  de  pa- 
pel 

oonah  ohah  day 
paypayl 

the  wall 
the  key 

la  pared 
la  Have 

lah  pahrayd 
lah  yahvay 

blotting  paper      papel  secante 
stamped  paper      papel  sellado 

papayl   saycantay 
papayl   saylyah- 
doh 

the  bell 
the  staircase 
the  parlor 

la  campana 
la  escalera 
la  sola 

lah  campahnah 
lah  ayskalayrah 
lah  sahlah 

the  address           la  direction 

lah   deeraykthee- 
ohn 

the  dining-room 
the  bedroom 

el  comedor 
el  cuarto  de 

ail  ccmaydohr 
ail  kooahrto 

dormir 

day  dormeer 

RELATIONS 

the  room 

el  cuarto 

ail  kooahrto 

the  kitchen 

la  cocina 

lah  cotheenah 

the  mother            la  madre 

lah   mahdray 

the  roof 

el  techo 

ail  taychoh 

the  father               el  padre 

ail  pahdray 

the  cellar 

el  sotano 

ail  sohtahnoh 

the  grandmother  la  abuela 

lah  ahbooaylah 

the  garden 

el  jar  din 

ail  hardeen 

the  grandfather   el  abuelo 

ail   ahbooayloh 

the  market 

el  mercado 

ail  mayrkadoh 

the  son                    el   hi/o 

ail   eehoh 

the  bank 

el  banco 

ail  bankoh 

the  daughter         la  hi/a 

lah   eehah 

the  coffee-house 

el  cafe 

ail  cahfay 

the  brother            el  hermano 

ail  ayrmahnoh 

the  harbor 

el  puerto 

ail  pooayrtoh 

the  uncle                el  tio 

ail  teeo 

the  field 

el  campo 

ail  campoh 

the  aunt                  la  tia 

ah    teea 

the  bush 

la  brena 

lah  brenyah 

the  nephew            el  sobrino 

ail   sohbreenoh 

the  oven 

el  homo 

ail  ortioh 

the  niece                 la   sobrina 

lah   sohbreenah 

the  straw 

la  pa/a 

lah    pahah 

the  girl                   la  muchacha 

lah    moochahchah 

the  corn 

el  main 

ail  maheeth 

the  boy                  el   muchacho 

ail    moochahchoh 

oats 

avena 

ahvaynah 

the  wife                 la  esposa 

lah  ayspohsah 

the  mill 

el  molino 

ail  moleenoh 

the  husband          el  esposo 

ail  ayspohsoh 

the  hill 

la  loma 

lah  lomah 

the  man                 el  hombre 

ail  ohmbray 

the  hay 

el  heno 

ail  aynoh 

the  woman            la   mufer 

lah  moohayr 

the  soil 

la  tierra,  el  ter- 

lah  teeayrrah 

the  bride                la   novia 

lah    nohveeah 

reno 

the    bridegroom    e/  novio 

ail   nohveeoh 

the  barn 

el  granero 

ail  grahnayroh 

the  widow             /a   Kt'wrfa 

lah    viewdah 

the  meadow 

la  pradera 

lah  pradayrah 

the  widower         el  viwdo 

ail  viewdoh 

the  hut 

la  chosa 

lah  chohthah 

the    friend  (male)  el  amigo 

ail  ahmeegoh 

the  cattle 

el  ganado 

ail  gahnahdoh 

the   friend    (fe-    la  amiga 

lah   ahmeegah 

the  forest 

la  selva 

lah  saylvah 

male) 

the  shepherd 

el  pqstor 

ail  paatohr 

the    child  (male)  el  nino 

ail  neenyoh 

the  herd 

la  man  a  da 

lah  manahdah 

the    child    (fe-      la   nina 

lah   neenyah 

the  woods 

el  bosque 

ail  boskay 

__j.i  \ 

firewood     ) 

the  cousin            «/  £riwo 

ail  preemo 

Split-wood  } 

la  lena 

lah  laynyah 

144 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


gnjlUh 

Opal*                          }>rommoi«Jon 

PROFESSIONS  AND  TRADES 

wheat 

trigo                        treegoh 

_    M  . 

road 

camino                    cahmeenoh 

K:  .-.-•.                                Spankh                           ProaBMtoMM 

highroad 
the  valley 
railroad 

camino-real            cahmeenoh  rayalil 
el  voile                   ail   valyay 
fgrro-carrit             fayrroh  karreel 

the  doctor               el  doctor           ail  dohctohr 
the  lawyer               el  abogado         ail  ahbohgahdafc 
a  civil  engineer      el  ingeniero      ail  eenhayneeayroh 

a  mile 
the  waterfall 

una  milla                 oonah  meal-yah 
la  cascado               lah  cahacahdah 

civil                   ceeveel 
a  chemist                 MM  quimico        oon  keemeecoh 
a  druggist                un  droguista     oon  drohgeesta 

NATIONS,  NATIONALITIES,  ETC. 

the  baker                 el  panadero       ail  pahnahdayroh 
the  hatter               el  sombrerero   ail  sohmbrayrayroh 

America 
an  American 

America.                 Ahmayreeka 
un  Americano      oon  Ahmayree- 
kano 

the  shoemaker        el  eapatero        ail  thahpahtayrob 
the  barber               el  barbero         ail  bahrbayroh 
the  schoolmaster    el  maestro  dt    ail  mahaystroh  day 

Mexico 
a   Mexican 
Europe 
a  European 

Mejico                    Mayheeko 
un  Mejicano        oon  Mayheekahno 
Europa                   Ayoorohpah 
un  Europfo          oon  Ayooroh- 

payoh 

escuela               ayskooaylah 
the  miller                el  molinero       ail  mohlecnayroh 
the  blacksmith        el  herrero          ail  ayr-rayroh 
the  weaver              el  tejedor          ail  tayhaydohr 
the  butcher              el  carnicero       ail  cahrneethayrob 

England 
an    Englishman 
France 
a  Frenchman 
Germany 
a   German 

Inglaterra               Englahtayrrah 
un  Ingles              oon  Inglays 
Francia                   Frahntheeah 
un  Francis           oon  Frahnthays 
Alemania                Ahlaymahneeah 
un  Aleman           oon  Ahlayman 

the  brewer              el  cervecero      ail  bahbrayroh 
the  tailor                 el  sastre             ail  sahstray 
the  carpenter          el  carpintero     ail  cahrpeentayroh 
the  mason                el  albanil           ail  ahlbah-nyeel 
the  bookbinder       el  encuaderna-  ail  aytikooahdayr- 

dor  de  libros     nahdohr    day 
,     i      «^ 

Italy 

Italia                       Eatnhlccah 

leebrons 

an    Italian 

un   Italiano           oon  Eatahlee- 

a  priest                     un  saccrdotg     oon  sahthayrdohtay 
a  minister 

Switzerland 
a  Swiss 
Ireland 
an    Irishman 

Siviza                     Sooeethah 
un   Swizo              oon  Sooeethoh 
Irlanda                    Ir-landah 
un  Irlandes           oon  Ir-landays 

a  bishop                  un  obispo           oon  ohbeespoh 
an  archbishop         un  arzobispo     oon  ahrthohheespoh 
the  Pope                 el  papa               ail  papa 
the  nun                    la  monja            lah  mohnhab 

Scotland 

Escocia                   Ayskotheeah 

a  Scotchman 

un  Escocet             oon  Ayskothays 

ANIMALS,     BIRDS,     FISHES,     INSECTS 

Russia* 

Rusia                        Rooseeah 

the  dog                  el  perro             ail  payr-roh 

a  Russian 

un  Ruso                oon  Roosoh 

the  horse                el  caballo           ail  cahbahlloh 

Denmark 

Dinamarca             Deenahmarka 

the  donkey            el  burro             ail  boor-ro 

a  Dane 

un  DinamarqiHS  oon  Deenamar- 

the  pig                    el  lechon         •  ail  laychohn 

kays 

the  colt                   el  potro              ail  potroh 

Sweden 

Sue  da                     Sooaytheeah 

the  goat                  el  chivo              ail  cheevob 

a  Swede 

un  Sueco               «on  Sooaykoh 

the  cat                     el  goto                ail  gahtoh 

Spain 

Espana                   Ayspahn'yah 

the  rat                    la  rata                lah  rahta 

a   Spaniard 

un  Espanol           oon  Ayspahn'yot 

the  mouse                el  rat  on               ail  rahtohn 

Hungary 

JJungria                 Oongreeah 

an  ox                       un  buey             oon  booaee 

a  Hungarian 

un   Httngaro         oon  Oongah-roh 

a  cow                     una  vaca           oonah  vahcah 

Holland 

Holanda                 Oh-landah 

a  calf                      un  ternero         oon  tayrnayrob 

a   Dutchman 

un  Holandes        oon  Oh-landays 

a  sheep                   un  camera        oon  cahrnayrob 

Belgium 

Bflgica                   Belheeka 

a  lamb                    un  cordero        oon  cohrdayroh 

a   Belgian 

un  Bilga               oon  Belgah 

the  hare                  la  liebre             lah  leeaybray 

Austria 

Austria                   Ahoostreeah 

the  monkey           */  mono             ail  mohnoh 

an  Austrian 

un  Austriaco         oon  Ahoostreeah- 

a  wolf                      un  lobo              oon  lohboh 

coh 

a  bear                      un  oso                oon  ohsoh 

Brazil 

Brasil                     Brahseal 

a  lion                       un  lean              oon  layohn 

a    Brazilian 

unBrosiletto         oon   Brahseel- 

a  tiger                     un  tigre             oon  teegray 

en'yo 

an  elephant            un  elefante        oon  aylayfahtrtay 

China 

China                      Cheena 

a  mare                     una  yegua          oonah  yaygooah 

a  Chinese 

un  China                oon  Cheeno 

a  bull                       tin  toro               oon  tohro 

Portugal 

Portugal                 Portoogahl 

a  duck                     un  pato              oon  pahtoh 

a  Portuguese 

un  Portuguet       oon  Poortoogays 

a  hen                       una  gallina        oonah  crahl-yeenah 

Africa 

Africa                     Ahfreeka 

a  cock                      MM  Ratio             oon  gahlyob 

an   African 

un  Africano          oon   Ahfreekanob 

a  chicken                un  polio             oon  pohlyoh 

Asia 

Asia                         Anseeah 

the  eagle                 tl  aguila             ail  ahgeelah 

an  Asiatic 

KK  Asidtico           oon  Ahseeah- 

the  pheasant          el  faisan             ail  faheesahn 

teecoh 

the  bat                    el  murcielago    ail  moorceeaylahgoh 

Turkey 

Turquia                  Toorkeyah 

the  partridge         la  perdi*            lab  payrdeeth 

a  Turk 

un  Turco               oon  Toorko 

the  peacock            tl  pavo-real       ail  pahvoh  reeahl 

Prussia 

Prusia                     Prooseeah 

tile  swan                 el  cisne              ail  thcesnay 

a  Prussian 

un  Prusiano          oon    Prooseeahno 

the  goose                el  ganso             ail  gahnsoh 

Poland 

Polonia                   Poloneeah 

the  nightingale      el  ruisenor        ail  rooeesayn-yohr 

a  Polander  or 

un  Polaco             oon  Polahco 

the  mocking-bird  el  sinsonte         ail  seensohntay 

Pole 

the  sparrow            */  gorrion          ail  gohr-reeohn 

Norway 

Noruega                Norooaygah 

the  parrot               la  cotorra          lah  cohtohr-rab 

a  Norwegian 

un  Noruego          oon   Norooaygoh 

the  bird                  el  pa  faro           ail  pah-hahroh 

Philippine 

Islas   Filipinos      Eeslahs  Feelee- 

a  fish                      un  pescado        oon  payscahdoh 

Islands 

peenahs 

the  pike                  el  lucio              ail  lootheeoh 

a  Philippine  Isl- 

un Filipino           oon  Feeleepee* 

the  salmon             el  salmon       .    ail  sahlmohn 

ander 

nob                          the  carp                 la  carpa             lab  cahrpah 

SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


145 


English                                Spanish                           Pronunciation 

English                                Spanish                           Pronunciation 

the  eel                      la  anguila           lah  ahngeelah 

half  an  hour           media-hora                 maydeeah  ohrab 

the  trout                 la  trucha            lah  troochah 

a  quarter  of  an      un  cuarto  de  hora     oon  kooahrto 

the  herring             el  arenque          ail  ahraynkay 

hour                                                             day  ohrah 

the  crab                   el  cangrejo         ail  cahngrayhoh 

the  time                  el  tiempo                     ail  teeaympoh 

oysters                     ostiones              ohsteeohnays 

the  day                    el  dia                          ail  deeah 

the  turtle                 Id  tortuga           lah  tohrtoogah 

Sunday                   Domingo                     Domeengoh 

the  whale                 la  ballena            lah  bahlyaynah 

Monday"                 Lunes                          Loonays 

the  frog                   la  rana                lah  rahnah 

Tuesday                  Maries                        Martays 

the  butterfly            la  mariposa        lah  mahreepohsah 

Wednesday            Miercoles                    Meeayrkolays 

the  fly                      la  mosca              lah  mohscah 

Thursday                Jueves                         Hooayvays 

the  spider                la  arana              lah  ahrahnyah 

Friday                     Viernes                       Veeayrnays 

the  moth                  la  polilla             lah  pohleeyah 

Saturday                 Sdbado                        Sahbahdoh 

a  gnat                       un  mosquito       oon  mosquito 

a  month                   un  mes                        oon  mais 

a  bee                         una  abeja            oonah   ahbehah 

January                   Enero                          Aynayroh 

a  wasp                      una  avispa          oonah  ahveespah 

February                Febrero                       Faybrayroh 

an  ant                       una  hormiga      oonah  ohrmeegah 

March                      Marso                          Marthoh 

a  flea                        una  pulga           oonah  poolgah 

April                        Abril                           Ahbreel 

bedbug                     chtnche               cheenchay 

May                         Mayo                           Mahyoh 

insect                       insecto                eensayctoh 

June                         Junio                           Hooneeoh 

mosquito                  mosquito             mosquito 

July                         Julio                            Hooleeoh 

August                   Agosto                       Ahgohstoh 

September              Setiembre                   Sayteeaymbray 

TREES,    BUSHES,    AND    FLOWERS 

October                   Octubre                       Octoobray 

November              Noviembre                 Noveeaymbray 

an  apple  (tree)       un  manzano       oon  mahnthahnoh 
a  pear  (tree)           un  peral             oon  payrahl 

December               Diciembre                   Deeceeaymbray 
a  week                     una  semana                oonah  saymah- 

a  plum  (tree)          un  ciruelo          oon  theerooayloh 

nah 

a  cherry  (tree)       un  cerezo           oon  thayraytho 

a  year                      un  ano                         oon  ahnyo 

an  orange  (tree)    un  naranjo        oon  nahranhoh 
a  chestnut  (tree)    un  castano         oon  castahnyoh 
a  currant                  un  grosellero     oon  grosaylyayroh 

a  century                un  siglo                       oon  seegloh 
the  half  century    el  media  sigh             ail  maydeeoh 
seegloh 

strawberry              fresa                   fraysah 
raspberry                 franbuesa.         franbooaysah 
blackberry               sarsamora          tharthahmorah 

the  morning           la  mafiana                   lah  mahnyahnal 
noon                        el  medio-dia                ail  maydeeoh- 
deeah 

an  oak  (tree)          el  roble               ail  roblay 
the  fir  (tree)           el  abeto               ail  ahbaytoh 
the  willow  (tree)   el  sauce             ail  sahoothay 

the  afternoon         la  tarde                       lah  tahrday 
the  evening            el  anochecer               ail  ahnochay- 

a  tree                        un  arbol             oon  arbohl 
the  rose                    la  rosa                lah  rohsah 
the  tulip                   el  tulipan           ail  tooleepahn 

the  night                 la  noche                      lah  nohchay 
midnight                 media-noche               maydeeah- 

the  pink                   el  clavel             ail  clahvayl 
the  lily                     el  lino                ail  leereeo 

sunrise                   la  salida  del  sol         lah  sahleedah 

the  violet                 la  violeta            lah  veeohlaytah 
the  honeysuckle     la  madreselva    lah  mahdraysaylvah 

dayl  sol 
sunset                     la  puesta  del  sol        lah  pooaystah 

the  flower               la  flor                 lah  flohr 

dayl  sol 
New  Year's  Day  Ano  Nuevo                Ahnyo  Nooay- 

voh 

MINERALS,    METALS,    AND    PRECIOUS 
STONF"? 

Christmas               Navidad                      Nahveedad 
Easter                    Pascua  de  resur-       Paskooah    day 

O  i  \Jl^t  H.O 

reccion                       raysoorrayk- 

gold                        oro                     ohroh 

theeon 

silver                      plata                  plahtah 

Whitsuntide           Dia  de  Pentecostes    Deeah  day  Pen- 

iron                          hierro                 eeayrroh 

Whit-Sunday                                     "           taycostays 

copper                    cobre                 cohbray 

a  holy  day            un  dia  de  festa          oon  deeah  day 

steel                       acero                  ahthayroh 

feeaystah 

zinc                          zinc                    theenk 

Palm    Sunday       Domingo  de  Ramos  Domeengoh  day 

tin                           hoja  de  lata       ohah  day  lahtah 

Rahmohs 

bronze                     bronce                bronthay 

diamond                  diamante           deeahmantay 
ruby                         rubi                    roobee 

CARDINAL  NUMBERS 

pearl                        perla                   payrlah 

opal                          opalo                  ohpahlo 

uno                           oonoh 

coral                       coral                  korahl 

2              dos                            dohs 

emerald                  esmeralda         aysmayrahldah 
sapphire                 safir                   thahfeer 

3              tres                           trays 
4              cuatro                       kooahtroh 

topaz                       topacio              topahtheeoh 

5              cinco                         thinkoh 

amethyst                 amatista             ahmahteestah 

6               seis                             say-is 

marble                     marmol              marmohl 

7              siete                          seeaytay 

coal                          carbon                karbohn 

8              ocho                          o-tcho 

lime                         col                       kal 

o,              nueve                       nooayvay 

10              dies                           dee'ayth 

i  T              once                          onthay 

TIME,    MONTHS,    AND    DAYS 

12              doce                          dothay 

13              trece                         tretli'-ay 

an  hour                  una  hora                    oonah  ohrah 

14              catorce                    kahtorthay 

a  minute                 un  minnto                   oon  meenootoh 

15    -          quince                     keenthay 

a  second                 ~',n  sepw*  io                oon  saygoondoh 

if             dies  y  sefs               deeayth  e  say-ees 

146 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


Knglfch                     Spanlah                                  Pronandatlon 

ORDINAL  NUMBERS 

17            die*  y  siete             deeayth  e  seeaytay 

Engltah                     Spaolah                                    PraoncMioo 

1  8            dies  y  ocho             deeayth  e  ohchob 

ist           primero  or  primer     preemayro  or  preemayr 

19           die*  y   nueve        deeayth  e  nooayvay 

2d             segundo                       saygoondoh 

20            veinte                       vay-in'-tay 

3d            tercero  or  tercer        tayrthayroh 

21            veintc  y   uno         vay-in'-tay  e  oonoh 

4th           cuarto                         kooahrtoh 

22           veinte  y  dos            vay-in'-tay  e  dohs 
23           veinte  y  tres           vay-in'-tay  e  trays  • 
24            veinte  y  cuatro       vay-in'-tay  e  kooahtroh 

5th            quinto                          kintoh 
6th           sexto  or  sesto             sekstoh  or  saystoh 
7th           septimo  or  setimo      septeemoh  or  sayteemoB 

25           veinte  y  cinco         vay-in'-tay  e  thinkoh 

8th           octavo                         oktahvoh 

26           veinte  y  seis           vay-in/-tay  e  sayees 

9th           noveno                        novaynoh 

27           veinte  y  siete          vay-in'-tay  e  seeaytay 
28           veinte  y  ocho         vay-in'-tay  e  ohchob 
39           veinte  y  nueve       vay-in'-tay  e  nooayvay 
30           treinta                     tray-in'-tah 

loth         decimo                         daythcemoh 
nth          undecimo                     oondaythcemoh 
12th         duodecimo                  doo-ohdaythcemoh 
1  3th          decimo  tercio              daythcemoh  tertheeoh 

31            treinta  y  uno          tray-in'-tah  e  oonoh 
32           treinta  y  dos           tray-in'-tah  e  dohs 
33            treinta  y  tres          tray-in'-tah  e  trays 
34           treinta  y  cuatro      tray-in'-tah  e  kooahtroh 
35            treinta  y  cinco        tray-in'-tah  e  thinkoh 
36           treinta  y  seis          tray-in'-tah  e  sayees 
37            treinta  y  siete         tray-in'-tah  e  seeaytay 
38            treinta  y  ocho         tray-in'-tah  e  ohchoh 
39           treinta  y  nueve      tray-in'-tah  e  nooayvay 
40            cuarcnta                  kooahrayntah 

1  4th          decimo  cuarto             day  theemoh  kooahrtoh 
1  5th          decimo  quinto             daythcemoh  kintoh 
1  6th          decimo  sexto               dayt  heemoh  sekstoh 
i  7th         decimo  septimo           day  theemoh  septeemoh 
1  8th          decimo  octavo             day  theemoh  oktahvoh 
1  9th          decimo  noveno            da  ytheemoh  novaynoh 
2oth         vigesimo                     veehayseemoh 
3Oth          trigesimo                     treehayseemoh 
4oth         cuadragesimo             kooahdrahayseemoh 
5oth         quincuagesimo           kinkooah-hayseetnoh 

41            cuarenta  y  uno       kooahrayntah  e  oonoh 
42            cuarenta  y  dos        kooahrayntah  e  dohs 
43            cuarenta  y  tres       kooahrayntah  e  trays 
44            cuarenta  y  cuatro  kooahrayntah  e  kooahtroh 
45            cuarenta  y  cinco     kooahrayntah  e  thinkoh 

6oth         sexagesimo                  seks-ah-hayscemoh 
7oth         septvagesimo               septooah-hayseemoh 
8oth         octogesimo                   oktoh-hayseemoh 
9oth         nonagesimo                nonah-hayseemoh 
looth       centesimo                   thentay  theemoh 

46            cuarenta  y  seis       kooahrayntah  e  sayees 

47            cuarenta  y  siete     kooahrayntah  e  seeaytay 

CONJUNCTIONS 

48            cuarenta  y  ocho     kooahrayntah  e  ohchoh 

that                      que                       kay 

49            cuarenta  y  nueve   kooahrayntah  e  nooayvay 

and                      y                          e 

50            cincuenta                thinkoo-entah 

not,  nor,  neither  ni                          knee 

60            sesenta                   saysentah 

too,  also               tambien                tahmbeeayn 

70            setenta                    saytentah 

neither                tampoco               tampoh-co 

80            ochenta                    o-tchentah 

if,  whether          si                         see 

90            r.oventa                   noventah 

if                            como                      komo 

100          cie»                         thieh-en 

when                    cuando                 cooahndo 

200          doscientos              dos-thieh-en/-tos 

so  that                  asi  que                  ahsee  kay 

300          trecientos               treth-e-en'-tos 

as,  according  to  segun                    saygoon 

400          cuatrocientot         kooahtroth-e-en'-totf 

while                    mientras  que        me-entrahs  kay 

500          quinientos               keeneeayntos 

as  since,  there-    pues,  pues  que     pooais,  pooais  kay 

600          seiscientos               say-is-thieh-en'-tos 

fore 

700          setecientos             saytay-thieh-eir*-t08 

why?                    jporque?             porkay? 

800          ochocientos             O-tchoth-e-en'-tos 

therefore             por  tanto              por  tayntoh 

900          novecientot            no-veth-e-en'-tos 

however               como  quiera  que  komo  key-ayrah  kay 

1,000       mil                          meel 

besides                 fuera  de  que         fooayrah  day  kay 

5,000      cinco  mil                thinkoh    meel 

since,  inasmuch  puet,  puesto  que  pooais,  pooaysto  to? 

10,000     diez  mil                   dee'ayth  meel 

but                        mas,  pero             mahs,  payro 

30,000    veinte  mil               vay-in'-tay    meel 

even                     aun,  cuando         ahoon,  kooahndo 

30,000     treinta  mil              tray-in'-tah  meel 

although               aunque                  ahoonkay 

40,000    cuarenta  mil           kooahrayntah  meel 

though 

50,000     cincuenta  mil         thinkoo-entah  meel 

provided              eon  tal  que          cohn  tahl  kay 

100,000  cien  mil                   thieh-en  meel 

as                          como,  asi  como    komo,  ahsee  komo 

200,000  doscientos  mil        dosthieh-en-tos  meel 

as  long  as             mientras  tanto     meeayntras  tantoh 

300,000  trescientos  mil       treth-e-en'-tos  meel 

instead  of             en  lugar  de           en  loogahr  day 

400,000  cuatrocientos  mil  kooahtroth-e-en'-tos  meel 

for  want  of          por  falta  de          por  fahltah  day 

500,000  quinientos  mil        keeneeayntos  meet 

since                     desde  que             desday  kay 

BRIEF    OUTLINE    OF    SPANISH    GRAMMAR 


INFLECTION  AND  CASES 

IN  the  inflection  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and 
articles,  the  several  cases — or,  more  prop- 
erly speaking,  "states" — are  usually  formed 
with  prepositions ;  no  variation  of  the  word- 
terminations  being  found  except  in  forming 
a  feminine  from  a  masculine  noun  or  adjec- 
tive, and  in  the  formation  of  the  usual  line 
of  derivatives. 


As  in  English,  the  personal  pronouns 
alone  have  proper  cases  and  vary  the  words 
to  form  them. 

According  to  the  classification  of  most 
grammarians,  the  Spanish  language  has  six 
distinct  cases  for  nouns,  adjectives,  and  par- 
ticiples. These  are  nominative,  genitive,  da- 
tive, impersonal  accusative,  personal  accusa- 
tive, prepositional  The  nominative  is  the 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


147 


case  for  the  subject  of  all  verbs,  except  the 
impersonals.  The  genitive,  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  English  possessive  case,  is 
formed  by  preceding  the  noun  with  the 
preposition  de,  which  means  "to"  or  "from." 
The  dative  is  formed  with  the  preposition  a, 
meaning  "to"  or  "at."  The  prepositional 
case  is  used  with  de  and  all  other  preposi- 
tions. The  difference  between  the  personal 
and  the  impersonal  accusatives  is  that  the 
former  indicates  the  direct  object  of  a  verb, 
when  it  represents  a  human  person,  or  a 
thing  or  quality  personified.  It  takes  the 
preposition  a  like  the  dative.  The  imper- 
sonal accusative  is  formed,  as  in  other  lan- 
guages, without  a  preposition,  and  is  used 
vith  nouns  indicating  things,  animals,  or 
places.  Thus,  with  nouns,  the  two  forms 
of  accusative  occur  only  with  the  names  of 
things,  places,  or  qualities  liable  to  be  per- 
sonified. 


to,  at 

of,   from 

in,  at,  on 

by,  for,  through 

without 

under 

but,  except 

toward 

between,   among 

notwithstanding 

on,  about,  above 

under 

against 

with 

except 

during 

to,  until,  up  to 

after,    besides 

within 

besides 

for,    in   order  to 

so,  thus 

on,  over 

outside,  beyond 

far   from 

near  by,  close  by 

touching 

in,  into,  within 


PREPOSITIONS 

d 

de 

en 

par 

sin 


so 

menos 

hdcia 

entre 

no  obstante 

sobre 

bajo 

contra 

con 

excepto 

durante 

hasta 

tras 

dentro 

adem&s  de 

para 

asi 

encima 

fuera  de 

lejos  de 

junto  d 

tocante   & 

dentro  de 


ah 

day 

en 

por 

seen 

so 

mainohs 

ah-theeah 

entray 

no  obstantay 

sobray 

bahoh 

cohntrah 

cohn 

eks-thaypto 

doorantay 

ahstah 

trahs 

dayntro 

ahdaimas  day 

pahrah 

ahsee 

enthiemah 

fooayrah  day 

layhos  day 

hunto  ah 

tocahntay  ah 

dayntro    day 


The  preposition,  de,  which  governs  the 
genitive  case,  may  be  translated  m  a  variety 
of  ways— as  "of,"  "from,"  "by,"  "with,"  "at," 
"to"— or  left  untranslated  in  English.  The 
preposition,  a,  governing  «he  dative  case, 
may  be  translated  as  "to,"  "for,"  "from," 
or  may  be  found  to  give  the  force  of  a  pos- 
sessive adjective  to  a  definite  article  follow- 
ing it. 

Prepositions  governing  the  prepositional 
(or  ablative)  case  always  precede  the  un- 
altered noun,  adjective,  or  pronoun.  The 
sole  exception  is  in  the  personal  pronouns 
with  con,  which  is  prefixed  to  the  forms 
-migo,  -tigo,  -sigo,  giving  conmigo,  "with 


me,"  contigo,  "with  thee,"  consigo,  "with 
himself,  herself,"  etc.  All  other  pronominal 
forms  are  perfectly  regular.  Thus:  con  el, 
con  ello,  con  vosotros,  etc. 

THE   ARTICLES 

In  Spanish,  as  in  English,  French,  and 
German,  there  are  two  articles,  the  definite 
and  the  indefinite. 


THE  DEFINITE 
lows: 

Masc.  Singular 
N.  el. 
G.  del 

D.  al,  para  el 
A.  el,  al 
Pr.  de,  con,  en, 
por,  sin,  sobre  el 

Masc.  Plural 
N.  los 
G.  de  los 
D.  d  los,  para  los 
A.  los,  d  los 
Pr.  de,  con,  etc.,' 
los 


ARTICLE  is  declined  as  fol- 


Fem.  Singular 
la 

de  let 

d  la,  para  la 
la,  d  la 
de,  con,  etc.,  la 


Fern.  Plural 
las 

de  las 

d  las,  para  las 
las,  d  las 
de,  con,  etc.,  las 


the 

of  the 
to  the 
the 

from,  with,  in, 
by,  without, 
over  the 

the 

of  the 

to  the 

the 

from,  with  the 


As  may  be  readily  understood,  the  forms 
del  and  al  of  the  masculine  definite  article 
are  contractions  for  de  el  and  d  el. 

The  masculine  article  el  is  regularly  used 
with  the  feminine  nouns  beginning  with  a  or 
ha  with  the  tonic  accent. 

Another  word  frequently  used  is  the  de- 
monstrative lo,  called  improperly  the  "neutett 
article."  It  is  used  with  adjectives,  adverbs, 
and  pronouns  to  express  substantive  ideas; 
its  use  with  nouns  being  irregular  and  in- 
correct. It  is  declined  through  all  cases, 
which  is  to  say  governed  by  proper  prepo- 
sitions, like  the  regular  articles  given  above. 

THE  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE  is  declined  as  fol- 
lows : 

Masc.  Fern. 

N.  un  una  a 

G.  de  un  de  una  of  a 

D.  d  un  d  una  to  a 

A.  un,  6  un  una,  d  una  a 

Pr.  de,  con,  en,  de,  con,  en,  from,  with,  in, 
por,  etc.,  un               por,  etc.,  una          by  a 

As  in  English,  the  indefinite  article  has 
properly  no  plural,  although  the  adjective 
unos,  unas,  meaning  "some,"  is  sometimes 
said  to  represent  the  plural.  It  is  used,  as 
in  English,  mostly  with  partitives  having  at- 
tributes ;  also,  with  attributive  expressions 
in  the  sense  of  "a  few." 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

The  personal  pronouns  are  yo,  "I";  ttt, 
^hou";  el,  "he";  ella,  "she";  the  formal 
pronoun  vos,  "you"  (singular) ;  and  the 


148 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


word  us  ted,  "your  grace,"  or  "you,"  which 
is  really  a  substantive,  and  always  takes  the 
third  person  of  the  verb.  The  plural  forms 
are  nosotros,  "we";  vosotros,  "you";  ellos 
and  ellas,  "they";  and  ustedes,  "you." 

All  of  these  pronouns  are  in  more  or  less 
regular  use  among  Spanish-speaking  peoples. 
When  used  with  a  verb,  as  already  stated, 
usted  and  ustedes  invariably  take  the  third 
person.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  only  pronominal 
word  regularly  used  with  the  verb,  and  is 
designated  by  V.  (singular)  and  W. 
(plural). 

This  brings  us  to  one  of  the  most  noted 
peculiarities  of  the  Spanish  language,  which 
is  that  the  personal  pronouns  "I,"  "you," 
"he,"  etc.,  are  not  used  as  subjects  of  the 
verb,  unless  required  for  emphasis ;  to  give 
distinctness  in  a  contrast,  or  in  a  position 
where  ambiguity  might  result  without  them. 
Thus,  as  we  shall  see  later,  the  Spanish  verb 
is  inflected  precisely  as  in  Latin  with  per- 
sonal and  tense  endings. 

The  subject  "it"  of  an  impersonal  verb  is 
never  expressed,  except  in  emphatic  or  in- 
terrogative sentences  where  ello  is  used. 
Even  where  the  personal  pronoun  in  En- 
glish is  in  apposition  to  the  noun,  as  subject 
of  a  verb,  it  is  not  expressed  in  Spanish; 
the  regular  rule  being  that  the  noun  Is  used 
whh  the  definite  article,  apparently  as  sub- 
ject of  the  verb  in  the  proper  person. 

Thus:  "We  Spaniards  are  very  back, 
ward,"  Los  Espanoles  estamos  muy  atra- 
gados. 

Where  the  sense  of  the  sentence  requires 
that  the  pronoun  be  expressed,  the  noun  still 
retains  the  definite  article,  and  follows  the 
pronoun.  Thus : 

Nosotros  los  Espanoles  estamos,  etc. 

INFLECTION  OF  THE  PRONOUNS. — The  per- 
sonal pronouns,  as  in  English,  have  a  fuller 
inflection  than  any  other  parts  of  speech, 
and  they  alone  regularly  modify  the  form 
to  designate  case.  There  are  two  inflections 
for  the  dative  and  accusative  of  personal 
pronouns:  the  conjunctive,  representing  the 
construction  when  governed  by  a  verb,  and 
the  disjunctive,  representing  the  construc- 
tion with  a  preposition.  These  two  forms 
appear  in  the  accompanying  paradigms: 

FIRST     PERSON 

Sing.  Plur. 

N.  yo,  I  nosotros  (f.— *w),  we 

G.  de  ml,  of  me,  my  de  nosotros(.t. — oj),of  us.our 

—    \  mt  nos 

"'   \  &  ml,  me,  or  to  me  dnosotrosft. — as),  us,  to  us 

.     \  me  nos 

^    \  6  mt,  me  &  nosotros  (f. — as,),  us 

Pr.  mi,  me  nosotros  (f. — as),  as 


SECOND    PERSON 


Thou 
N.  tu 
G.  de  ti 

_  j  &  a 

Dj  to 


Pr.  ti 


Singular 


You 
vos 
de  vos 
&  vos 
os 
4  vos 

OS 

vos 


Plural 

You 

vosotros  ( — as) 
mt  vosotros  ( — as) 
&  vosotros  (—as) 

OS 

a  vosotros  ( — as) 

OS 

vosotros  ( — as) 


Sing.  He  (moor.) 
N.  el 
G.  de  el 

n    J  k 

I  0  OT 


a  a 


Pr.  el 


THIRD    PERSON 

She  (/*m.) 

rib 

de  c//a 
If 

d  c//a 
/a 

a  «/la 
ella 


Plur.  They  (masc.)      They  (fern.) 

N.  ellos  ellas 

G.  de  ellos  de  ellas 

D    I  les  les 

(  a  ellos  &  ellas 

A.  j  los,  les  las 

]  &  ellos  &  ellas 

Pr.  ellos  ellas 


It   (neut.) 
ello,  lo 
de  ello 


They  (neut.) 


HO 

HEUTER 
PLURAL 


The  student  must  carefully  observe  that 
the  conjunctive  and  disjunctive  accusatives 
of  the  personal  pronouns  do  not  correspond 
to  the  personal  and  impersonal  accusatives 
of  nouns,  adjectives,  and  articles,  although 
apparently  formed  on  the  same  theory.  The 
personal  pronouns,  when  direct  objects  of 
verbs,  are  used  without  prepositions,  in  the 
conjunctive  construction;  with  prepositions, 
in  the  disjunctive  construction;  or  the  two 
forms  of  the  same  pronoun  may  be  used  to 
indicate  the  direct  object  of  one  and  the 
same  verb,  in  a  pleonastic  construction. 
Thus,  the  English  sentence,  "He  seeks  thee/* 
may  be  rendered: 

CONJUNCTIVELY,  Te  busca; 

DISJUNCTIVELY,  A'  ti  busca; 

PLEONASTICALLY,  Te  busca  a  ti,  or  A'  ti 
te  busca.  In  the  last  construction,  emphasis 
is  attained  by  placing  the  disjunctive  first. 

Similarly,  this  sentence  may  be  rendered: 

Le'busca  d  V.  (tuted),  or,  A'  V.  (usted) 
le  busca. 

To  illustrate,  the  plural  of  the  quasi-pro- 
noun  usted,  the  following  may  be  given : 

Les  busca  d  VV.  (ustedes),  or  A'  VV. 
(ustedes)  les  busca. 

The  pronominal  plural  accusative,  Us,  is 
most  commonly  used  with  ustedes. 

"USTED"  AND  "USTEDES" 

The  word,  usted,  ustedes,  is  a  contraction 
of  the  ancient  formal  expression,  vuestra 
merced,  "your  grace"  ("your  honor"),  and 


SPANISH   SELF-TAUGHT 


149 


vuestras  mercedes,  "your  graces."  It  is  com- 
monly written  V.  or  Vd.  in  the  singular,  and 
VV,  or  Vds.  in  the  plural,  being  always  read 
in  full  like  the  English  "Mr."  (Mister)  or 
"St"  (Saint). 

As  a  personal  pronoun,  it  is  a  very  good 
analogue  of  the  German  Sie,  "you,"  which 
is  declined  precisely  like  sie,  "they,"  and  also 
takes  the  verbal  forms  of  the  third  person 
(plural).  In  declension,  usted  follows  the 
rule  for  nouns  without  the  article,  but  has 
substitute  forms  from  the  third  personal 
pronouns  in  the  dative  and  accusative  of 
both  numbers.  Thus : 

Sing.  Plur. 

N.  usted  ustedes 

G.  de  ttsted  de  ustedes 

D.  a  usted,  or  Ic  6  ustedes,  or  les . 

A.  d  usted,  or  le,  la  a  ustedes,  or  los,  let,  las 

Pr.  usted  •  ustedes 

The  substantive  character  of  this  word  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  it  has  only  the  per- 
sonal accusative  form  in  both  numbers,  ex- 
cept in  its  pronominal  substitutes,  which 
are  always  conjunctive,  omitting  the  prepo- 
sition, d.  This  permits  the  pleonastic  con- 
structions given  above. 

The  uses  of  usted  demand  special  notice. 
It  may  precede  or  follow  its  verb  in  the 
nominative,  never  separating  the  auxiliary 
verb  and  participle  in  compound  tenses. 
Its  oblique  cases  may  be  used  instead  of 
the  possessive  adjectives,  and  this  construc- 
tion is  considered  the  more  elegant  in  polite 
address.  Thus,  the  phrase,  "At  your  feet," 
may  be  rendered  d  vuestros  pies,  or  d  los 
pies  de  V. 

Although  regularly  expressed,  when  sub- 
ject of  a  verb,  usted  may  be  omitted:  (i) 
when  it  has  already  been  expressed,  as  a 
subject,  in  the  same  sentence;  (2)  when 
sufficiently  close  to  its  expression  in  a  para- 
graph, to  avoid  ambiguity;  or  (3)  in  short 
sentences  where  no  ambiguity  could  occur. 
In  short  sentences  it  may  be  replaced  by  its 
pronominal  substitutes,  provided  that  no 
ambiguity  occur.  Its  substitutes,  also,  fol- 
low the  rules  for  conjunctive  pronouns, 
being  suffixed  to  certain  verbal  construc- 
tions. 

THE    REFLEXIVE   PRONOUN 

The  reflexive  and  reciprocal  pronoun,  si, 
"self,"  is  frequently  used  for  the  third  per- 
sonal pronoun  and  for  usted.  It  is  declined 
as  follows  in  both  numbers: 

G.  de  si,  of  himself   (yourself) — selves. 

D.  se — d  si,  to  himself  (yourself) — selves. 

A.  se — d  si,  himself   (yourself) — selves. 

PR.  si,  himself    (yourself) — selves. 


THE  DEMONSTRATIVES 
The     Spanish    demonstrative    adjectives, 
usually  classed  with  pronouns,  are: 

(i.)    este,  esta,  esto,  this;  PLURAL,  estos, 

estas; 

(2)  ese,  esa,  eso,  that;  PLURAL,  esos,  esas; 
(3.)   aquel,  aquella,  aquello,  that;  PLURAL, 

aquellos,  aquellas; 

(4.)  el,  la,  lo,  that;  PLURAL,  los,  las; 
(5.)  aqueste,  aquesta,  this;  PLURAL,  aquese, 

aquesa; 
(6.)    estotro,  estotra,  this  other;   PLURAL, 

estotros,  estotras; 
(7.)  esotro,  esotra,  that  other;  PLURAL,  eso- 

tros,  esotras; 
(8.)   aquel  otro,  aquella  otra,  that  other; 

PLURAL,  aquellos  otros,  etc. 

To  briefly  sum  up  the  shades  of  meaning 
found  in  the  use  of  these  words,  we  may 
say  that  este,  "this,"  designates  something 
held  by  the  speaker  or  near  to  him;  ese, 
"that,"  something  held  by  or  near  to  the 
person  addressed;  aquel,  "that,"  something 
remote  from  both.  Thus,  in  referring  to 
cities  and  places,  the  words,  en  esta,  "in 
this,"  may  be  used  with  the  meaning  "here" ; 
en  esa,  "in  that,"  with  the  meaning  "there." 
Tlie  same  distinctions  hold  good  in  referring 
to  places  and  times,  at  hand,  or  less  or  more 
remote.  Thus,  esta  calle,  "this  street,"  in- 
dicates the  one  in  which  I  live  or  the  one 
of  which  I  have  just  spoken;  esta  calle,  "that 
street,"  the  one  inhabited  by  or  mentioned 
by  you;  but  aquella  calle,  "that  street,"  one 
equally  remote  from  both  of  us.  Similarly, 
este  ano,  "this  year,"  refers  to  the  present; 
ese  ano,  "that  year,"  to  the  one  mentioned 
by  the  speaker,  or  within  his  recollection; 
aquel  ano,  "that  year,"  to  a  time  far  in  the 
past,  and  beyond  personal  recollection.  In 
short,  este,  may  be  translated  by  the  English 
slang  expression,  "this  here";  ese,  by  "that 
there."  Consequently,  ese  is  frequently  used 
in  the  contemptuous  sense  of  the  English 
"that,"  emphatic,  or  the  Latin  iste* as  in  the 
expression,  el  hombre  ese,  "that  man,"  or 
"that  man  there"  ("that  man  of  yours"). 

In  ordinary  discourse,  the  demonstrative 
adjectives  precede  their  nouns,  but,  in  lively 
or  emphatic  language,  they  follow  the  noun, 
which  is  properly  preceded  by  the  definite 
article. 

The  definite  article,  el,  la,  is  used  as  a 
demonstrative  pronoun,  taking  the  case,  gen- 
der, and  number  of  the  omitted  noun  to 
which  it  refers. 

The  demonstrative  adjectives  may  be  used 
as  nouns,  with  the  meaning  of  "this  man" 
(or  "woman"),  "that  man"  (or  "woman"), 


150 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


or  merely  of  "this  one"  or  "that  one."  Sim- 
ilarly, the  neuter  forms,  esto,  eso,  aquello, 
may  refer  to  things,  or  may  mean,  respec- 
tively, "what  I  said,"  "what  you  said,"  "what 
has  been  said"  by  some  one  else,  by  some 
one  or  other,  or  in  remote  time.  In  all  these 
secondary  uses  the  distinctions  of  meaning 
hold  good,  as  already  specified. 

THE  POSSESSIVES 

Like  other  languages,  the  Spanish  dis- 
tinguishes possessive  adjectives,  "my,  thy, 
his,"  etc.,  and  possessive  pronouns,  "mine, 
thine,  his,  ours,"  etc.  In  regard  to  the  use 
of  these,  there  are  several  peculiarities, 
which,  however,  have  partial  counterparts  in 
English  idioms. 

The  possessive  adjectives  have  two  forms, 
the  conjunctive  and  the  absolute,  so  called; 
the  former  preceding,  and  agreeing  in  num- 
ber with,  the  noun,  and  the  latter  following, 
and  agreeing  in  both  number  and  gender 
with,  the  noun.  In  point  of  agreeing  with 
the  thing  possessed,  rather  than  with  the 
possessor,  the  Spanish  follows  the  rule  laid 
down  for  Latin,  French,  German,  and  many 
other  languages.  The  possessive  adjectives, 
however,  agree  in  person  with  the  possessor, 
and  their  form  indicates  the  number. 

Briefly  expressed,  the  conjunctive  form  of 
Spanish  possessive  adjectives  corresponds  to 
the  ordinary  construction  of  English;  thus, 
"my  book,"  "my  friend."  The  absolute  con- 
struction, on  the  other  hand,  is  represented 

by  the  English  expression  "that  of 

mine,"  etc.,  as  in  "that  son  of  yours."  This 
construction  is  found  in  poetical  address, 
particularly  in  religious  odes;  thus,  "Father 
of  ours,"  etc.  It  also  occurs  in  poetry  and 
classic,  or  romantic,  writing  in  such  endear- 
ing forms  as  "baby  mine,"  "husband  mine." 
To  further  smplify  the  matter  for  the  stu- 
dent, we  may  say  that  the  absolute  posses- 
sive, so-called,  in  Spanish,  consists,  as  in  the 
English  corresponding  construction,  in  using 
the  possessive  pronoun  as  an  adjective. 

THE  ABSOLUTE  POSSESSIVES 
Since,  in  Spanish,  the  absolute  possessive 
construction  occurs  much  more   frequently 
than  in  English,  the  conditions  of  its  use 
must  be  definitely  specified. 

(1)  It  is  used  in  both  languages  to  admit 
the  demonstratives,   "this"  or  "that,"  in  a 
possessive  construction. 

(2)  It  is  used,  as  in  English,  in  familiar 
and  endearing  terms,  and  in  contemptuous 
expressions. 

(3)  With  the  first  person,  it  is  the  regu- 
lar form  in  direct  address,  except  where  the 


noun,  indicating  the  thing  or  person  pos- 
sessed, is  qualified  by  an  adjective  or  past 
participle.  In  this  latter  case,  either  the 
conjunctive  or  absolute  form  may  be  used. 
Thus:  padre  mio,  "my  father,"  but  mi  que- 
rido  padre,  or  querido  padre  mio,  "my  dear 
father." 

(4)  With  impersonal  nouns. 

(5)  With  nouns  used,  as  in  English,  in  an 
indeterminate   sense.     Thus,    "a    friend   of 
mine." 

(6)  Where  special  emphasis  or  rhetorical 
effect  is  desired. 

In  connection  with  the  last  head,  however, 
it  seems  necessary  to  remark  that  the  em- 
phasis given  in  English  by  the  word,  "own," 
is  similarly  given  in  Spanish  by  propio, 
propia.  Thus:  mi  propio  padre,  "my  own 
father";  mi  propia  madre,  "my  own 
mother,"  etc.  This  construction  always  oc- 
curs with  the  conjunctive  possessive  adjec- 
tives. 

Although  the  absolute  forms  of  the  pos- 
sessive adjectives  regularly  follow  a  noun 
used  with  the  definite  or  indefinite  article — 
the  former  being  used  generally  in  the  sense 
of  the  demonstrative,  "that" — there  are  sev- 
eral cases,  beside  direct  address,  in  which 
articles  may  be  omitted. 

(1)  With  idioms   using  prepositions;  as, 
a  casa  mia,  "at  my  house" ;  a  fe  mia,  "on  my 
word." 

(2)  When  the  noun  is  the  predicate  after 
the  verb,  "to  be";  as,  Es  amigo  mio,  "He  is 
a  friend  of  mine." 

The  conjunctive  possessives  may  be  used 
with  a  noun  governed  by  a  demonstrative 
adjective,  as  also  in  English.  Tfeus,  we  may 
say,  "this  thy  brother,"  este  tu  hermano; 
"those  your  friends,"  esos  tus  amigos. 

The  possessive  adjectives  are  given  in  the 
following  list  The  conjunctives  indicating 
singular  possessors  have  a  common  form 
for  both  genders:  the  absolutes  vary  for 
gender,  as  do,  also,  the  conjunctives  indicat- 
ing plural  possessors,  except  in  the  third 
person.  Thus : 

FIRST    PERSONAL    POSSESSIVES 
CONJUNCTIVE. — "My,"    mi     (SING.),     mis 

(PLUR.).     "Our,"  nuestro,  nuestra   (SING.), 

nuestros,  nuestras  (PLUR.). 
ABSOLUTE. — "My,"    or    "mine,"    mio,    mia 

(SING.),    mios,    mias    (PLUR.).    "Our,"    or 

"of  ours,"  nuestro,  nuestra  (SING.),  nuestros, 

nuestras  (PLUR.). 

SECOND    PERSONAL    POSSESSIVES 
CONJUNCTIVE.  —  "Thy,"     or     "your,"     tu 
(SING.),  tus  (PLUR.).    "Your,"  vuestro,  w- 
estra    (SING.),   vuettros,   vuestras    (PLUR.). 


SPANISH   SELF-TAUGHT 


151 


ABSOLUTE. — "Thy,"  or  "of  thine,"  tuyo, 
tuya  (SING.),  tuyos,  tuyas  (PLUR.).  "Your," 
or  "of  yours,"  vuestro,  vuestra  (SING.), 
vuestros,  vuestras  (PLUR.). 

Where  usted  is  used  instead  of  the  second 
personal  pronoun,  the  third  personal  poses- 
sive  occurs,  as  will  be  illustrated  presently. 

THIRD  PERSONAL  POSSESSIVES 

CONJUNCTIVE. — "His,  her,  its,"  su  (SING.), 
sus  (PLUR.).  "Their,"  su  (SING.),  sus 
(PLUR.). 

ABSOLUTE. — "His,  her,  its,  their,"  or  "of 
his,  of  hers,  of  its,  of  theirs,"  suyo,  suya 
(SING.),  suyos,  suyas  (PLUR.). 

The  regular  construction  with  the  con- 
junctive possessives  is  to  precede  the  noun, 
indicating  the  thing  possessed,  by  the  appro- 
priate personal  form,  singular  or  plural. 
Thus,  mi  padre,  "my  father";  mis  padres, 
"my  parents";  tu  tio,  "thy  uncle,"  tu  tia, 
"thy  aunt,"  tus  tios,  "thy  uncles,"  or  "thy 
uncle  and  aunt";  su  casa,  "his  house,"  sus 
casas,  "his  houses,"  etc. 

With  the  conjunctive  third  personal  pos- 
sessive, the  regular  rule,  in  order  to  indi- 
cate gender  and  number,  is  to  use  a  pleonas- 
tic construction  with  the  appropriate  per- 
sonal pronoun  preceded  by  de.  Thus,  while 
the  phrase,  su  padre,  may  mean  "his,  her,  its, 
their  (M.  or  F).  or  one's  father,"  the  pleo- 
nastic constructions,  su  padre  de  el,  — de  ella, 
— de  ellos,  or  — de  ellas,  furnish  the  only 
available  means  for  determining  the  gender 
and  number  of  the  possessing  noun. 

The  second  personal  possessive  adjectives, 
"thy"  ("your")  and  "your"  (PLUR.),  are  ex- 
pressed by  su,  sus,  in  sentences  of  direct  ad- 
dress containing  usted.  Thus,  in  such  sen- 
tences, "your  father,"  may  be  translated,  su 
padre;  el  padre  de  V.,  or  su  padre  de  V, 
Also,  "your  parents,"  sus  padres;  los  padres 
de  V,,  or  de  VV.',  or  sus  padres  de  V.,  or 
de  VV. 

As  in  French,  words  indicating  parts  of 
the  body  and  wearing  apparel  take  the  da- 
tive of  the  personal  pronoun,  instead  of  the 
possessive  adj  ective,  after  verbs.  Thus : 
Besaron  la  mono  a  ella,  "They  kissed  her 
hand";  Les  tomo  la  ropa,  "He  took  their 
clothing."  Also,  as  in  French,  when  there 
is  no  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of  the  pos- 
sessor, the  definite  article  alone  is  used. 
Thus:  El  levanto  la  cabeza,  "He  raised  his 
head";  Corto  la  mono,  "He  cut  his  hand." 

The  possessive  pronouns  are  the  same  as 
the  absolute  possessive  adjectives,  in  both 
gender  and  number.  They  are  regularly  used 
with  the  definite  article,  and  are  declined 
with  it  in  all  cases.  Thus,  we  have  el  mio, 


la  mia,  los  mios,  las  mias,  "mine,"  etc.  In 
point  of  agreement,  they  refer  to  the  thing 
possessed  in  gender,  number,  and  case,  and 
to  the  noun  indicating  the  possessor  or  pos- 
sessors in  person  and  in  the  designation 
of  number.  Thus :  mis  padres  y  los  vues- 
tros, "my  parents  and  yours";  Este  perro  es 
el  mio,  "This  dog  is  mine." 

In  order  to  avoid  ambiguity  in  the  use  of 
the  third  personal  pronoun,  distinguishing 
"his,"  "hers,"  "theirs,"  and  in  the  use  of  this 
pronoun  with  usted,  it  may  be  replaced  by 
the  genitive  of  the  proper  personal.  Thus, 
while  in  the  sentence,  Esta  casa  es  suya,  the 
gender  and  number  of  the  noun,  indicating 
the  possessor  or  possessors,  is  uncertain,  the 
sentence  Esta  casa  es  de  el,  or,  —  de  ella, 
etc.,  is  perfectly  specific. 

In  several  cases,  the  possessive  pronouns 
may  be  used  without  the  definite  article. 

(1)  When  predicative  after  the  verb,  "to 
be,"  either  without  a  demonstrative  pronoun, 
or,  when  the  demonstrative  is  not  emphatic. 
Thus :  Tuyo  es  el  reyno,  "Thine  is  the  king- 
dom."   When  the  demonstrative  adjective  is 
used  in  merely  stating  a  fact,  about  which 
there  is  no  dispute,  the  article  is  omitted,  as, 
Esa   casa  es   tuya,  "That  house  is  yours." 
But,   where  there  is  a  dispute,  the  article 
must  be  used,  as,  Esa  casa  es  la  tuya,  "This 
house  is  yours." 

(2)  The  article  is  omitted,  when  it  has 
already  been  used  with  another  possessive 
or  with  the  genitive  case  of  a  noun.     Thus : 
Tomaron   nuestra  ropa   la  de  mi  padre  y 
mia,  "They  took  my  father's  clothing  and 
mine." 

When  the  possessive  pronouns  are  used 
substantively,  lo  (PLUR.,  los)  is  always  found 
where  the  article  should  logically  occur. 
Thus:  Tos  mios  y  los  tuyos  "Mine  and 
thine." 

RELATIVE  PRONOUNS 

The  relative  pronouns  are  as  follows : 
quien,   quienes,  he   who,   these   who; — que, 

that,  who,  which; 

el  (la)   cual,  los  (las)   cuales,  who,  which; 
el  (la)   que,  los  (las)   que,  who,  which; 
cuyo,  cuya,  cuyos,  cuyas,  whose,  of  which. 

The  demonstrative  adj  ective,  aquel,  aquella, 
and  the  definite  article,  el,  la,  are  also  used 
with  que,  to  give  the  meanings  "he  who," 
"the  one  who,"  "those  who,"  etc.  Also,  the^ 
meanings,  "that  which,"  and  "what,"  are" 
supplied  by  lo  que,  lo  cual,  and  aquello  que. 

The  pronoun,  que,  is  used  as  the  nomina- 
tive of  quien,  when  refere«ce  is  to  persons; 
in  the  other  cases,  except  the  accusative,  it 
refers  only  to  things  and  objects  devoid  of 


152 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


natural  sex.  The  declensions  of  these  words, 
as  used  in  the  specified  senses  for  both  gen- 
ders, are  as  follows: 

Singular 

N.  quc  que 

G.  </<•  quicn  de  que 

D.  a  quicn  a  que 

A.  a  quien — que  que 

Pr.  quien  •  que 

Plural 

N.  que  que 

G.  de  quienes  de  que 

D.  a  quienes  a  que 

A.  a  quienes — que  que 

Pr.  quienes  que 

The  relative  quien  is  used  properly  in  re- 
ferring to  persons.  Its  nominative  case  is 
always  que  when  its  antecedent  is  a  noun 
only,  but  may  be  given  as  quien  when  its 
antecedent  is  a  noun  in  a  clause  making 
complete  sense  by  itself.  In  these  respects, 
que  very  nearly  corresponds  to  the  English 
"that,"  while  quien  corresponds  to  "which." 

Thus,  we  say,  el  hombre  que,  "the  man 
who"  (or  "that"),  etc.,  but 

La  literatura  nos  vino  de  los  Romanos, 
quienes  (or  los  cuales)  han  estado  muy 
sabios,  "Literature  came  to  us  from  the 
Romans,  who  were  very  wise." 

On  the  other  hand,  que  is  very  often  used 
in  such  connections.  Thus,  from  "Don 
Quixote" : 

•Sancho  salio  a  ver  lo  que  mandaba  Don 
Quijote,  que  estaba  sentado  sobre  un  poyo, 
"Sancho  came  out  to  receive  the  commands 
of  Don  Quixote,  who  had  sat  down  upon 
a  bench," 

Although  the  form,  que,  is  regularly  used 
to  refer  to  persons  in  the  nominative  and 
accusative  cases,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
it  is  used  in  the  other  cases  with  preposi- 
tions only  when  referring  to  things  or  ani- 
mals. Thus,  although  there  is  no  neuter 
gender  in  the  Spanish  language,  a  sharp 
distinction  is  always  made  between  nouns 
denoting  natural  gender  and  those  indicat- 
ing things  devoid  of  sex,  or  which  have  not 
proper  personality. 

The  words  quien  and  que  are  frequently 
displaced  by  el  cual  and  el  que,  in  places 
where  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  ambiguity,  or 
where  elegance  demands  that  we  avoid  fre- 
quent repetition  of  que,  either  as  a  relative 
pronoun  or  as  the  conjunction  "that."  In 
both  of  those  relatives  the  el  is  inflected 
like  the  personal  pronoun,  but  que  remains 
the  same  in  all  cases  and  in  both  numbers. 
Cual  forms  its  plural  cuales  for  both  gen- 


ders. When  the  reference  is  to  a  thought, 
idea,  or  to  a  preceding  sentence,  the  form 
lo  cual  is  used.  When  it  is  necessary  to 
translate  the  English  expression  "what" 
and  "that  which,"  the  form  lo  que  is  regu- 
larly used,  if  the  reference  is  to  an  idea  and 
not  to  a  word. 

The  word  cuyo  is  regularly  used  for  the 
English  relative  "whose"  or  "of  which." 
The  feminine  form  is  cuya. 

The  word  cuanto,  whose  plural  is  cuantos 
or  cuantas,  according  to  gender,  is  regularly 
used  where  the  English  gives  "as  mucb " 
"as  many,"  also  for  "all  who,"  "a'1  rriiicn," 
etc. 

As  in  German,  adverbs  are  sometimes 
used  instead  of  oblique  cases  of  pronouns. 
Thus,  the  adverb  donde,  "where,"  is  regu- 
larly used  with  a  preposition  to  express  the 
idea  of  "by  which,"  "for  which,"  etc. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  the  same 
as  the  relatives  except  that  they  take  an 
accent;  cuyo,  on  the  first  syllable  and  the 
remainder  on  the  last. 

THE  INDEFINITES 

The  indefinite  pronouns  and  adjectives  are 
numerous,  but  the  most  important  are  given 
in  the  following  list: 

AJENO,  AJENA,  "another's,"  or  "of  an- 
other," is  used  adjectively  after  a  noun. 
Thus :  la  esposa  ajena,  "another's  wife," 
and  el  dinero  ajeno,  "another's  money."  As 
a  substantive  with  lo,  it  signifies,  "what  is 
another's."  Followed  by  de  and  a  noun,  it 
means  "alien  to"  or  "foreign  to."  Thus, 
ajeno  de  los  Espanoles,  "(something)  for- 
eign to  Spaniards." 

A'LGUIEN,  "some  one"  or  "anybody,"  is  a 
pronominal  substantive,  used  in  about  the 
same  sense  as  the  French  on  or  the  German 
man,  and  can  not  be  used  partitively.  It 
may  occur  in  any  connection  where  the  En- 
glish would  give  "any  one  at  all"  or  "some 
one  or  other." 

ALGUNO,  ALGUNA,  "somebody,"  "anybody," 
may  be  used  substantively  to  denote  an  in- 
definite person  or  thing,  or,  in  a  partitive 
construction,  to  denote  a  particular  indefi- 
nite among  a  number  of  things  or  persons, 
as  alguno  de  ustedes,  "some  one  of  you." 
As  an  adjective  related  to  a  noun,  it  indi- 
cates "some"  or  "any,"  and  its  masculine 
singular  apocopates.  Thus :  algun  hombre, 
"some  man,"  but  alguna  mujer,  "some 
woman."  In  the  plural,  the  adjectival  con- 
struction denotes  both  "some"  and  "a  few." 

ALGO  means  regularly  "something"  or 
"anything,"  and  may  be  used  alternately 
with  alguna  cosa  (Fr.  chose).  Like  the  Ger- 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


153 


man,  etwas,  it  may  be  used  adverbially,  with 
the  meaning  of  "somewhat"  or  "rather." 

AMBOS,  AMBAS,  means  "both,"  and  may  be 
used  alternately  with  entrambos,  entrambas, 
or  with  los  dos  (or  las  dos),  "the  two." 
Occasionally,  we  meet  with  ambos  a  dos, 
literally,  "both  the  two." 

CADA  means  "every,"  also  "eacli,"  and  may 
be  used  adjectively  with  nouns  in  either 
sense,  or  with  plural  nouns  and  numerals  to 
signify  "every  two,"  "every  three,"  etc. 
With  the  numeral,  uno,  una,  "one,"  without 
a  following  noun,  it  may  mean  "any  one," 
"each  one,"  and  may  be  used  partitively; 
coda  uno  de  los  hombres,  "each  one  of  the 
men."  With  cual,  also,  it  may  mean  "every 
one,"  "any  one."  "Every"  may  also  be  ex- 
pressed by  todos  los  (las),  "all  the";  todos 
los  hombres,  "every  man." 

CIERTO,  CIERTA,  "certain,"  if  preceding  the 
noun,  without  the  indefinite  article,  means 
"a  certain" ;  cierto  hombre.  If  following  the 
noun,  it  signifies  "sure,"  "definite,"  "authen- 
tic." 

CUALQUIERA,  relating  to  persons  or  things, 
also  means  "whoever,"  also,  "whoso"  or 
"whosoever."  Used  substantively,  and  fol- 
lowed by  de,  it  may  mean  "any  of"  or 
"either  of."  As  an  adjective,  it  means 
"any,"  when  followed  by  a  noun:  with  cosa, 
"a  thing,"  it  means  "anything"  or  "what- 
ever." Used  as  an  adjective,  in  attributive 
agreement  with  a  noun,  it  apocopates;  thus, 
cualqmer  cosa.  Since  the  suffix  is  a  verbal 
form,  the  plural  is  made  on  the  cual;  thus, 
cualesquiera. 

MISMO  means  "same."  If  used  before  a 
noun,  with  the  definite  article  or  a  deter- 
minative adjective,  it  means  "the,  this,  that 
same";  with  the  definite  article,  also,  "the 
very" ;  with  the  indefinite  article  or  the  plu- 
ral adjective,  unos,  itnas,  "one  and  the 
same,"  "the  very  same." 

NADA  means  "nothing,"  or  "not  anything." 
It  may  be  used  with  a  verb,  with  or  without 
the  negation,  no;  the  double  negative  in  the 
former  case  serving  to  intensify  rather  than 
to  neutralize  the  negation.  It  may  be  used 
elliptically,  with  the  meaning  "no  more," 
with  the  verbs,  "say,"  "do,"  etc.,  understood. 
Followed  by  de,  it  means  "nothing  of,"  or 
"no,"  and,  following  a  verb,  preceded  by 
no,  means  "not — at  all." 

NADIE,  "no  one,"  "nobody,"  is  the  nega- 
tive of  alguien,  and  is  used  in  exactly  the 
same  class  of  constructions. 

NINGUNO  is  the  negative  of  alguno,  and 
is  used  in  the  same  way. 

PROPIO,  PROPIA,  "self,"  also  "own,"  stands 
after  personal  and  possessive  pronouns  and 


possessive  adjectives.  Thus,  tu  propio  or  tu 
propia,  "thou,  thyself";  mi  propia  madre, 
"my  own  mother." 

QUIEN  means  "any  one  who,"  when  fol- 
lowed by  a  verb  in  the  indicative  or  sub- 
junctive mood. 

QUIENQUIERA  means  "whoever,"  or  "any 
one  whatever,"  but  refers  only  to  persons. 
Thus :  quienquiera  que  sea,  "whoever  it  be." 
The  ending,  quiera,  is  the  subjunctive  pres- 
ent second  person  of  the  verb,  querer,  "to 
wish,  to  want,"  and  has  the  force  of  the 
English  "you  please,"  as  in  "any  one  you 
please." 

SENDOS,  "one  by  one,''  or  "one  for  each," 
is  used  with  plural  nouns  and  verbs,  and 
governing  plural  objects.  Thus:  tenian  las 
cuatro  mujeres  sendos  hijos,  "the  four 
women  had  each  a  child"  (or  "children,  one 
for  each"). 

TAL,  "such  a,"  may  be  used  with  nouns, 
but  without  the  indefinite  article,  to  indi- 
cate the  given  meaning.  Thus,  tal  hombre, 
"such  a  man,"  in  all  cases.  Without  a  noun 
it  may  mean  "such  a  thing,"  subjectively  or 
objectively.  Preceded  by  the  indefinite  ar- 
ticle and  followed  by  a  proper  noun — the 
name  of  a  person — it  signifies  "one"  or  "a 
certain." 

TODO,  "all/'  used  adjectively  and  followed 
by  a  noun,  means  "every"  in  the  singular 
and  "all"  in  the  plural.  It  may  be  used 
substantively,.  like  the  English  "all";  as, 
todo  se  conduyo,  "all  is  over"  (i.e.  "is  fin- 
ished"). In  this  use,  it  may  also  mean 
"anything,"'  and  may  be  used  with  relative 
pronouns,  as  in,  the  English  "all  who"  and 
"all  of  which,"  etc. 


In  declension,  nouns  remain  invariable, 
prepositions  being  used  in  oblique  cases, 
and  terminations  remaining  unchanged. 
When  preceded  by  an  article,  the  article 
is  regularly  inflected  according  to  the  model 
already  given ;  when  not  preceded  By  an 
article,  the  preposition  immediately  precedes 
the  noun.  Regular  forms  of  the  article  are 
invariably  used,  except  in  the  case  of  ad- 
jectives used  substantively,  when  the  so- 
called  neuter  article,  lo,  is  employed. 

All  nouns  in  Spanish  have  either  the  mas- 
culine or  feminine  gender,  as  shown  by  the 
articles  preceding  them.  While  the  matter 
of  gender  can  not  be  treated  fully  in  a  few 
sentences,  we  may  give  some  general  rules 
for  determining  the  question.  Thus,  the 
masculine  gender  belongs  to  all  nouns  de- 
noting males ;  to  most  names  of  places  and 


154 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


rivers;  to  indeclinable  words  and  phrases 
used  substantively ;  to  the  names  of  most 
fruit  trees  and  their  wood,  and,  regularly, 
to  all  nouns  ending  in  o. 

The  feminine  gender  belongs  to  all  nouns 
designating  females;  to  most  nouns  ending 
in  a;  to  the  names  of  fruits,  flowers,  all 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  etc. 

All  masculine  nouns  ending  in  a  are  the 
same  when  used  to  denote  a  corresponding 
feminine  person  or  animal.  All  nouns  end- 
ing in  o  form  their  corresponding  feminines 
by  changing  o  to  a.  All  masculine  nouns 
ending  in  d,  I,  n,  r,  s,  r,  form  their  corre- 
sponding feminines  by  adding  o.  Every 
masculine  ending  in  dor  or  tor  forms  its 
feminine  by  changing  the  ending  to  triz. 

These  two  nouns  form  their  feminines  by 
adding  esa:  el  abad,  "the  abbot";  el  baron, 
"the  baron."  These  four  add  sa:  el  alcaide, 
"the  warden";  el  alcalde,  "the  mayor";  el 
conde,  "the  earl";  el  duque,  "the  duke." 
These  four  add  isa  to  the  stem  to  form  the" 
feminines,  dropping  the  final  vowel  in  each 
instance:  el  didcono,  "the  deacon";  el  poeta, 
"the  poet";  el  prof  eta,  "the  prophet";  el 
sacerdote,  "the  priest." 

The  plurals  of  Spanish  nouns  are  regu- 
larly formed  by  adding  j  or  es.  The  letter 
s  is  assumed  by  all  nouns  ending  in  unac- 
cented vowels,  except  y,  and  by  all  nouns 
ending  in  accented  e.  The  ending  es  is  as- 
sumed for  the  plural  of  all  nouns  ending 
in  a  consonant — z,  however,  always  becom- 
ing c;  by  all  nouns  ending  in  y  and  by  all 
accented  vowel  endings,  except  e. 

Certain  nouns  remain  unchanged  in  the 
plural.  Such  are  those  ending  with  unac- 
cented is  and  es;  family  names  in  j  and  s 
and  most  technical  and  industrial  terms  de- 
rived direct  from  Latin.  The  compound 
words  not  already  plural,  add  the  proper 
plural  endings  to  the  last  word  only. 

Nouns  ending  in  e,  when  not  derived  from 
Latin  participles,  generally  change  the  end- 
ing e  to  a  in  forming  their  feminines.  Thus, 
el  monje,  "the  monk,"  la  monja,  "the  nun" ; 
el  sastre,  "the  tailor,"  la  sastra,  "the  tailor- 
ess,"  etc.  However,  nouns  ending  in  ante, 
cute,  iente,  may  either  remain  unchanged  in 
the  feminine  or  add  a,  according  to  the 
above  rule.  Very  many  proper  names  form 
their  feminines  irregularly,  as  in  most  other 
languages;  so, also, do  a  number  of  common 
nouns,  such  as :  el  hombre,  "the  man,"  and 
la  mujer,  "the  woman";  el  marido,  "the 
husband,"  and  la  esposa,  "the  wife";  el 
caballero,  "the  gentleman,"  and  la  dama, 
"the  lady,"  etc. 

The   words,    "male"    (macho),   srA  "fe- 


male" (hembra),  followed  by  del  or  d«  la, 
are  often  used  to  designate  gender  in  some 
Spanish  nouns,  which  are  regularly  mascu- 
line or  feminine,  and  do  not  change  their 
terminations. 

ADJECTIVES 

As  a  general  rule,  the  Spanish  adjectives 
are  formed  like  nouns;  the  feminine  forms 
being  derived  according  to  the  rules  already 
given  for  nouns.  They  must  agree  in  gen- 
der and  number  with  the  nouns  accompany- 
ing them,  in  either  relative  or  absolute  con- 
structions. 

Among  adjectives  that  form  their  femi- 
nines in  a  more  or  less  irregular  manner 
are  diminutives  ending  in  ote,  which  change 
the  final  e  into  a.  All  others  ending  in  e 
remain  unchanged  in  the  feminine.  Proper 
adjectives  and  diminutives  ending  with  in 
add  a  in  the  feminine,  but  all  other  adjec- 
tives ending  with  in  remain  unchanged  in 
the  feminine.  Proper  adjectives  ending  in 
es  (accented)  add  a  to  the  masculine  and 
drop  the  accent  in  forming  the  feminine,  but 
all  common  adjectives  with  this  termination 
remain  unchanged  in  the  feminine.  This  is 
true,  also,  with  all  common  adjectives  end- 
ing in  es  (unaccented).  A  few  adjectives 
ending  in  tor  form  their  feminine  with  the 
ending  triz. 

In  addition  to  the  class  of  adjectives  al- 
ready mentioned,  the  masculines  and  femi- 
nines are  the  same  with  all  those  ending  in 
d,  6i  i  (accented)  ;  al,  el,  ie,  ul,  en,  in,  un, 
or,  az,  ez,  iz,  oz;  all  adjectives  having  the 
termination  ista,  indicating  social,  religious, 
and  other  affiliations;  and  all  comparatives 
in  or  and  yor. 

APOCOPATION 

Although  the  regular  rule  requires  an  ad- 
jective to  have  its  proper  ending  for  gender 
and  number,  when  used  in  agreement  with 
any  noun,  several  adjectives  in  o  suffer  what 
is  known  as  apocopation;  which  is  to  say 
they  drop  the  o  when  used  attributively. 
These  adjectives  are  as  follows: 

alguno,  some,  any  postrero,   latter,   last 

bueno,  good  primero,  first 

tnalo,  bad  tercero,  third 

ninguno,   some,   any  uno,  one. 

Although  in  adjectives  in  this  class  the 
masculine  form  only  is  so  varied,  popular 
usage  frequently  apocopates  the  feminine 
singular,  particularly  before  nouns  begin- 
ning with  a  and  ha.  Apocope  is  very  often 
applied  to  the  numeral  adjective  uno,  uno, 
particularly  when  used  attributively. 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


156 


Among  other  cases  of  apocopation  may  be 
mentioned  the  adjective  grande,  which  regu- 
larly drops  its  final  syllable  de  before  the 
singular  nouns  beginning  with  any  other 
consonant  than  h.  While  this  adj  ective  reg- 
ularly precedes  its  noun  in  an  attributive 
construction,  it  invariably  follows  the  noun 
unaltered  when  it  refers  to  physical  dimen- 
sions in  the  sense  of  the  English  words 
"large"  and  "big."  However,  it  retains  its 
full  form,  even  before  nouns  beginning  with 
a  consonant,  when  used  in  an  intensive  or 
emphatic  sense,  particularly  with  the  particle 
tan,  "so."  The  adjective,  cualquiera,  drops 
the  a  when  immediately  preceding  its  noun; 
the  adjectives,  ciento,  "one  hundred,"  and 
santo,  "holy,"  regularly  drop  the  to;  the 
former  before  nouns,  the  latter  when  used 
with  the  meaning  of  "Saint."  Thus,  we  have 
San  Juan,  St.  John,  and  San  Pablo,  St. 
Paul.  When  used  with  the  meaning  "holy," 
santo  is  never  contracted,  and  the  feminine 
santa  always  maintains  its  full  form.  Thus, 
we  have  Santa  Maria,  St.  Mary,  and  Santa 
Ines,  St.  Agnes. 

POSITION  OF  ADJECTIVES 

Although  an  adjective  may  either  precede 
or  follow  the  noun  in  the  attributive  con- 
struction, those  subject  to  apocope,  and  the 
several  others,  regularly  precede  their  nouns. 
The  same  rule  applies  to  a  few  other  ad- 
jectives, which  may  be  given  as  follows: 

As  a  general  rule,  the  adjective  follows 
the  noun,  unless  the  language  is  poetical, 
emphatic,  or  figurative.  This  rule  applies 
particularly  to: 

(i.)  Participial  adjectives  ending  in  ado, 
ido,  ante,  ente,  iente,  and  yente; 

(2.)  Proper  adjectives  derived  from  per- 
sonal and  geographical  names; 

(3.)  Common  adjectives  ending  in  alfdor, 
tor; 

(4.)  All  diminutives  and  augmentatives ; 

(5.)  Regularly,  all  adjectives  of  more 
than  two  syllables. 

A  plural  noun,  governed  by  two  or  more 
singular  adjectives,  always  precedes  the  ad- 
jectives. 

As  in  French,  several  adjectives  vary  in 
meaning  between  physical  and  moral  quali- 
ties, according  as  they  precede  or  follow 
their  nouns.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  following: 

MAL  preceding  means,  "poor,"  "unfortu- 
nate"; following,  "wicked,"  "bad,"  "vi- 
cious." 

GRANDE  preceding  means  "great"  in  a 
figurative  sense;  following,  "large,"  "big." 


NUEVO  preceding,  "different";  following, 
"new,"  "recent." 

NEGRO  preceding,  "dark,"  in  a  figurative 
sense;  following,  "black,"  in  the  actual 
sense. 

VARIOS  preceding,  "various";  following- 
"miscellaneous." 

POBRE  preceding,  "poor,"  in  the  sense  ot 
exciting  pity  or  contempt";  following, 
"poor,"  as  indicating  poverty. 

CIERTO  preceding,  "certain,"  as,  "a  certain 
man,"  etc.;  following,  "sure,"  "reliable." 

SANTO  preceding  means  "sacred,"  in  gen~ 
eral;  following,  it  indicates  some  particular 
sacred  thing  or  person.  Thus,  el  santo 
padre,  "the  holy  father"  (the  priest)  ;  but 
el  padre  santo,  a  popular  designation  for  the 
Pope.  Also,  un  santo  campo,  "a  sacred 
field";  but  un  campo  santo,  "a  cemetery." 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 

The  comparison  of  adjectives  is  regularly 
accomplished,  as  m  French,  by  the  use  of 
words  indicating  "more"  or  "less"  for  the 
comparative,  and  the  same  words  preceded 
by  the  definite  article  or  the  demonstrative 
lo  for  the  superlative.  Thus,  the  words  in- 
dicating the  comparative  degree  are  mas, 
"more,"  and  menos,  "less";  the  superlative 
being  formed  by  preceding  the  comparative 
with  el,  la,  and  lo. 

The  superlative  formed  with  mas  or 
menos  and  the  definite  article  is  called  the 
relative  superlative.  There  is,  however,  an- 
other form  known  as  the  absolute  superla- 
tive, which  is  formed  by  adding  the  suffix 
isimo,  for  the  masculine,  isima,  for  the 
feminine,  and  forming  the  plural  of  both  ac- 
cording to  regular  rules.  It  may  also  be 
formed  by  preceding  the  adjective  in  the 
positive  degree  with  such  adverbs  as  muy, 
bien,  harto,  sumamente,  and  excessivamente. 

In  adding  the  superlative  suffixes,  isimo, 
isima,  etc.,  to  the  stem  of  the  adjective,  it 
may  follow  directly  after  any  consonant 
except  s,  but  involves  changing  the  final 
stem  consonant  c  into  cu,  g  into  gu,  and 
z  into  c,  according  to  the  rules  already 
given  for  altering  a  consonant  sound  pre- 
ceding a  weak  vowel.  Similarly,  it  rejects 
the  final  vowel  or  true  diphthong,  and 
changes  the  movable  diphthongs  ie  and  ue 
into  their  simple  vowels  e  and  o. 

The  absolute  superlative  is  used  in  con- 
structions where  the  definite  article  is  not 
found,  and  as  an  alternative  form  has  its 
analogue  in  the  German  superlative  abso- 
lute, constructed  with  the  dative  case  and 
preposition. 

Although  the  comparison  of  adjectives  is 


156 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


governed  by  the  regular  rules  already  laid 

narrow                angosto                      ahngosto 

down,  a  few  adjectives,  as  in  French,  also, 

deep                    Hondo                       ohndo 
round                   redondo                    raydondo 

are  compared,  as  in  Latin,  by  adding  or 

fresh                    fresco                        frayscoh 

(or  yor)  to  the  stem  of  a  word  of  similar 

ripe                     maduro                    mahdoorok 

meaning.    A  few  of  these  are  as  follows  : 

sour                    ngrio                         ahgreeo 

green                  verde                        vayrday 

Bueno,     good;     me]  or,    better;     dptimo 

sweet                  dulce                         doolthay 

(rare),  best 

tender                  tierno                         teeayrno 

Mo/0,  bad;  peor,  worse;  pesimo   (rare), 

sad                       triste                          treestay 
gay                      alegre                       ahlaygray 

worst. 

happy                 felig                          fayieeth 

Grande,  great;  mayor,  greater;  maxima 

unhappy              desgraciado               daysgratheeahdo 

(rare),  greatest. 

thin                      delgado                      daylgahdo 

Pequeno,  small;  mcnor,  smaller;  minima 

gordo                         gordoh 
ill                        enfermo                    aynfayrmo 

(rare),  smallest. 

prudent               prudente                   proodentay 

While  the  regular  rules  for  the  relative 

imprudent          imprudente              improodentay 
handsome           her  mo  so                     ayrmosoh 

superlative  require  the  use  of  the  definite 

ugly                    feo                            fay'oh 

article  or  possessive  adjective  preceding  it  — 

graceful              gracioto                     gratheeosoh 

always  when  standing  in  a  predicate  clause 
after  the  verb  "to  be,"  when  agreeing  with 

pretty                  bonito                        boneetoh 
affable                afatle                       ahfahblay 
noble                  noble                         noblay 

the  subject  of  the  verb  —  it  may,  however', 

amiable               aniable                       ahmahblay 

be  used  without  the  article,  when  in  direct 

harsh                  asp  era                       aspayroh 

agreement  with  a  noun  preceded  by  the  ar- 

sacred                sagraJo                     sahgrah-do 
free                      Ubre                           leebray 

ticle.    Thus,  the  relative  superlative  is  often 

brave                  valient  e                    valeeayntay 

expressed  by  the  formal  comparative,  that 

is  when  neither  the  adjective  nor  noun  has 

VERBS 

an  article;  and  is  used  where  the  English 
gives  the  comparative  in  sentences  directly 

The    Spanish   verb,   although   conjugated 
and  used  differently  from  the  English,  and 

comparing  two  persons  or  things. 

frequently  subject  to  a  number  of  trouble- 

LIST  OF   ADJECTIVES 

some  irregularities,  is  simple  in  theory  and 
readily  learned.    Like  the  verbs  of  English, 

laige                    grande                       granday 

French,  and  German,  it  has  two  classes  of 

small                   pequeno                     payken'yo 
good                   bueno                       booayno 

tenses  —  simple   and   compound  —  the   former 

bad                       malo                          mahlo 

constructed   by   varying   the   stem   endings, 

much                   mucho                       moochoh 

the  latter,  by  combining  inflections  of  the 

little                    poco                           pocoh 
high                     ctlto                            ahlto 

auxiliary  verb,  "to  have,"  with  the  past  par- 

short                   bajo                           bahoh 

ticiple  of  the  main  verb.     The  passive  voice 

less                     menos                      maynos 

is  also  formed  by  combining  inflections  of 

more                    mas                            mahs 

the  auxiliary  verb,   "to  be,"   with  the  past 

greater  of           mayor                        mahyor 
larger 

participle  of  the  main  verb. 

smaller               menor                      may'nor 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  the  Spanish 

worse                 peor                         pay'or 

verb  may  be  divided  into  five  moods  —  infini- 

better                me/or                       mayhor 
superior             superior                   soopayreeor 
inferior              inferior                    inferee'-or 

tive,  indicative,  subjunctive,  conditional,  and 
imperative.     The    form,    translated   by   the 

cold                    frio                          freeoh 

so-called  "present  participle"  in  other  lan- 

warm                 color                         cahlor 
rich                      rico                            reecoh 

guages,  is  called  the  gerund  in  Spanish,  and 

poor                    pobre                       poh-bre 

has  two  tenses,  present  and  past,  both  in- 

long                    largo                          largoh 

variable  in  gender  and  number  in  all  uses. 

new                     nuevo                        nooayvo 

The  participles  are  also  present  and  past. 

old                        viejo                         veeayho 
young                 t'oven                       hovayn 

THE  INDICATIVE   MOOD  has    four   simple 

great                  gran  or  grande        /tan   or  granday 

tenses  —  present,  imperfect,  preterit  (or  past 

near                    cerca                        thayrka 

definite),  and  future;  four  compound  tenses 

wide                   a"-cho                       ahncho 
hard                     *  *ro                          dooroh 

—  perfect    (or    past   indefinite),    pluperfect, 

soft                     blando                      ilahndo 

past  anterior,  and  future  perfect. 

stupid                 estupido                   aystoopeedo 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD  has  three  sim- 

clever                Usto  or  hdbil            leesto   or  ahbeel 
clean                    limpio                        leempeeoh 

ple   tenses  —  present,  imperfect,   future  —  two 

dirty                    svcio                          sootheeo 

forms  for  the  imperfect  being  recognized  ; 

polite                  cortes                       cortays 

and    three    compound    tenses  —  perfect    (or 

impolite              impolitico                  Jmpoleeteecoh 
v/c«ik                    debit                          daybeel 

past  indefinite),  pluperfect,  future  perfect  — 

strong                 fverte                        vooayrtay 

two  forms  for  the  pluperfect  being  recog- 

false                     falso                          fahlsoh 

niz-d. 

SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


157 


THE  CONDITIONAL  MOOD,  as  we  may  call 
it,  has  two  tenses — the  present  and  the  past. 
The  first  is  used  in  the  second  part  of  con- 
ditional sentences  after  either  form  of  the 
imperfect  subjunctive,  with  "if,"  etc. ;  the 
second,  after  either  form  of  the  pluperfect 
subjunctive,  similarly  modified. 

THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS 

The  Spanish  language  is  peculiar  in  one 
respect:  the  auxiliary  verbs,  "to  have"  and 
"to  be,"  represent  words  entirely  different 
from  those  used  in  other  constructions. 
Thus :  "have,"  the  auxiliary,  is  haber;  while 
"have,"  in  the  sense  of  "possess"  or  "hold," 
is  tener.  "Be,"  the  auxiliary,  is  ser;  while 
"be,"  in  the  sense  of  "exist,"  "remain,"  etc., 
is  estar.  Neither  tener  nor  estar  is  used  as 
an  auxiliary,  nor  in  connection  with  verbs, 
except  in  idiomatic  constructions. 

The  verb  haber,  being  used  only  as  an 
auxiliary  in  forming  the  compound  tenses 
of  other  verbs,  has  neither  compound  tenses 
of  its  own,  nor  an  imperative  mood.  It  is 
inflected,  as  follows : 

THE  AUXILIARY  VERB  HABER,  "TO  HAVE" 

INFINITIVE  PRESENT 

haber,  to  have 

GERUND 

habiendo,  having 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

habido,  had 


INDICATIVE 

I    have,    he 
thou    hast,    has 
he    has,    ha 
we  have,   hemos 
you   have,   habeis 
they    have,    han 

Imperfect 
I  had,   habia 
thou  hadst,   habias 

he   had,    habia 

we    had,    habiamos 

you   had,    habiais 
they  had,   habian 

Preterit 
I  had,   hube 
thou  hadst,   hubiste 

he    had,    hubo 
we    had,    httbimos 

you  had,   hubisteis 
they   had,    hubieron 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
Present 

I  may  have,   haya 

thou    mayest    have,    Iiayas 

he  may  have,   haya 

we   may   have,   hayamos 

you   may   have,   hayais 

they  may   have,   hayan 

First  Imperfect 
I    might    have,    hubiera 
thou    might  est    have, 

hubieras 

he  might   have,    hubiera, 
we  might   have, 

hubieramos 
you  might  have, 

hubirsreis 
they    might    have. 

hubieran 

Second  Imperfect 
I    might    have,    hubiese 
thou    mightest    have, 

hubieses 

he   might   have,    hubiese 
we    might    have, 

hubiesemos 
you  might  have, 

hubigseis 
they  might   have, 

hubiesen 


INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Future 
I  shall  have,   habrc  (if)  I    shall    have,    (si) 

hubiere 
thou  wilt  have,   habrds        (if)  thou   wilt  have,    (si) 

hubieres 
he  will  have,  habrd  (if)  he    will    have,    (si) 

hubiere 
we  shall  have,  habremos   (if)  we  shall   have,    (si) 

hubieremos 
you    will    have,    habreis     (if)  you   will   have,    (si) 

hubiereis 
they  will  have,   habrdn       (if)  they   will   have,    (si) 

hubieren 

CONDITIONAL  MOOD 

Present 

This  form  makes  the  past  conditional  of 
verbs  with  the  past  participle,  which  stands 
in  the  apodosis  of  a  conditional  sentence, 
with  either  form  of  the  pluperfect,  formed 
by  either  form  of  the  imperfect  of  haber 
and  the  past  participle  of  the  proper  verb, 
preceded  by  si  (if),  etc. 

I   should   have,   habria 
Thou  wouldst  have,  habrias 
He  would  have,  habria 
We  should  have,  habriamaf 
Ye   would   have,   habriais 
They  would  have,  habrian 

In  order  to  fix  the  difference  between 
the  two  verbs,  "to  have,"  in  the  student's 
mind,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  illustrate 
the  use  of  parts  of  haber  in  the  formation 
of  compound  tenses,  the  conjugation  of  the 
irregular  verb,  tener,  will  be  given. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD 

Present 
tener,  to  have 

Perfect 
haber  tenido,  to  have  had 

GERUND 
teniendo,   having 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 
tenido,    had 


INDICATIVE 

I    have,    tengo 
thou   hast,   tienes 

he   has,    tiene 
we    have,    tenemos 
you    have,    teneis 
they    have,    tienen 

Imperfect 
I   had,    tenia 
thou    hadst,    tenias 

he    had,    tenia 
we   had,    teniamos 

you    had,    teniais 
they   had,   tenian 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
Present 

I  may  have,   tengo 
thou  mayest  have, 

tengas 

he    may    have,    tenga 
we   may    have,    tengamos 
you    may    have,    tengais 
they    may    have,    tengan 

First  Imperfect 
I    might    have,    tuviera 
thou    mightst   have, 

tuvieras 

he    might    have,    tuviera, 
we  might   have, 

tuviframos 
you   might   have, 

tuvierais 
they    might    have, 

tuvieran  -,  •, 


158 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


INDICATIVE                        SUBJUNCTIVE 

formed,  to  suit  the  gender  and  number  of 

Preterit                     Second  Imperfect 

the    subject,    precisely    as    with    adjectives 

1  had,  tuve                              1  might   have,    tuvicse 
thou    hadst,    tuviste                thou   mightst   have, 
tuviescs 

used   predicatively.    Thus:    es  amado,   "he 
is  loved";  es  amada,  "she  is  loved";  somos 

he  had  tuvo                            he  might  have,   tuviese 

amados,  "we  (M.)  are  loved";  son  atnadas, 

we  had,  tuvimos                    we    might    have,    tu- 

"they   (F.)  are  loved." 

viesemos 
you  had,  twist  eis                  you    might    have,    tu- 
vieseis 

In  using  the  verb  "to  be,"  it  is  necessary 
to  distinguish  carefully  and  constantly  be- 

they  had,   tuvieron                they   might    have,   tu- 

tween   the   passive   auxiliary,   ser,  and   the 

viesen 

verb,  estar,  used  to  express  "existence"  in 

J?**ttAr0 

general,  and  never  used   with  the  passive, 

mfWTc 

I    shall    have,    tendre            (if)  I    shall    have,    (si) 
tuviere 

nor  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word.    The  two  verbs  are  conjugated, 

thou  wilt  have,  tendrds        (if)    thou    wilt    have, 

as  follows: 

(si)    tuviere  s 

he   will  have,   tendrd             (if)   he  will  have,   (si) 
tuviere 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERBS  "TO  BE" 

we  shall  have,   tendre-          (if)    we   shall   have, 

PRESENT   INFIKITIVE 

mos                                              (si)  tuvieremos 

To  be 

you   will   have,   tendrcis         (if)  you  will  have, 

(si)    tuviereis 

Ser      Estar 

they  will  have,   tcndrdn         (if)    they   will   have. 

(si)    tuvieren 

GERUND 

Being                                . 

Perfect  or  Past  Definite 

Siendo     Estando 

I  have  had,   he  tenido           I  may  have  had,  haya 

tenido 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

Pluperfect 

Been 

I  had  had,  habia  tenido        I  might  have  had,  hu- 

Sido     Estado 

biera   tenido,    or  hu- 

biese   tenido 

INDICATIVE                         SUBJUNCTIVE 

Past  Anterior 

/  am,  etc.                           7  may  be,  etc. 

I  had  had,  hube  tenido 

Present 

Picture  Perfect 
I  shall  have  had,  habre        I  should  have  had,  hu- 

Soy           Estoy                    Sea                Este1 
Eres           Estas                      Seas                Estes 
Es              Esta                       Sea                 Est6 

tenido                                       biere  tenido 

Somos       Estamos                Seamos          Estemos 

CONDITIONAL    MOOD 

SOLS            Estais                     Seais               Esteis 
Son            Estan                    Sean               Esten 

Present 

I  should  have,  tendria 

Imperfect                         First  Imperfect 

thou  wouldst  have,  tendrias 

be  would  have,  tendria 

I  was,  etc.                             7  would  be,  etc. 

we  should  have,  tendriamos 

Era            Estaba                   Fuera             Estuvieras 

you  would  have,  tendriais 

Eras           Estabas                  Fueras            Estuviera 

they  would  have,  tendrian 

Era            Estaba                   Fuera              Estuviera- 

mos 

Perfect 

Eramos      Estabamos             Fueramos       Estuvierais 

I  should  have  had,  habrla  tenido,  etc*  etc* 

Erais          Estabais                 Fuerais           Estuvieran 

Eran          Estaban                 Fueran           Estuviera 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

i    let   me    have,   tengo  yo 

Preterit                      Second  Imperfect 

2    have  thou,   ten   tu 

3    let  him  have,   tenga  el 

I  was,  etc.                          7  should  be,  etc. 

i    let  us  have,   tengamos 

Fui            Estuve                  Fuese             Estuviese 

z    have  ye,  tened 

Fuiste        Kstuviste              Fueses           Estuvieses 

2    have  you,  tengan  yds. 

Fu6            Estuvo                   Fuese             Estuviese 

3    let  them  have,  tengan 

Fuimos      Estuvimos            Fu6semos      Estuviesemoe 

Fuisteis     Estuvisteia            Fueseis    '      Estuvieseis 

THE  PASSIVE  VOICE 

Fueron      Estuvieron           Fuesen          Estuviesen 

The  passive  voice  of  all  transitive  verbs 

Future 

is  formed  by  combining  the  past  participle 

I  shall  be,  etc.                  When  I  shall  be,  etc. 

of  the  verb  with  conjugations  of  the  aux- 

Sere1          Estare                  Fuere            Estuviere 

iliary,   ser,   "to  be,"   which    is   never   used 

Seras          Estaras                  Fueres           Estuvieres 

with   any  active   verbal    form.     In   the   use 
of  the  past  participle  in   forming  the  pas- 

Sera          Estar4                  Fuere            Estuviere 
Ser^mos     Estaremos            Fu^remos      Estuvieremos 
Serais         Estariis                 Fue>eis          Esttrvierets 

sive  voice,   the  terminations   are   regularly 

beran         Estaran                Fuerea          Estuvieren 

SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


159 


INDICATIVE 

Perfect  or 
I  have  been,  etc. 
he  sido  or  estado 
has  sido  or  estado 
ha  sido  or  estado 
hemos  sido  or  esfcado 
habeis  sido  or  estado 
han   sido   or   estado 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
Past  Indefinite 

I  may  have  been,  etc. 
haya  sido  or  estado 
hayas  sido  or  estado 
haya  sido  or  estado 
hayamos  sido  or  estado 
hayais  sido  or  estado 
hayan  sido  or  estado 


Pluperfect 
I  had  been,  etc. 
habia   sido   or  estado 
habias   sido   or   estado 
habia  sido  or  estado 
habiamos  sido  or  estado 
habiais    sido   or   estado 
habian   sido   or  estado 

Past  Anterior 
I  had  been,  etc. 
hube  sido  or  estado 
hubiste  sido  or  estado 
hubo  sido   or   estado 
hubimos  sido   or  estado 
hubisteis  sido  or  estado 
hubieron  sido  or  estado 


First  Pluperfect 
I  might  have  been,  etc. 
hubiera   sido   or   estado 
hubieras  sido   or   estado 
hubiera  sido  or  estado 
hubiaramos  sido  or  estado 
hubierais    sido   or   estado 
hubieran   sido   or   estado 

Second  Pluperfect 
I  might  have  been,   etc. 
hubiese  sido  or  estado 
habieses   sido   or   estado 
hubiese  sido  or  estado 
hubiesemos  sido  or  estado 
hubieseis  sido  or  estado 
hubiesen  sido  or  estado 


Future  Perfect 

I  shall  have  been,  etc.    {If )  /  should  have  been,  etc. 

habre  sido  or  estado  hubiere  sido  or  estado 

habras  sido  or  estado  hubieres   sido   or  estado 

habra  sido  or  estado  hubiere   sido  or  estado 

habremos  sido  or  estado  hubieremos  sido  or  estado 

habreis  sido  or  estado  hubiereis  sido  or  estado 

habran  sido  or   estado  hubieren  sido   or  estado 


CONDITIONAL  MOOD 


Present 
I  would  be,  etc. 


Seria 

Serias 

Seria 

Seriamos 

Seriais 

Serian 


Estaria 

Estarias 

Estaria 

Estariamos 

Estariais 

Estarian 


Past 

I  would  have  been,  etc. 
habria  sido  or  estado 
habrias  sido   or   estado 
habria  sido   or  estado 
habriamos  sido  or  estado 
habrias   sido  or  estado 
habrian  sido  or  estado 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD 


Let  me  be,  etc. 

Sea  Este 

Se  Esta 

No    seas  No  estes 

Sea  Este 

Sea  V.  EsteV. 

Seamos  Estemos 

Sed  Estad 

No    seais  No   esteis 

Sean  Esten 

Sean   VV.  Esten   VV. 

USES  OF  SER  AND  ESTAR 

When  the  verbs,  ser  and  estar,  "to  be," 
are  used  with  other  words  than  parts  oi 
verbs,  as  expressing  state  or  existence, 
idiom  prevents  their  interchange  in  prac- 
tically all  cases.  This  fact  gives  rise  to 
several  shades  of  meaning,  which  must 
seem  somewhat  strange  to  the  average  En- 


glish-speaking student.  Thus,  ser  always 
indicates  a  fact  or  state  that  is  permanent 
or  essential;  while  estar  indicates  what  is 
merely  temporary,  transitory,  or  acciden- 
tal. Examples  are,  as  follows :  El  fuego  es 
caliente,  "Fire  is  hot"  (indicating  a  perma- 
nent quality)  ;  El  agua  estd  caliente,  "The 
water  is  hot"  (indicating  that  it  is  in  one 
of  several  possible  states).  Also:  Soy  Es- 
panol,  "I  am  a  Spaniard";  Estoy  en  Es- 
pana,  "I  am  [now]  in  Spain." 

The  distinction  involved  in  the  use  of 
these  words  naturally  modifies  the  mean- 
ings of  many  adjectives,  when  used  pred- 
icatively  after  the  one  or  the  other.  Among 
these  we  may  mention  the  following: 

BUENO,  (i)  after  ser,  "good";  (2)  after 
estar,  "well"  (in  good  health). 

MALO,  (i)  after  ser,  "bad";  (2)  after 
estar,  "ill"  (in  poor  health). 

ALTO,   (i)   "tall";   (2)   "high  up." 
TRISTE,  (i)  "stupid";  (2)  "sad." 
CANSADO,   (i)   "tiresome";   (2)   "tired." 
CALLADO,    (i)    "discreet"    or    "taciturn"; 
(2)    "silent." 
Loco,   (i)   "crazy";   (2)   "frantic." 

USES    OF   THE   TENSES 

While  in  the  greater  number  of  cases 
the  several  moods  and  tenses  of  the  Span- 
ish verbs  are  used  very  much  like  the  cor- 
responding parts  in  English,  there  are  sev- 
eral points  that  demand  at  least  passing 
mention. 

THE  INDICATIVE  MOOD  states  facts  that 
actually  exist,  that  have  existed,  or  that 
will  exist,  and  is  never  used  in  any  con- 
struction expressing  contingency  or  uncer- 
tainty. There  is,  however,  considerable  lat- 
itude in  the  use  of  the  several  tenses  of 
this  mood,  as  in  English  and  most  other 
languages.  Thus,  the  present  tense,  in  ad- 
dition to  expressing  facts  represented  as 
occurring  at  the  time  of  speaking,  also  in- 
dicates, (a)  habit,  custom,  and  permanent 
conditions;  (b)  is  used  instead  of  the 
future  in  familiar  language ;  (c)  replaces 
the  past  definite  (preterit)  in  lively  narra- 
tion; (d)  is  used  idiomatically  after  a 
clause  with  the  impersonal  verb  hace,  "it 
is."  These  usages  are  virtually  reproduced 
in  English,  thus,  with  the  Spanish  we  say, 
"I  go  at  once,"  instead  of,  "I  will  go." 
We  also  say,  in  lively  narration,  "He  comes 
up  and  speaks  to  me,"  or,  "He  says,  thus 
and  so,"  instead  of  using  the  past  tense. 
The  idiom  giving  the  present  tense  after 
the  impersonal  verb,  "it  is,"  is  far  less 
common  in  English;  thus  we  always  say, 


160 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


"Have  you  been  waiting  long?"  while  the 
Spanish  says,  "Is  it  long  that  you  waited?" 

THE  IMPERFECT  TENSE,  as  in  French,  de- 
notes continued  action  in  the  past,  and  is 
really  equivalent  to  the  English  progressive 
conjugation,  giving  "was"  with  the  present 
participle  of  the  verb.  It  may  even  be  ren- 
dered by  a  perfectly  similar  construction  in 
Spanish.  As  a  consequence  it  indicates 
either,  (a)  some  incident  that  was  in  proc- 
ess at  the  time  referred  to,  or  (b)  that  was 
customary  in  a  time  before  the  present. 
It  may  also  indicate  the  absolute  past, 
properly  denoted  by  the  preterit  in  vivid 
narrations,  either  when  the  action  ex- 
pressed is  represented  as  occupying  more 
or  less  time,  or  in  expressing  what  oc- 
curred during  a  definite  past  period.  In 
this  sense  it  is  always  used  to  state  who 
or  what  a  certain  person  was.  Thus  we 
say  "Alexander  was  king  of  Greece,"  which 
is  rendered  in  Spanish  by  Alejandro  era 
rey  de  Grecia. 

THE  PRETERIT  OR  PAST  DEFINITE  indicates 
action  occurring  on  one  occasion  of  the  past, 
and  is  almost  always  used  in  historical  nar- 
rations, except  when  the  idea  of  repetition, 
custom,  or  long  duration  is  involved. 

THE  PERFECT  OR  PAST  INDEFINITE  indi- 
cates, (a)  what  actually  occurred  in  the 
past,  without  reference  to  any  particular 
period;  (b)  what  is  occurring  in  time,  not 
yet  wholly  elapsed.  Thus  we  also  say,  "I 
have  returned  to-day,"  or,  "I  have  been  ill 
this  week," 

THE  PLUPERFECT  TENSE  is  used  precisely 
as  in  English,  as  expressing  some  action  or 
condition  already  completed  at  a  past  time 
referred  to. 

THE  PAST  ANTERIOR  TENSE,  which  is  al- 
ways formed  with  the  preterit  of  the  verb, 
"to  have,"  and  the  past  participle  of  the 
main  verb,  expresses  the  same  idea  as  the 
pluperTect,  but  is  always  preceded  by  con- 
junctions of  time,  such  as  cuando,  "when"; 
despues  que,  "after" ;  huego  que,  asi  que, 
tan  pronto  como,  "as  soon  as";  no  bien, 
"no  sooner";  apenas,  "scarcely." 

THE  FUTURE  TENSE,  in  addition  to  de- 
noting future  time,  as  in  English,  is  also 
used  idiomatically,  (a)  to  denote  possibil- 
ity— thus  where  we  say,  "Can  such  a  thing 
be?"  the  Spanish  says,  "Will  it  be?";  (b)  it 
is  used  for  the  present  sense,  yhen  some 
doubt  is  involved  as  to  the  object,  manner, 
or  reason  of  obvious  action,  or  where  the 
English  would  use  "I  wonder,"  "I  suspect," 
"perhaps,"  etc.;  (c)  it  indicates  also  will- 
ingness, consent,  or  refusal,  as  in  English. 


TH«  CONDITIONAL  MOOD,  as  already 
stated,  is  used  principally  in  the  apodosis 
of  conditional  sentences,  which  is  to  say, 
in  the  clause  stating  the  conclusion  follow- 
ing a  condition  expressed  by  "if"  or 
"when"  in  the  protasis.  The  present  con- 
ditional may  follow  either  form  of  the  im- 
perfect subjunctive,  and  the  past  condi- 
tional, either  form  of  the  pluperfec- 
subjunctive.  The  conditional  is  also  used, 
(a)  as  in  English,  to  express  conclusion 
in  sentences  where  the  protasis  is  implied, 
understood,  or  logically  to  be  assumed  as 
existing— thus,  we  say  "I  would  not  do 
such  a  thing";  (b)  it  is  used  to  indicate 
a  statement  somewhat  uncertain,  or  only 
approximate,  in  the  sense  of  the  English 
"about' — thus,  "It  is  about  2  o'clock,"  or 
"He  is  about  twenty  years  old" ;  (c)  it 
also  expresses  possibility  or  fitness  in  the 
sense  of  the  English  auxiliaries  "could," 
"should,"  "ought,"  etc.;  (d)  with  preposi- 
tions expressing  desire  or  wish,  it  indicates 
a  modest  or  respectful  request,  such  as  is 
introduced  by  the  English  "might";  (e)  it 
is  used,  like  the  simple  imperfect  of  the 
subjunctive,  in  a  dependent  clause  express- 
ing indirect  discourse,  etc. 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD,  as  in  several 
other  languages,  and  in  classic  English,  is 
used  in  two  principal  ways:  (a)  as  the 
proper  tense  for  a  subordinate  clause,  indi- 
cating indirect  discourse,  and  introduced 
by  a  conjunction;  (b)  independently,  to 
express  command,  particularly  in  the  third 
person,  or  to  supply  the  absence  of  the 
imperative  form,  to  express  wishes — thus, 
"Would  God,"  "God  grant,"  "Would  that," 
etc. ;  (c)  to  express  possible  alternatives, 
such  as  are  represented  by  the  English 
"whether — or  not." 

In  a  subordinate  clause  the  subjunctive 
follows  a  preposition  expressing  doubt,  de- 
nial, questioning,  hope,  fear,  expectation, 
command,  desire,  advice,  permission,  grief, 
surprise,  regret,  and  after  impersonal  ex- 
pressions in  general.  It  follows  in  any  con- 
struction that  may  properly  be  introduced 
by  the  conjunction,  "that,"  in  English.  The 
subjunctive  also  follows  conjunctions  in 
sentences  expressing  possibility,  uncertainty, 
and  indefinite  futurity;  such  as,  antes  que, 
"before,"  como  and  cuando,  "when,"  para 
que,  "in  order  that,"  mitntras,  "while,"  etc. 

The  subjunctive  is  also  used  in  relative 
sentences,  (a)  expressing  negative  ideas; 
(b)  referring  to  things  unknown  or  indefi- 
nite. Thus,  No  hay  quien  lo  crea,  "There 
is  no  one  who  believes  that." 

THE  INFINITIVE  MOOD  is  used  as  a  verbal 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


161 


noun,  like  the  English  participle  ending  in 
ing,  in  practically  all  cases  except  where 
the  gerund  properly  oc«urs.  In  some  cases, 
also,  it  is  used  alternately  with  the  gerund. 
The  infinitive  mood  is,  thus,  used  (a)  after 
all  prepositions,  and  (b)  with  the  definite 
article,  as  expressing  abstract  ideas  or  the 
actions  indicated  by  the  verb.  Thus,  El 
saber  es  indispensable,  "Knowledge  is  in- 
dispensable." 

With  prepositions  expressing  command, 
causing,  hindering,  forbidding,  wishing, 
fearing,  desiring,  pretending,  etc.,  the  in- 
finitive follows  without  a  preposition.  It 
is  preceded  by  the  preposition,  a,  when  the 
verb  indicates  motion  or  definite  direction, 
also  with  many  reflexive  verbs,  expressing 
moral  assertion,  etc.,  such  as  daring,  re- 
solving, attempting,  refusing,  resisting,  etc. 
It  is  preceded  by  the  preposition,  de,  after 
nouns  and  adjectives,  properly  followed  by 
the  genitive,  and  after  verbs  of  remember- 
ing, forgetting,  rejoicing,  repenting,  ceasing, 
attempting,  being  about  to,  being  busy,  etc. 

Other  prepositions  precede  the  infinitive, 
as  follows :  en,  when  the  idea  is  expressed 
in  English  by  the  preposition  "in,"  followed 
by  the  participle  in  ing;  by  con,  when  the 
same  participle  in  English  is  preceded  with 
"by";  by  para,  in  expressing  purpose,  re- 
sult, use,  etc. ;  by  the  preposition,  por,  in 
the  sense  of  result,  reason,  willingness. 

THE  GERUND  is  one  of  the  most  familiar 
parts  of  the  Spanish  verb  being  used  in 
several  important  constructions.  It  is  most 
frequently  used,  like  the  English  present 
participle  in  ing,  instead  of  a  verbal  clause 
introduced  by  "when,"  etc.  Thus :  "Turn- 
ing to  his  friend,  he  added,"  Volviendo  se 
a  suyo  amigo,  anadio,  etc.  The  gerund  is 
often  used  with  prepositions  expressing  pro- 
gressive or  continued  action,  as  a  substi- 
tute for  such  a  relative  clause  as  "Those 
who  were  doing."  It  is  also  used  as  the 
English  present  participle  with  "while,  by, 
in,"  as  "while  working,"  etc.,  trabajando; 
"by  pretending,"  aparentando;  "in  doing," 
haciendo.  The  gerund  may  also  be  used 
^vith  prepositions,  being  then  equivalent  to 
"when  or  if  one  has,"  etc.,  in  English. 
Thus :  En  habiendo  dinero,  etc.,  "When  one 
has  money,"  etc.  The  most  notable  use  of 
the  gerund  is  in  forming  the  so-called  "pro- 
gressive conjugation,"  as  already  explained. 

REGULAR   VERBS 

The  regular  verbs  in  Spanish  are  di- 
vided into  three  conjugations,  distinguished, 
as  in  Latin,  according  to  the  characteristic 
vowel  of  the  present  infinitive  ending. 


Thus,  all  verbs  with  the  infinitive  ending 
in  ar  belong  to  the  first  conjugation;  all, 
in  er,  to  the  second;  all,  in  ir,  to  the  third. 

Since  the  paradigms  of  the  irregular 
auxiliary  verbs,  haber  and  ser,  with  those 
of  tener  and  estar,  have  already  been  given, 
it  will  be  unnecessary  to  do  more  than  to 
add  a  few  general  rules  for  the  formation 
of  the  tenses  of  regular  verbs. 

THE  PRESENT  INDICATIVE  first  person  of 
all  regular  verbs  ends  in  o,  with  the  sec- 
ond person  as  or  es,  and  the  third  person 
a  or  e,  according  to  the  conjugation  deter- 
mined by  the  ending  of  the  present  infinitive. 

THE  PRESENT  SUBJUNCTIVE  first  person 
may  be  formed  by  changing  the  o  of  the 
present  indicative  to  e  in  the  first  declen- 
sion, and  to  a  in  the  second  and  third  de- 
clensions; making  the  second  and  third 
persons  es  and  e,  or  as  and  a,  accordingly. 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  IMPERFECT  of  both 
terminations  may  be  formed  from  the  third 
person  singular  preterit  indicative  by  drop- 
ping the  o,  and  adding  ara  and  ase  in  the 
first  persons  of  the  first  conjugation,  and 
esa  and  ese  in  the  first  persons  of  the  sec- 
ond and  third  conjugations,  forming  iera 
and  iese  respectively. 

THE  CONDITIONAL  PRESENT  may  be 
formed  from  the  future  indicative  first  per- 
son, by  dropping  the  final  e,  and  adding  ia 
in  all  conj  ugations ;  thus  forming  aria,  eria, 
and  iria,  respectively. 

The  list  of  endings  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table  are  suffixed  either  to  the  stem  or 
the  present  infinitive  form  of  the  verb.  The 
stem  of  any  verb  may  be  found  by  drop- 
ping the  ar,  er,  or  ir  of  the  infinitive. 

The  tenses  formed  from  the  stem  are  the 
indicative  and  subjunctive  present  and  im- 
perfect; the  indicative  preterit;  the  subjunc- 
tive future  and  the  imperative.  Thus  :  from 
amar,  "to  love,"  we  have,  amo,  "I  love" ; 
ame,  "I  may  love";  amaba,  "I  was  loving"; 
amara  or  amase,  "I  might  love";  ame,  "I 
did  love";  amare,  "(that)  I  shall  love." 

The  tenses  formed  by  adding  the  personal 
endings  direct  to  the  form  of  the  present 
infinitive  are  the  indicative  future  and  the 
conditional  present.  Thus :  amare,  "I  shall 
love,"  and  amaria,  "I  should  love." 

Close  study  of  the  following  table  of 
tense  endings  will  show  that,  while,  in  the 
first  conjugation,  the  first  imperfect  and  fu- 
ture subjunctive  appear  to  be  derived  direct 
from  the  present  infinitive  form,  the  rule 
already  given  is  most  convenient  for  form- 
ing these  tenses  in  the  second  and  third 
conj  ugations. 


162 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


TENSE      TERMINATIONS     OF 
THREE    DECLENSIONS 

INFINITIVE  MOOD 
Present                          Gerund 
ist  Conjugation          AR,                              ANDO, 

2d                                             ER,                                           IENDO, 

3d                                IR,                                IENDO, 
INDICATIVE   MOOD 

V  ER 

B  S 

Past  Participle 

ADO. 

IDO. 
I  DO. 

Present 

(Yo.) 

<7u.) 

(El.)      (Usted.)          (Nosotros.)      (Vosotros.) 

(Ellos.) 

(Ustedes.) 

ist 

Conj. 

(ar)—  o, 

as, 

a,           a,                amos, 

ais, 

an, 

an. 

2d 

" 

(er)—  o, 

es, 

e,           e,                emos, 

eis, 

en, 

en. 

3d 

u 

(ir)-o, 

es, 

e,           e,                imos, 

is, 

en, 

en. 

Imperfect 

ist 

Conj. 

(ar)  —  aba, 

abas, 

aba,       aba,            abamos, 

abais, 

aban. 

aban. 

2d 

« 

(er)—  ia, 

ias, 

ia,          ia,               iamos, 

iais, 

ian, 

ian. 

3d 

« 

(ir)—  ia, 

ias, 

ia,          ia,               iamos, 

iais, 

ian, 

ian. 

Preterit 

let 

Conj. 

(ar)—  e, 

aste, 

6,           6,               amos, 

asteis, 

aron, 

aron. 

2d 

« 

(er)-i, 

iste, 

io,          io,               imos, 

isteis, 

ieron, 

ieron. 

3d 

« 

(ir)-i, 

iste, 

io,         io,              imos, 

isteis, 

ieron, 

ieron. 

Future  * 

ist 

Conj. 

(ar)  —  are, 

aras, 

ara,       ara,            aremos, 

areis, 

aran, 

aran. 

2d 

tt 

(er)—  ere, 

eras, 

era,       era,            eremos, 

ereis, 

eran, 

eran. 

3d 

" 

(ir)—  ire, 

iras, 

ira,        ira,             iremos, 

ireis, 

iran, 

iran. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

Present 

ist 

Conj. 

(ar)-e, 

es, 

e,           e,                emos, 

eis, 

en, 

en. 

2d 

« 

(er)—  a, 

as, 

a,           a,                amos, 

ais, 

an, 

an. 

3d 

«« 

(ir)—  a, 

as, 

a,           a,                amos, 

ais, 

an, 

an. 

Imperfect,  First  Termination 

ist 

Conj. 

(ar)  —  ara, 

aras, 

ara,       ara,             aramos, 

arais, 

aran, 

aran. 

2d 

« 

(er)  —  iera, 

ieras, 

iera,       iera,            ieramos, 

ierais, 

ieran, 

ieran. 

3d 

" 

(ir)  —  iera, 

ieras, 

iera,      iera,           ieramos, 

ierais, 

ieran, 

ieran. 

Imperfect,  Second  Termination 

ist 

Conj. 

(ar)  —  ase, 

ases, 

ase,        ase,             asemos, 

aseis, 

asen, 

asen. 

2d 

« 

(er)  —  iese, 

ieses, 

iese,       iese,           iesemos, 

ieseis, 

iesen, 

iesen. 

3d 

« 

(ir)  —  iese, 

ieses, 

iese,      iese,           iesemos, 

ieseis, 

iesen, 

iesen. 

Future 

ist 

Conj. 

(ar)  —  are, 

ares, 

are,       are,            aremos, 

areis, 

aren, 

aren. 

2d 

« 

(er)  —  iere, 

ieres, 

iere,       iere,            ieremos, 

iereis, 

ieren, 

ieren. 

3d 

« 

(ir)—  iere, 

ieres, 

iere,       iere,            ieremos, 

iereis, 

ieren, 

ieren. 

CONDITIONAL  MOOD 

Present  * 

ist 

Conj. 

(ar)  —  aria, 

arias, 

ana,      aria,           ariamos, 

ariais, 

arian, 

arian. 

2d 

« 

(er)  —  eria, 

erias, 

eria,      eria,           eriamos, 

eriais, 

erian, 

erian. 

3d 

« 

(ir)  —  iria, 

irias, 

iria,       iria,            iriamos, 

iriais, 

irian, 

irian. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

ist 

Conj. 

(ar)—  e> 

a, 

e,           e,                emos, 

ad, 

en, 

en. 

2d 

« 

(er)—  a, 

e, 

a,           a,                amos, 

ed, 

an, 

an. 

3d 

« 

(ir)—  a, 

e. 

a,           a,               amos, 

id. 

an, 

an. 

•  The  student  will  notice  that  the  syllables  ar,  er,   or  ir  in   the   endings   of  these  cases   represent 
tfie  final  syllables  of  the  present  infinitive,  on  which  the  endings  .seem   to  be  formed. 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


160 


PRONOMINAL   VERBS 

There  are  numerous  verbs,  of  perfectly 
regular  'conjugation  in  English,  that  are 
found  in  the  so-called  "pronominal"  or  "re- 
flexive" conjugation  in  Spanish.  Such 
verbs  are  given  with  the  third  personal 
pronoun,  se,  suffixed  to  the  present  infini- 
tive, and  are  conjugated  through  all  per- 
sons and  numbers  with  the  proper  per- 
sonal pronouns.  Thus :  from  figurase,  "to 
imagine,"  we  have  the  present  conjuga- 
tion, me  figuro,  te  figuras,  se  figura,  nos 
figuramos,  os  figurais,  se  figuran;  all  other 
moods  and  tenses  being  similarly  con- 
structed. The  compound  tenses  take  con- 
jugations of  haber,  with  the  personal  pro- 
nouns, as:  me  he  figurado,  te  has  figurado, 
se  ha  figurado,  etc. 

As  with  the  regularly  conjugated  verbs, 
reflexives  take  subject-pronouns  in  emphatic 
or  interrogative  sentences.  The  subject- 
pronoun,  however,  "always  precedes  all 
the  other  verb-elements  in  the  emphatic 
construction,  and  comes  last  in  the  inter- 
rogative In  neither  case  can  it  come  be- 
tween the  reflexive  object-pronoun  and  the 
verbal  form.  Thus :  Yo  me  figuro,  "I  imag- 
ine"; i  Me  figuro  yof  "Do  I  imagine?";'  Yo 
no  me  figuro,  "I  do  not  imagine";  jNo  me 
figuro  yo?  "Do  I  not  imagine?" 

Although  some  verbs  occur  only  in  the 
reflexive  form,  while  others  derive  a  dif- 
ferent signification  when  it  is  used,  any 
transitive  verb  may  be  used  reflexively,  as 
in  English,  when  the  action  is  represented 
as  having  the  same  person  or  thing  as  its 
logical  subject  and  object.  If  the  verb  in 
question  regularly  governs  the-  accusative, 
the  reflexive  pronoun-object  is  in  the  accu- 
sative: if  it  takes  the  dative  of  the  person 
and  the  accusative  of  the  thing,  the  reflex- 
he  pronoun-object  is  in  the  dative. 

The  regular  conversational  forms  are  in- 
dicated in  the  examples  already  given;  but 
literary  usage  generally  makes  the  pronoun- 
object  a  suffix  to  the  personal  forms  of  the 
verb  in  the  simple  tenses,  and  of  the  aux- 
iliary in  the  compound  tenses,  when  the 
verb  begins  a  sentence  or  clause.  Thus: 
figurame  or  figurame  yo,  "I  imagine";  heme 
figurado  or  heme  figurado  yo,  "I  have 
imagined." 

The  impersonal  form  of  the  reflexive 
verbs  and  conjugation  frequently  occurs 
with  permanently  reflexive  Spanish  verbs. 
This  form  takes  the  word  se,  "self,"  in  ad- 
dition to  the  pronoun  of  the  proper  person, 
running  through  the  entire  conjugation  of 
all  moods  and  tenses  with  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  verb.  Thus,  instead  of  the 


forms  already  given,  we  may  have;  se  mg 
figura,  se  te  figura  se  le  figura,  se  nos  fig- 
ura, se  os  figura,  se  les  figura;  "I  imagine," 
"thou  imaginest,"  etc.,  literally,  "It  imagines 
itself  to  me, — to  thee, — to  him,"  etc.,  etc. 

This  impersonal  reflexive  form  in  the 
third  person,  singular  or  plural,  furnishes 
the  Spanish  equivalent  for  the  English, 
"They  say";  "They  tell  me,"  etc.,  in  the 
sense  that,  "I  am  told";  "They  ordered 
him,"  etc.,  when  the  logical  subject  is  in- 
determinate. 

The  widest  use  of  the  reflexive  conju- 
gation is  as  a  substitute  for  the  passive 
voice,  which  is  very  generally  avoided  in 
modern  Spanish.  Thus,  as  in  French,  very 
many  nouns  indicating  things  are  given 
with  the  reflexive,  rather  than  the  passive, 
conjugation.  "The  book  is  published,"  be- 
comes, "The  book  publishes  itself,"  El  libre 
se  publique:  also,  "Money  was  made"  (or 
"made  itself"),  El  diner o  se  gano.  Instead 
of  saying  "Spanish  is  spoken  here,"  we  find 
the  conventional  reflexive  expression,  Aqui 
se  habla  Espanol,  "Here  Spanish  speaks  it- 
self." 

The  impersonal  reflexive  may  also  be 
used  as  a  substitute  for  the  passive  voice. 
Thus :  "I  have  been  deceived,"  se  me  ha  en- 
ganado  ("it  has  deceived  itself  to  me")  ; 
"I  am  not  believed,"  no  se  me  cree  ("it 
does  not  believe  itself  to  me"). 

THE    PROGRESSIVE    CONJUGATION 

A  verbal  idiom  of  considerable  impor- 
tance is  the  so-called  "progressive  conju- 
gation," formed  by  associating  the  gerund 
of  the  verb  with  conjugations  of  estar,  "to 
be";  occasionally,  also,  with  conjugation! 
of  the  verbs,  ir  or  andar,  "to  go" ;  seguir, 
"to  go  on" ;  quedar,  "to  remain" ;  verse, 
"to  see  one's  self" ;  hallarse  or  encontrarse, 
"to  find  one's  self."  The  nearest  idiomatic 
translation  into  English  may  be  found  in 
our  progressive  conjugation,  as  in  "I  am 
going";  "He  was  coming,"  etc.  In  short, 
the  gerund,  with  any  of  the  above  verbs, 
as  an  auxiliary,  may  be  taken  to  form  any 
tense  of  any  verb,  as  with  the  English 
idiom  just  mentioned. 

VERBAL    IDIOMS 

In  very  many  cases,  the  Spanish  verb  k 
used,  as  in  English,  with  auxiliary  forms 
expressing  obligation,  willingness,  or  im- 
mediate attention.  Thus,  the  infinitive  is 
used  in  a  number  of  such  expressions  with 
conjugations  of  the  verb  haber,  "to  have," 
followed  by  the  preposition  de;  meaning 


164 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


"to  have  to";  "to be  about  to";  "to  be  willing 
to";  also  "must,"  in  the  sense  of  contin- 
gent certainty.  Accordingly,  the  Spanish 
clause,  he  de  ir,  may  mean,  either,  "I  have 
to  go";  "I  am  to  go,"  or  "I  am  willing  to 
go." 

Similarly,  the  verb,  tener,  "to  have,"  fol- 
lowed by  the  conjunction,  que,  also  indi- 
cates "to  have  to" ;  "to  be  obliged  to" ;  also, 
"what  remains,"  etc.  Thus,  the  familiar 
method  of  saying,  "We  must  speak,"  is, 
Tenemos  que  hablar.  Similarly,  in  render- 
ing such  sentences,  as,  "What  have  you  to 
say?"  the  Spanish  has,  iQue  tiene  V.  que 
decirf  Here  the  emphasis  is  indicated  by 
the  expression  of  the  pronoun,  "you,"  usted 
(V.). 

Similarly,  the  verb,  ir,  "to  go,"  followed 
by  the  preposition,  a,  indicates,  "to  be  about 
to  do  anything."  Thus,  "I  am  going  to 
visit  him,"  Voy  a  visitarle.  The  English 
expression,  "to  be  about  to  do  anything," 
may  also  be  rendered  in  Spanish  by  con- 
jugations of  the  verb,  estar,  "to  be,"  fol- 
lowed by  para,  with  the  infinitive.  Thus, 
Estd  para  decir,  "He  is  about  to  speak." 

EUPHONIC   CHANGES   IN   VERBS 

In  a  large  number  of  Spanish  verbs  the 
formation  of  the  various'  tenses  involves 
certain  changes  in  the  root,  for  the  sake 
of  making  euphonious  combinations  with 
the  various  endings.  These  may  be  divided 
into  the  following  separate  heads: 

(1)  Verbs   that  change  the   final  conso- 
nant of  the  root,  in  order  to  maintain  the 
proper   characteristic    pronunciation   before 
a  vowel  of  a  different  class  in  the  tense 
ending. 

(2)  Verbs  that  change  the  vowel  in  the 
last  syllable  of  the  root,  without  changing 
the  consonant. 

The  first  of  these  classes  are  subject  to 
"regular  euphonic  changes,"  so-called  be- 
cause occurring  in  all  verbs  of  a  given  class. 
The  second  are  called  "irregular,"  because 
occurring  only  in  some  of  the  verbs  not  af- 
fected by  the  first  rules. 

REGULAR  EUPHONIC  CHANGES 

In  forming  the  various  tenses  of  a  given 
verb,  the.  rules  for  the  variation  of  con- 
sonants before  vowels,  weak  and  strong, 
must  be  rigidly  observed.  This  is  particu- 
larly important,  since  there  are  no  excep- 
tions to  the  rules  already  laid  down  for 
guidance  in  this  particular. 

The  most  important  principle?   of  regu- 


lar euphonic  vowel-change  may  be  summed 
up  as  follows: 

(1)  All    verbs   of   the    first    conjugation 
ending  in  car,  gar,  ear — their  stems  ending 
in  c,  g,  or  z — change  these  letters  to  qu, 
gu,  or  c  before  e  beginning  a  tense  ending 
suffixed  to  the  stem.    Thus,  from  tocar,  "to 
touch,"  we  have  PRES.  IND.,  toco,  "I  touch," 
PRES.    SUB.,    toque,    "I    may    touch";    from 
llegar,  "to  arrive,"   PRES.  IND.,  llego,  PRES. 
SUB.,    llegue;    from    alcanzar,    "to    reach," 
PRES.     IND.,    alcanzo,    PRES.    SUB.,    alcance, 
However,  with  personal  endings  beginning 
with  strong  vowels,  the  original  stem-letter 
is  retained,  as  shown  in  the  following  pret- 
erits:   (i)    toque,    (2)    tocaste,   toco;    (i) 
llegue,  (2)  llegaste,  (3)  llego;  (i)  alcance, 
(2)  alcanzaste,   (3)  alcanzo. 

(2)  Verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  with 
stems  in  gu,  forming  present  infinitives  in 
guar,  take  a  dieresis  over  the  u   (thus  u) 
before  stem-terminati6ns  beginning  with  e. 

(3)  Verbs  of  the  second  and  third  con- 
jugations, with  stems  ending  in  c,  change 
c  to  z  before  stem-terminations  beginning 
with  a  or  o,  provided  the  c  be  preceded  by 
a  consonant.     Thus,  from  veneer,  "to  over- 
come,"  we  have  venzo,  venza,  etc. ;    from 
esparcir,  "to  scatter,"  esparzo,  esparza,  etc. 
When  the  stem-consonant,  c,  is  preceded  by 
a  vowel,  the  stem  is   strengthened,  before 
stem-terminations  beginning  in  a  or  o,  by 
inserting  z  before  it.     Thus,  from  carecer, 
"to   lack,"   we  have   caresco,  carezca,  etc. ; 
from  lucir,  "to  show,"  luzco,  luzca,  etc. 

(4)  Verb-stems  of  the  second  and  third 
declensions  ending  in  g — giving  ger  and  gir 
— have  /  before  the   strong  vowels  a  and 
o.    Thus,  from  eager,  "to  gather,"  we  have 
cojo,  coja,  etc. 

(5)  Verb-stems   of  the   third  declension 
ending  in  gu  and  qu — giving  guir  and  quir 
— have  the  radical  hard  g  or  c  before  stem- 
terminations  beginning  in  a  or   o.     Thus, 
from    seguir,    "to    follow,"    we   have   sigo, 
siga,  etc.;   from  delinquir,  "to  transgress," 
delinco,  delinca,  etc. 

(6)  Verb-stems  of  the  second  and  third 
conjugations,  ending  in  //,  n,  and  some  in 
ch,  absorb  the  *  of  ie  and  io  of  stem-termi- 
nations, as  in  the  gerund,  preterit,  subjunc- 
tive  imperfects,   and   future.     Thus,   from 
bullir,   "to  boil,"   we   have   bullendo,  build 
(id),  and   bullera   (iera) ;   from   taner,  "to 
play,  to  sport,"  tanendo,  tan6   («J),  tanera 

(iera).  This  seems  natural;  since  both 
//  and  n  have  a  consonant  y-sound  follow- 
ing. With  verbs  in  ch,  there  are  generally 
two  forms,  one  contracted,  the  other  un- 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


165 


contracted.  Thus,  from  henchir,  "to  fill," 
we  have  either  hinchendo  or  hinchienda, 
etc. 

(7)  Verb-stems   of  the  second  conjuga- 
tion ending  in  e,  giving  eer  in  the  present 
infinitive,   retain  the  radical  e  and  change 
the   *  of  stem-terminations   into  y.     Thus, 
from  poseer,  "to   possess,"   we  have  pose- 
yendo,  poseyo,  poseyese,  poseyere,  etc. 

(8)  Many  verb-stems  of  the  third  conju- 
gation ending  in  u,  giving  uir  in  the  pres- 
ent  infinitive,   retain   the   radical   u  before 
stem-terminations  beginning  with  ie  and  io, 
and  change  the  i  to  y.     Thus,  from  instruir, 
"to  instruct,"  we  have  instruyendo,  instruy6, 
etc. 

Such  verb-stems  also  give  y  before  the 
stem-terminations  a,  e,  and  o.  Thus:  from 
instruir,  we  have,  instruyo,  instruye,  in- 
struya,  etc. 

IRREGULAR   VERBS 

The  primary  use  of  the  term,  irregular 
verb,  in  Spanish,  indicates  one  that  changes 
or  suppresses  certain  letters  in  its  root  in 
certain  tenses  and  persons.  In  a  second 
sense,  the  term  indicates  a  verb  that,  as  in 
other  languages,  has  irregular  terminations 
.in  some  of  its  tenses. 

There  are  about  five  hundred  and  fifty 
irregular  verbs  in  Spanish,  and  of  these 
over  five  hundred  form  their  irregularities 
on  certain  general  rules;  the  remainder 
showing  irregularities  peculiar  to  them- 
selves and  their  compounds. 

The  verbs  showing  general  irregularities 
may  be  classed  under  five  heads : 

(1)  Verbs  in  all  three  conjugations,  hav- 
ing e  in  the  penult  of  the  present  infinitive, 
that    change   the    e   to   ie   in   the    impera- 
tive,  and    in    the   first,    second,    and   third 
persons  singular  and  the  third  person  plu- 
ral  of  the   present   indicative   and   present 
subjunctive. 

(2)  Verbs     in     all     three    conjugations, 
having  o  in  the  penult  of  the  present  in- 
finitive,  that   change   the   o   to   ue   in   the 
imperative,   and    in   the    first,    second,    and 
third    persons    singular,    and    in   the   third 
person  plural  of  the  present  indicative  and 
present  subjunctive. 

(3)  Verbs     of    the     third     conjugation, 
having  e  in  the  penult  of  the  present  in- 
finitive, that  change  the  e  to  i  in  the  im- 
perative, and  in  the  first,  second,  and  third 
persons   singular,   and  in  the  third  person 
plural  of  the  present  indicative  and  present 
subjunctive. 

(4)  Verbs  of  the  third  conjugation,  hav- 


ing e  in  the  penult  of  the  present  infini- 
tive, that  change  the  e  to  i  in  the  gerund, 
and  in  all  tenses  and  persons  having  termi- 
nations beginning  with  o,  e,  a,  ie,  io. 

(5)  Verbs,  having  the  root,  due,  that 
change  the  c  to  /  in  the  indicative  preterit 
and  in  the  first  and  second  imperfects  of 
the  subjunctive. 

In  the  following  list  of  verbs  commonly 
met  in  ordinary  conversation,  those  subject 
to  any  of  the  irregularities  of  vowel-com- 
bination just  noted  are  followed  by  num- 
bers indicating  the  rules  covering  their  cases 
in  parentheses.  Those  subject  to  special  pe- 
culiarities, such  as  apply  only  to  themselves, 
their  derivatives  and  a  few  very  similar 
verbs,  are  marked  with  the  letter  s  in  pa- 
rentheses. 


VERBS 


to  acquire 

to  walk 

to  seize 

to  hit 

to  encourage 

to  grasp 

to  stuff 

to  agree 

to  observe 

to  ascribe 

to  argue 

to  advise 

to  bless 

to  drink 

to  jump 

to  fall 

to  boil 

to  conceive 

to  believe 

to  shut 

to  give 

to  say 

to  sleep 

to  err 

to  begin 

to  understand 

to  make 

to  trample 

to  flee 

to  go 

to  intervene 

to  infer 

to  institute 

to  impose 

to  play 

to  swear 

to  build 

to  fail 

to  fry 

to  fortify 


adquirir 

andar 

asir 

acertar  (i) 

alentar  (i) 

apretar  (i) 

atestar  (i) 

acordar  (2) 

advertir  (i) 

atribuir 

arguir 

aconsejar 

bendecir  (6) 

beber 

brine  ar 

caer 

cocer,  hervir 

concebir  (i) 

creer 

c error  (i) 

dar 

decir  (s) 

dormir  (s) 

error 

empezar  (i) 

entender  (i) 

hacer  (s) 

hollar  (2) 

huir 

*r(s) 

intervenir  (s) 

infer ir  (i) 

instituir 

imponer  (s) 

jugar 

juror 

fabricar 

faltar 

freir 

fortalecer 


166 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


to  die 

follecer 

to  reduce 

reducir  (5) 

to  force 

forsar  (2) 

to  laugh 

reir  (s) 

to  favor 

favorecer 

to  mend 

remendar  (i) 

to  govern 

gobenar  (l) 

to  yield 

rendir  (3) 

to  moan 

gemir  (l) 

to  repeat 

repetir  (3) 

to  exclaim 

gritar 

to  examine  istf 

requerir 

to  grunt 

grunir 

to  entreat 

rogar  (2) 

to  till 

labrar 

to  gnaw 

roer  (s) 

to  read 

leer 

to  breathe 

resollar  (2) 

to  shine 

lucir 

to  renew 

renovar  (2) 

to  liquidate 

liquidar 

to  relapse 

recaer  (s) 

to  raise 

levantar 

to  reconstruct 

reconstruir 

to  ram 

Hover 

to  recognize 

reconocer 

to  cry 

llorar 

to  reprimand 

reconvenir 

to  measure 

medir  (3) 

to  sprinkle 

re  gar  (i) 

to  bite 

morder  (2) 

to  glitter 

re  lucir 

to  die 

tnorir  (5) 

to  remove 

remover  (2) 

to  move 

mover  (2) 

to  relish 

saborear 

to  show 

mostrar  (2) 

to  roll 

rodar  (2) 

to  grind 

tnoler  (2) 

to  rot 

podrir  (s) 

to  support 

mantener  (i) 

to  prefer 

preferir 

to  ride  a  horsfc 

montar 

to  appear 

parecer 

to  curse 

maldecir  (s) 

to  perish 

perecer 

to  declare 

tnanifestar  (l) 

to  last 

Permanecer 

to  deserve 

merecer 

to  pale 

palidecer 

to  mark 

marcar 

to  suffer 

padecer 

to  chew 

tnascar 

to  populate 

poblar  (2) 

to  snow 

nevar  (i) 

to  possess 

poseer 

to  deny 

negar  (i) 

to  postpone 

posponer  (s) 

to  be  born 

nacer 

to  prevail 

prevalecer 

to  swim 

nadar 

to  proceed 

proceder 

to  narrate 

narrar 

to  prevent 

prevenir  (s) 

to  offer 

ofrecer 

to  foresee 

prever  (s) 

to  obey 

obedecer 

to  promote 

promover  (2) 

to  hear 

oir  (s) 

to  pursue 

proscguir 

to  smell 

oler  (s) 

to  propose 

proponer  (s) 

to  obstruct 

obtsruir 

to  provide 

proveer 

to  darken 

obscurecer 

to  arise 

Provenir  (s) 

to  oppose 

oponer  (s) 

to  presuppose 

presu  poner  (s) 

to  obtain 

obtener  (s) 

to  foresee 

presenter  (3) 

to  produce 

producir  (5) 

to  imprison 

prender 

to  prove 

probar  (2) 

to  present 

presentar  (i|> 

to  put 

poner  (s) 

to  premeditate- 

premeditar 

to  profess 

profesar 

to  reward 

premiar 

to  fold 

plegar(i) 

to  predominate- 

predominar 

to  please 

pacer 

to  preach 

predicar 

to  pervert 

pervert  ir  (i) 

to  foretell 

predecir  (4) 

to  think 

pensar  (i) 

to  go  out 

salir  (s) 

to  utter 

proferir  (i) 

to  serve 

servir  (3) 

to  ask,  to  beg 

pedir  (3) 

to  satisfy 

sotisfacer 

to  lose 

peder  (i) 

to  know 

saber  (s) 

to  burn 

quemar 

to  feel 

sentir  (4) 

to  stay 

quedar 

to  sanctify 

santificar 

to  wish 

querer  (i) 

to  suggest 

sugerir  (4) 

to  break 

quebrar  (l) 

to  follow 

seguir 

to  take  away 

quitar 

to  smile 

sonreir  (s) 

to  recommend 

recomendar  (i) 

to  sow 

sembrar  (i) 

to  lean  against 

recostar  (2) 

to  sustain 

sostener  (s) 

to  refer 

referir  (i) 

to  substitute 

substituir 

to  remind 

recordar  (2) 

wO  suppose 

fuponer  (s) 

SPANISH   SELF-TAUGHT 


167 


to  dye 
to  twist 
to  translate 
to  tremble 
to  bring 
to  stumble 
to  touch 
to  transfer 
to  transplant 
to  come 
to  see 
to  dress 
to  return 
to  fly 


tenir  (4) 
torcer  (s) 
traducir  (5) 
temblor  (l) 
traer  (s) 
tropezar  (i) 
tentar  (i) 
transferor 
transplanter 
venir  (s) 
ver  (s) 
vestir  (4) 
volver  (2) 
volar  (2) 


FAMILIAR  IRREGULAR  VERBS 

Since  the  irregularities  of  Spanish  verbs 
are  numerous  and  complicated,  it  will  be 
possible  to  give  only  a  few  samples,  as  fol- 
lows: 

ANDAR,  to  walk;  indie,  pret.,  anduve,  an- 
duviste,  anduvo,  anduvimos,  anduvisteis, 
anduvieron. 

ASIR,  to  seize ;  indie,  pres.,  asgo,  ases,  ase, 
asimos,  asis,  asen. 

CABER,  to  be  contained  in;  indie,  pres., 
quepo,  cabes,  cabe,  etc. ;  indie,  pret.,  cupe, 
cupiste,  cupo,  etc. ;  indie,  fut.,  cabre,  cabras, 
cabra,  etc. ;  subj.  pres.,  quepa,  quepas,  quepa, 
quepamos,  quepais,  quepan. 

CAEH,  to  fall;  indie,  pres.,  caigo,  caes, 
cae,  etc. ;  indie,  pret.,  cai,  caiste,  cayo,  etc. ; 
subj.  pres.,  caiga,  caigas,  etc. 

DAR,  to  give;  indie,  pres.,  doy,  das,  da, 
damos,  dais,  dan;  indie,  pret.,  di,  diste,  dio, 
dimos,  disteis,  dieron;  indie,  fut.,  dare, 
daremos;  subj.  pres.,  de,  etc. 

DECIR,  to  say;  gerund,  diciendo;  past 
part.,  dicho;  indie,  pres.,  digo,  dices,  dice, 
decimos,  decis,  dicen;  indie,  imperf.,  decia, 
etc.;  indie,  pret.,  dije,  dijiste,  etc.;  indie, 
fut.,  dire,  diras,  dira,  etc. 

DORMIR,  to  sleep;  gerund,  durmiendo; 
past  part.,  dormido;  indie,  pres.,  duermo, 
etc.;  pret.,  dormi,  dormiste,  durmio. 

HACER,  to  make;  gerund,  haciendo;  past 
part.,  hecho;  indie,  pres.,  hago,  haces,  etc.; 
pret.,  hice,  hiciste,  hizo,  hicimos,  hicisteis, 
hicieron. 

IR,  to  go;  gerund,  yendo;  past  part.,  ido; 
indie,  pres.,  voy,  vas,  va,  vamos,  vais,  van; 
imperf.,  ibe,  ibas,  iba,  etc.;  pret.,  fui,  fuiste, 
fue,  futmos,  fuisteis,  fueron;  indie,  fut.,  ire, 
iras,  ira,  iremos,  ireis,  iran;  sub},  pres., 
vaya,  vayas,  vaya,  vayamos,  vayais,  vayan; 
subj.  imperf.,  fuera  and  fuese ,  cond.  pres., 
iria. 


OIR,  to  hear;  gerund,  oyendo;  past  part., 
oido;  indie,  pres.,  oigo,  oyes,  oye,  oimos, 
ois,  oyen;  pret.,  oi,  oiste,  oyo,  oimos,  oisteis, 
oyeron;  fut.,  oire,  etc. 

PONER,  to  put;  gerund,  poniendo;  past 
part.,  puesto ;  indie,  pres.,  pongo,  pones,  etc. ; 
pret.,  puse,  pusiste,  puso,  etc,;  cond.  pres., 
pondria,  pondrias,  etc.;  subj.  pres.,  ponga, 
pongas,  etc. 

REIR,  to  laugh ;  gerund,  riendo  or  riyendo ; 
past  part.,  reido;  indie,  pres.,  rio,  ries,  rie, 
reimos,  reis,  rien;  imperf.,  reia,  etc.;  pret., 
rei,  reiste,  ri6  or  riyo,  reimos,  reisteis, 
rieron  or  riyeron;  fut.,  reire,  etc.,  subj. 
pres.,  ria,  rias,  ria,  etc. 

SABER,  to  know;  gerund,  sabiendo;  past 
part.,  sabido;  indie,  pres.,  se,  sabes,  etc.; 
imperf.,  sabia,  etc.;  pret.,  supe,  supiste, 
supo,  etc.;  subj.  pres.,  sepa,  sepas,  sepa,  etc. 
Other  subjunctive  cases  have  the  root,  sup; 
the  conditional,  the  root,  sab. 

SALIR,  to  go  out;  gerund,  saliendo;  past 
part.,  salido;  indie,  pres.,  sal  go,  sales,  etc.; 
imperf.,  salia,  etc.;  pret.,  sali,  etc.;  subj. 
pres.,  saiga,  saigas,  etc. 

TRAER,  to  bring;  gerund,  trayendo;  past 
part.,  traido ;  indie,  pres.,  traigo,  traes,  etc. ; 
imperf.,  traia,  etc.;  pret.,  trajo,  etc.;  subj. 
pres.,  traiga,  traigas,  etc. 

VENIR,  to  come;  gerund,  veniendo;  past 
part.,  venido;  pres.  indie.,  vengo,  vienes, 
viene,  venimos,  venis  vienen;  pret.,  vine, 
veniste,  vino,  venimos,  venisteis,  vinieron; 
fut.,  vendra,  etc. ;  subj.  pres.,  venga,  vengas, 
venga,  etc.  Other  subjunctive  tenses  have 
the  root  vint  the  conditional,  the  root 
vend. 

VER,  to  see;  gerund,  viendo;  past  part., 
visto;  pres.  indie.,  veo,  ves,  ve,  vemos,  veis, 
ven ;  imperf.,  veia,  etc. ;  pret.,  vi,  viste,  vio, 
etc.;  fut.,  vere,  etc.;  subj.  pres.,  vea,  veas, 
vea,  etc. 


ADVERBS 


inside 

outside 

forward 

before 

back 

up 

to-day 

to-morrow 

late 

early 

whilst 

still,  yet 

never 

behind 


dentro 

fuera 

adelante 

delante 

atras 

arriba 

hoy 

manana 

tarde 

tamprano 

mientras 

aun 

nunca,  jamas 

detras 


168 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


upon 

encitna 

here 

aqui 

whereto 

adonde 

there 

alii 

wherefrom 

de-do  tide 

where 

donde 

quick 

presto 

yonder 

alia 

within 

adentro 

there 

ahi 

abroad,  outside 

afuera 

now 

ahora 

i  acaso 

afterward 

luego 

perhaps 

4  tal  ves 

soon 

pronto 

(  quizas 

always 

siempre 

yes 

si 

well 

bien 

no 

no 

badly 

mal 

neither 

tampoco 

tall,  loud 

alto 

already 

ya 

low 

bajo 

slowly 

despacio 

so,  as 

tan 

easily 

facilmente 

very 

muy 

ordinarily 

ordinariamente 

much 

mucho 

frequently 

frequentemente 

how  much 

cuanto 

grammatically 

gramaticalmente 

enough 

bastante 

frankly 

fracamente 

little 

POCO 

near 

cerca 

before 

antes 

far 

lejos 

after 

despues 

EASY    AND     FAMILIAR     EXPRESSIONS 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Yes,  sir 

Si,  senor 

No,  sir 

No,  senor 

Yes,  madam 

Si,  senora 

No,  madam 

No,  senora 

Yes,  miss 

Si,  senorita 

No,  miss 

No,  senorita 

If  you  please 

Si  V.  gusta 

Not  at  all 

No  hay  de  que 

How  do  you  do 

iComo  esta  V.f 

Very    well 

Muy  bien 

It  is  warm 

Hace  color 

It  is  cold 

Hace  frio 

It  is  cool 

Hace  fresco 

It  is  very  warm 

Hace  mucho  color 

It   is   very  cold 

Hace  mucho  frio 

Good-morning,          1 

good-day                ) 

Buenos  dias 

Good-night                 ) 
Good-evening            J 

Buenas  noches 

Good-afternoon 

Buenas  tardes 

Thanks 

Muchas  gracias 

I  am  obliged  to  you 

Yo  agradezco 

I  am  very  glad 

Me  alegro  mucho 

I    understand 

Yo  entiendo 

A  cup  of  coffee 

Una  tasa  de  caff 

A  glass  of  milk 

Un  vaso  de  leche 

I  am  hungry 

Tengo  hambre 

I  am  thirsty 

Tengo  sed 

Good-by 

Adios 

I   am  very  sorry 

Yo   siento   mucho 

That  is  terrible 

Eso  es  terrible 

I  congratulate  you 

Felicito  &  V. 

You  are  very  kind 

Es  V.  muy  bueno 

What  a  pity 

jQue  lastima! 

That  is  impossible 
It  is  incredible 
I   am  astonished 
I  am  angry 
I   wish  it  so 
I  detest  you 
Give  me  some  meat 
Give  me  some  fish 
Give  me  some  rice 
Give  me  some  beans 
Give  me  some  cheese 
Give  me  some  water 
Give  me  some  wine 
I  am  tired 
Do  you  speak  En- 
glish? 
Do  you  speak 

French  ? 
Do  you  speak 

Spanish  ? 

What  do  you  speak? 
I  speak  English 
I   speak   French 
I   speak   Spanish 
I  speak  a  little 
I  know  a  little 


How  old  are  you? 
I  am  fifteen 
How  old  is  your 

mother 
How  old  is  your 

father? 


Eso  es  imposible 
Es  increible 
Estoy   sorprendido 
Estoy  enfadado 
Yo  lo  quiero  asi 
Yo  lo  detesto  &  V. 
Deme  came 
Deme  pescado 
Deme  arroz 
Deme  frijoles 
Deme  queso 
Deme  agua 
Deme  vino 
Estoy   cansado 
jHablaV.  el  Ingles? 

jHabla  V.  el  Francis? 
iHablaV.elEspanol? 

jQue  habla  V.f 
Hablo  el  Ingles 
Hablo  el  France's 
Hablo  el  Espanol 
Hablo   un   poco 
Si  un  poco 

AGE 

iQue  edad  tiene  V.? 
Yo  tengo  quince  anot 
jQue  edad  tiene  sit 

madre? 
iQue    edad    tiene  su 

padre? 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


169 


He    does    not    show 

No   representa  su 

THE 

TABLE 

his  age 

edad 

The  table  is  ready 

La  mesa  estd  lista 

He  never  grows  old 

Nunca  envejece 

Serve  the  dinner 

Sirva   la   comida 

She  is  a  young  wo- 

Es una  mujer  joven 

Will  you  have  some 

jQuiere   V.  sopa? 

man 

soup?  ' 

She  does  not  look  it 

No  lo  parece 

The  fish  is  very  nice 

El  pescado  estd  muy 

He  is  older  than  he 

Es   mas  viejo   die   lo 

bueno 

looks 

que  parece 

The  vermicelli  soup 

La  sopa  de  ndeos  es- 

How     old     is     your 

Que    edad    tiene    su 

was  very  nice 

taba  muy  buena 

son? 

hi  jo? 

I   had   a   very  fine 

Esta   manana   tuve 

I   am   not   as   young 

No     soy     tan     joven 

breakfast     this 

un    buen    almuerso 

as  I  look 

como  paresco 

morning 

I  believe  you  to  be 

Creo  que  V-.  tendrd 

I   ate   some  lamb 

Comi   unas    costillas 

about    forty    years 

unos  cuarenta  ano* 

chops  and  fried 

de  cordero  y  papas 

old 

potatoes 

fritas 

Not  so  much 

No  tanto 

Would  you  like  to 

jDesearia   V.   comer 

Your    father    is   fifty 

Su  padre  tiene  cincu- 

have  your   dinner 

a  las  seis? 

years    old    and    he 

enta  anos  y  parece 

at  six  o'clock 

looks  like  a  man  of 

un  hombre   de   tre- 

Whenever  you  please 

Cuando   V.  guste 

thirty 

inta 

The    roSst   beef   is 

La   came   asada  esta 

He   is  a  young  man 

Es  un  joven  y  parece 

very    nice 

muy  buena 

and   looks   like   an 

un  viejo 

Do  you  like   roast 

iLe  guesta  a   V.   cl 

old  man 

mutton? 

earner  o   asadof 

I  feel  young 

Me  siento  joven 

I  like  it  very  much 

Me  gusta  mucho 

I  feel  old 

Me  siento  viejo 

This  lobster  salad 

Esta    ensalada    de 

Be  young  and  gay 

Sea  joven  y  alegre 

is  very  rich 

langosta    estd    muy 

rica 

ANGER  AND   SURPRISE 

Who  would  have  be- 

iQuien lo   hubiera 

ORDERING  MEALS 

lieved  it  ! 

creido  ! 

Bring   me   a   plate 

Trdigame  un  plato 

I  doubt  that  to  be 

Dudo    que   eso   sea 

of  soup 

dc  sopa 

true 

verdad 

Give  me  a  napkin 

Deme  una  servilleta 

Is  it  possible? 

jEs  posiblef 

A   clean  plate 

Un  plato   limpio 

Are  you  quite  sure? 

Esta    V.    bien   se 

Bring  me  some 

Trdigame  ostiones 

guro  ? 

fried  oysters 

fritos 

I  am  ashamed 

Estoy   avergonzado 

Bring   me   a   bottle 

Trdigame  una  bo- 

What  a  shame! 

Que  verguenzal 

of   red   wine 

tella  de  vino  tinto 

He  has  tired  out  my 

Me  tiene  cansada  la 

The   tablecloth   on 

El  mantel  de  esta 

patience 

paciencia 

this  table  is  very 

mesa    estd   muy 

I  am  disgusted 

Estoy  disgustado 

dirty 

sit  do 

I  am  tired  of  you 

Estoy  cansado  de  V. 

Please   bring   the 

Sir  vase  traer  los  cu- 

What  a  pity! 

iQue  lastima! 

knives  and  forks 

chillos  y  tenedores 

What   an    imperti- 

iQue  impertinencia! 

Bring  me  a  spoon 

Trdigame   una   cu- 

nence  ! 

chara 

If  you  don't  do  as  I 

Si  no  haces  lo  que  te 

Bring  me  two  wine 

Trdigame    dos   vasos 

tell  you,  you  shall 

digo,  te  castigo 

glasses 

para  vino 

be  punished 

Do  you   want  salt 

jQuiere  V.  sal  y 

You  are  very 

Eres  muy   majadero 

and    pepper  ? 

pimientaf 

troublesome 

No,  but  I  want 

No,  pero  quiero 

Enough  of  your 

Basta  de  tonterias 

some  vinegar 

vinagre 

foolishness 

Do  you  want  some 

iQmere    V.   ensalada 

How  impertinent  you 

iQue  impertinente 

lettuce  salad? 

de   lechuga? 

are! 

eres! 

Do  you  want  some 

jQuiere  V.  arroz  y 

Don't  answer  me 

No  me  contestes 

rice  and  beans? 

frijoles? 

I  am  dissatisfied  with 

No   estoy  satisfecho 

I  want  some  boiled 

Quiero    huevos  pa- 

you 

de  V. 

eggs 

sados  par  agua 

It  does  not  seem 

Parece  mentira 

Would  you  like  some 

jQuiere  V.  postres? 

true 

dessert  ? 

Silence  I 

iSilencio! 

No,   sir,   I   want  a 

No,   senor,    quiero 

What! 

iQue! 

cup  of  coffee 

una   tasa  de   cafe" 

170 


SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


GREETING,    VISITING,   ETC. 

MORNING 

I  am  glad  to  see 

Me  alegro  de  verle 

I   am  going  to  have 

Voy  a  tomar  el  al- 

you 

my  breakfast  very 

muerzo   muy  tem- 

How  have  you  been  ? 

jComo   ha   estado 

early 

prano 

V.f 

Every  morning  I 

Todas   las   mananas 

I  have  been  very 

He  estado  muy  bien 

take  a  walk  in  the 

tomo  un  paseo  por 

well 

park 

el  pdrque 

How  is  your  wife? 

jComo   esta  su  se- 

What did  you  do 

iQue   h\zo    V.   ayer 

nora  f 

yesterday  morning? 

por   la   manana? 

She  does  not  feel  well 

Ella  no  se  siente  bien 

I  went  to  the  post- 

Fui  al  correo,  y  des- 

How is  your  sister? 

jComo   esta  su  her- 

office,  and  after- 

pues  conteste   una 

mana? 

ward   answered   a 

carta    que   recibir 

How  is  your  brother 

iComo   esta  su  her- 

letter  that  I  re- 

de mi  padre 

John? 

mano  Juan? 

ceived  from  my 

He  is  well 

El  esta  bien 

father 

It  is  a  long  time 

Hace   mucho    tiempo 

Sunday   morning   I 

El  Domingo  por  la 

since  I  have  seen 

que  no  he  visto   d 

have  to  take  my 

manana   tengo   que 

you 

V. 

wife  to  church 

llevar  d  mi  senora 

I  have  been  in  Eng- 

He estado  gn  Ingla- 

d  la  iglesia 

land 

terra 

The  morning  air  is 

El  aire  de   la   ma- 

I am  very  busy  and 

Estoy  muy   ocupado 

very  wholesome 

nana  es  muy  sa- 

I  have  to  leave 

y    tengo    que   de- 

ludable 

you 

jarlo 

I  walk  two  miles 

Camino   dos   millas 

Until  I  see  you 

Hasta  otra  vista 

every  morning 

todas   las   mana- 

again 

nas 

Remember  me  to 

Mis   recuerdos   a   su 

The  morning  is  quite 

La  manana  esta  bas- 

your  wife 

senora 

cool 

tante   fresco 

It  is  a  very  warm 

Hace  un  verano  muy 

At  what  time  do 

4  A   que  hora  quiere 

summer 

caluroso 

you  wish  to  rise? 

V.    levantarse? 

This   winter  is  too 

Este  invierno  es  de- 

I  want  to  be  called 

Quiero   que  me  lid- 

cold 

masiado  frio 

at  five  o'clock  in 

men    d   las    cinco 

We  are  having  a 

Tenemos  una  pri- 

the  morning 

de    la   manana 

beautiful    spring 

mavera   hermosa 

Do  you  like  to  sleep 

jLe  gusto  d  V.  dor- 

Why    don't    you 

jPorque   no   nos  vi- 

in  the  morning? 

mir    la   manana? 

visit    us  more 

sita   con   mas   fre- 

Sometimes  I  like  it 

Algunas   veces   me 

frequently? 

quencia? 

gusto 

Yes,  I  will  do  so  in 

Si,  lo  hare  en  lo 

I   work   during  the 

Trabajo    durante   la 

the  future 

sucesiro 

night  and  sleep  in 

noche   y  duermo 

Bring  your  sister 

Traiga  d  su  her- 

the  morning 

la   manana 

with  you 

maha  con  V. 

If    I    don't    sleep    in 

Si  no   duermo   la 

I  will  do  so 

Asi  lo   hare 

the  morning,   I 

manana,    me    le- 

Have  you  been  to 

iHa  estado  V.  en  el 

arise  all  tired  out 

vanto    cansado 

the  theatre  lately? 

teatro    ultima- 

I  was  up  very  early 

Me  levente  muy  tem- 

mente? 

prano 

I  went  to  the  opera 

Fui  d  la  opera  el 

I  had  a  cold  bath 

Tome  un  bano  de 

last    Wednesday 

Mier  coles   pasado 

this  morning 

agua   fria   esta 

Did   you   like  the 

jLe  gustd  d  V.  el 

manana 

singing. 

canto  ? 

I  prefer  a  warm  wa- 

Prenero  el  bano   de 

I   was   very  pleased 

Me  agrado  mucho 

ter  bath 

agua   caliente 

with  it 

Have  you  heard 
from   your  son? 

jHa  tenido  V.  no- 
ticias  de  su  hi]  of 

AFTERNOON,     EVENING,    AND    NIGHT 

Yes,   sir,  he  writes 

Si,  senor,  el  me 

I  wish  to  go  to  bed 

Deseo  acostarme 

me  often 

escribe  amenudo 

At   what   time   do 

I  A   que  hora  se 

How   is   your  busi- 

jQue tal  esta  su  ne- 

you  go  to  bed? 

acuesta   V.  ? 

ness? 

gocio? 

Some  nights  earlier 

Algunas  noches  mas 

Quite    dull 

Bastante  nojo 

than   others 

temprano    que 

They   will    improve 

Mejorardn   despues 

otras 

later 

I    rest    well    during 

Descanso    bien   du- 

Pray, be  seated 

Siruase  sent  arse 

the   night 

rante  la  noche 

SPANISH    SELF-TAUGHT 


171 


This  afternoon  I  am 

Esta    tarde   voy   d 

Are  you  sleepy? 

iTiene   V.   sueno  f 

going   to  take  a 

tomar   un   paseo 

Let  us  go  to  the 

Vamos  al  baile 

walk 

ball 

Yesterday   afternoon 

Ayer  tarde  fui  d 

The  bed  is  ready 

La   cama  estd  lista 

I  went  to  see  my 

ver  d  mi  madre 

These  sheets  are 

Estas   sabanas   no 

mother 

not  very  clean 

estdn   muy   limpias 

I  intend  to  go  to 

Pienso  ir  al  teatro 

It  is  not  my  fault, 

No  es  culpa  mia,  fa 

the  theatre  this 

este  noche 

the  washer-woman 

lavandera  las  trajo 

evening 

brought  them  so 

asi 

Last   evening  I   saw 

Anoche  m  a  mi  her- 

This   evening  I   am 

Esta  noche  estoy 

my  brother  at  the 

mano  en  el  hotel 

very  tired 

muy  cansado 

hotel 

It  is  time  to  go  to 

Es   hora  de  irnos   d 

The  evenings  are 

Las  noches  son  muy 

bed 

la   cama 

very   cool 

frescos 

It  is  time  to  go  to 

Es  hora  de  acos- 

Last  night  I  slept 

Anoche   dormi   muy 

bed 

tarnos 

very   badly 

mal 

To-morrow   night 

Manana  en  la  noche 

To-morrow   after- 

Manana  en   la   tarde 

I   am  going  to 

voy   al   teatro    con 

noon  I  intend  to 

pienso  ir  a  visitor 

take  my  wife  to 

mi  senora 

call  on  a  good 

d  un  buen  amigo 

the   theatre 

friend 

Until  to-morrow 

Hdsta  manana  en  la 

I    am    sleepy 

Tengo  sueno 

evening 

noche 

WRITING  is  the  art  of  expressing  ideas  by  visible  signs  or  char- 
acters inscribed  on  some  material.  It  is  either  ideographic 
or  phonetic.  Ideographic  writing  may  be  either  pictorial,  rep- 
resenting objects  by  imitating  their  formsr  or  symbolic,  by  imitating 
their  nature  or  proportions.  Phonetic  writing  may  be  syllabic  or  alpha- 
betic; in  the  former  each  character  represents  a  syllable;  in  the  latter, 
a  single  letter.  Of  the  origin  of  this  art  nothing  is  positively  known. 
The  Egyptians  ascribed  it  to  Thoth;  the  Greeks,  to  Mercury  or  Cadmus; 
and  the  Scandinavians,  to  Odin. 

The  first  step  toward  writing  was  probably  the  rude  pictorial  rep- 
resentation of  objects,  without  any  indication  of  the  accessories  of  time 
or  place;  the  next,  the  application  of  a  symbolic  signification  to  some 
of  the  figures,  so  that  the  picture  of  two  legs,  for  example,  represented 
not  only  two  legs,  but  also  the  act  of  walking.  Pictures,  abbreviated 
for  convenience,  gradually  became  conventional  signs,  and  in  time  these 
characters  were  made  to  stand  for  the  sound  of  spoken  language. 

The  various  systems  of  writing  of  the  ancient  world  had  probably 
at  least  three  different  sources — the  Egyptian,  the  Assyrian,  and  the 
Chinese  systems — all  of  which  were  originally  hieroglyphic.  The  Egyp- 
tians practiced  four  distinct  styles  of  writing — the  hieroglyphic,  hieratic, 
demotic  or  enchorial,  and  Coptic.  Hieroglyphic  writing,  which  was  in 
use  much  earlier  than  3000  B.C.,  was  probably  at  first  ideographic;  its 
symbols  became  gradually  used  to  represent  abstract  ideas,  and  in  time 
acquired  a  phonetic  value.  The  phonetic  characters  are  both  syllabic 
and  alphabetic.  In  the  latter,  pictorial  figures  are  used  to  express  the 
initial  letters  of  the  words  which  they  represent;  for  example,  the  figure 
of  an  eagle,  akhom,  stands  for  a,  of  an  owl,  mulag,  for  m,  etc. 

The  hieratic  writing,  which  probably  came  into  use  2000  B.C.,  was 
a  simplified  form  of  the  hieroglyphic  style,  in  which  the  pictorial  sym- 
bols developed  through  a  stage  of  linear  hieroglyph  into  a  kind  of  curi- 
ous hand.  The  demotic  or  enchorial  writing  represents  a  still  simpler  form 
(172) 


PENMANSHIP  173 


of  the  hieroglyphic,  and  a  nearer  approach  to  the  alphabetic  system. 
It  was  in  use  from  about  the  seventh  century  B.C.  till  the  second  century 
A.D.,  when  it  was  gradually  superseded  by  the  Coptic,  which  grew  out 
of  the  hieratic  and  demotic  under  Greek  influences. 

The  Ethiopians  also  used  hieroglyphs  similar  to  those  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  their  current  written  language  resembled  the  Egyptian  demotic, 
but  its  alphabet  had  fewer  symbols.  At  a  later  period  a  third  graphic 
system,  somewhat  analogous  to  the  Coptic,  came  into  use,  which  may 
be  called  Ethiopic  Greek.  With  what  people  the  Assyrian  Cuneiform 
or  Sphenographic  styles  of  writing  originated  is  not  known,  but  it  was 
originally  without  doubt  a  hieroglyphic  system,  and  became  gradually 
modified  by  the  different  nations  which  occupied  the  Assyrian  empire, 
until  it  assumed  the  form  of  the  present  known  inscriptions. 

There  are  three  classes  of  Cuneiform  characters — the  Assyrian  or 
Babylonian,  the  Scythian  or  Median,  and  the  Persian.  The  first  is  the 
most  complicated,  containing  from  600  to  700  symbols;  the  second  is 
less  complicated,  but  contains  about  100  symbols,  or  three  times  as  many 
as  the  third,  which  is  almost  purely  alphabetic.  Of  these  three  original 
systems,  the  Egyptian  is  by  far  the  most  important,  for  from  its  hieratic 
symbols  was  probably  derived  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  the  parent  of 
almost  all  the  principal  graphic  systems  of  the  world. 

The  Roman  letters  were  used  in  Italy  until  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixth  century,  when  the  Lombardic  style  was  introduced.  This  is  also 
sometimes  called  Roman,  because  used  by  the  Popes  in  their  bulls;  it 
continued  in  use  until  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  Visigothic  style,  carried  into  Spain  by  the  Visigoths,  was  legally 
abolished  in  1091,  and  Latin  letters  were  adopted  for  all  public  instruments. 
In  France,  the  Merovingian  style  prevailed  from  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century  to  the  end  of  the  eighth.  Charlemagne  introduced  the  Caroline, 
which,  having  degenerated  before  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  was 
restored  by  Hugh  Capet,  and  was  subsequently  called  the  Capetian.  It 
was  in  use  in  England,  France,  and  Germany  till  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century,  when  the  modern  Gothic  spread  all  over  Europe.  The 
present  German  alphabet  is  a  modification  of  this. 

There  are  no  traces  of  writing  in  Britain  before  the  Roman  con- 
quest, when  Latin  letters  were  introduced.  What  is  called  the  Roman- 
Saxon,  resembling  the  Roman,  prevailed  until  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
century;  the  set  Saxon  succeeded  it,  lasting  until  the  middle  of  the 
ninth;  this  was  followed  by  the  running-hand  Saxon  of  the  time  of  Al- 
fred; the  mixed  Saxon,  combining  the  Roman,  Lombardic,  and  Saxon 
letters;  and  the  elegant  Saxon,  which  was  introduced  in  the  tenth  century, 
and  did  not  become  obsolete  until  the  middle  of  the  twelfth.  The  Norman 
style,  quaint,  illegible,  affected,  and  composed  of  letters  nearly  Lom- 
bardic, came  in  with  William  the  Conqueror. 


174 


PENMANSHIP 


The  modern  Gothic  dates  in  England  from  the  twelfth  century;  the 
old  English,  from  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth.  The  English  court  had 
a  barbarous  corruption  of  the  Norman,  which  was  contrived  by  the 
lawyers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  lasted  till  the  reign  of  George  II, 
when  it  was  abolished  by  law. 

The  utmost  diversity  exists  among  different  nations  in  the  manner 
or  direction  of  writing;  but  in  general  the  Semitic  races  write  from 
right  to  left,  and  the  Aryan  from  left  to  right. 

In  form  ancient  manuscripts  were  either  rolls,  volumnia,  or  flat 
pages  like  our  printed  books,  codices.  The  Egyptian  papyri  are  usually 
in  rolls  of  an  indefinite  length,  according  to  the  subject  matter,  but  some 
of  the  smaller  ones  are  flat. 

The  transcripts  of  manuscripts  were  committed  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  principally  to  slaves,  who  were  esteemed  of  great  value  when 
they  excelled  in  the  art.  There  were  also  at  Rome  professional  copy- 
ists, some  of  whom  were  women.  About  the  fifth  century,  associations 
of  scribes,  who  worked  under  stringent  rules,  were  formed.  In  the  mid- 
dle ages  copying  was  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  ecclesiastics,  who 
were  called  clerks,  clerici.  In  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna  is  a  Roman 
calendar  executed  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century.  In  the  Vatican 
there  is  a  fragment  of  a  Virgil  of  the  fourth  century.  The  most  ancient 
manuscripts  extant  are  the  papyrus  rolls  from  the  tombs  of  Egypt,  where 
the  dryness  of  the  climate  and  of  the  sand  beneath  which  they  were  buried 
preserved  them  in  an  almost  perfect  condition  for  thousands  of  years. 


HOW     TO     LEARN     TO     WRITE 


BEGIN  with  good  paper,  good  pens,  good 
ink. 

In  a  good  copy  the  letters  should  be  of 
elegant  form,  and  constructed  on  natural 
principles.  Every  letter  should  be  as  per- 
fect as  it  is  possible  for  human  skill  to  exe- 
cute, that  wherever  it  occurs  it  may  present 
an  unvarying  model  to  the  pupil.  The  turns 
and  slopes  should  be  alike,  the  loops  of  the 
same  length  and  width,  the  proper  dis- 
tances between  the  letters  carefully  ob- 
served, and  shade  duly  distributed. 

"Curlicues,"  flourishes,  and  ornamental 
capitals  may  delight  an  amateur  in  a  show- 
case ;  a  thorough  business  man  detests  them 
in  his  correspondence.  In  a  lady's  writing 
they  are  simply  vulgar. 

The  course  of  instruction  given  in  the 
copies  should  constitute  a  system,  arranged 
in  that  order  of  progression  which  is  in- 
dicated by  a  careful  analysis  of  the  forms 
of  the  letters  and  of  the  powers  of  the  hu- 
man hand,  so  that  each  advance  may  pre- 


pare the  way  for  the  next,  and  the  steps 
not  be  further  apart  than  the  necessities 
of  the  case  compel.  To  this  end,  the  sim- 
pler forms  should  precede  the  more  com- 
plex; the  short,  the  long.  Those  that  have 
similar  curves  and  turns  and  identical  parts 
should  be  together.  Words  should  precede 
sentences.  The  columns  should  be  first 
narrow,  then  broader,  to  accustom  the  hand 
by  degrees  to  move  easily  on  the  given 
rests  across  the  longest  word.  These  colum- 
nar sections,  intended  to  be  written  down, 
are  the  gradual  preparation  for  the  sen- 
tences, which  occupy  the  width  of  the 
page.  The  selection  of  the  words  for  the 
columns  should  be  in  accordance  with  the 
same  principle  of  progressiveness — first  the 
easier,  then  the  more  difficult  combinations. 
In  them  the  loops  should  so  occur  that  when 
the  copy  is  written  they  may  be  handsomely 
distributed,  and  the  general  appearance  of 
the  page  be  harmonious. 
A  good  paper  costs  more,  but  it  is  indis- 


PENMANSHIP 


175 


pensable.  It  should  be  tolerably  thick,  well 
laid,  with  a  smooth  surface,  moderately 
glazed;  so  that  the  ink  will  not  show 
through  when  dry,  that  there  may  be  no 
roughness  or  little  hairs  for  the  pen  to  pick 
up,  and  that  the  pen  may  glide  along  with- 
out jar  on  the  muscles  or  nerves  of  the 
fingers  and  hand — a  very  important  consid- 
eration now  that  steel  pens  are  used,  as 
paralysis  has,  in  several  instances,  resulted 
from  their  use,  and  their  injurious  effect 
must  needs  be  greater  on  a  rough  surface. 
A  white  paper  is  generally  to  be  preferred 
to  a  blue,  and,  indeed,  is  almost  invariably 
used. 

The  pen  should  be  fine-pointed,  so  that 
a  good  hair-line  can  be  made,  and  have  a 
good  springy  nib,  that  the  shades  may  be 
cleanly  cut,  and  that  the  writing  may  not 
be  rendered  stiff,  a  result  inevitably  follow- 
ing the  use  of  a  "hard"  pen.  They  should 
be  of  a  uniform  character  as  much  as  pos- 
sible— not  one  very  hard  and  another  very 
soft.  Slight  differences  can  not  be  avoided ; 
those  that  vary  least  are  the  best,  if  they 
are  right  in  other  respects. 

A  new  pen  is  often  greasy,  owing  to  a 
certain  process  in  the  manufacture,  and  will 
not  retain  the  ink.  Hold  a  lighted  match 
under  the  pen — not  too  close — melt  the 
grease,  and  remove  with  a  cloth  gently 
applied. 

Good  ink  is  a  very  difficult  thing  to  pro- 
cure. It  should  be  sufficiently  fluid  to  flow 
easily  from  the  pen,  dark  enough  to  enable 
the  pupil  to  see  at  the  time  what  he  is 
writing,  and  to  judge  of  hair-strokes  and 
shades.  It  must  not  evaporate  rapidly  from 
the  inkstand,  nor  leave  a  layer  of  mud  in 
it;  neither  should  it  mould.  Frost  should 
not  affect  it.  Ink  should  stain  the  paper  in 
order  to  be  permanent.  Its  color  when 
thoroughly  dry  should  be  a  deep  black, 
which  neither  time  nor  exposure  to  the  sun 
can  change. 

Pupils  will  learn  by  experiment  that,  if 
they  raise  the  pen  from  the  ink  suddenly, 
it  will  be  too  full,  and  apt  to  blot;  if  very 
slowly,  the  attraction  of  the  fluid  will  leave 
none  in  the  pen ;  and,  therefore,  a  moderate 
motion  must  be  used.  One  experiment  is 
worth  hours  of  talking.  Attention  to  this 
will  save  many  a  blot.  Cleanliness  is  as 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  well-being  of 
the  pen  as  for  our  own. 

Pens  should  be  carefully  cleaned  at  the 
close  of  the  exercise.  Always  dip  and  wipe 
a  new  pen  two  or  three  times  before  it  is 
written  with,  or  it  will  be  very  likely  to 
make  a  blot.  To  avoid  the  same  mishap, 


the  pen  should  never  be  wiped  on  the  out- 
side of  the  pen-wiper,  but  always  between 
the  leaves  of  it.  Should  the  pen-wiper 
then  happen  to  get  on  the  book,  no  damage 
will  be  done. 

A  stiff  blotter  will  last  the  longest,  but 
common  blotting-paper,  or  a  piece  of  news- 
paper, or  any  paper,  will  answer,  not  indeed 
for  blotting,  but  for  the  use  we  now  desig- 
nate. The  copy-book  must  be  kept  per- 
fectly clean,  and  the  blotter  is  to  be  used 
for  that  purpose.  The  right  hand  does  not 
soil  the  book,  for  it  rests  on  the  nails  of 
two  fingers  and  only  touches  the  page  with 
them.  It  is  the  left  hand  that  does  the  mis- 
chief. To  obviate  it,  place  the  blotter  so 
as  to  cover  each  column  as  soon  as  it  is 
dry  after  being  written,  and  rest  the  left 
hand  on  that,  and  not  on  the  page. 

POSITION,    RESTS,   MOVEMENTS 

The  immediate  human  instrument  in 
writing  is  the  arm.  It  consists  of  three 
parts,  the  upper-arm,  the  forearm,  and  the 
hand.  The  two  connections  of  these  are 
the  elbow  and  wrist.  The  arm  is  attached 
to  the  body  by  the  shoulder-joint.  The  po- 
sition of  the  body  must,  therefore,  evidently 
depend  upon  the  use  we  wish  to  make  of 
the  arm  and  hand.  This  use,  then,  must  be 
determined  first.  Various  ones  have  been 
advocated  by  different  teachers.  The  three 
following  are  the  most  strongly  distin- 
guished ;  the  others  arise  from  combina- 
tions of  two  or  more  of  them.  First, 
considering  the  shoulder  as  a  point  of 
suspension,  and  moving  the  whole  arm 
without  any  support  and  without  any  mo- 
tion of  the  finger- joints.  There  are,  how- 
ever, very  few  who  possess  sufficient  mus- 
cular strength  and  steadiness  of  nerve  to 
write  thus.  It  is  the  true  movement  for 
striking  large  capitals  and  flourishing.  Sec- 
ondly, resting  the  forearm  near  the  elbow 
and  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth 
fingers,  and  forming  the  letters  by  its 
movement  without  any  help  from  the  pen- 
fingers.  Thirdly,  resting  the  forearm  and 
hand  as  in  the  last,  while  the  letters  are 
formed  by  the  movement  of  those  fingers 
only  which  hold  the  pen.  This  generally 
leads  to  a  feeble,  constrained  style. 

THERE  MUST  BE  FREEDOM  OF  STYLE. — • 
This  condition  can  only  be  fulfilled  by 
keeping  the  arm  free  from  all  unnatural 
constraint.  This  precludes  it  from  afford- 
ing any  support  to  the  body.  Again,  the 
letters  are  to  be  written  across  the  page  on 
a  horizontal  line.  A  requirement  of  beauty 


176 


PENMANSHIP 


is  that  this  line  should  be  straight.  This  is 
secured  without  much  difficulty  where  the 
base  is  ruled.  The  only  important  thing  is 
to  keep  on  it  If,  now,  we  take  pen  in  hand, 
use  the  elbow,  placed  opposite  the  middle 
of  the  page,  for  a  pivot,  and  move  the  hand 
across,  we  find  that  the  arc  of  a  circle  is 
described,  touching  the  base  line  in  only 
two  points.  In  the  middle  it  rises  a  full 
half  inch  above  the  base  line.  This  is  a 
difficulty  to  be  overcome.  Once  more, 
while  mere  form  does  not  demand  consid- 
eration here,  because  readiness  in  shaping 
letters  can  only  be  acquired  by  practice, 
yet  uniformity  of  slope  and  similarity  of 
turns,  which  are  required,  will  evidently 
greatly  depend  upon  the  maintenance  of 
the  same  relative  position  of  the  pen,  hand, 
and  forearm  for  each  letter.  If  we  now 
observe  a  little  further  the  movement  above 
described,  we  find  that  in  it  the  position  of 
the  hand  in  relation  to  each  succeeding 
letter  is  changed,  and  assumes  a  new  di- 
rection. How  can  this  difficulty  be  over- 
come? Again,  it  is  clear  that  we  shall  be 
able  to  write  much  faster,  if  the  pen  touches 
the  paper  lightly,  than  if  it  presses  on  it 
heavily :  this  also  contributes  greatly  to 
freedom  of  style.  Finally,  in  order  to  bold- 
ness of  style,  powerful  muscles  must,  if 
possible,  be  brought  into  play  in  aid  of  the 
slight  muscles  of  the  fingers,  while  forming 
the  letters.  This  would  also  help  to  pre- 
vent fatigue.  To  sum  up,  the  essentials  of 
the  work  to  be  done  are:  long  continuance, 
freedom,  forming  the  letters  on  a  horizontal 
straight  line  across  the  page,  uniformity  of 
slope  and  similarity  of  turns,  rapidity,  and 
boldness.  The  conditions  we  have  found 
to  be  hereby  imposed  on  the  arm  are : 
avoidance  of  unnatural  constraint,  relief  of 
all  unnecessary  pressure,  movement  of  the 
hand  and  forearm  across  the  page  with  the 
same  relative  position  to  each  letter,  and 
counteraction  of  the  curve  arising  from  this 
movement,  adequate  support,  and  use  of 
powerful  muscles. 

THE  HUMAN  INSTRUMENT. — A  little  in 
front  of  the  elbow,  at  the  thickest  part  of 
the  forearm,  we  find  a  mass  of  muscle.  If 
the  arm  is  placed  on  the  desk,  suspended 
from  the  shoulder,  and  resting  lightly  on 
this  mass  as  a  support,  we  find  an  excel- 
lent ability  for  moving  the  forearm  on  it 
with  freedom  from  left  to  right  and  back 
again,  within  a  certain  limited  distance,  the 
muscle  rolling  under  the  arm.  We  will 
name  this  support  the  rolling  rest.  It  is 
of  the  highest  importance  to  observe  the 
peculiar  movement  of  the  forearm  on  this 


rest.  It  is  not  to  be  so  used  as  that,  when 
the  hand  passes  to  the  left,  the  elbow  moves 
to  the  right,  and  vice  versa.  The  forearm 
moves  sidewise  as  the  muscle  rolls  under 
it,  with  sufficient  play,  when  it  is  placed  at 
right  angles  to  the  base  line  and  opposite 
the  middle  of  a  word  or  short  clause,  to 
carry  the  hand  across  from  one  end  of  it 
to  the  other  without  changing  its  direction. 
Bending  the  wrist  sidewise  to  the  right — 
a  most  cramping  movement,  and  painful 
if  frequently  repeated — is  thus  rendered 
quite  unnecessary,  and  should  be  carefully 
guarded  against. 

By  turning  the  third  and  fourth  ringers 
under,  so  that  the  hand  can  rest  on  the  cor- 
ner of  their  nails,  or,  if  preferred,  on  the 
little  finger  only,  another  support,  like  the 
runners  of  a  sleigh,  is  provided,  capable  of 
moving  freely  over  the  paper.  We  name 
this  the  sliding  rest.  To  avoid  friction,  the 
wrist  should  not  touch  the  desk;  by  means 
of  the  two  rests,  it  may  easily  and  com- 
fortably be  kept  a  little  raised. 

These,  then,  we  conceive  to  be  the  natu- 
ral positions  and  rests — namely,  the  right 
hand  and  forearm  in  the  same  straight  line, 
at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  writing,  and 
opposite  the  middle  of  a  long  word  or  a 
clause  of  moderate  length.  The  forearm  is 
supported  on  the  rolling  rest,  the  hand  on 
the  sliding  rest,  and  the  wrist  slightly  raised. 

The  left  forearm  and  hand  are  placed  at 
right  angles  to  the  right  forearm,  with  the 
fingers  on  the  blotter,  which  covers  the  part 
already  written,  to  steady  the  book,  and 
move  it  when  necessary.  The  left  forearm 
is  therefore  in  the  direction  of  the  line  of 
writing. 

What  now  are  the  movements  of  the  right 
forearm  and  hand?  On  the  rolling  rest  the 
whole  forearm  moves,  so  as  always  to  be 
parallel  to  its  first  position,  and  carries  with 
it  the  hand  supported  on  the  sliding  rest. 
The  rolling  rest  is  stationary;  the  sliding 
rest  glides  along  the  paper  on  a  horizontal 
line — that  is,  parallel  to  the  line  of  writ- 
ing :  this  is  its  only  movemant.  The  whole 
forearm  and  hand  move  gradually  to  the 
right  in  this  way,  with  a  nearly  continuous 
motion,  for  the  formation  of  the  successive 
letters,  so  that  their  relative  position  tc 
every  letter  is  the  same.  All  stoppages  of 
the  nails  and  jerks  to  get  the  hand  forward 
are  to  be  absolutely  forbidden.  This  move- 
ment of  the  hand  is  named  the  sliding 
movement;  the  movement  of  the  forearm 
we  have  named  the  comital  movement  (I.at 
comes,  a  companion),  because  it  accom- 
panies the  hand. 


PENMANSHIP 


177 


Since  the  comital  movement  is  more  or 
less  limited,  some  further  means  must  be 
found  of  keeping  the  forearm  and  Rand  in 
the  right  relative  position  to  the  letters. 
Two  methods  offer  themselves  to  us  for 
selection.  One  is,  to  draw  the  paper  to 
the  left  as  we  write.  The  other,  which  we 
prefer,  is,  by  means  of  a  lift  from  the 
shoulder,  to  place  the  forearm  and  hand  in 
a  position  further  to  the  right:  this  should 
be  done  only  at  the  end  of  a  word.  To 
distinguish  this  movement,  we  have  named 
it  the  lateral  movement.  In  performing  it, 
the  hand  slides  as  before.  Experiment  will 
now  demonstrate  that,  by  the  adoption  of 
the  rolling  rest  and  the  lateral  movement, 
the  difficulty  mentioned  above,  of  the  curve 
formed  by  the  hand  crossing  the  page,  is 
entirely  done  away  with. 

FOR  THE  ATTAINING  OF  BOLDNESS  OF 
STYLE,  the  powerful  muscles  of  the  fore- 
arm must  be  brought  into  action  by  a  slight 
play  of  the  whole  forearm  forward  and 
backward,  in  direction  of  the  slope  on  the 
rolling  rest,  over  the  sliding  rest — a  fixed 
point,  so  far  as  this  movement  is  con- 
cerned. This  gives  a  full  heft,  through  the 
medium  of  the  hand,  to  the  fingers  which 
move  the  pen,  and,  as  a  consequence,  bold- 
ness of  style;  just  as  a  large  and  massive 
stone  rolling  down  a  hill  maintains  its 
course  over  considerable  inequalities  of  sur- 
face, while  the  slightest  obstacle  diverts  a 
small  and  light  one.  This  play  of  the  fore- 
arm we  name  the  muscular  movement.  The 
resulting  play  of  the  hand,  as  the  medium 
of  its  transmission  to  the  pen-fingers,  we 
name  the  medial  movement. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  form  a  correct 
judgment  as  to  the  best  position  of  the 
body  for  the  accomplishing  of  these  move- 
ments most  naturally,  and  consequently  with 
the  least  fatigue.  It  may  be  summed  up 
in  two  words.  The  body  must  be  upright 
and  self-supported.  Its  relative  position  to 
the  desk  is  a  matter  of  comparative  indif- 
ference; only,  all  the  pupils  should  conform 
to  one  plan.  Each  position  has  its  advan- 
tages and  inconveniences.  The  simplest  di- 
vision of  positions  is  twofold;  the  right 
side  to  the  desk,  and  the  face  to  the  desk. 

Where  we  adopt  the  former,  we  direct 
the  pupil  to  turn  on  his  seat,  so  that  his 
right  side  may  be  directly  to  the  desk  with- 
out touching;  the  body  to  be  erect,  and 
supported  by  the  spinal  column;  the  left 
foot  slightly  advanced.  The  book  is  ad- 
justed with  the  back  to  the  front  edge  of 
the  desk,  and  at  a  two-seated  desk,  the  top 
edge  of  one  at  the  outside  edge  of  the  desk, 


of  the  other  in  a  line  with  the  inkstand. 
When  opened,  the  left  side  of  the  page  to 
be  written  on  is  to  be  placed  at  the  edge  of 
the  desk.  The  left  hand  is  brought  across, 
and  the  fingers  placed  on  the  left  side  of 
the  page  to  keep  it  steady.  The  right  fore- 
arm is  placed  on  the  desk,  parallel  with  the 
front  edge.  If  necessary,  from  short-sight- 
edness or  bad  adaptation  of  the  height  of 
the  seats  to  the  desks,  the  body  may  be 
inclined  forward  from  the  seat — never  by 
rounding  the  back  and  contracting  the  chest 
— and  the  head  may  be  bowed  somewhat 
forward  by  bending  the  neck.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  plan  of  seating  the  scholars 
are :  the  perfectly  natural  position  of  the 


body;  the  freedom  of  the  right  arm  from 
all  avoidable  weight,  and  its  ability  to  form 
the  movements  required;  the  certainty  that 
both  rests  are  on  the  desk;  and  the  facility 
with  which  the  teacher  can  look  down  the 
files  and  along  the  lines  in  large  classes, 
and  see  that  every  pen  is  rightly  held,  and 
every  movement  correctly  made.  An  ob- 
jection to  this  position  is  made  on  the 
ground  that,  in  business,  when  using  large 
account-books,  it  is  impossible.  We  reply, 
that  we  adopt  this  position  for  learners,  be- 
cause it  is  very  convenient  for  the  teacher. 
When  the  art  is  acquired,  the  position  be- 
comes a  matter  of  comparative  indifference. 
Where  we  adopt  the  second  method  of 
seating,  namely,  the  body  fronting  the  desk 
fairly,  or  with  more .  or  less  inclination  of 
the  right  or  left  side  to  it,  we  take  care  of 
these  two  points:  that  both  rests  of  the 


178 


PENMANSHIP 


right  forearm  shall  be  on  and  be  kept  on 
the  desk,  and  that  the  book  is  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  right  foreaim  The  following 
troubles  are  apt  to  arise:  A  tendency  to 
sprawl  over  the  desk,  and,  as  a  necessary 
consequence,  to  press  the  chest  against  it 
• — a  practice  most  injurious.  The  book  gets 
turned  from  its  proper  position  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  right  forearm.  When  writing 
down  a  column,  a  habit  we  strongly  com- 
mend for  learners,  the  book  must  be  con- 
tinually pushed  up,  or  the  back  rest  of  the 
arm  will  get  more  and  more  off  the  desk. 
Indeed,  pupils  are  sometimes  found  actually 
resting  the  wrist  on  the  front  edge  of  the 
desk.  On  the  other  hand,  this  is  often  the 
only  position  the  seats  admit  of;  it  is  the 
position  that  must  be  adopted  when  writ- 
ing large  account -books ;  and  there  is  no 
necessity  that  the  above  faults  should  pre- 
vail. They  certainly  will  not  under  the  care 
of  a  faithful  teacher.  We  conclude,  then, 
that  the  position  of  the  body  at  the  desk  is 
matter  of  indifference,  provided  it  is  upright 
and  self-supported. 

The  next  point  which  claims  our  atten- 
tion is  the  manner  of  holding  the  pen,  and 
the  movement  of  the  pen-fingers.  We  have 
seen  that  the  hand  is  supported  on  the  sides 
of  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers. 
Their  ends,  being  bent  under,  are  separated 
from  the  others,  and  there  is  room  for  the 
execution  of  the  pen-finger  movements.  The 
fingers  should  touch  one  another  at  the  sec- 
ond joints,  as  far  as  the  shape  of  the  hand 
permits :  this  gives  unity  and  support. 

The  pen  is  held  by  means  of  the  thumb 
and  the  first  and  second  fingers.  Place  the 
right  extremity  of  the  holder  against  the 
left  side  of  the  second  finger  just  below  the 
nail ;  the  end  of  the  finger  will  thus  be 
above  the  pen.  Next,  adjust  the  holder 
obliquely  across  the  left  side  of  the  third 
portion  of  the  first  finger,  just  behind  the 
second  joint,  the  middle  finger  being  at  the 
same  time  slightly  bent.  The  first  two  por- 
tions of  the  forefinger  may  now  be  closed 
down  on  the  holder,  which  will  be  found  to 
cross  and  touch  them  diagonally.  The  first 
and  second  fingers  touch  throughout.  Next, 
let  the  upper  corner  of  the  fleshy  part  of 
the  thumb,  near  the  nail,  be  placed,  by 
slightly  bending  the  thumb,  against  the 
lower  half  of  the  left  side  of  the  holder, 
opposite  the  first  joint  of  the  middle  fin- 
ger, and  the  pen  will  be  found  in  a  secure 
and  natural  position,  both  for  extension  and 
retraction.  It  will  be  observed  that  we 
have  given  the  medium  position  of  the  pen. 
The  fingers  and  thumb  with  the  joints 


slightly  bent  outward,  straightening  them 
would  extend  the  pen;  bending  them  still 
more  would  retract  it.  The  pen  is  really 
held  between  three  points — the  side  of  the 
end  of  the  second  finger,  the  side  of  the 
third  portion  of  the  first  finger  behind  the 
second  joint  in  front  of  the  knuckle,  and 
the  side  of  the  end  of  the  thumb.  The  first 
finger  is  like  the  lid  of  a  box  placed  on  it 
to  keep  the  pen  from  jumping  out;  it  is 
also  the  principal  agent  in  effecting  the 
pressure  for  the  shades.  As  to  movement, 
the  thumb  may  be  regarded  as  a  spring. 
The  first  and  second  fingers,  by  contraction 
of  their  muscles,  press  against  it;  we  relax 
its  muscles,  and  it  yields  by  bending:  thus 
the  downward  strokes  are  made.  By  relax- 
ing, in  turn,  the  muscles  of  the  fingers,  and 
straightening  the  thumb  by  calling  its  mus- 
cles into  action,  it  pushes  back  the  fingers, 
and  the  up-strokes  are  formed.  The  move- 
ment is  twofold  and  alternate,  extending 
and  retracting,  to  form  oblique  lines,  ovals, 
or  horizontals. 

The  pen  must  be  held  with  the  least  pos- 
sible grasp.  It  is  to  be  at  right  angles  to 
the  base  line,  and  thus  in  a  line  with  the 
forearm.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  guard 
against  a  wrong  position  of  the  hand  and 
pen.  The  pen  must  be  so  held  that  the 
right  side  is  turned  a  little  down,  so  that 
the  right  nib  touches  the  paper  first  when 
the  pen  is  put  down.  With  this  right  nib 
the  hair-strokes  are  made.  The  nibs,  so  to 
speak,  are  at  right  angles  to  the  slope;  not 
horizontal.  By  this  means  the  shades  can 
be  made  smooth.  When  it  is  neglected,  the 
shades  will  be  "scratchy,"  or  rough  on  one 
side.  A  glance  at  the  holder  tells  the  teacher 
in  a  moment  if  the  hand  is  right.  With 
beginners,  it  will  be  found  ahnost  as  varia- 
ble as  a  weathercock.  Now  it  is  inclined 
to  the  right,  showing  that  the  hand  is  ly- 
ing down — a  fault  requiring  constant  watch 
fulness,  and  arising  from  neglect  of  the 
comital  movement  of  the  forearm ;  now  to 
the  left,  showing  that  the  hand  is  turned 
too  far  over  in  that  direction.  Now  the 
end  points  outward,  showing  the  elbow  has 
got  away;  again,  it  points  inward,  showing 
that  the  wrist  is  bent  to  the  right. 

The  forearms  rest  lightty  on  the  desk  at 
right  angles  to  one  another.  The  right  is 
supported  by  the  rolling  rest,  and  the  hand 
by  the  sliding  rest.  The  left  arm  has  the 
fingers  on  the  left  side  of  the  book,  to 
steady  it  and  to  move  it  when  necessary. 
The  copy-book  is  placed  with  its  vertical 
lines  in  the  direction  of  the  right  forearm, 
and  its  horizontal  lines  in  that  of  the  left. 


PENMANSHIP 


179 


It  must  be  kept  far  enough  on  the  desk  to 
allow  the  rests  also  to  be  on.  This  position 
of  the  book  at  right  angles  to  the  right 
forearm  is  invariable,  whatever  direction 
the  arm  may  be  in  on  the  desk. 

The  rolling  rest  is  the  muscle  in  front 
of  the  elbow ;  the  sliding  rest,  the  corners  of 
the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers 
bent  under. 

THE  MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  FOREARM  ARE 
THREE.  The  comital,  which  accompanies  the 
sliding  movement  of  the  hand,  and  is  made 
sidewise  on  the  rolling  rest.  The  muscu- 
lar, which  causes  the  medial  movement  of 
the  hand,  and  gives  heft  to  the  pen-fingers. 
It  is  a  play  of  the  arm  forward  and  back- 
ward on  the  rolling  rest.  The  consequent 
medial  movement  of  the  hand  is  made  over 
the  sliding  rest,  of  which  the  only  move- 
ment is  in  a  horizontal  line.  The  lateral 
is  the  lifting  and  moving  the  whole  forearm 
and  hand  to  the  right:  it  is  rendered  nec- 
essary by  the  limited  scope  of  the  comital. 

The  simplest  movement  for  beginners  is 
to  form  the  letters  by  the  motion  of  the 
fingers,  moving  the  hand  and  arm  along 
by  the  united  sliding  and  comital  move- 
ments, which  should  be  nearly  continuous. 
When  thoroughly  familiar  with  these,  after 
considerable  practice,  the  medial  and  mus- 
cular movements  may  be  added  to  give 
freedom  and  boldness  of  style.  The  lateral 
will  not  be  needed  until  sentences  are  writ- 
ten. 

The  movements  of  the  pen-fingers  are  in 
different  directions,  by  extension  and  re- 
traction: thus  are  written  oblique  straight 
lines;  ovals,  direct,  inverted,  and  alternate; 
and  horizontal  lines.  The  shades  are  made 
by  pressure.  As  to  these,  great  care  is 
needed.  They  must  be  made  in  ovals,  with 
a  gradual  increase  and  diminution  of  press- 
ure. The  usual  fault  is  to  make  them  too 
abrupt,  or  with  the  greatest  thickness  too 
long  continued.  The  moment  the  thickest 
point  is  reached,  the  pressure  should  begin 
to  diminish.  Special  directions  are  given 
in  the  analysis  of  the  letters,  where  needed. 

ELEMENTS    AND    PRINCIPLES 

Words  are  represented  in  writing  by 
a  single  letter,  or  by  a  combination  of 
letters.  Letters  are  complex;  they  can 
be  resolved  into  forms  common  to  several 
of  them:  thus,  the  form  repeated  in  u  is 
found  also  in  i  and  w;  or,  they  are  ex- 
pressed by  one  such  form  as  /,  found  in  g 
and  y.  In  some  there  are  parts  not  found 
in  any  other. 


In  writing,  the  letters  are  placed  on  hori- 
zontal lines,  either  ruled  or  imaginary. 
Some  of  the  letters  and  parts  of  others  are 
longer  than  the  rest.  The  letter  o,  which 
is  the  pure  oval,  is  taken  as  the  standard 
of  size.  We  name  the  line  on  which  the 
writing  rests  the  Base  Line.  Suppose  a 
line  parallel  to  this  to  be  drawn  so  as  to 
touch  the  top  of  the  o.  This,  whether 
ruled  or  imaginary,  is  named  the  Head 
Line.  The  distance  between  the  base  and 
head  lines  is  called  one  space,  and  gives  the 
height  of  the  first  four  principles,  wherever 
they  enter  into  the  formation  of  letters. 
The  dot  of  the  r,  the  point  of  the  s,  the 
top  of  the  second  part  of  the  k,  are  one- 
third  of  a  space  higher. 

Suppose,  now,  six  lines  parallel  to  the 
base  line  to  be  drawn,  three  above  the 
head  line,  and  three  below  the  base  line, 
at  intervals  equal  to  the  first  space.  We 
shall  have  eight  parallel  lines  bounding 
seven  equal  spaces  in  a.  vertical  direction. 
We  call  the  middle  space  the  first;  the  next 
above  and  below,  the  second;  the  next,  the 
third;  and  the  last,  the  fourth.  One  of 
these  spaces  is  taken  for  the  unit  of  meas- 
urement. 

RULE. — Loop  letters  are  four  spaces,  and 
double  loops  seven;  t  and  d  two  and  a  half, 
q  three  and  a  half,  p  five,  two  above  and 
two  below  the  first  space.  All  the  rest  are 
one  space,  except  r,  s,  and  the  second  part 
of  k,  which  are  one  and  a  third. 

The  capitals  are  four  spaces. 

It  will  be  observed  that  f,  long  s,  and  p 
extend  as  far  above  the  first  space  as  they 
do  below;  and  that  the  top  of  p  is  a  little 
higher  than  that  of  t  and  d,  and  the  bottom 
of  q  a  little  lower  than  that  of  />. 

The  commencing  and  ending  lines  of  the 
letters  are  always  to  begin  and  terminate  at 
the  base  and  head  lines  respectively. 

THE  TWO   DIVISIONS   OF  LETTERS 

There  are  two  grammatical  divisions  of 
letters,  distinguished  by  their  forms:  the 
small  letters,  which  form  the  main  body  of 
writing,  and  the  capitals,  which  are  used  on 
special  occasions.  We  shall  begin  with  the 
analysis  of  the  capital  letters.  We  shall 
not,  however,  take  them  up  in  their  al- 
phabetical order,  but  in  that  which  gives 
the  easiest  first,  and  shows  their  similar- 
ity, arising  from  the  possession  of  com- 
mon principles.  This  is  the  method  adopted 
in  our  copy-books,  in  order  to  render  our 
system  of  teaching  gradually  progressive. 


ISO 


PENMANSHIP 


THE  CAPITAL  LETTERS 
GENERAL  RULES 

The  height  of  the  capitals  is  four  spaces, 
the  same  as  the  loop  letters. 

A.  This  letter  has  three  parts.  The  first 
part  is  generally  written  upward,  the  upper 
curve  very  slight  The  second  part  is  very 
slightly  curved  to  one-third  from  the  top, 
then  it  is  a  straight  line,  of  which  the 
shade  gradually  increases.  The  third  part 
is  the  cross.  It  starts  from  the  right  foot, 
coincides  for  a  half  space,  crosses  to  the 
left  and  forms  a  loop,  the  centre  of  which 
is  one-third  the  height  of  the  letter,  and  on 
the  double  curve  line.  A  line  from  the  top 
through  the  centre  of  the  letter  would  be 
on  the  main  slope;  hence  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  second  part,  or  down-stroke,  has  a 
little  less  than  the  main  slope,  the  first 
part  a  little  more.  Observe  that  the  width 
of  the  letter  gradually  increases  from  the 
top  to  the  base,  and  regulate  the  first  up- 
stroke accordingly. 

N.  This  letter  consists  of  three  parts. 
The  first  two  are  the  same  as  in  A,  ex- 
cept in  slope;  at  the  bottom  of  the  second 
a  very  narrow  turn  is  made,  and  a  carve 
carried  up  from  it,  parallel  to  the  first  up- 
stroke, four-fifths  the  height  of  the  letter. 
The  spaces  on  a  horizontal  line  across  the 
middle  are  equal.  The  shade  begins  as  in 
A,  and  is  heaviest  just  before  the  turn.  A 
line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  the  letter, 
dividing  it  into  two  equal  lateral  halves, 
would  be  on  the  main  slope.  Observe  the 
gradual  increase  and  diminution  of  width 
in  the  two  sections.  See  the  cautions  on  A. 

M.  This  letter  has  four  parts.  The  first 
three  are  the  same  as  N,  except  that  the 
third  stroke  is  carried  to  the  full  height 
The  fourth  part  is  curved  from  the  top, 
and  closes  with  the  direct  oval.  Observe 
the  shades  carefully.  A  line  through  the 
centre,  dividing  the  letter  into  equal  lateral 
halves,  would  be  on  the  main  slope.  The 
widths  at  the  top  and  the  two  at  the  base 
are  equal.  On  a  horizontal  line  through 
the  middle  there  are  three  equal  spaces. 

T  has  two  parts.  The  strongest  curve  is 
in  the  lower  section.  There  is  410  shade 
except  in  the  third  principle  and  dot. 

F  is  T  crossed  in  the  middle  by  a  small 
double  curve  placed  horizontally,  which  is 
itself  crossed  by  a  small  straight  line  on 
the  main  slope. 

P.  This  letter  has  two  parts,  the  stem 
and  the  cap.  It  is  on  the  main  slope. 
The  cap  begins  with  the  inverted  oval,  two- 
thirds  the  height,  on  the  main  slope,  cross- 


ing the  stem  at  right  angles,  the  highest 
point  of  the  cap  being  in  the  middle  of  the 
line  between  the  section  of  the  oval  and  the 
stem;  it  is  continued  with  the  right  curve, 
and  terminates  on  the  stem  in  a  dot  at 
half  the  height  of  the  letter.  On  the  short 
diameter  of  the  first  oval  produced  to  the 
stem,  there  are  four  equal  spaces;  on  a 
parallel  line  from  the  left  curve  of  the 
oval  crossing  the  stem  to  the  other  curve, 
two  equal  spaces.  A  line  on  the  main 
slope  through  the  oval  would  pass  through 
the  dot. 

B.  The  stem  and  cap  are  like  P,  only 
that  the  right  side  is  carried  down  one- 
third  instead  of  a  half,  and  the  dot  is 
omitted.  The  separation  between  the  up- 
per and  lower  sections  of  the  right  side  is 
made  by  a  horizontal  loop.  The  lower 
curve  ends  with  the  inverted  oval.  A 
straight  line  drawn  on  the  main  slope, 
touching  the  right  side  of  the  upper  curve, 
would  pass  through  the  centre  of  the  lower 
oval;  the  lower  right  curve,  therefore,  pro- 
jects beyond  the  upper.  Across  the  first 
oval  to  stem  on  its  short  diameter  pro- 
duced, there  are  four  equal  spaces  simi- 
larly as  to  the  last  oval,  three.  On  a  par- 
allel line  from  the  right  side  of  the  first 
oval  to  the  right  side  of  the  upper  lobe, 
there  are  two  equal  spaces. 

R  is  like  B  as  far  as  the  separating  loop, 
which  is  here  made  at  right  angles  to  the 
main  slope.  After  that  the  descending 
curve  is  turned  back  to  finish  with  the  di- 
rect oval.  Across  each  of  the  two  ovals 
to  the  stem  on  their  short  diameters  pro- 
duced, there  are  four  equal  spaces.  On  a 
parallel  line  from  the  right  side  of  the  first 
oval  to  the  right  side  of  the  upper  lobe 
there  are  two  equal  spaces.  A  line  on  the 
main  slope  through  the  oval  would  pass 
through  the  dot. 

X,  The  capital-stem  is  made  first,  writ- 
ing downward.  Then  the  inverted  oval 
and  direct  oval  joined  by  a  straight  line 
on  the  main  slope.  The  two  parts  of  the 
letter  coincide  through  half  the  height, 
commencing  at  one-fourth  from  the  top. 
Across  the  ovals  there  are  four  equal 
spaces.  The  remark  on  the  dot  applies 
also. 

S.  Begin  from  base  line  with  the  right 
curve  on  the  slope  of  the  connecting  lines 
to  half  the  height  of  the  letter,  then  form 
a  loop  on  the  main  slope,  half  the  height, 
complete  a  double  curve,  and  end  with  a 
dot  on  the  commencing  line.  The  dot  is 
half  a  space  high,  and  on  the  main  slope 
The  double  .curve  is  the  essential  part  of 


PENMANSHIP 


181 


C  (7(2 


J^W6ro%^^ 

/?r         />  .  x"  V  f~\        /?>* 


this  letter.  Notice  how  the  loop  is  formed 
on  the  upper  part,  and  the  greater  inten- 
sity of  curve  is  on  the  lower  part  Let  the 
shade  begin  just  below  the  loop,  and  be 
nicely  graduated.  Give  much  attention  to 
the  lower  turn  and  the  dot.  An  oblique 
line  through  the  loop  lengthwise  has  sim- 
ilar curves  formed  on  the  double  curve, 
on  the  upper  left  and  lower  right  side. 

L.  This  letter  begins  like  ^, .  but  the 
double  curve,  instead  of  making  a  turn  to 
end  with  the  dot,  is  carried  to  the  left 
to  form  a  horizontal  loop,  which  rests  on 
the  base  line,  and  whose  thickness  is  half 


a  space;  it  descends  on  the  right  side  to 
touch  the  base  line  at  precisely  the  same 
distance  from  the  crossing  as  on  the  left 
side,  and  ends  with  the  direct  oval  incom- 
plete. The  lower  curve  of  the  stem  is 
stronger  than  the  upper.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  upper  curve  of  the  hori- 
zontal loop,  and  the  curve  to  the  right 
which  touches  the  base  line,  together  form 
a  double  curve.  The  right  section  only  of 
the  direct  oval  is  used.  The  shade  begins 
as  in  the  S1,  below  the  loop.  The  bottom 
of  this  letter,  which  may  be  termed  the 
L-foot,  occurs  also  in  D,  Q,  and  one  form 


182 


PENMANSHIP 


of  Z.  Take  care  that  the  direct  oval  is 
made  on  the  main  slope. 

/.  Begin  with  the  left  curve  at  the 
height  of  one  space  from  the  base  line, 
carry  it  round  to  the  right  to  form  a 
circular  loop,  and  continue  to  curve  to 
the  height  of  the  letter.  The  second  part 
of  the  capital-stem  and  dot  passing  through 
the  centre  of  the  circular  loop,  whose  centre 
is  also  in  the  middle  of  the  stem.  Take 
care  that  the  upper  part  of  the  head  is  not 
made  too  broad.  Modify  the  curve  gently 
to  accord  with  the  upper  part  of  the  stem. 

/.  This  letter  begins  as  the  /,  but  the 
circular  loop  is  not  so  high;  its  lower 
curve  is  one  space  from  the  base  line,  and 
the  double  curve  is  carried  down  to  form 
a  loop,  the  same  length  as  /,  three  spaces 
below  the  line.  The  left  curve  of  the  loop 
crosses  at  the  base  line.  A  line  through 
the  length  of  the  loop  should  pass  through 
the  upper  part  of  the  letter.  Notice  the 
slight  intensity  of  the  curve  in  both  parts 
of  the  stem.  The  heaviest  shade  is  in  the 
middle  of  the  right  side  of  the  loop.  The 
loop  is  one  space  wide. 

H.  The  commencement  is  the  third  prin- 
ciple. Next,  the  double  curve  with  a  loop, 
the  hair-stroke  of  which  is  carried  across 
and  upward,  on  the  same  slope,  to  form 
another  loop  similar  to  the  first;  this  side 
is  finished  with  the  direct  oval.  The  first 
section  is  a  little  lower  than  the  second, 
which  is  the  full  height.  The  middle  of 
the  hair-line  between  the  two  stems  is  half 
the  height  of  the  letter;  hence  each  loop  is 
a  little  less  than  half  the  height.  An  ob- 
lique line  through  the  centre,  dividing  the 
central  space  equally,  would  be  on  the  main 
slope.  The  width  between  the  down-strokes 
at  the  middle  is  one  space.  The  second 
loop  is  longer  than  the  first. 

K.  The  first  part  is  T.  The  second  part 
consists  of  the  left  curve  turned  back  to 
make  a  small  separating  loop,  then  con- 
tinued symmetrically  with  the  upper  part, 
and  closed  with  the  direct  oval.  The  sepa- 
rate curve  is  inclined  as  in  R,  and  is  one- 
third  the  height  of  the  letter  from  the  top. 
The  slope  is  the  same  as  in  H. 

V.  Commencement  Next,  down-stroke 
straight,  shaded  heaviest  near  the  turn, 
which  is  narrow,  like  those  of  the  small 
letters.  Then,  up-stroke  parallel  to  previ- 
ous one,  branching  off  into  the  left  curve, 
and  terminated  at  the  same  height  as  the 
top  of  the  introductory  part.  An  oblique 
line  through  the  centre,  dividing  the  letter 
into  two  equal  parts,  would  be  on  the  main 
slope. 


W.  Commencement.  Next,  double  curve 
down,  ending  on  the  base  line;  then,  double 
curve  up  with  more  slope.  The  second 
down-stroke  is  like  the  second  of  A, 
very  slightly  curved  one-third,  and  then 
straight.  The  final  stroke  is  the  left  curve, 
as  in  N.  The  spaces  on  a  horizontal  line 
drawn  through  the  middle  of  the  letter  are 
equal.  A  line  from  the  middle  point  at 
the  top  through  the  centre  of  the  letter 
would  be  on  the  main  slope. 

Z.  Commencement.  The  down-stroke  and 
foot  like  L,  except  that  the  lower  curve  of 
the  stem  is  a  little  less  intense.  It  has  the 
main  slope. 

D.  This  letter  begins  with  the  double 
curve,  commenced  at  the  height  of  the  let- 
ter; its  foot  is  like  that  of  L  until  it  touches 
the  base  line  on  the  right  side,  whence  it 
is  carried  up  as  the  right  side  of  an  oval, 
crosses  the  stem  near  its  top,  and  ends 


y '  c/oo 


with  the  direct  oval.  The  highest  part  of 
the  letter  is  well  in  front  of  the  stem. 

Q.  Begin  with  the  inverted  oval,  and 
end  like  L.  The  oval  is  on  the  main  slope. 

C.  Begin  with  the  left  curve  from  the 
base  line  to  half  the  height :  next,  make  a 
loop  half  the  height;  end  with  the  direct 
oval.  Take  care  that  the  loop  does  not 
pitch  over  too  much.  It  necessarily  has 
more  than  the  main  slope. 

E.  Begin  with  the  left  curve  a  little  dis- 
tance from  the  base  line,  carry  it  two-thirds 
high,  and  make  a  loop  one-third;  continue 
the  curve  to  form  a  small  separating,  nearly 
horizontal,  loop  to  the  right,  and  close  with 
the  direct  oval.  The  separating  loop  is  a 
little  inclined  down  to  the  right,  to  cor- 
respond to  the  lower  oval. 

G.  Begin  with  the  left  curve;  then,  a 
loop  two-thirds  the  height  of  the  letter; 
continue  the  down-stroke  as  the  bottom  of 
an  oval,  whose  width  is  twi<*e  that  of  the 


PENMANSHIP 


183 


loop,  the  bottom  of  the  turn  being  one- 
fourth  from  the  base  line.  End  with  a 
double  curve  and  dot:  the  double  curve 
is  half  the  height  of  the  letter.  Both  parts 
of  the  letter  are  on  the  main  slope.  A  line 
through  the  length  of  the  loop  would  pass 
through  the  dot. 

Y.  This  letter  begins  with  the  inverted 
oval,  continues  like  third  principle  to  one- 
fourth  from  the  base  line,  but  the  lower 
turn  much  narrower  than  the  upper,  and 
ends  with  the  double  curve  and  dot;  height, 
two-thirds. 

U.  Begin  with  the  inverted  oval;  con- 
tinue as  Y,  except  that  it  rests  on  the  base 
line.  The  second  part  is  a  straight  line 
ending  with  a  direct  oval.  The  top  of  the 
second  part  lower  than  that  of  the  first. 
Its  width  is  two  spaces. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF    LETTERS 

Classification  relates  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  letters  in  groups,  according  to  their 
possession  of  common  forms.  Since  every 
letter  must  have  something  peculiar  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  others  which  have  a  com- 
mon principle,  classification  includes  a  de- 
scription of  this  peculiarity,  which  is 
termed  the  characteristic. 

CLASSES  OF  SMALL  LETTERS 

The  most  natural  and  convenient  divi- 
sion of  the  small  letters  seems  to  give 
four  classes.  Some  letters  will  be  found 
to  belong  to  two  of  them.  The  reason  of 
the  position  here  assigned  is  obvious. 

FIRST  CLASS. — Those  letters  which  con- 
sist chiefly  of  the  first,  second,  and  third 
principles,  i,  u,  n,  m,  v,  w,  x. 

SECOND  CLASS. — Those  formed  from  the 
oval,  or  the  fourth  principle,  o,  a,  c,  e. 

These  two  classes  contain  all  the  short 
letters  except  two. 

THIRD  CLASS. — Those  which  have  stems 
formed  of  the  first  element,  p,  q,  t,  d. 
These  are  called  the  Stem  Letters. 

FOURTH  CLASS. — Those  which  have  the 
fifth  and  sixth  principles,  h,  k,  I,  b,  j,  g, 
y,  z,  f,  long  s.  These  are  the  Loop  Letters. 

Besides  these,  there  are  two  letters  whose 
forms  are  anomalous,  r,  s. 

CHARACTERISTICS 

The  characteristics  of  the  letters  are  as 
follows : 

In  the  First  Class-  Of  *,  one  straight 
line  with  turn  at  the  bottom  and  the  dot 
above  it; — of  u,  two  straight  lines  with 


turns  at  the  bottom; — of  n,  two  straight 
lines  with  turns  at  the  top; — of  m,  three 
straight  lines  with  turns  at  the  top; — of  v, 
its  two  nearly  parallel  sides  and  the  dot; — 
of  w,  its  alternately  parallel  sides  and  the 
dot;  of  x,  the  straight  line  forming  the 
cross. 

In  the  Second  Class.  Of  o,  the  oval; — 
of  a,  the  addition  of  the  first  principle; — 
of  c,  the  dot; — of  e,  the  loop. 

In  the  Third  Class.  Of  p,  the  third 
principle  affixed; — of  q,  the  fourth  prin- 
ciple prefixed; — of  t,  the  cross; — of  d,  the 
fourth  principle  prefixed  to  the  f-stem  with- 
out the  cross. 

In  the  Fourth  Class.  Of  h,  the  third 
principle  affixed; — of  k,  the  knot  or  kink; — 
of  /,  the  turn  at  the  bottom; — of  b,  the 
parallel  sides  of  the  lower  part  and  the 
dot; — of  j,  the  dot; — of  g,  the  fourth  prin- 
ciple prefixed; — of  y,  the  third  principle 
prefixed; — of  z,  the  second  principle  and 
shoulder;  in  the  other  form,  the  zigzag; — 
of  f,  the  knot. 

In  the  anomalous  letters.     Of  r,  the  dot* 
and  shoulder; — of  s,  the  twist  on  the  right 
side. 

OF  CAPITALS 

We  give  the  Capitals  in  the  order  of 
their  introduction.  O, — A,  N,  M, — P,  F, — 
P,  B,  R,  X—S,  L—I,  J—H,  K—V,  W,— 
Z,  D,  Q,—C,  E,—G,  Y,  U. 

OCCURRENCE  OF  PRINCIPLES 

The  capital-stem,  or  line  of  beauty,  end- 
ing with  a  dot,  occurs  in  fourteen  letters, 
A,  N,  M,  T,  F,  P,  B,  R,  X,  S,  I,  K,  G,  Y. 

The  capital-stem  is  written: — 
Generally   upward   and   light   in   three   let- 
ters, A,  N,  M. 
Downward  and  light,  in  eleven  letters,   T, 

F,  P,  B,  R,  X,  H,  K,  W,  Z,  D. 
Downward,  light  and  short,  in  two  letters, 

G,  Y. 

Downward  and  shaded  in  the  lower  curve, 

in  three  letters,  /,  L,  S. 
Downward,   prolonged  into  a  loop,  shaded 

on  the  right  side,  in  one  letter,  /. 

The  third  principle  of  small  letters  is 
used  for  the  commencement  of  seven  let- 
ters, T,  G,  H,  K,  V,  W,  Z. 

The  direct  oval,  when  of  full  size,  forms 
the  O. 

Four-fifths  of  the  vertical  height,  it  is  the 
end  or  front  of  D. 

Half  the  height,  it  terminates  eight  let- 
ters, M,  R,  X,  H,  K,  C,  E,  U. 

One-third  the  height,  it  ends  L,  Z,  Q. 

The  inverted  oval,  two-thirds  the  height, 


184 


PENMANSHIP 


Whole  Arm  Capitals 


Ledger    Hand 


Medium    Hand 


•  s          /       J-    -f*  s's 

sa/<Jute4^^ 
/  /       /  / 


Corresponding   Hand 


PENMANSHIP 


185 


commences  seven  letters,  P,  B,  R,  X,  Q, 
V,  Y. 

Half  the  height,  it  ends  one  letter,  B. 

A  curve  and  circular  loop  are  used  for 
the  head  of  /,  /. 

The  loop,  half  the  height  of  the  letter, 
is  found  in  six  letters,  S,  L,  J,  H,  C,  G; 
one-third  the  height,  in  E. 

The  knot,  kink,  or  small  separating  loop, 
is  found  in  three  letters,  B,  R,  K;  turned 
in  the  opposite  direction,  in  E. 

The  horizontal  loop,  or  L-foot,  is  found 
in  four  letters,  L,  D,  Q,  Z. 

The  first  element,  very  slightly  curved  to 
one-third  from  the  top,  is  found  in  A,  N, 
M,  W ;  straight  throughout,  and  closed  by 
a  turn,  in  V. 

COMBINATION 

Combination  treats  of  the  arrangement 
of  letters  in  words  at  proper  distances. 
This  is  generally  spoken  of  as  Spacing. 
It  is  effected  by  the  connecting  lines 
of  the  two  letters  running  into  one  an- 
other, and  thus  forming  one  line,  which 
may  be  distinguished  as  the  Combining 
Line.  .  Good  taste  requires  that  the  letters 
in  a  word  should  look  about  the  same  dis- 
tance apart;  in  other  words,  that  the  space 
on  the  line  which  the  word  occupies  should 
be  evenly  filled.  If  this  is  neglected,  the 
writing  will  look  "patchy" — crowded  in  one 
place,  scattered  in  another.  We  propose, 
therefore,  to  give  rules  for  these  distances, 
and  to  point  out  the  reasons  on  which  they 
depend. 

Every  letter  ends  with  a  straight  line,  hav- 
ing a  diagonal  connecting  line  with  a  turn, 
as  u,  or  without  a  turn,  as  /,  q;  or  is  an  oval 
with  a  horizontal  connecting  line;  or  is 
open  on  the  right  side,  as  c  and  e.  Every 
letter  begins  with  a  straight  line,  having  a 
diagonal  connecting  line  without  a  turn,  as 
u,  h,  p,  or  with  a  turn,  as  n,  y;  or  is  an 
oval,  as  o,  a;  or  is  open  on  the  left  side, 
as  s,  in  which  the  up-stroke  is  merely  the 
connecting  line.  The  combinations  of  these 
different  classes  of  letters  may  be  deter- 
mined by  the  following  rules: 

RULE  i. — When  two  straight  lines,  or  a 
straight  line  and  an  oval,  are  united  by  one 
turn^and  a  combining  line,  or  by  a  combin- 
ing line  only,  the  distance  between  them  is 
one  space,  the  height  of  o;  as  ii,  ni,  it,  ih, 


ip;  io,  ie;  gi,  go,  qu,  etc.  Between  is,  us, 
etc.;  the  distance  is  really  the  same,  because 
the  width  of  s  equals  that  of  o;  but  since 
we  have  to  measure  to  the  right  side,  it  is 
a  space  and  a  half. 

REMARK. — In  it,  ih,  ip,  where  the  com- 
bining line  joins  the  straight  line  at  one- 
half,  one- third,  and  the  top,  respectively, 
the  distance  is  kept  by  giving  the  less  slope 
to  the  combining  line.  In  gi,  qu,  etc.,  the 
same  means  are  used. 

RULE  2. — When  two  straight  lines  are 
united  by  two  turns  and  a  combining  line, 
the  distance  is  one  space  and  a  half;  as  in, 
ir,  nu,  my,  pn,  etc. 

REMARK. — This  gives  room  enough  to 
make  the  turns  properly,  and  the  line  cross- 
ing diagonally  prevents  the  distance  from 
seeming  too  wide. 

RULE  3. — When  two  ovals,  or  an  oval 
and  a  straight  line,  are  united  by  a  com- 
bining line  only,  or  by  a  combining  line 
and  turn,  the  distance  is  three-quarters  of 
a  space;  as,  oo,  oc,  od,  ba,  ve,  wo;  oi,  ot, 
oh,  op,  vi;  on,  vn,  etc.  The  last  part  of 
b,  v.  w  is  equivalent  to  the  oval.  In  os  the 
distance  is  really  the  same,  since  j  is  the 
width  of  o;  but  as  we  measure  to  the  right 
side  it  is  a  little  more  than  one  space. 

REMARK. — A  full  space  for  the  distance 
mentioned  in  the  first  part  of  this  rule  would 
be  too  much,  because,  as  the  connecting  line 
is  horizontal,  there  is  nothing  to  disguise 
it.  We  have,  therefore,  to  bring  the  main 
lines  nearer. 

RULE  4. — When  c  or  e  precedes  a  letter 
beginning  like  u,  or  an  oval,  the  distance  is 
one  space  and  a  half;  as  ci,  ei,  cl,  el,  ep; 
co,  eo,  ce,  ee,  etc. 

REMARK. — The  distance  in  this  case  is 
measured  from  the  left  side  of  the  c  and 
e,  and  is  crossed  by  the  combining  line 
diagonally. 

GENERAL  REMARK. — The  combining  line 
does  not  have  an  invariable  slope,  but  is 
determined  by  the  necessities  arising  from 
the  rules  of  combination. 

RULE  5. — Words  are  written  about  one 
space  apart.  This,  however,  depends  very 
much  on  whether  we  wish  to  give  the  writ- 
ing a  free  or  a  condensed  appearance. 


THE  METRIC  SYSTEM  OF 
WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


THE  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  is  based  on  the  deci- 
mal division  in  accordance  with  our  systems  of  numeration  and 
coinage.  It  is  in  common  use  in  all  civilized  countries  except 
Russia,  England,  and  the  United  States,  and  is  legal  in  these.  On  ac- 
count of  its  simplicity  and  accuracy  it  is  in  use  for  scientific  work  through- 
out the  world. 

In  July,  1790,  Thomas  Jefferson,  then  Secretary  of  State,  prepared, 
at  the  request  of  Congress,  a  report  on  weights  and  measures,  in  which 
he  proposed  "to  reduce  every  branch  to  the  decimal  ratio  already  estab- 
lished for  coins,  and  thus  bring  the  calculation  of  the  principal  af- 
fairs of  life  within  the  arithmetic  of  every  man  who  can  multiply 
and  divide."  This  was  approved  by  President  Washington  and  Con- 
gress, but  action  was  deferred  because  the  French  Assembly  was  pre- 
paring a  similar  system,  and  it  was  thought  very  desirable  to  make  it 
international. 

The  Metrical  System  is  based  upon  the  length  of  the  fourth  part  of 
a  terrestrial  meridian.  The  ten-millionth  part  of  this  arc  was  chosen 
as  the  unit  of  measures  of  length,  and  called  Metre.  The  cube  of  the 
tenth  part  of  the  metre  was  adopted  as  the  unit  of  capacity,  and  denom- 
inated Litre.  The  weight  of  a  litre  of  distilled  water  at  its  greatest 
density  was  called  Kilogramme,  of  which  the  thousandth  part,  or  Gramme, 
was  adopted  as  the  unit  of  weight.  The  French  astronomers  seem  to 
have  estimated  the  average  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude  at  about  69.042 
miles,  which  is  something  less  than  the  length  now  estimated  at  the 
Equator:  69.16. 

When  the  metric,  or  decimal,  system  was  invented,  it  was  hoped  that 
it  would  be  adopted  as  a  universal  method  of  calculation.  In  this, 
however,  expectations  have  not  been  realized,  except  in  scientific 
computations,  where  a  common  standard  is  positively  necessary.  At 
the  same  time  it  was  attempted  to  substitute  a  decimal  system  for 
measuring  time,  instead  of  the  duodecimal  (twelve)  system  now  in 
use.  But  this  change  was  so  perplexing  to  the  people  that  it  was 
finally  abandoned. 

In  1866,  the  metric  system  was  made  legal  in  the  United  States,  and 
in  1875  tne  International  Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures,  of  which 
the  United  States  is  a  member,  was  established,  and  took  up  the  task  of 

(186) 


THE   METRIC   SYSTEM 


187 


preparing  the  national  prototypes  of  the  standard  metre  and  kilogram 
fo'r  distribution  among  the  several  nations  composing  it.  In  1893,  the 
metre  was  made  the  unit  of  measurement  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
yard  defined  with  reference  to  it.  In  1890,  the  United  States  Pharma- 
copeia adopted  the  system  for  prescriptions. 

ANALYSIS  AND  COMPARISON   OF  METRIC  UNITS 


THE  METRE.— Having  adopted  as  a 
standard  the  one-ten-millionth  part  of 
ninety  terrestrial  degrees,  so  as  to  have 
a  decimal  system  of  calculation,  or  one  in 
the  scale  of  tens,  their  unit  was  estimated 
as  about  .000621  mile;  1.09363  yard;  3.86090 
foot;  and  39.3708  inches.  This  is  the  length 
now  known  as  the  "metre,"  or  "meter,"  and 
from  it  all  the  measures  of  volume  and 
weight  have  been  derived.  The  ease  and 
convenience  of  having  a  scale  of  tens  in 
measure  greatly  facilitates  calculation,  and 
enables  one  to  find  instantly  the  compara- 
"tive  values  of  any  given  quantity. 

DECIMAL  UNITS. — Thus  a  metre  is  sub- 
divided into  ten  parts,  one  hundred  parts, 
and  one  thousand  parts,  giving  the  table, 
with  Latin  numeral  prefixes,  as  follows: 

10  millimetres  make  one  centimetre, 
10  centimetres  make  one  decimetre, 
10  decimetres  make  one  metre. 

These  prefixes  are  the  Latin  words,  de- 
cem,  ten;  centum,  one  hundred;  and  mille, 
one  thousand.  Measures  larger  than  a  me- 
tre are  indicated  by  the  Greek  numerals: 
deka,  ten;  hekaton  (hecto~),  one  hundred; 
chilioi  (kilo),  one  thousand;  and  myria, 
ten  thousand.  Thus  we  have  the  table  of 
quantities  more  than  one  metre,  as  follows: 

10  metres  make  one  dekametre, 
10  dekametres  make  one   hectometre, 
10  hectometres  make  one  kilometre, 
10  kilometres  make  one  myriametre. 

Square,  or  surface  measure,  and  cubic,  or 
solid  measure,  are  based  on  the  same  deci- 
mal scale,  except  that  square  measure  natu- 
rally increases  on  a  ratio  of  hundreds,  as 
measuring  two  dimensions,  and  cubic  meas- 
ure, on  a  scale  of  thousands,  as  indicating 
three  dimensions.  Thus: 

ioo  square  millimetres  make  one  square  centimetre, 
100  square  centimetres  make  one  square  decimetre, 
ioo  square  decimetres  make  one  square  metre,  etc. 

The  cubic  measure  is  as  follows : 

1,000  cubic  millimetres  make  one  cubic  centimetre, 
1,000  cubic  centimetres  make  one  cubic  decimetre, 
1,000  cubic  decimetres  make  one  cubic  metre,  etc. 


THE  GRAM,  OR  MEASURE  OF  WEIGHT. — 
Measures  of  weight  and  capacity  are  based 
on  the  cubic  system.  Thus,  for  weight  we 
have  the  "gram,"  or  "gramme,"  which  is  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  centimetre  of  distilled  or 
perfectly  purified  water,  weighed  at  the 
temperature  when  it  has  its  maximum,  or 
greatest,  density,  which  is  at  4  degrees,  cen- 
tigrade, or  39.2  degrees,  Fahrenheit,  the  lat- 
ter being  the  common  form  of  thermometer. 
Thus,  as  we  would  say,  the  water  must  be 
weighed  when  it  is  at  a  temperature  of  7.2 
degrees  above  the  freezing-point,  or  "zero." 

THE  LITRE,  OR  MEASURE  OF  CAPACITY. — 
In  the  same  fashion  the  unit  of  capacity  is 
found  by  taking  a  box  or  can  of  the  exact 
capacity  of  one  cubic  decimetre.  This  is 
what  is  called  the  "litre." 

But  the  gram  and  the  litre  are  divided 
and  -  increased  on  a  ratio  of  tens,  instead  of 
on  one  of  thousands.  Thus  it  is  that  while 
a  cubic  centimetre  of  water  in  the  condi- 
tions just  mentioned  weighs  one  gram,  a 
cubic  decimetre  of  water  would  weigh  one 
kilogram,  and  a  cubic  metre,  one  hundred 
myriagrams.  So,  also,  a  cubic  metre  of  any 
substance  would  occupy  a  measure  of  one 
kilolitre,  or  one  thousand  litres. 

THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  METRIC 
SYSTEM 

i.  SIMPLICITY  AND  CONVENIENCE  IN  PRAC- 
TICAL USE. — All  the  weights  and  measures 
have  the  same  multiple  (ten)  and  the  same 
prefixes,  so  that  there  is  really  only  one 
table  instead  of  twelve  or  more.  It  has 
the  same  advantage  over  the  common 
weights  and  measures  that  dollars  and  cents 
have  over  guineas,  pounds,  shillings,  pence, 
and  farthings.  In  all  commercial  and  me- 
chanical work  its  adoption  would  effect  an 
immense  saving  in  time  and  money.  Cal- 
culations which  in  our  ordinary  units  are 
rather  difficult  can  be  performed  mentally 
in  the  metric  system.  If  any  one  will  solve 
the  following  problems  be  will  see  the  dif- 
ference : 


188 


THE    METRIC    SYSTEM 


la.  Mercury  is  13.5  times  as  heavy  as 
water.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  litre  ?  An- 
swer: 13,500  grams. 

I&.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  quart? 

Since  there  are  two  different  quarts  and 
three  systems  of  weights  in  common  use, 
there  are  several  answers  possible. 

Answers:  28  pounds,  2  ounces,  4  drams, 
21.798199296  grains  avoirdupois;  or,  32 
pounds,  ii  ounces,  2  drams,  6.672  grains 
avoirdupois;  or,  39  pounds,  6  drams,  i 
scruple,  13.86  grains  apothecary;  or,  34 
pounds,  2  ounces,  3  drams,  i  scruple,  6.175 
grains  apothecary;  or,  39  pounds,  8  ounces, 
16  pennyweights,  9.86  grains  Troy;  or,  34 
pounds,  2  ounces,  8  pennyweights,  14.175 
grains  Troy. 

Ila.  If  154  metres  of  rope  cost  $i,  how 
much  will  one  cent  buy?  Answer:  I54cm. 

II&.  If  154  yards  of  rope  cost  $i,  how 
much  will  one  cent  buy?  Answer:  I  yard, 
i  foot,  7.44  inches. 

2.  EASE  IN  LEARNING. — Very  few  people 
remember    all    the    tables    of    weights    and 
measures  in  common  use,  while  the  metric 
system   can  be  memorized   in  a   few  min- 
utes.    About  two  years  of  the  time  a  child 
devotes  to  arithmetic  is  spent  on  compound 
numbers,  and  the  work  in  this  is  often  un- 
satisfactory.   Where   the   metric   system   is 
in  use  only  a  few  weeks  are  required  for  a 
mastery  of  the   subject. 

3.  THE  SYSTEM  is  INTERNATIONAL. — The 
weights  and  measures  used  in  the  United 
States  are  not  all  the  same  as  those  used 
in    England,    although   the   names   are   the 
same,  and  even  in  the  United  States  differ- 
ent   States    have    different    values    for   the 
same    measures.     Our   consuls    report   that 
the  United   States  are  losing  a  great  deal 
of     trade     through     having     weights     and 
measures    different    from    the    rest    of   the 
world. 

4.  SIMPLE  AND  EXACT  RELATIONS  between 
weights  and  measures  of  length,  area,  and 
capacity.    To  change  from  one  table  to  an- 
other in  any  other  system   requires  some- 
what   difficult    calculation,    often    involving 
the  use  of  very  inconvenient   factors. 

5.  PERMANENT  AND  EXACT  STANDARDS. — 
The  standard  metre  is  the  length  between 
two  lines  on  a  platinum-iridium  bar  in  the 
archives  of  Paris,  and  copies  very  exactly 
compared  with  this  are  in  the  possession  of 
every  government.    Its  length  is  also  known 
in   terms   of  the   wave  length   of  light,  so 
that  it  could  be  exactly  reproduced  if  all 


copies  were  destroyed.  The  standard  kilo- 
gram is  prepared  and  preserved  in  the  same 
way.  The  metre  is  nearly  one  forty-mil- 
lionth of  the  earth's  circumference,  and  the 
gram  is  the  weight  of  one  cubic  centimetre 
of  water. 

OBJECTIONS  TO  THE  METRIC 
SYSTEM 

Two  objections  have  been  raised  against 
the  metric  system.  One  is  that  the  decimal 
system  is  not  suitable  for  weights  and 
measures,  because  ten  is  not  divisible  by 
three  and  only  once  by  two.  This  objec- 
tion applies  equally  to  almost  all  of  our 
common  weights  and  measures,  to  our 
coinage,  and  in  fact  to  our  whole  system 
of  decimal  notation.  But  so  long  as  we 
count  by  tens — and  there  is  no  probability 
of  changing  to  a  duodecimal  or  any  other 
base — it  is  manifestly  best  to  have  our 
weights,  measures,  and  coinage  in  accord 
with  it.  In  fact,  the  use  of  decimal  sub- 
divisions is  so  rapidly  increasing  from  prac- 
tical considerations  that  we  shall  soon  have 
decimal  weights  and  measures  anyway.  The 
surveyor  divides  the  foot  into  tenths,  the 
mechanician  uses  hundredths  of  an  inch, 
and  the  business  man  thinks  in  percent- 
ages. The  hundredweight  is  superseding 
the  bushel,  and  the  short  ton  of  2,000 
pounds  is  driving  out  the  long  ton  of 
2,240  pounds.  A  system  developed  spon- 
taneously in  this  way  lacks,  however,  the 
other  advantages  of  the  metric  system. 

The  practical  objection  of  the  difficulty 
of  introducing  the  metric  system  when  all 
our  land,  buildings,  tools,  machinery,  etc., 
are  measured  by  the  old  system,  and  we 
are  used  to  thinking  in  the  old  units,  is  the 
real  obstacle  that  has  hitherto  prevented  its 
adoption.  The  change  was  made,  however, 
in  Germany  and  in  the  other  countries  in  a 
few  years  by  government  authority  without 
public  inconvenience.  It  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  old  units  will  drop  out  of 
use  and  speech  at  once.  We  still  some- 
times hear  of  shillings  and  bits,  and  the 
chain  and  fathom  and  hand  are  still  in 
use. 

The  metric  system  as  actually  used  is 
much  simpler  than  as  it  is  taught  in  our 
schools.  All  the  divisions  are  named  so 
that  a  measure  of  a  size  suitable  for  any 
particular  purpose  may  be  chosen,  but  only 
a  few  are  in  common  use,  just  as  we  do 
not  often  use  dimes,  eagles,  and  mills  in 
calculation.  If  the  following  simple  rela- 
tions be  memorized  a  person  will  have 


THE   METRIC   SYSTEM 


189 


all  the  metric   system   he  is   likely  to   use 

CONVERSION    OF   U.  S.  WEIGHTS 

in  daily  life. 

AND   MEASURES  TO   METRIC 

10  millimetres   make   one   centimetre. 

AND   VICE   VERSA 

100  centimetres  make  one  metre. 

LINEAR 

1000  metres  make  one  kilometre. 

1000  milligrams   make  one  gram. 

Millimetres   to  the      Inches  to  the  metre, 

1000  grams  make  one  kilogram. 

inch,   254001                       39-3708 

1000  cubic  centimetres  make  one  litre.             •     ' 
One   cubic  centimetre  of  water  weighs  one 

Metres  to  the  foot,    Feet   to   the   metre, 

gram. 

.3048                            3.2808 

Metres  to  the  yard,    Yards  to  the  metre, 

During    the    transition    period    and    for 

.9144                             1.0936 

reading   foreign   news   it   is   convenient   to 

Kilometres   to   the       Miles  to  the  kilo- 

have    in    mind    a    few    rough   equivalents, 
such   as  — 

mile,   1.6094                   metre,    .6214 

A  metre  is  about  a  yard   (39  1-4  inches). 

SQUARE 

A  kilometre  is  half  a  mile  (.6  mile). 

Sq.   centimetres  to      Sq.  inches  to  the  sq. 

A  litre  is  a  quart   (.880387  quart). 
A  kilogram  is  about  2  pounds  (2.2  pounds). 
A  centimetre  is  |  of  an  inch  (.3937  inch). 

the  sq.  inch,  6.452            centimetre,  .1550 
Sq.  decimetres  to  the      Sq.  feet  to  the  sq. 

15  grains  make  a  gram. 

sq.  foot,  9.290                   metre,   10.764 

28  grams  make  an  ounce. 

Sq.  metres  to  the  sq.        Sq.    yards   to   the 

The  full  tables  and  the  exact  conversion 

yard,  .836               sq.    metre,    1.196 

factors  are  given  below. 

Hectares  to  the  acre,      Acres   to   the   hec- 

.4047                          tare,  2.471 

METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS 

CUBIC 

AND  MEASURES 

Cu.   centimetres  to        Cu.    inches    to   the 

LINEAR    MEASURES 

the  cu.  inch,  16.387       .  cu.  centimetre,  .061 

i    metre    (m)  =  10    decimetres    (dm)  =  100    centi- 

Cu.  metres   to  the        Cu.  feet  to  the  cu. 

metres  (cm)  =  1000  millimetres  (mm)  =.i  deka- 

cu.  foot,  .0283                metre,    35.314 

metre       (Dm)=.oi      Hektometre     (Hm)=.ooi 
Kilometre    (Km)  =  .0001    Myriametre    (Mm), 
i  Mm  =  10  Km  =  too  Hm  =  1000  Dm  =  10,000  m; 

Cu.   metres   to  the        Cu.    yards    to    the 
cu.  yard,  .765                 cu.  metre,  1.308 

i  Km  =    10  Hm  =    100  Dm  =    1,000  m; 

i  Hm  =      10  Dm=       100  m; 

CAPACITY 

i  Dm=         10  m; 

i  m  =  10  dm  =  100  cm  =  1000  mm; 

Cu.   centimetres  to      Fluid  drams  to  the 

i   dm  =    10  cm  =    100  mm; 

the  fluid  dram,  3.70         cu.  centimetre,  .27 

i  cm  =     10  mm. 

Millilitres     to     the      Fluid  ounces  to  the 

SURFACE     MEASURES 

fluid  ounce,  29.57               millilitre,  3.38 

i  Ar   (a)  =  100  square  metres    (sq.   m)  =  .01   hek- 
tare  (ha); 

Litres  to  the  quart,     Quarts  to  the  litre, 
.9464                               1.0567 

I  Ar=  i  sq.  Dm  =  100  square  m; 

Litres   to   the   gal-      Gallons  to  the  litre, 

i  sq.  Km  =  100  Ha=  10,000  A  =1,000,000  sq.  m; 

Ion,   3.78521                         .26417 

i  Ha  =       100  A  =      10,000  sq.  m; 

i  A  =           100  sq.  m. 

Hectolitres    to    the      Bushels  to  the  hec- 

bushel,  .3524                 tolitre,   2.8377 

MEASURES    OF    CAPACITY 

A  litre   (1)  =  i  cubic  decimetre  (cdm)  =  1,000  cubic 

WEIGHT 

centimetres    (c.    c.)=  o.ooi  cubic  metre    (cbm)= 

Milligrams    to    the       Grains  to  the  mil- 

10  decilitres  (dl)  =  100  centilitres    (cl)  =  .01  hek- 
tolitre   (hi). 

grain,   64.7989               ligram,    .01543 

i  HI  =  10  Dl  =  100  1  =1,000  dl  =  10,000  cl; 

Grams  to  the  ounce       Ounces    avoirdupois 

i  Dl  =    10  1=     100  dl  =    1,000  cl; 

avoirdupois,                  to  the  gram, 

i  1  =       10  dl  =       100  cl. 

28.349375                          .0352739 

Kilograms    to    the      Pounds    avoirdupois 

WEIGHTS 

pound  avoirdupois,        to  the  kilogram, 

i    kilogram      (Kg)=  too     dekagrams     (Dg)=  1000 

.4536                               2.2046 

grams  (g)  ; 
i  gram  =10  decigrams   (dg)=  too  centigrams  (eg) 

Grams  to  the  ounce       Ounces  Troy  to  the 

=  1,000  milligrams  (mg); 

Troy,  31.103496               gram,  .3215073 

i  ton=  1000  Kg  =  100,000  Dg  =  1,000,000   g; 
100    Kg  =    ro.ooo    Dg=     100,000   g; 

Grams  to  the  pound       Pounds  Troy  to  the 

i  Kg=         100  Dg=         1,000   g. 

Troy,  373.241954.           gram,   .00267923 

13 

190 


THE    METRIC   SYSTEM 


TABLE   FOR  THE  CONVERSION   OF   METRIC    WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES 

INTO    ENGLISH 


Metres    into 
yards. 

Kilometres  to 
miles  and  yards 

Litres  into 
galls, 
and  quarts. 

Hectolitres 
into  quarts 
and  bushels 

Kilogrammes 
into  cwt., 
qrs.,   lb.,  oz. 

Hectares 
into 
acres,  r.,  p. 

i          1.094 

I         o     1094 

I         o     0.880 

i         o     2.751 

*           0231-4 

i           2     i     30 

2         2.187 

2              I           4*7 

a        o     1.761 

2         o     5.502 

2                046  1-2 

2            4     3     32 

3         3-*8i 

3         I      1521 

3        o    2.641 

3          '     0-254 

3           o       6       93-4 

3            7      i     26 

4         4-374 

4         *       855 

4         o     3-521 

4          I     3-005 

4           o       8     13 

4            9     3     23 

5          S-468 

5         3       188 

5               0.402 

5          I     5-756 

5           o     ii       01-4 

5          12     i      17 

6         6.562 

6         3     1282 

6         i     1.282 

6         2     0.507 

6           o     13       3  1-2 

6         14     3     1.2 

7         7-655 

7         4       615 

7         I     2.163 

7         *    3-258 

7           o     15       7 

7         17     i       8 

8         8-749 

8         4     1709 

8         i     3-043 

8         2     6.010 

8           o     17     10  1-4 

8         »9     3       3 

9         9-843 

9         5     i°43 

9         I     3-923 

9         3     o-76i 

9           o     19     13  1-2 

9         22     o     38 

10       10.936 

10         6       376 

10        a    0.804 

10         3     3.512 

IO                O       22          O  3-4 

10         24     2     34 

20         21.873 

20       12       753 

20        4     i.  608 

20         6     7.024 

2O                 I        l6           I    1-2 

20         49     i     28 

30       32.809 

30        1  8      1  129 

30         6    2.412 

30       10    2.536 

3O               2       IO         2  1-2 

30         74     o     21 

40     43.745 

40        24      1505 

40         8     3-*i5 

40       13     6.048 

40            343 

40         98     3     15 

50     54-682 

50          31           122 

50       ii     0.019 

50       17     1.560 

50           3     26       3  3-4 

50       123     2       9 

60     65.618 

60       37       498 

60       13     0.823 

60       20     5.072 

60     i     o     20       4  1-2 

60       148     i       3 

70     76.554 

70       43        874 

70       15     1.627 

70       24    0.585 

70     i      i      14       5  1-4 

70        172     3     37 

80      87.491 

80       49     1251 

So       17     2.431 

80       27     4.097 

80     i     2       8       6 

80        197     2     38 

90     98.427 

90       55     1627 

90        19     3-235 

90       30     7.609 

90     i     3       2       6  1-2 

90          222        I        24 

ioo     109.363 

ioo      62      243 

IOO         22       0.039 

ioo       34     3.121 

ioo     i     3     24       7 

ioo       247     o     18 

200     218.727 

200       124         487 

200       44     0.077 

200       68     6.242 

200     3     3     20     15 

200       494     o     37 

300     328.090 

300     186       730 

300       66     o.  1  1  6 

300     103     1.362 

300     5     3     17       6 

300       741      i      15 

400     437-453 

400     248       973 

400       88     0.155 

400     137     4.483 

400     7     3     13     14 

400       988      i     33 

500     546.816 

500     310     1217 

500     no     0.193 

500     171      7.604 

500     9     3     10       5 

500     1235     a     ii 

METRIC    EQUIVALENTS 

MEASURES  OF  LENGTH    (UNIT  METRE) 


EQUAL    TO 

Inches 

Feet 

Yards 

Fathoms 

Miles 

Millimetre    

0.03937 

0.003281 

0.0010936 

0.0005468 

0.0000006 

Centimetre     

0-39371 

0.032809 

0.0109363 

0.0054682 

0.0000062 

Decimetre    

3-93708 

0.328090 

0.1093633 

0.0546816 

0.0000621 

METRE    

39-37079 

3.280989 

1.0936331 

0.5468165 

0.00062  1  4 

Decametre    

393.70790 

32.809892 

10.9363306 

5.4681653 

0.0062138 

Hectometre    

3937-07900 

328.089917 

109-3633056 

54.6816528 

0.0621382 

Kilometre     

39370.79000 

3280.899167 

1093.6330556 

546.8165278 

0.6213824 

Myriametre    

393707.90000 

32808.991667 

10936-3305556 

5468.1652778 

6.2138242 

CUBIC,  OR  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY  (UNIT  LITRE) 

EQUAL    TO 

Cubic  Inches 

Cubic  Feet 

Pints 

Gallons 

Bushels 

Millilitre,  or  cubic  centimetre. 

0.06103 

0.000035 

0.00176 

O.OOO22OI 

0.0000275 

Centilitre,    10  cubic   do  

0.61027 

0.000353 

0.01761 

O.OO220IO 

0.0002751 

6.10271 

0-003532 

0.17608 

0.0220097 

0.0027512 

LITRE,   or  cubic  Decimetre.... 

61.02705 

0.035317 

1.76077 

0.2200967 

0.0275121 

Decalitre,  or  Centistere  

610.27052 

0.353166 

17-60773 

2.2009668 

0.2751208 

Hectolitre,  or  Decistere  

6102.70515 

3-531658 

170.07734 

22.0096677 

2.7512085 

Kilolitre,  Stere,  or  cubic  metre.  . 

61027.05152 

35-316581 

1760.77341 

220.0966767 

27.5120846 

Myrialitre,   or   Decastere  

610270.51519 

353.165807 

17607.73414 

2200.9667675 

275.1208459 

MEASURES  or 

WEIGHT   (UNIT 

GRAMME) 

EQUAL    TO 

Grains. 

Troy  os. 

Avoir,   lb. 

Cwt. 

=112  lb. 

Tons 
=20  cwt. 

0.01543 

0.000032 

O.OOOOO22 

o.ooooooo 

o.ooooooo 

Centigramme     

0.15432 

0.000322 

O.OOOO22O 

O.0000002 

o.ooooooo 

1-54323 

0.003215 

O.00022O5 

0.0000020 

O.OOOOOOI 

GRAMME    

J5-43235 

0.032151 

O.OO22O46 

0.0000197 

O.OOOOOIO 

Decagramme    

I54.32349 

0.32  1  507 

O.022O462 

0.0001968 

0.0000098 

Hectogramme    

I543-23488 

3.215073 

O.220462I 

0.0019684 

0.0000984 

15432-34880 

32.150727 

2.2O462I3 

0.0196841 

0.0009842 

Myriagramme    

154323-48800 

321.507267 

32.0462126 

0.1968412 

0.0098421 

SQUARE,  OR  MEASURES  or  SURFACE  (UNIT  ARE) 

EQUAL    TO 

Sq.  Feet 

Sq.   Yards 

Sq.  Perches 

Sq.  Roods 

Sq.    Acres 

Centiare,  or  square  mitre  

10.764299 

1.196033 

0.0395383 

0.0009885 

0.0002471 

ARE,  or  ioo  square  metres.... 

1076.429934 

119.603326 

3-9538290 

0.0988457 

0.0247114 

Hectare.or  10,000  square  metres 

107642.993419 

11960.332602 

395.3828959 

9.8845724 

2.4711431 

THE    METRIC   SYSTEM 


191 


FOREIGN  WEIGHTS  AND  MEAS- 
URES 

FRANCE 
MEASURE   OF    LENGTH 

i   Myriametre     — .  =  10000  Metres. 

i  Kilometre     =  1000  Metres. 

i   Decametre     =  10  Metres. 

i  Metre =  The  io,ooo,oooth  part  of  the 

quarter    of    the    meridian 

of  the  earth. 

i   Decimetre     =  i-ioth  of  a  metre. 

i  Centimetre     =  i-iooth  of  a  metre. 

i  Millimetre     =  i-ioooth  of  a  metre, 

MEASURE    OF    SURFACE 

i   Hectare     =  100  Ares. 

i  Are     =  100  Square  metres. 

i  Centiare     =  i   Square  metre. 

MEASURE    OF    SOUDITY 

i   Stere     =  i   Cubic  metre. 

i  Decistere    =  i-ioth  of  a  stere. 

MEASURE  OF   CAPACITY 

i  Kilolitre     =  i   Cubic  metre. 

i  Hectolitre     =  10  Decalitres. 

i  Decalitre    =  10   Litres. 

i  Litre     =  i    Cubic  decimetre. 

i  Decilitre    =  i-ioth  of  a  litre. 


MEASURE    OF    WEIGHT 


i  Millia 


i  Quintal    . .. 
i  Kilogramme 


i  Hectogramme 

i  Decagramme 

i  Gramme     . . . 

i  Decigramme 


....  —  looo  Kilogrammes,  and  is 
the  weight  of  a  ton  of 
sea-water. 

. . . .  =  100    Kilogrammes. 

. . . .  =  Weight  of  a  cubic  decimetre 
of  water,  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  4°  above  melting 
ice,  or  about  40°  Fahren- 
heit. 
. ..  =  100  Grammes. 

. . .  =  10    Grammes. 

. . . .  =  i-ioooth   of   a   kilogramme. 

. . ..  =  i-ioth  of  a  gramme. 


These  measures  may  be  compared  with 
the  English  measures  by  means  of  the  fol- 
lowing table : 

Metre     =  39.38  English    inches,  nearly. 

Are     =    3.9    English  perches,  nearly. 

Stere    =  35.32  English   cubic   feet. 

Litre     =    1.76  English  pints. 

Gramme     =  15.44  English  grains. 

BELGIUM 

The  metrical  system  is  used  here;  but  the 
kilogramme  is  termed  a  livre;  the  litre,  a 
litron;  and  the  metre,  an  aune. 

NETHERLANDS 

Here,  also,  the  metrical  system  has  been 
adopted;  but  Flemish  names  are  employed 
instead  of  those  used  in  France. 

LOMBARDY 

The  metrical  system,  with  Italian  names 
substituted  for  most  of  fhe  original  tex,t  > 


is  used  officially;  but  the  old  measures  are 
also  used.     See  Venice. 

AUSTRIA 

The  ell  =  30.6  inches.  The  joch  =  i  acre 
1.75  rood.  The  metzen  =  1-7  bushel.  The 
eimer = 12.4  gallons.  The  pf  und =1-2  pound. 
Gold  and  silver  are  weighed  by  the  mark 
of  Vienna,  which  =  4333  grains. 

BASLE 

100  pounds  =  108.6  pounds  avoirdupois. 
The  ohm  =  10.7  gallons.  The  sack  =  3.6 
bushels.  The  large  and  small  ells  =  46.4 
and  21.4  inches  respectively. 

BAVARIA 

The  long  and  short  ells  =  24  and  23.3 
inches  respectively.  The  schaff  of  8  met- 
zen =  5.6  bushels.  The  muid  of  48  mass  = 
15  gallons.  loo  pounds  heavy  and  light 
weight  =  108.3  and  104.2  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois respectively.  The  mark  of  Augsburg 
=  3643  grains. 

BREMEN     (old) 

The  foot  or  half-ell  =  11.4  inches.  The 
ohm  =  3 1. 5  gallons.  The  last  =  10.2  quar- 
ters. 100  pounds  =  109.9  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD   HOPE 

The  centner,  or  100  pounds  Dutch  weight 
=  108.9  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  leager  of 
15  ankers  =  126.5  gallons.  The  muid  of  2 
schepels  =  3  bushels.  The  ell  of  27  Rhyn- 
land  inches  =  27.8  inches. 

CHINA 

The  chang  of  10  chih  =  4  yards,  nearly. 
The  shing  =  i  pint.  10  ho  =  i  shing ;  10 
shing  =  i  tow ;  10  tow  =  i  hwuh,  or  120 
catties.  The  catty  =1.33  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 16  taels  =  i  catty ;  100  catties  =  I 
pecul.  Liquids  are  sold  by  weight;  but 
the  English  gallon  is  used  in  trading  with 
foreigners. 

DENMARK 

The  foot  =  12.3  inches.  100  ells  =  68.6 
yards.  The  viertel  =  i.7  gallons.  100  ton- 
nen=47.8  quarters.  The  pound =1.1  pounds 
avoirdupois.  The  pound  for  gold  and  sil- 
ver weighs  7266  grains. 

EAST  INDIES 

Bengal. — The  Factory  maund  =  74.66 
pounds  avoirdupois.  10  bazar  maunds  = 
ii  Factory  maunds.  16  chittacks  =  i  seer; 
40  seers  =  i  maund.  The  guz  of  2  cubits 
=  i  yard. 

Bombay. — The  maund  =  28  pounds  avoir- 


192 


THE    METRIC    SYSTEM 


dupois.     40   seers  =  i    maund ;    20   maunds 
=  i  candy.     The  candy  =  24.5  bushels. 

Madras. — The  maund  =  25  pounds  avoir- 
dupois. 40  pollams  =  i  vi ;  8  vis  =  i 
maund,  20  maunds  =  I  candy.  The  covid 
=  18.6  inches.  The  gars  of  80  parahs  = 
16.875  quarters,  and  weighs  8400  pounds 
avoirdupois. 

EGYPT 

The  Turkish  pike  =  27  inches.  The  ardeb 
of  24  Cairo  rubbie  =  6  quarters.  The  can- 
tar  =  loo  pounds  avoirdupois.  216  drams 
or  144  meticals  =  I  rottole ;  100  rottoli  or 
36  okes  =  I  can  tar. 

FRANKFORT   ON    THE    MAIN    (old) 

The  ell  =  21.2  inches.  The  foot  =  11.2 
inches.  The  matter  =  3  bushels,  nearly. 
The  viertel=i.6  gallons,  nearly.  The  pound, 
light  and  heavy  weight  =  1.03  and  i.i 
pounds  avoirdupois.  The  Zoll-centner  = 
110.2  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  Cologne 
mark,  used  for  gold  and  silver,  weighs 
3609  grains. 

GENEVA    (old) 

The  ell  =  45  inches.  The  acre=i  acre 
i.i  rood.  The  coupe,  or  sack  =  2.1  bushels. 
The  setier  =  10  gallons.  The  heavy  pound 
=  1.2  pounds  avoirdupois;  the  light  pound 
i -6th  less.  The  mark  weighs  3785  grains. 

GENOA 

The  braccio  of  2.5  palmi  =  22.9  inches. 
The  mina  =  3.3  bushels.  The  barile  =  16.3 
gallons.  The  pound=o.7  pound  avoirdupois. 
1.5  pounds  =  i  rottole.  The  pound  sottile, 
for  gold  and  silver,  weighs  4891.5  grains. 

GREECE 

The  Venetian  measures  of  length  are 
used,  the  braccio  being  called  a  piche. 
loo  kila  =  n.4  quarters.  The  cantaro  of 
40  okes  =  112  pounds  avoirdupois. 

HAMBURG     (old) 

The  foot  =11.3  inches,  nearly.  100  ells 
=  62.6  yards.  The  scheffel  =  i  acre  6 
perches.  The  last  =1.09  last.  The  viertel 
=  1.6  gallons.  The  pound  =  1.06  pounds 
avoirdupois.  For  the  Cologne  mark,  see 
Frankfort.  2  marks  =  i  pound  troy. 

LUBECK    (old) 

The  ell  =  22.9  inches.  The  last  =  n 
quarters.  The  viertel  =  1.6  gallon.  The 
pound  =  1.07  pounds  avoirdupois,  nearly. 

MALTA 

The  palme=  10.25  inches;  3.5  palmi  =  l 
yard;  8  palmi  =  i  canna.  The  salma  =  7.8 


bushels.  The  caffiso  =  4.5  gallons.  The 
barile  =  9.33  gallons.  64  rottoli  =  i  hun- 
dredweight. The  cantaro  =  175  pounds 
avoirdupois. 

MAURITIUS 

Besides  the  English  weights  and  meas- 
ures, those  of  France  before  the  late  al- 
teration are  used.  The  aune  =  i.3  yards. 
The  velte=i.7  gallons.  The  poid  de  marc 
=  1.08  pounds  avoirdupois. 

NAPLES 

The  canna  =  83.2  inches.  The  moggia  = 
3  roods  12  perches.  The  tomolo  =  i.4 
bushels.  The  barile  =  9.  i  gallons.  The  can- 
tro  grosso  and  piccolo  =  196.5  and  106 
pounds  avoirdupois,  respectively.  The  pound 
used  in  weighing  gold  and  silver  contains 
4950  grains. 

PORTUGAL 

The  covado  =  25.8  inches.  The  almude 
=  3.6  gallons.  The  pound  =  l.oi  pounds 
avoirdupois. 

PRUSSIA  (old) 

The  ell  =  26.5  inches.  The  morgen  =  2 
roods  21  perches.  The  scheffel  =1.5  bushel. 
The  eimer  =  is.i  gallons.  The  pound  = 
1.03  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  mark  of  Co- 
logne is  used  for  gold  and  silver. 

ROME 

The  canna  of  8  palmi  =2.2  yards.  The 
canna  of  10  palma  =  88  inches,  nearly.  The 
rubbio  =  8.l  bushels.  The  boccale  =  o.4 
gallon.  The  pound  =  0.7  pound  avoirdu- 
pois. 

RUSSIA 

The  arshine  =  28  inches.  The  foot  = 
13-75  inches.  The  dessetnia  =  2  acres  2.8 
roods.  The  tschetwert  =  5.7  bushels.  The 
wedro=2.7  gallons.  Thepound=o.9  pound 
avoirdupois.  The  pood  =  36  pounds  avoir- 
dupois. 

ST.   GALLEN 

The  ells  for  silks  and  woollens=3i.5  and 
24.25  inches,  respectively.  The  mutt  of  4 
viertels  =  2.09  bushels.  The  eimer=  11.25 
gallons.  The  pound,  light  and  heavy  weight 
=  1.03  and  1.3  pounds  avoirdupois,  respec- 
tively. 

SAXONY 

The  foot  =  ll. i  inches.  The  acre=i 
acre  1.5  roods,  nearly.  The  eimer,  at  Dres- 
den =  14.9  gallons ;  at  Leipsic  =  16.8  gal- 
lons. The  wispel,  at  Dresden  =  69.9  bush- 
els; at  Leipsic  =  91.7  bushels.  The  pound 
=  1.03  pounds  avoirdupois. 


THE    METRIC   SYSTEM 


193 


SICILY 

The  canna  =  76.s  inches.  The  salma  = 
7.6  bushels.  The  barrel  =  8  gallons,  nearly. 
The  pound  of  12  ounces  =  0.7  pound  avoir- 
dupois. The  cantaro  =  175  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 

SMYRNA 

The  pike  =  27  inches.  The  killow  = 
11.3  gallons.  The  rottolo  =  l.2  pounds 
avoirdupois. 

SOUTH    AMERICA 

The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  measures 
are  most  generally  employed.  The  use  of 
the  English  measures  prevails  in  some 
parts. 

SPAIN 

The  vara,  or  ell  =  33.3  inches.  The 
fd-negada  =  i  acre  21  perches.  The  arroba 
=  3-5  gallons.  The  fanega  =  i.5  bushels. 
The  pound  =  1.01  pounds  avoirdupois. 

SWEDEN    AND    NORWAY 

The  ell  =  23.3  inches.     The  tunneland  = 


i  acre  i  rood,  nearly.  The  tennu  =  o.6 
quarter.  The  kann  =  o.6  gallon.  The 
pound  =  0.9  pound  avoirdupois. 

TURKEY 

The  pike  =  26.25  inches.  The  killow  = 
0.9  bushel.  The  almud  =  i.i  gallon.  The 
oke  =  2.8  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  rottolo 
=  1.3  pounds  avoirdupois. 

TUSCANY 

The  braccio  =  23  inches,  nearly.  The 
saccata  =  i  acre  0.9  rood.  The  sacche  =  2 
bushels.  The  fiasche  =  4  pints.  The  pound 
=  12  ounces  avoirdupois. 

VENICE 

Besides  the  metrical  system,  the  follow- 
ing measures  are  used :  The  braccio,  for 
woollens  =  26.6  inches ;'  for  silks  =  24.8 
inches.  The  stajo  =  2.2  bushels.  The  sec- 
chia  =  2.4  gallons.  The  pound  sottile  =  o.2 
pound  avoirdupois,  nearly;  grosso  =  1.05 
pounds  avoirdupois. 


REDUCTION    OF    FRENCH   (PARIS),    ENGLISH,  AND    RHENISH    MEASURES 
OF  LENGTH,  USED   BY   SCIENTIFIC  WRITERS,  TO  THE    SCALE  OF   EACH 


TOISES,  REDUCED  TO  ENGLISH  AND  RHENISH 

METRES/    REDUCED    TO    PARIS,    ENGLISH,    AND    RHENISH 

LENGTHS 

LENGTHS 

TOISES 

METRES 

ENGLISH 
FEET 

RHENISH 
FEET 

METRES 

TOISES 

PARIS 

ft.  in.  lines 

ENGLISH 

feet  &  inches 

RHENISH 
FEET 

I 

1.94904 

6.39459 

6.21002 

I 

0.51307 

3     o     11.296 

3       3-3708 

3.18620 

2 

3.89807 

12.78918 

I2.42OO4 

2 

I.O26I5 

6     i     10.592 

6       6.7416 

6.37240 

3 

S.847H 

19.18377 

18.63006 

3 

1-53922 

9    2       9.888 

9     10.1124 

9.55860 

4 

7.79615 

25.57837 

24.84008 

4 

2.05230 

12     3       9.184 

13       1-4832 

12.74480 

5 

9.74518 

31.97296 

3I.O5OIO 

5 

2-56537 

15     4       8.480 

16       4.8539 

15.93100 

6 

11.69422 

38.36755 

37-260I2 

6 

3.07844 

18     5       7.776 

19       8.2247 

19.11720 

7 

13.64326 

44.76214 

43-470I4 

7 

3-59I52 

21     6       7.072 

22        11.5955 

22.30340 

8 

I5-59229 

5I-I5673 

49.68oi6 

8 

4.10459 

24     7       6.368 

26          2.9663 

25.48960 

9 

I7-S4I33 

57-55I32 

55-890I7 

9 

4.61767 

27     8       5.664 

29       6.3371 

28.67580 

10 

19.49037 

63.94592 

62.IOOI9 

10 

5-I3074 

30     9       4.960 

32          9.7079 

3I.862OO 

IOO 

194.90366 

639.45916 

62I.OOI94 

IOO 

5I-3047I 

307   10       i.  600 

328          1.0790 

3I8.62OOO 

iOOO 

^. 

1949.03659 

6394-59I60 

62IO.9I94I 

IOOO 

513.07407 

3078     5       4.000 

3280       IO.79OO 

3186.19996 

A 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF 
THE   UNITED   STATES 


AMERICA  was  known  to  the  ancient  Northmen  as  early  as  the 
tenth  century,  but  its  true  discovery  dates  from  the  voyage  of 
Columbus,  in  1492. 

Christopher  Columbus,  a  native  of  Genoa,  having  enlisted  the  assist- 
ance of  Isabella  of  Spain,  sailed  from  the  port  of  Palos,  on  the  third  day 
of  August,  1492,  on  his  voyage  of  discovery,  with  a  fleet  of  three  vessels, 
and  a  crew  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  men,  and  landed  on  the  island 
of  San  Salvador  on  the  twelfth  of  October  of  that  year. 

Having  returned  to  Spain,  where  he  gave  an  account  of  his  dis- 
coveries to  their  Majesties,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Columbus  sailed  on 
the  twenty-fifth  of  September,  1493,  on  h*8  second  voyage,  in  which  he 
discovered  more  of  the  West  India  Islands. 

John  Cabot,  a  Venetian  settled  in  Bristol,  claims  with  Columbus  to 
have  been  the  first  discoverer  of  the  Western  Continent.  With  his  son  Se- 
bastian and  two  other  sons  he  sailed  in  the  spring  of  1497,  in  search 
of  the  northwest  passage  to  India,  and  discovered  land,  which  he  called 
Prima  Vista,  or  Newfoundland,  after  which  he  sailed  along  the  coast 
of  America  as  far  as  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  then  returned  to  England. 

On  the  thirteenth  day  of  May,  1498,  Columbus  set  out  on  his  third 
voyage  from  the  Bay  of  St.  Lucas,  and,  after  sighting  some  new  islands, 
on  the  first  of  August  he  discovered  the  continent,  but,  imagining  it  to 
be  an  island,  he  termed  it  Isla  Santa. 

Americus  Vespucius,  or  Vespucci,  from  whom  the  Western  Conti- 
nent derives  its  name,  was  a  native  of  Florence,  and  made  four  voyages 
to  the  New  World  from  1499  to  I5°3-  After  returning  to  Spain  he 
was  appointed  by  King  Ferdinand  to  draw  sea  charts  descriptive  of  the 
New  World,  from  which  circumstance  the  continent  became  known  ag 
America. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  a  native  of  Spain,  discovered  Florida  on  Easter  Sun- 
day (Pascua  Florida,  in  Spanish),  April  6,  1512. 

On  September  29,  1513,  Balboa,  a  Spaniard,  crossed  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien  and  discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  the  name  of  the  Spanish 
crown  he  took  possession  of  all  the  lands  it  might  touch. 

(194) 


A   BRIEF    HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 


195 


EXPLORATION     AND     SETTLEMENT 


FRANCIS  I  of  France,  envious  of  the 
glory  of  Charles  V  (1524),  supplied 
Verazzano,  a  noble  Florentine,  with  four 
vessels  to  prosecute  discoveries  in  Amer- 
ica. After  a  severe  voyage  he  came  upon 
a  coast  supposed  to  be  North  Carolina. 
Sailing  north  he  entered  a  spacious  bay 
receiving  a  noble  river — the  Hudson — and 
following  the  coast  he  reached  the  sites  of 
the  future  Martha's  Vineyard  and  Boston. 
Proceeding  further,  first  west  and  then 
north,  he  skirted  Nova  Scotia,  discovered 
Cape  Breton  Island,  and  finally  reached  the 
land  discovered  by  the  Cabots,  Newfound- 
land and  Labrador. 

1535. — Jacques  Cartier,  the  discoverer  of 
Canada,  sailed  from  the  port  of  St.  Malo, 
France,  and  ascended  the  river  St.  Law- 
rence as  far  as  the  site  of  the  present  city 
of  Montreal. 

1538. — The  career  of  Hernando  de  Soto 
is  one  of  the  most  adventurous  episodes 
in  the  history  of  American  discovery.  He 
accompanied  Pizarro  to  America,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  severe  battle  that 
took  place  between  his  chief  and  Alma- 
gro.  Having  returned  to  Spain,  he  was 
created  Captain-General  of  Cuba  and  Flor- 
ida, and  sailed  in  command  of  a  brilliant 
armament  from  San  Lucar  de  Barrameda, 
April  6,  1538,  to  undertake  the  conquest 
of  Florida.  He  arrived  at  Cuba  on  the 
1st  of  May,  sailed  from  Havana  May  12, 
*539>  arrived  at  Espiritu  Santo,  Florida, 
on  the  25th,  and  took  formal  possession 
of  the  country  in  the  name  of  the  Spanish 
Emperor.  After  being  harassed  by  the  In- 
dians, he  continued  his  route  to  the  do- 
minions of  the  cazique  Tuscaloosa,  which 
comprised  part  of  Alabama  and  Missis- 
sippi. Here  he  fought  a  disastrous  battle 
on  the  site  of  the  city  of  Mobile,  and  on 
the  ist  of  April,  1541,  he  came  in  sight  of 
the  Mississippi  River,  which  he  crossed. 
In  the  spring  of  1542  De  Soto  returned  to 
the  Mississippi,  where,  after  untold  trials 
and  disappointments,  he  succumbed  to 
fever  and  fatigue.  His  body  was  sunk 
in  the  river,  lest  the  Indians  should  dese- 
crate it. 

1542. — Cabrillo  made  the  first  voyage 
along  the  Pacific  coast,  sailing  as  far  north 
as  the  boundaries  of  Oregon. 

1562. — Admiral  Coligni,  one  of  the  Hu- 
guenot leaders  in  France,  conceived  the  de- 
sign of  establishing  a  trans-Atlantic  settle- 
ment for  the  purpose  of  affording  an 


asylum  to  his  Protestant  brethren,  and 
fitted  out  two  vessels,  which  he  placed  un- 
der command  of  John  Ribault,  of  Dieppe, 
a  seaman  of  experience.  The  discoverers 
landed  in  Carolina,  but  the  settlement  did 
not  prove  successful. 

1564, — In  1564,  Coligni  fitted  out  three 
vessels,  which  he  placed  under  the  com- 
mand of  Laudonniere,  an  officer  who  had 
accompanied  Ribault,  which  attempt,  how- 
ever, was  no  more  successful  than  the  first. 
In  1565,  Ribault  was  sent  with  several 
ships  to  supersede  Laudonniere,  bringing 
with  him  large  supplies,  which  induced  the 
colonists  to  remain. 

!565. — Menendez,  a  Spanish  explorer, 
landed  in  Florida,  and  laid  the  foundations 
of  a  colony.  It  was  named  St.  Augustine^ 
and  is  the  oldest  city  in  the  United  States. 

1576. — Frobisher,  an  English  navigator, 
tried  to  find  a  northwest  passage,  entered 
Baffin  Bay,  and  twice  endeavored  to  found 
a  colony  in  Labrador,  but  was  unsuccessful. 

1578. — Sir  Francis  D'rake,  a  famous  En- 
glish captain,  from  1578  to  1580,  sailed 
through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  along 
the  Pacific  coast  as  far  as  Oregon;  win- 
tered in  San  Francisco  harbor,  and  cir- 
cumnavigated the  globe. 

1582. — In  1582  New  Mexico  was  ex- 
plored and  named  by  the  Spaniard  Espejo, 
who  founded  Santa  Fe,  the  second  oldest 
city  in  the  United  States. 

1584. — Sir  Walter  Raleigh  is  distin- 
guished for  having  projected  and  estab- 
lished permanent  British  settlements  in 
North  America.  In  April,  he  fitted  out 
two  ships,  fully  equipped  and  provisioned, 
under  the  command  of  Captain  Philip  Ama- 
das  and  Arthur  Barlow.  Having  arrived 
on  the  American  coast,  they  entered  into 
trade  with  the  natives,  and,  after  a  hasty 
examination  of  the  country,  returned  to 
England,  where  they  arrived  in  September. 
The  country  which  they  discovered  was 
named  Virginia,  by  order  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, in  allusion  to  her  unmarried  state  of 
life.  Sir  Walter  soon  fitted  out  another 
fleet  for  America,  under  the  command  of 
Sir  Richard  Grenville,  Mr.  Ralph  Lane 
having  been  appointed  Chief  Governor  of 
the  colony.  The  Governor  returned  to 
England  for  supplies  shortly  afterward. 
Raleigh  despatched  another  colony  under 
John  White,  who  was  appointed  Governor. 
Governor  White  returned  to  England,  and 
when  he  came  back,  thre^  years  later,  he 


196 


iound  that  the  entire  colony  had  perished. 
It  is  asserted  by  Camden  that  tobacco  was 
now  for  the  first  time  introduced  into 
England,  and  the  potato  into  Ireland,  from 
America. 

1605. — De  Monts,  a  native  of  France,  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  all  the  land  lying  be- 
tween the  fortieth  and  forty-sixth  parallels 
of  latitude.  The  tract  was  termed  Acadia. 
With  Champlain,  he  founded  Port  Royal, 
the  first  permanent  French  possession  in 
America. 

1606. — James  I  of  England  granted  the 
London  Company  a  colony  in  Virginia  in 

1606.  The  expedition  reached  America  in 

1607,  and,  ascending  the  James  River,  chose 
for  their  colony  a  spot  which  they  called 
Jamestown.    The  colonists  and  their  pos- 
terity    were     declared     English     subjects, 
though  they  were  invested  with  no  politi- 
cal   rights.     The   colonists    suffered   many 
severe  hardships,  and  were  saved  from  de- 
struction  mainly   through   the   energy   and 
sagacity  of  Captain  John  Smith,  who  had 
been  installed  as  president    This  was  the 
first     permanent     English     settlement     in 
America. 

1608. — The  first  permanent  French  settle- 
ment in  Canada  was  established  by  Samuel 
de  Champlain,  who  founded  the  city  of 
Quebec  in  1608.  In  the  following  year  he 
discovered  the  beautiful  lake  which  bears 
his  name.  He  has  been  justly  termed  "The 
Father  of  New  France,"  as  the  French 
possessions  in  America  were  named. 

1609-10. — In  the  beginning  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  the  Dutch  and  English 
directed  their  attention  to  the  discovery  of 
a  northwest  passage  to  India.  After  the 
failure  of  several  navigators  in  this  en- 
deavor, it  was  resumed  by  Henry  Hudson, 
a  navigator  in  the  Dutch  service.  Not 
succeeding,  he  proceeded  to  explore  the 
American  coast,  and  sailed  up  the  river 
that  now  bears  his  name. 

In  1610  he  was  sent  by  a  Dutch  com- 
pany on  another  voyage,  when  he  explored 
the  great  bay  to  which  his  name  is  at- 
tached. 

In  virtue  of  Hudson's  voyage,  the  Dutch 
claimed  the  country  from  the  Delaware 
River  to  Cape  Cod,  and  in  1610  several 
stations  were  formed  on  the  Island  of 
Manhattan,  the  name  then  given  to  New 
York.  In  1613,  a  settlement  was  founded. 
The  country  was  called  New  Netherlands, 
and  a  cluster  of  cottages,  where  New  York 
now  stands,  was  named  New  Amsterdam. 

1619. — The  "first  legislative  body  that 
ever  assembled  in  America"  was  called 


at  Jamestown  by  Governor  Yeardley,  July 
30.  Its  laws  were  ratified  by  the  company 
in  England,  but  possessed  no  binding  force 
unless  subsequently  ratified  by  the  colonial 
assembly.  These  privileges  were,  in  1621, 
embodied  in  a  written  constitution,  "the 
first  of  its  kind  in  America." 

1619. — Slavery  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  this  year  by  the  captain  of 
a  Dutch  trading  vessel,  who  bought  twenty 
negroes,  which  he  sold  to  the  tobacco  plant- 
ers. Their  labor  being  found  profitable,  a 
traffic  in  slaves  soon  sprang  up. 

1620. — After  various  abortive  attempts  to 
colonize  New  England,  a  tide  of  popula- 
tion poured  into  it  from  an  unexpected 
quarter.  The  "Pilgrim  Fathers" — Puritans 
who  had  fled  from  England  to  Holland  to 
escape  the  persecution  of  the  Established 
Church — sailed  for  America  in  September, 
1620,  and  arrived  on  the  9th  of  November, 
in  view  of  Cape  Cod.  They  settled  on  a 
spot  which  they  named  New  Plymoutf  .  Af- 
ter suffering  untold  privations,  which  re- 
duced their  numbers  in  the  spring  of  1621 
to  fifty  or  sixty  persons,  they  persevered, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1624  they  counted  one 
hundred  and  eighty.  Their  numbers  were 
increased  in  1629,  and  in  1630,  fifteen  hun- 
dred settlers  having  arrived  from  England 
in  the  latter  year.  They  soon  became  in- 
volved in  war  with  the  Indians,  which 
checked  the  progress  of  the  colony,  but 
the  natives  were  finally  subdued  and  dis- 
persed. In  1692,  Plymouth  was  united 
with  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  under  the 
name  of  Massachusetts. 

1622. — On  the  22d  of  March,  occurred 
the  Indian  Massacre  of  Virginia,  when  over 
three  hundred  men,  women,  and  children 
fell  victims  in  a  single  day. 

1630. — The  first  house  erected  in  Boston, 
under  Governor  Winthrop,  in  July. 

Connecticut  was  settled  at  Windsor, 
Hartford,  and  Wethersfield,  in  1633-36. 

1633. — Sir  George  Calvert,  Secretary  of 
State  under  James  I,  obtained  from  King 
Charles  I  a  large  grant  of  land  in  Amer- 
ica, which  was  named  Maryland,  in  honor 
of  Queen  Henrietta  Maria.  Sir  George, 
now  created  Lord  Baltimore,  died  before 
the  completion  of  the  charter,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  colony  devolved  accord- 
ingly on  his  son  Cecil.  The  first  emigrants, 
consisting  of  about  two  hundred  persons, 
arrived  in  1633.  The  colonists  acted  justly 
toward  the  natives,  and  the  Maryland  gov- 
ernment was  distinguished  for  proclaiming 
religious  toleration  to  all.  The  Protestants 
having  obtained  a  majority,  deprived  Cath- 


A   BRIEF   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


197 


olics  of  their  rights,  and  declared  them 
outside  the  protection  of  the  law.  In  1691, 
Lord  Baltimore  was  deprived  of  his  pro- 
prietary rights,  and  Maryland  became  a 
royal  province.  In  1715,  under  the  fourth 
Lord  Baltimore,  the  government  was  re- 
covered and  religious  toleration  was  re- 
stored. 

1636. — Rhode  Island  was  settled  at  Prov- 
idence in  1636,  by  Roger  Williams,  who 
stamped  upon  the  colonies  the  idea  of  re- 
ligious toleration.  In  1647,  laws  guaran- 
teeing freedom  of  worship  were  enacted — 
"the  first  legal  declaration  of  liberty  of 
conscience  ever  adopted  in  Europe  or  Amer- 
ica." «** 

1638. — The  first  permanent  settlement  in 
Delaware  was  made  in  1638  by  the  Swedes, 
on  a  tract  lying  near  Wilmington.  The 
settlement  was  subsequently  conquered  by 
the  Dutch,  and  later  still  yielded  to  the 
English  power. 

1643. — In  1643  took  place  the  Union  of 
the  Colonies,  Massachusetts  Bay,  New 
Haven,  and  Connecticut,  for  the  purpose 
of  common  defence  against  the  Indians, 
and  the  encroachment  of  the  French  and 
Dutch  settlers. 

1646. — In  1646  Peter  Stuyvesant  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  the  New  Nether- 
lands, which  colony  continued  to  thrive 
under  his  just  and  humane  rule  till  its 
conquest  by  the  English  in  1664, 

1660. — In  1660,  the  British  Parliament 
enforced  the  Navigation  Act,  whereby  the 
commerce  of  fhe  colony  of  Virginia  should 
be  carried  on  in  English  vessels,  and  their 
tobacco  shipped  to  England. 

1663. — In  1663,  Charles  II  granted  a  vast 
tract  of  land  south  of  Virginia  to  Lord 
Clarendon  and  other  noblemen,  which  was 
termed  Carolina,  in  honor  of  the  king. 
Two  settlements  were  established,  Albe- 
marle  Colony  and  Carteret  Colony  (1670). 
The  two  colonies  separated  in  1729. 

1664. — In  August,  Sir  Robert  Nichols, 
who  had  been  sent  out  by  Charles  II  to 
effect  the  conquest  of  the  Dutch  posses- 
sions in  America,  arrived  before  New  Am- 
sterdam, having  landed  a  portion  of  his 
troops  on  Long  Island.  The  Governor, 
Peter  Stuyvesant,  was  unable  to  offer  any 
effective  resistance,  and  the  colony  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  English. 

T673- — The  Jesuit  Missionaries  were  the 
explorers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Father 
Marquette  floated  in  a  birch-bark  canoe 
down  the  Wisconsin  to  the  Mississippi, 
which  he  descended  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Arkansas. 


La  Salle,  another  Jesuit  missionary,  in 
1682,  made  his  way  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexi- 
co, and  named  the  country  bordering  on 
the  gulf  Louisiana,  in  honor  of  Louis  XIV, 
King  of  France. 

1682. — The  first  settlement  in  Pennsyl- 
vania was  established  by  William  Penn, 
an  English  Quaker.  In  the  following  year 
he  purchased  land  of  the  Swedes,  and  laid 
out  on  it  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  He  en- 
tered into  a  friendly  treaty  with  the  In- 
dians, and  the  colony  flourished  apace.  Af- 
ter his  death,  in  1718,  his  heirs  ruled  the 
colony  until  1779,  when  their  claims  were 
bought  out  by  the  State  for  the  sum  of 
half  a  million  dollars. 

1689-07. — King  William's  War. — In  con- 
sequence of  the  war  between  England 
and  France,  in  Europe,  hostilities  betweer 
their  colonies  broke  out  in  America.  The 
savage  tribes  took  part  on  both  sides.  The 
war  lasted  eight  years,  during  which  time 
several  horrible  massacres  and  barbarities 
took  place. 

1692. — In  1692,  the  mania  known  as  the 
Salem  witchcraft  broke  out,  and  not  till 
forty-five  people  had  been  tortured  and 
twenty  hanged  was  it  abated. 

1702. — Queen  Anne's  War. — In  this  year, 
England  having  declared  war  against 
France  and  Spain,  the  colonies  took  up  the 
contest.  Hostilities  continued  for  eleven 
years,  during  which  period  several  fruitless 
expeditions  and  horrible  massacres  took 
place.  Peace  was  ratified  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht. 

T733- — Georgia  Founded. — The  last  of  the 
thirteen  colonies  was  planned  in  1732,  and 
settled  the  following  year  by  James  Ogle- 
thorpe,  an  English  officer,  who  received  a 
tract  of  land  from  George  II,  which  he 
termed  Georgia,  in  honor  of  the  donor. 
Georgia  became  a  royal  colony  in  1752. 

1744. — King  George's  War. — France  and 
England  being  once  more  at  war,  the  colo- 
nies entered  into  hostilities  also.  The  war 
lasted  four  years,  and  was  concluded  by  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1754-63. — During  this  period  the  French 
and  Indian  War  raged,  having  originated 
in  the  English  and  French  laying  claim 
to  the  territory  west  of  the  AHeghany 
Mountains.  Peace  was  signed  at  Paris  in 
1763,  whereby  the  English  acquired  all  the 
territory  stretching  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

1765. — The  Stamp  Act,  which  ordered  that 
stamps  purchased  from  the  British  Govern- 
ment should  be  placed  on  all  legal  docu- 
ments, pamphlets,  newspapers,  etc.,  was 


198 


A   BRIEF    HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


passed  in  1765.  Resistance  to  the  measure 
was  threatened  on  all  sides.  Deputies  from 
nine  of  the  colonies  assembled  at  New  York 
and  drew  up  a  Declaration  of  Rights  and  a 
petition  to  the  King  and  Parliament.  The 
Act  was  repealed  in  1766,  but  the  right  to 
tax  the  colonies  was  still  asserted. 

1768. — In  this  year  the  "Mutiny  Act"  was 
passed,  whereby  soldiers  were  quartered  on 
the  inhabitants  of  the  colonies,  without  the 
consent  of  the  latter. 

1770. — On  March  5,  1770,  occurred  the 
"Boston  Massacre."  This  was  a  fight  be- 
tween the  soldiers  sent  by  General  Gage  to 
quell  the  incipient  resistance  of  the  Boston- 
ians  to  the  "Mutiny  Act,"  and  the  citizens. 
Two  of  the  latter  were  killed  and  three 
wounded. 

1773- — On  December  16,  the  climax  of 
resistance  to  the  principle  of  taxation 
without  representation  was  reached  by 
the  colonists,  who,  disguised  as  Indians, 
boarded  the  vessels  in  Boston  Harbor  and 
cast  three  hundred  and  forty-two  chests  of 
tea  into  the  water. 

1774. — The  first  Continental  Congress  met 
in  Philadelphia,  September  5.  All  the  col- 
onies, with  the  exception  of  Georgia,  sent 
delegates  thither.  The  Congress,  by  its 
resolutions,  virtually  raised  the  standard  of 
rebellion,  and  arrayed  the  colonies  against 
the  mother  country. 

1775. — The  battle  of  Lexington,  the  first 
of  the  Revolution,  was  fought  on  April  19, 
of  this  year.  Seven  Americans  were  killed. 
The  British  were  assailed  on  all  sides  by 
the  surrounding  inhabitants,  and  before  their 
retreat  to  Boston  was  completed  they  had 
lost  three  hundred  men. 

1775. — Bunker  Hill,  the  first  regular  bat- 
tle of  the  Revolution,  was  fought  June  17, 
and  resulted  in  a  victory  for  the  Ameri- 
cans, though  they  were  forced  to  retire  in 
the  end,  owing  to  the  exhaustion  of  their 
ammunition.  On  this  day  General  Warren 
fell. 

1775. — Capture  of  Ticonderoga,  May  10, 
by  Ethan  Allen  and  Benedict  Arnold.  By 
this  surprise  large  stores  of  cannon  and  am- 
munition fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ameri- 
cans. 

1775. — On  the  loth  of  May,  the  second 
Continental  Congress  met  at  Philadel- 
phia. It  voted  to  raise  twenty  thousand 
men,  and  on  the  isth  of  June  unanimously 
elected  George  Washington  commander-in- 
chief. 

1775— Invasion  of  Canada.— In  Septem- 
ber, Canada  was  invaded  by  the  Amer- 
ican forces  under  General  Schuyler.  Gen- 


eral Schuyler,  being  taken  ill,  left  the  com- 
mand in  the  hands  of  General  Montgomery, 
who  prosecuted  the  enterprise.  He  laid  siege 
to  Quebec,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  3ist 
of  December  endeavored  to  carry  it  by  as- 
sault. He  fell  at  the  first  fire.  The  assault 
was  unsuccessful,  and  the  Americans  soon 
after  retreated  from  Canada. 

1776. — Evacuation  of  Boston. — The  evacu- 
ation of  Boston  by  the  British  troops,  un- 
der General  Howe,  took  place  on  the  I7th 
of  March.  On  the  following  day  Wash- 
ington entered  the  city  amid  general 
rejoicing. 

1776. — June  28. — Attack  on  Fort  Moultrie 
by  an  English  fleet.    The  fleet  was  driven 
off  in  a  badly  shattered  condition.     Great 
rejoicing  among  the  colonists,  as  this  was. 
their  first  encounter  with  the  English  navy. 

1776. — Declaration  of  Independence. — On 
July  4,  the  report  of  the  committee  ap- 
pointed to  draw  up  a  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence was  adopted.  This  Declaration 
was  signed  by  each  of  the  members  of  Con- 
gress, and  by  it  the  thirteen  colonies  cast 
off  their  allegiance  to  Great  Britain  and 
declared  themselves  an  independent  people. 

1776.— Battle  of  Long  Island.— On  the 
27th  of  August,  the  British  Army,  thirty 
thousand  strong,  under  the  command  of 
Howe  and  Clinton,  engaged  the  Americans, 
who  numbered  about  nine  thousand  men, 
commanded  by  General  Putnam,  in  Brook- 
lyn, L.  I.  The  Americans  were  defeated 
with  a  loss  of  two  thousand  men. 

1776. — November  16. — Fort  Washington 
captured  by  the  Hessians,  after  a  stubborn 
defence. 

1776. — Battle  of  Trenton.— After  the  bat- 
tle of  Long  Island,  Washington  retreated 
into  New  Jersey,  to  prevent  the  British 
from  capturing  Philadelphia.  On  Decem- 
ber 25,  it  being  Christmas  night,  Washing- 
ton surmised  that  the  Hessians  were  not 
expecting  an  attack,  and,  falling  upon  them 
in  the  midst  of  a  plunging  storm,  surprised 
them  in  the  height  of  their  revelry,  slew 
their  leader,  Rail,  killed  a  thousand  of  their 
number,  and  effected  his  retreat  back  to 
camp  with  a  loss  of  four  men,  two  killed, 
and  two  frozen.  This  defeat  of  the  enemy 
produced  a  marked  effect  throughout  the 
colonies. 

1777- — January  3.  Battle  of  Princeton.— 
In  this  battle  Washington  inflicted  a  serious 
defeat  on  the  British  troops.  The  Ameri- 
cans suffered  severely  also,  losing  one  Gen- 
eral, two  Colonels,  one  Major,  and  three 
Captains,  killed.  In  this  battle  Colonel 
Monroe,  who  afterward  became  President 


A   BRIEF   HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 


199 


of  the  United  States,  bore  a  conspicuous 
part. 

1777- — Battle  of  Brandywine. — On  Sep- 
tember ii  the  Americans,  who  had  taken  up 
a  position  at  Chad's  Ford,  on  ';b-.  Brn&rly- 
wine,  were  attacked  simultaneo^jl;r  r  vent 
and  rear  by  the  British,  and,  after  perform- 
ing prodigies  of  valor,  were  defeated. 
Philadelphia,  in  consequence,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy. 

1777- — Battle  of  Germantown,  October  4. 

1777. — Battles  of  Saratoga. — On  Septem- 
ber 19  and  October  7,  of  this  year,  were 
fought  the  battles  of  Saratoga  between  the 
forces  of  Generals  Gates  and  Burgoyne. 
The  latter  was  defeated  on  the  I7th,  and 
forced  to  capitulate,  surrendering  an  army 
of  nearly  six  thousand  men,  together  with 
a  splendid  fain  of  brass  artillery,  and  all 
the  arms  and  baggage  of  the  troops.  In 
consequence  of  this  defeat,  the  British  were 
unable  to  hold  possession  of  the  forts  on 
the  lakes,  and  retreated  to  Isle-aux-Noix 
and  St.  John's. 

1778. — February  6,  treaty  with  France 
signed  at  Paris.  The  chief  articles  of  the 
treaty  were,  that  if  Britain,  in  consequence 
of  the  alliance,  should  begin  hostilities 
against  France,  both  countries  should  mu- 
tually assist  each  other,  that  the  indepen- 
dence of  America  should  be  maintained, 
that  if  France  should  conquer  any  of  the 
British  West  India  Islands  they  should  be 
deemed  her  property,  that  the  contracting 
parties  should  not  lay  down  their  arms  till 
the  independence  of  America  was  formally 
acknowledged,  and  that  neither  of  them 
should  conclude  peace  without  the  consent 
of  the  other. 

1778. — Battle  of  Monmouth,  June  28. 

1778. — The  Wyoming  Massacre. — On  the 
ist  of  July,  a  band  of  fifteen  hundred 
men,  composed  of  Indians  and  Tories,  un- 
der the  command  of  Colonel  John  Butler, 
burst  into  the  settlement  of  Wyoming  in 
the  Susquehanna  Valley.  The  able-bodied 
men  being  for  the  most  part  in  the  field 
with  the  patriot  army,  there  remained  none 
save  the  old  men  and  boys  to  make  a  de- 
fence. They  were  quickly  defeated,  and, 
with  the  women  and  children,  were  toma- 
hawked or  burned  in  the  flames,  after  en- 
during the  most  savage  tortures.  The  en- 
tire settlement  was  destroyed,  and  those 
who  escaped  the  hatchet  and  the  flames 
forced  to  fly  into  the  depths  of  the  wilder- 
ness. 

J779- — Capture  of  Stony  Point. — About 
midnight,  on  the  i5th  of  July,  General 
Wayne,  with  a  force  of  only  eight  hundred 


men,  performed  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
exploits  of  the  war,  in  the  capture  of  Stony 
Point  After  encountering  unexpected  diffi- 
culties, General  Wayne  surprised  the  garri- 
son and  compelled  them  to  surrender.  The 
military  stores  in  the  fort  were  consider- 
able. 

1779- — On  the  22d  of  August  General 
Sullivan  led  an  expedition  into  the  Gene- 
see  Country,  and  on  the  29th  fought  a  bat- 
tle, near  the  present  city  of  Elmira,  with 
the  Indians  and  their  Tory  allies,  defeated 
them,  and  then  laid  waste  their  'towns  and 
orchards,  so  that  they  might  have  no  in- 
ducement again  to  settle  so  near  the  States. 

1779- — September  23,  capture  of  the  Sera- 
pis  by  the  Bon  Homme  Richard,  under 
Captain  Paul  Jones,  off  the  northeast  coast 
of  England. 

1780. — Surrender  of  Charleston,  May  12, 
to  General  Clinton,  after  a  siege  of  forty 
days. 

1780. — Battle  of  Camden. — August  16, 
General  Gates  having  been  appointed  to 
take  command  of  the  troops  of  the  South, 
marched  to  meet  Cornwallis  near  Camden. 
The  armies  encountered  one  another  un- 
expectedly; the  American  troops  were  de- 
moralized, defeated,  and  dispersed  through 
the  woods,  marshes,  and  brushwood.  By 
this  disastrous  defeat,  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia  were  again  laid  prostrate  at  the 
feet  of  the  royal  army,  and  the  hope  of 
maintaining  their  independence  seemed  once 
more  to  vanish. 

1780. — Arnold's  Treason. — General  Ar- 
nold, whose  services  at  Quebec  and  Sara- 
toga were  so  conspicuous,  having  deemed 
himself  unjustly  treated,  entered  into  a 
plot  with  the  British  Major  Andre  to  hand 
over  West  Point  to  the  enemy.  Andre  as- 
cended the  Hudson,  and  went  ashore  on  the 
night  of  September  21,  but  was  captured  at 
Tarrytown  on  his  return,  condemned  as  a 
spy,  and  hanged. 

1781. — Battle  of  Cowpens. — General  Tarle- 
ton  having  attacked  General  Morgan's  forces, 
January  17,  at  Cowpens,  suffered  a  crush- 
ing defeat  Cornwallis  set  out  on  the  news 
reaching  him  to  punish  the  victors  and  re- 
take the  prisoners,  but  Morgan  had  mean- 
time effected  a  retreat  into  Virginia,  and 
after  a  close  pursuit  gained  the  fords  of 
the  Dan. 

1781. — Battle  of  Guilford  House,  March 

15- 

1781. — Battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  Sep- 
tember 8. 

1781. — On  the  4th  of  January,  General 
Arnold,  the  traitor^  wilQ  had  been  de- 


200 


A   BRIEF    HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 


spatched  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton  to  prosecute 
the  war  in  that  quarter,  landed  at  West- 
over,  25  miles  below  Richmond,  with  1,600 
men  and  marched  directly  toward  the  city. 
He  burned  and  destroyed  all  the  property 
in  his  line  of  march,  and  acted  with  min- 
gled hate  and  brutality.  Cornwallis  soon 
after  took  his  place,  and,  after  having  de- 
stroyed ten  million  dollars'  worth  of  prop- 
erty, took  up  his  position  at  Yorktown. 

1781. — August  30,  the  combined  American 
and  French  armies  entered  Philadelphia. 

1781. — Surrender  of  Yorktown. — On  the 
28th  of  September,  the  combined  Ameri- 
can and  French  forces,  twelve  thousand 
strong,  laid  siege  to  Yorktown.  The 
French  fleet  in  the  harbor  co-operated  with 
"•he  land  forces.  After  a  vain  attempt  to 
escape,  Cornwallis  capitulated  to  the  allied 
forces  on  the  ipth  of  October.  Exclusive 
of  seamen,  nearly  7,000  men  surrendered. 
Seventy-five  brass  and  sixty-nine  iron  can- 
nons, with  a  large  amount  of  ammunition 
and  military  stores,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  allies;  while  one  frigate,  two  ships  of 
twenty  guns,  a  number  of  transports  and 
other  vessels,  with  about  1,500  seamen,  sur- 
rendered to  the  French  Admiral,  Count  de 
Grasse.  This  virtually  ended  the  war. 

1783. — Peace  Declared. — On  September 
3,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Paris, 
acknowledging  the  independence  of  the 
United  States. 

1783. — Savannah  evacuated  by  the  British, 
July  ii. 

1783. — On  November  25,  the  British  evac- 
uated New  York,  and  an  American  detach- 
ment under  General  Knox  took  possession 
of  the  town. 

1787. — Adoption  of  the  Constitution. — 
A  stronger  national  government  than  that 
which  existed  being  needed  and  desired,  a 
Convention  was  called  in  Philadelphia,  Sep- 
tember 17,  to  revise  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation. Washington  was  chosen  Presi- 
dent. After  much  deliberation  an  entirely 
new  Constitution  was  adopted.  During  the 
year  1788,  nine  States,  the  number  required 
to  make  it  binding,  had  ratified  the  Consti- 
tution, and  the  same  year  the  government 
was  organized  under  the  new  instrument, 
and  in  1789  it  went  into  operation. 

1789. — April  30. — Washington  inaugu- 
rated first  President  of  the  United  States. 
He  took  the  oath  to  uphold  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States  on  the  balcony  of 
the  old  Federal  Hall,  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  which  was  then  the  temporary  capi- 
tal. 

1794.  •— Whiskey    Rebellion    i\:    Western 


Pennsylvania. — The  tax  imposed  on  whiskey 
to  restore  the  nation's  shattered  finances 
provoked  considerable  opposition,  and  in 
Pennsylvania  the  rioters  had  to  be  subdued 
by  the  militia.  No  blood  was  shed,  how- 
ever. 

1795- — Jay's  treaty  with  England  ratified 
by  the  Senate  June  24,  after  prolonged  op- 
position. 

1795- — Treaty  with  Spain,  whereby  the 
United  States  secured  free  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  the  boundary  of  Florida 
was  fixed. 

1795- — Treaty  with  Algiers  by  which 
American  captives  were  released  and  the 
Mediterranean  commerce  was  made  free  to 
American  vessels. 

1796. — Tennessee,  the  sixteenth  State,  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  June  i.  Two  years 
previously  it  had  been  granted  distinct  terri- 
torial government. 

1797- — On  the  4th  of  March,  John  Adams 
was  inaugurated  second  President  of  the 
United  States.  He  was  opposed  by  Thomas 
Jefferson,  whom  he  defeated  by  two  elec- 
toral votes. 

1799- — Death  of  Washington. — On  the 
I4th  of  December,  George  Washington  died 
at  Mount  Vernon,  his  home,  in  Virginia, 
after  a  brief  illness. 

1800. — The  capital  was  removed  to  Wash- 
ington in  this  year. 

1801. — Inauguration  of  Jefferson. — Thomas 
Jefferson  was  inaugurated  third  President 
of  the  United  States,  March  4.  He  was 
the  chief  author  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence and  the  embodiment  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  Democracy. 

1801. — War  Against  Tripoli. — The  Bashaw 
of  Tripoli,  who  had  been  accustomed  to  re- 
ceive annual  tribute  from  the  United  States 
for  immunity  from  his  piratical  cruisers,  de- 
clared war  against  the  United  States  in  this 
year.  The  United  States  despatched  a  fleet 
thither  in  1803,  which  bombarded  the  city 
of  Tripoli,  and  compelled  a  treaty  of  peace 
in  1805. 

1802. — Ohio,  the  seventeenth  State,  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  on  November  29, 
It  was  first  explored  by  the  French,  under 
La  Sa41e,  in  the  year  1680. 

1803. — The  Louisiana  Purchase. — Louisi- 
ana Territory,  embracing  most  of  the  region 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  covering  an  area 
of  over  a  million  of  square  miles,  was  pur- 
chased from  France,  under  Napoleon,  on 
the  30th  of  April,  for  the  sum  of  $15,000,000. 

1804. — Death  of  Alexander  Hamilton, 
who  fell  in  a  duel  with  Aaron  Burr,  at 
Weehawken,  New  Jersey,  July  n. 


A   BRIEF    HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 


201 


1807. — Robert  Fulton's  steamboat,  the 
Clermont,  made  her  memorable  trip  from 
New  York  to  Albany,  on  September  14. 
This  was  the  first  steam  vessel  ever 
launched. 

1807. — The  American  frigate  Chesapeake 
was  fired  into  by  the  British  frigate  Leo- 
pard off  the  coast  of  Virginia,  June  22. 
This  act  was  perpetrated  in  sustainment  of 
a  pretension  of  the  English  to  the  right 
of  searching  American  vessels  and  impress- 
ing British  subjects  found  therein  into  the 
English  service.  The  immediate  result  of 
this  outrage  was  an  embargo  laid  on  Amer- 
ican ships  by  Congress  and  the  suspension 
of  all  intercourse  with  England. 

1809. — James  Madison  was  inaugurated 
fourth  President  of  the  United  States, 
March  4. 

181 1.— Battle  of  Tippecanoe.— The  battle 
of  Tippecanoe  was  fought  November  7, 
between  General  Harrison  and  a  confed- 
eracy of  the  Indian  tribes  under  Tecum- 
seh,  a  famous  chief.  The  Indians  had  been 
instigated  to  this  war  by  British  emissaries. 
The  Indians  were  defeated  and  dispersed. 

1812. — Louisiana,  the  eighteenth  State, 
was  received  into  the  Union  April  8. 
The  territory  was  so  named  in  honor  of 
Louis  XIV,  King  of  France. 

1812. — War  with  Great  Britain.— The 
British  Government  continued  to  seize 
American  vessels  and  impress  our  seamen. 
On  the  igth  of  June,  the  United  States 
declared  war  against  Great  Britain.  On 
the  i6th  of  May  previous  the  American 
frigate  President,  having  hailed  the  British 
sloop  Little  Belt,  was  fired  upon  by  the  lat- 
ter. A  fight  ensued,  in  which  the  British 
sloop  was  disabled.  All  hope  of  a  peace- 
ful termination  of  the  difficulty  was  thereby 
rendered  impossible. 

1812. — Canada  was  invaded  by  General 
Hull  July  12.  On  the  approach  of  the 
British  and  Indians  he  retreated  to  Detroit, 
which,  with  the  whole  of  Michigan,  he,  in 
a  most  cowardly  manner,  surrendered  to 
the  enemy,  August  16,  with  all  its  garrison 
and  stores. 

1812. — The  battle  of  Queenstown  Heights 
was  fought  October  13.  The  English  were 
dislodged  and  their  general,  Brock,  killed, 
but  not  being  sustained  by  the  American 
militia,  who  refused  to  cross  over  from  their 
State,  the  Americans  on  the  Canada  side 
were  compelled  to  surrender,  after  a  heroic 
struggle. 

1812. — August  19,  the  British  frigate 
Guerriere  was  captured,  after  a  hard  fight, 
by  the  United  States  frigate  Constitution 


(Old  Ironsides)  off  the  coast  of  Massa- 
chusetts, Captain  Hull  commanding. 

1812.— October  13,  capture  of  the  English 
brig  Frolic,  off  the  coast  ol  North  Carolina, 
by  the  American  sloop-of-war  Wasp. 

1813. — September  10  was  made  memora- 
ble by  Captain  Perry's  brilliant  victory 
over  the  British  on  Lake  Erie.  The 
American  flotilla  consisted  of  nine  vessels, 
carrying  fifty- four  guns ;  that  of  the  enemy, 
six  vessels  and  sixty-three  guns.  Perry's 
famous  message  after  the  battle  was :  "We 
have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours." 

1813. — The  American  frigate  Chesapeake 
captured  by  the  British  ship  Shannon, 
June  I. 

1813.— Battle  of  the  Thames,  October  5. 
This  battle  was  fought  between  the  forces 
of  General  Harrison  and  the  British  under 
Proctor,  and  their  Indian  allies  under  the 
famous  chief  Tecumseh.  The  enemy  was 
defeated,  Tecumseh  being  among  the  slain. 
This  victory,  in  connection  with  Perry's  tri- 
umphs on  Lake  Erie,  virtually  decided  the 
issue  of  the  war.  . ;-~ 

1814. — Massacre  of  Fort  Mimms. — This 
deed  was  perpetrated  by  the  Creek  Indians, 
August  30,  who  broke  in  upon  the  garri- 
son and  slew  all,  including  'women  and 
children.  General  Jackson  was  sent  with  a 
force  against  the  Indians,  and,  falling  on 
them  at  Horseshoe  Bend,  slew  six  hundred 
of  their  number  and  compelled  them  to 
make  peace. 

1814. — Battle  of  Chippewa,  July  5,  gained 
by  the  Americans  under  General  Scott. 

1814. — Battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  July  25. 
This  battle  resulted  in  a  victory  for  the 
Americans. 

1814. — Battle  of  Lake  Champlain,  Septem- 
ber ii.  The  American  squadron,  under 
the  command  of  Commodore  McDonough, 
almost  wholly  destroyed  the  British  fleet 
in  this  conflict.  Simultaneous  with  this 
signal  victory,  the  American  forces,  num- 
bering only  fifteen  hundred  men,  repelle\j 
the  advance  of  General  Prevost,  the  British 
commander  in  Plattsburg,  at  the  head  of 
twelve  thousand  veterans,  who  had  served 
under  Wellington. 

1814. — Washington  captured  by  the  Brit- 
ish, August  24.  The  Capitol  was  burned, 
and  the  Congressional  Library,  together 
with  several  public  and  private  buildings, 
shared  the  same  fate. 

1814. — Treaty  of  peace  with  England,  De- 
cember 24.  The  treaty  was  signed  at  Ghent. 

1815.— Battle  of  New  Orleans.  Though 
a  treaty  of  peace  had  been  signed  on  the 
24th  of  December,  at  Ghent,  the  intelligence 


202 


A   BRIEF    HISTORY   OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


had  not  yet  arrived  in  America.  On  the 
8th  of  January,  General  Packenham,  with 
an  army  of  twelve  thousand  veteran  troops, 
sustained  by  a  powerful  fleet,  marched  to 
the  attack  of  New  Orleans.  General  Jack- 
son, with  a  force  of  scarce  half  that  num- 
ber, mostly  raw  recruits,  inflicted  an  over- 
whelming defeat  on  the  invaders.  General 
Packenham  was  slain,  and  while  the  Brit- 
ish lost  over  two  thousand  of  their  num- 
ber, the  American  loss  was  but  seven  killed 
and  six  wounded. 

1815. — In  May,  Decatur  was  sent  with  a 
squadron  to  chastise  the  Algerines,  who  had 
renewed  their  piratical  practices  during  our 
war  with  England.  He  obtained  the  libera- 
tion of  all  the  American  prisoners  held  by 
the  Barbary  States,  with  complete  indemnity 
for  all  losses  inflicted. 

1816. — Indiana,  the  nineteenth  State,  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  on  December  n. 

1817. — James  Monroe  inaugurated  fifth 
President  of  the  United  States,  March  4. 

1817. — Mississippi,  the  twentieth  State, 
was  received  into  the  Union  on  December 
10.  The  State  derived  its  title  from  the 
great  river  of  that  name. 

1818. — Illinois,  the  twenty-first  State,  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  on  December  3.  It 
derives  its  name  from  its  greatest  river, 
which  signifies  "The  River  of  Men." 

1819. — Alabama,  the  twenty-second  State, 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  on  December  14. 
It  derives  its  name  from  the  Indian  phrase, 
signifying  "Here  we  rest." 

1819. — Florida  ceded  by  Spain  to  the 
United  States,  February  22.  The  treaty  was 
not  signed  by  the  King  of  Spain  until  Oc- 
tober 20,  1820,  and  the  United  States  did  not 
enter  into  full  possession  until  July  17,  1821. 

1820. — The  Missouri  Compromise  passed 
March  3.  This  was  the  settlement  of  the 
difficulty  that  arose  regarding  the  question 
of  slavery,  on  the  proposal  of  admitting 
Missouri  into  the  Union.  Through  the  ef- 
forts of  Henry  Clay,  it  was  admitted  as  a 
s1  .v  State,  under  the  compromise  that 
slavery  should  be  prohibited  in  all  the  other 
territories  west  of  the  Mississippi  and  north 
of  the  southern  boundary  of  Missouri. 

1820. — Maine,  the  twenty-third  State,  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  on  March  15. 

1821. — Missouri,  the  twenty-fourth  State, 
•was  admitted  to  the  Union  on  August  10. 
It  derives  its  name  from  its  principal  river, 
which  signifies  "muddy  water." 

1824.— Lafayette's  visit  as  "the  Nation's 
guest,"  August  15.  He  was  received  with 
the  most  joyous  welcome  in  all  the  States. 

1825. — John    Quincy   Adams    inaugurated 


sixth  President  of  the  United  States,  March 
4.  Four  candidates  being  in  the  field,  and 
none  of  them  obtaining  a  majority  of  votes, 
the  election  went  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. 

1826. — Thomas  Jefferson  and  John  Adams, 
ex-Presidents,  died  July  4. 

1829. — Andrew  Jackson  inaugurated  sev- 
enth President  of  the  United  States,  March 
4,  He  was  distinguished  for  his  honesty, 
tenacity  of  purpose,  and  his  thorough  Ameri- 
can spirit. 

1832. — Nullification  Ordinance  passed  by 
South  Carolina  threatening  secession  from 
the  Union,  in  the  event  of  force  being  em- 
ployed to  collect  the  revenue  at  Charles- 
ton. A  settlement  was  effected  by  the  ac- 
ceptance of  Henry  Clay's  "Compromise 
Bill." 

1832.— Black  Hawk  War. 

1835. — The  Florida  War. — A  war  with 
the  Seminole  Indians  broke  out  this  year. 
It  arose  from  a  refusal  of  the  Indian  chief, 
Osceola,  to  move  west  of  the  Mississippi,  in 
accordance  with  a  treaty.  He  plotted  a 
wholesale  massacre  of  the  whites,  in  which 
Major  Dade  and  one  hundred  men  were 
slain.  The  Indians  retreated  to  the  ever- 
glades of  Florida,  where  they  were  pursued 
and  defeated  by  Taylor,  at  the  Battle  of 
Okechobee,  December  25. 

1835. — Great  fire  in  New  York,  December 
16.  Six  hundred  stores  burned.  Loss, 
$18,000,000. 

1836. — Arkansas,  the  twenty-fifth  State, 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  on  June  15. 
Its  name  is  derived  from  an  extinct  Indian 
tribe. 

1837. — Michigan,  the  twenty-sixth  State, 
was  received  into  the  Union  on  January 
26.  The  name  is  Indian,  signifying  "Great 
Lake." 

1837. — Martin    Van    Buren,    the    eighth    j 
President  of  the  United  States,  inaugurated     o 
March    4.     During    his    term    of    office    a 
terrible  financial  crisis  prevailed  throughout 
the  country.     In  two  months  alone  in  the 
city  of  New  York  the  losses  amounted  to 
$100,000,000. 

1841. — William  H.   Harrison  inaugurated   s% 
the  ninth   President  of  the  United   States,   " 
March  4.     One  month  after,   April  4,  he 
died. 

1841.— John    Tyler,    the    Vice- President, 
inaugurated  tenth   President  of  the  United  \$ 
States,  in  accordance  with  the  Constitution, 
April  6. 

1842. — Ashburton  treaty,  by  which  the 
northeast  boundary  between  Maine  and 
New  Brunswick  was  settled  The  commis- 


A   BRIEF    HISTORY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


203 


sioners  on  each  side  were  Lord  Ashburton 
and  Daniel  Webster. 

1842. — Dorr's  Rebellion,  a  difficulty  which 
arose  from  the  endeavor  to  secure  a  more 
liberal  Constitution  in  Rhode  Island.  This 
was  secured  in  1843. 

1844. — Anti-Rent  Rebellion  in  the  State 
of  New  York. — The  occupants  of  the  old 
"patroon"  estates  refused  to  comply  with 
the  feudal  customs  of  the  Patroon  land- 
lords, and  resisted  and  killed  the  officers 
sent  to  serve  warrants  on  them.  The  dis- 
turbances had  to  be  quelled  by  the  militia, 
and  the  allodial  was  substituted  for  the 
feudal  tenure. 

1845. — Florida,  the  twenty-seventh  State, 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  on  March  3. 

1845. — James  K.  Polk  inaugurated  elev- 
l|  enth  President  of  the  United  States  on 
Uarch  4. 

1845. — Joe  Smith,  the  Mormon  Prophet, 
killed,  and  the  Mormons  driven  away  from 
Nauvoo  City,  Illinois,  by  the  mob. 

1845. — Texas,  which  had  wrested  its  in- 
dependence from  Mexico,  and  applied  for 
admission  to  the  Union,  was  received  into 
the  family  of  States,  December  27. 

1846.— Battle  of  Palo  Alto.— The  Texas 
boundary  having  given  rise  to  a  dispute 
between  the  United  States  and  Mexico, 
General  Taylor  was  ordered  to  occupy  the 
disputed  territory  with  his  troops.  He  was 
attacked  by  the  Mexicans,  with  a  superior 
force,  May  8,  at  Palo  Alto.  The  latter 
were  defeated.  General  Taylor  fought  the 
battle  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma  the  following 
day,  and  gained  a  signal  victory. 

1846. — War  declared  against  Mexico  by 
Congress,  May  II. 

1846. — Capture  of  Monterey,  with  its  gar- 
rison of  ten  thousand  men,  by  General  Tay- 
lor, with  a  force  of  six  thousand,  Septem- 
ber 24. 

1846. — Iowa,  the  twenty-ninth  State,  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  on  December  28. 

1846. — Conquest  of  New  Mexico  and  Cali- 
fornia by  Captain  John  C.  Fremont,  as- 
sisted by  Commodores  Sloat  and  Stockton, 
and  General  Kearney. 

1847.— Battle  of  Buena  Vista,  fought  be- 
tween a  portion  of  General  Taylor's  com- 
mand, and  twenty  thousand  Mexican  troops, 
under  Santa  Anna,  February  23.  After  a 
desperate  struggle,  lasting  the  entire  day, 
the  American  troops,  though  vastly  out- 
numbered, were  victorious. 

1847. — Capture  of  Vera  Cruz,  by  General 
Scott,  after  a  furious  bombardment  of  four 
days,  March  29. 

1847.— Battle  of  Cerro   Gordo,   April   18. 


1847. — Battle  of  Contreras,  August  20. 

1847. — Capture  of  Chapultepec,  Septem- 
ber 13. 

1847. — Surrender  of  Mexico  to  the  Amer- 
ican army,  September  14. 

1848.— Treaty  of  Peace  with  Mexico,  Feb- 
ruary 2.  By  this  treaty  the  United  States 
acquired  the  territory  stretching  south  to 
the  Gila,  and  to  the  Pacific  on  the  west. 

1848.— Gold  was  discovered  in  California 
in  February,  and  soon  attracted  a  tide  of 
immigration  from  Europe,  Asia,  Australia, 
South  America,  and  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Towns  and  settlements  grew  up  as 
if  by  magic.  More  than  one  hundred  thou- 
sand persons  flocked  to  the  mines  from  the 
United  States  within  eighteen  months  after 
the  discovery  of  the  precious  metal. 

1849. — General  Zachary  Taylor,  the  twelfth      / 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  inau- 
gurated March  5. 

1850.— Death  of  President  Tayior,  July  9.  /  > 

1850. — Millard    Fillmore,    the   Vice-Presi- 
dent,   inaugurated    thirteenth    President    of    /3 
the  United   States   in  accordance  with  the 
Constitution,  July  16. 

1850. — California,  the  thirty-first  State, 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  on  September  9. 

1853. — Franklin     Pierce,     the     fourteenth         / 
President  of  the  United  States,  inaugurated    tr 
March  4, 

1854. — Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  passed  in 
May.  This  Bill  was  a  virtual  nullification 
of  the  Missouri  Compromise  Bill.  It  pro- 
vided that  the  inhabitants  of  each  Territory 
should  decide  whether  the  State  should  en- 
ter the  Union  as  a  free  or  a  slave  State. 

1854. — A  Treaty  with  Japan  was  secured 
in  May  by  Commodore  Perry,  whereby  the 
United  States  were  granted  two  ports  of 
entry  in  that  exclusive  country. 

1857. — James     Buchanan,     the     fifteenth   f^ 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  inaugu- 
rated March  4. 

1858. — Minnesota,  the  thirty-second  State, 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  on  May  u. 
It  derives  its  name  from  the  Indian  word 
signifying  "cloudy  water." 

1859. — Oregon,  the  thirty-third  State,  was 
received  into  the  Union  on  February  14. 
Its  name  is  of  Spanish  origin. 

1860. — Secession  of  South  Carolina. — On 
the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  to  the 
Presidency,  the  Southern  leaders  prepared 
to  carry  out  their  threats  of  secession  from 
the  Union.  On  December  20,  South  Caro- 
lina withdrew,  and  was  soon  followed  by 
Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia, 
Louisiana,  and  Texas.  The  act  of  seces- 
sion was  the  outcome  of  the  question  of 


204 


A   BRIEF    HISTORY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


State  rights  in  regard  to  slavery,  which 
had  vexed  the  country  almost  from  the  for- 
mation of  the  Union. 

1861. — Kansas,  the  thirty-fourth  State, 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  on  January  29. 
The  name  is  derived  from  an  Indian  term, 
signifying  "smoky  water." 

1861. — Southern  Confederacy  Inaugurated. 
— On  the  4th  of  February  delegates  from 
the  seceded  States  met  at  Montgomery, 
Alabama,  and  formed  a  government  known 
as  the  "Confederate  States  of  America." 
Jefferson  Davis,  formerly  a  United  States 
Senator  from  Mississippi,  was  chosen  Presi- 
dent, and  Alexander  H.  Stevens,  of  Georgia, 
was  chosen  Vice-President.  All  the  na- 
tional property  and  munitions  of  war  be- 
longing to  the  United  States,  situated  in 
the  seceded  States,  were  seized  and  held. 

1861. — Abraham  Lincoln,  the  sixteenth 
v  I  President  of  the  United  States,  inaugurated 
^  March  4. 

1861. — Attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  April  12. 
— The  Star  of  the  West,  an  unarmed 
steamer,  bearing  supplies  to  Major  Ander- 
son's garrison  in  Fort  Sumter,  had  been 
fired  upon  and  driven  back,  January  9. 
At  the  same  time  the  Southern  leaders 
declared  that  any  attempt  to  relieve  Fort 
Sumter  would  be  regarded  as  a  declara- 
tion of  war.  At  length  General  Beaure- 
gard  opened  fire  on  the  fort  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  I2th  of  April,  and  after  a  con- 
test of  thirty-seven  hours  the  garrison 
surrendered.  The  garrison  numbered  only 
seventy  men,  while  the  besieging  force  was 
seven  thousand. 

1861. — Call  for  seventy-five  thousand  vol- 
unteers by  President  Lincoln  to  suppress 
the  rebellion,  April  15. 

1861. — Seizure  of  Harper's  Ferry  by 
Confederate  troops,  April  18. 

1861. — Seizure  of  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard 
by  the  Confederates,  April  20. 

1861. — Massachusetts  troops  attacked  in 
the  streets  of  Baltimore,  April  19.  First 
blood  shed  in  the  Civil  War  on  the  anni- 
versary of  Concord  and  Lexington. 

1861. — The  Confederate  Congress  assem- 
bled at  Richmond,  Virginia,  July  20. 

1861.— Battle  of  Bull  Run,  Virginia,  July 
21. — The  Federal  troops  having  driven 
the  enemy  from  the  field  after  a  sharp 
contest,  were  suddenly  attacked  in  flank 
and  thrown  into  a  panic.  The  retreat  was 
changed  to  a  rout,  arms  and  munitions  be- 
ing abandoned,  the  fugitives  flying  in  all 
directions.  The  effect  of  this  battle  was  to 
convince  the  Northern  people  of  the  des- 
perate nature  of  the  great  conflict  that  had 


just  opened.  Congress  immediately  voted 
$500,000,000  and  500,000  men  to  prosecute 
the  war. 

1862.— Capture  of  Fort  Donelson,  with  its 
garrison  of  fifteen  thousand  men,  by  Gen- 
eral Grant,  February  16. 

1862.— Battle  of  Shiloh   (April  6  and  7). 

1862.— Capture  of  New  Orleans  by  Cap- 
tain Farragut,  April  25. 

1862.— Battle  of  the  Merrimac  and  the 
Monitor,  March  9.  This  was  the  first  bat- 
tle ever  fought  between  ironclad  ships. 

1862. — Invasion  of  Maryland  by  the  Con- 
federate forces  under  General  Lee,  Septem- 
ber 5. 

1862.— Battle  of  Antietam,  September  17. 
This  was  one  of  the  bloodiest  con- 
flicts of  the  war,  and,  though  the  result 
could  scarcely  be  said  to  be  decisive,  the 
effect  was  a  Federal  victory.  Lee  was 
forced  to  retire  across  the  Potomac,  and 
Washington  was  no  longer  threatened. 

1862. — Battle  of  Fredericksburg,  Decem- 
ber 13,  overwhelming  defeat  of  Union 
troops;  Federal  loss  twelve  thousand. 

1862.— While  the  Civil  War  was  at  its 
height,  the  Sioux  Indians  took  to  the  war- 
path, and  perpetrated  horrible  massacres 
in  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Dakota.  They 
were  finally  routed  by  Colonel  Sibley,  and 
several  of  their  number  taken  prisoners  and 
hanged. 

1862. — Battle  of  Murfreesboro,  Decem- 
ber 31,  and  January  2.  This  was  one 
of  the  fiercest  battles  of  the  war,  the  loss 
being  stated  as  one-fourth  of  the  number 
engaged.  The  Confederates  were  compelled 
to  retreat. 

1863. — Emancipation  Proclamation,  de- 
claring freedom  to  the  slaves,  issued  by 
President  Lincoln,  January  i. 

1863.— Battle  of  Chancellorsville,  Virgin- 
ia, May  2-3. 

1863.— West  Virginia,  the  thirty-fifth 
State,  was  admitted  to  the  Union  on  June 
20.  This  portion  of  Virginia  remained 
loyal  to  the  Union  during  the  war,  and 
was  accordingly  incorporated  into  a  sep- 
arate State. 

1863. — Battle  of  Gettysburg,  Pennsylvania, 
July  1-3.  This  was  the  bloodiest  and  most 
desperately  contested  struggle  of  the  Civil 
War.  The  loss  on  both  sides  numbered 
about  fifty  thousand  men.  Lee  was  forced 
to  retreat  beyond  the  Potomac,  and  a  North- 
ern invasion  was  no  longer  thought  of. 
The  backbone  of  the  rebellion  was  broken. 

1863. — Surrender  of  Vicksburg  with 
37,000  prisoners  of  war,  July  4.  This 
was  one  of  the  most  important  events  of 


A   BRIEF    HISTORY   OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


205 


the  war.  By  its  capture  the  Confederacy 
•was  cut  in  two  and  the  Mississippi  opened 
to  the  Gulf. 

1863. — Battle  of  Chickamauga,  September 
19-20. 

1863. — Battle  of  Chattanooga,  Tennessee, 
November  24-25. 

1864. — Battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5-6. 

1864.— Battle  of  Spottsylvania,  May  8-12. 

1864.— Battle  of  Cold  Harbor,  June  3. 
Twenty  minutes  after  the  battle  had 
opened,  ten  thousand  Union  soldiers  had 
fallen. 

1864. — Capture  of  Atlanta,  Georgia,  by 
General  Sherman,  September  2. 

1864. — Nevada,  the  thirty-sixth  State,  was 
received  into  the  Union,  October  31.  The 
name  is  of  Spanish  origin. 

1864.— Battle  of  Nashville,  December  15- 
16. 

1863. — Capture  of  Petersburg  and  Rich- 
mond, April  2-3,  by  the  forces  of  General 
Grant. 

1865. — Surrender  of  General  Lee,  at  Ap- 
pomattox  Court  House,  Virginia,  April  9. 
This  event  brought  the  Civil  War  to  a 
close. 

1865. — Assassination  of  President  Lincoln, 
April  14.  This  black  deed  was  perpetrated 
by  Wilkes  Booth,  in  Ford's  Theatre,  Wash- 
ington, where  the  President  occupied  a  box. 
It  was  the  act  of  the  crazed  brain  of  one 
who,  thinking  he  was  ridding  the  country 
of  a  tyrant,  struck  an  almost  deadly  blow 
at  the  now  vanquished  South,  in  the  mur- 
der of  her  most  powerful  friend. 

1865. — Andrew  Johnson,  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent, inaugurated  seventeenth  President  of 
the  United  States,  in  accordance  with  the 
Constitution,  April  15. 

1865.  The  Thirteenth  Amendment,  de- 
claring the  abolition  of  slavery,  adopted  as 
a  part  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  December  18. 

1867. — Nebraska,  the  thirty-seventh  State, 
admitted  to  the  Union  on  March  I. 

1867. — Death  of  Maximilian,  so-called  Em- 
peror of  Mexico,  June  19.  During  the  Amer- 
ican Civil  War,  Napoleon  III  sought  to 
found  an  empire  in  Mexico,  and  established 
Maximilian,  of  the  House  of  Austria,  Em- 
peror, with  the  aid  of  French  troops.  This 
the  Americans  regarded  as  a  violation  of 
the  "Monroe  Doctrine,"  and  after  the  close 
of  the  war  they  compelled  the  French  Em- 
peror to  withdraw  his  troops  from  the  neigh- 
boring republic.  Deprived  of  foreign  aid, 
Maximilian's  regime  was  overthrown  by 
the  Mexicans  and  the  unfortunate  mon- 
arch shot 


1867. — Purchase  of  Alaska  from  Russia  by 
the  United  States  Government  for  the  sum 
of  $7,200,000  in  gold. 

1868. — Impeachment  of  President  Johnson, 
February  24.  The  order  to  impeach  the 
President  was  made  in  consequence  of  the 
latter  having  attempted  to  remove  the  Secre- 
tary of  War,  a  proceeding  which  was  held 
to  be  in  violation  of  the  Tenure-of-Office 
Bill,  which  had  some  time  previous  been 
passed  over  the  President's  veto.  After  a 
protracted  trial,  President  Johnson  was  ac- 
quitted, having  escaped  conviction  by  one 
vote. 

1868. — The  Fourteenth  Amendment,  where- 
by equal  rights  were  guaranteed  to  all,  ir- 
respective of  race  or  color,  was  adopted  by 
Congress,  July  28. 

1868. — Treaty  between  China  and  the 
United  States,  whereby  valuable  commer- 
cial privileges  were  acquired  by  the  latter. 

1869. — Ulysses  Simpson  Grant,  the  eigh- 
teenth President  of  the  United  States,  in- 
augurated March  4. 

1869. — Completion  of  the  great  transcon- 
tinental railroad  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco. 

1870. — The  Fifteenth  Amendment,  where- 
by the  right  of  suffrage  is  guaranteed  to  all, 
regardless  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condi- 
tion of  servitude,  was  formally  announced 
as  part  of  the  Constitution,  March  30. 

1870.  The  Treaty  of  Washington  ratified, 
whereby  Great  Britain  was  compelled  to 
pay  the  United  States  the  sum  of  $15,500,- 
ooo  in  gold,  in  consideration  of  damages 
caused  to  American  commerce  by  the  Ala- 
bama and  other  Confederate  cruisers  fitted 
out  in  English  ports  during  the  Civil  War. 

1870. — Rejection  by  Congress  of  the  pro- 
posed annexation  of  San  Domingo  to  the 
United  States. 

1871. — Great  fire  broke  out  in  Chicago, 
October  8.  Three  thousand  acres  of  the 
city  devastated,  $200,000,000  of  property  de- 
stroyed, and  a  hundred  thousand  people  left 
homeless. 

1872. — Great  Boston  fire,  November  9. 
Sixty  acres  of  the  business  portion  of  the 
city  laid  waste  and  $70,000,000  of  property 
destroyed. 

1873. — Difficulties  with  Modoc  Indians. 
After  despatching  troops  against  them,  Cap- 
tain Jack  and  several  of  the  leaders  were 
captured,  and  executed  October  3. 

1875. — Colorado,  the  thirty-eighth  State, 
received  into  the  Union,  March  3. 

1876. — Centennial  Exhibition  of  the  "arts 
and  industries  of  all  nations,"  at  Phila- 
delphia,, opened  May  10.  The  exhibition 

14 


A   BRIEF   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 


lasted  six  months,  and  had  an  average  daily 
attendance  of  61,000  persons. 

1877. — War  with  the  Sioux  Indians. — The 
Indian  reservation  being  encroached  on  by 
gold  prospectors,  it  led  to  difficulties  which 
terminated  in  compelling  a  despatch  of  reg- 
alar  troops  to  the  reservation.  General 
Custer  and  his  entire  command  were  slain 
in  the  conflict,  which  occurred  on  the 
twenty-fifth  of  June,  on  the  Little  Big  Horn 
River. 

1877. — Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  the  nine- 
teenth President  of  the  United  States,  in- 
augurated March  4. 

1881. — James  A.  Garfield,  the  twentieth 
President  of  the  United  States,  inaugurated 
March  4. 

1881. — Assassination  of  President  Garfield, 
July  2,  by  Charles  J.  Guiteau,  at  the  rail- 
road depot,  Washington.  The  assassination 
was  regarded  as  the  act  of  a  crazed  brain. 
The  wounded  President  was  removed  to 
Long  Branch,  N.  J.,  where  he  died  on  the 
loth  of  September  following. 

1881.— Chester  A.  Arthur,  Vice- President, 
inaugurated  twenty-first  President  of  the 
United  States,  in  accordance  with  the  Con- 
stitution, September  20. 

The  centennial  anniversary  of  the  surren- 
der of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown  was  cele- 
brated October  19,  1881.  One  month  pre- 
vious England  had  mourned  with  us  over 
the  death  of  President  Garfield,  and  in  rec- 
ognition and  grateful  acknowledgment  of 
the  friendly  feelings  manifested  upon  that 
occasion,  President  Arthur  directed  that 
during  the  Yorktown  celebration  a  national 
salute  should  be  fired  in  honor  of  the  flag 
of  Great  Britain.  France,  naturally  and  his- 
torically, had  a  place  in  the  anniversary 
whose  event  her  aid  alone  made  possible. 
The  Stars  and  Stripes  floated  in  peaceful 
company  with  the  cross  of  St.  George  and 
the  lilies  of  France  on  the  field  of  York- 
town,  where,  one  hundred  years  before,  the 
decisive  battle  of  the  Revolution  was  fought 

The  steam  yacht  Jeanne  tte,  fitted  out  by 
James  Gordon  Bennett,  left  San  Francisco, 
July  8,  1879,  under  the  command  of  Lieu- 
tenant G.  W.  DeLong,  on  an  expedition 
into  the  Arctic  regions.  The  vessel  was 
caught  in  the  ice  soon  after  entering  the 
Arctic  Sea,  floated  about  helplessly  for  more 
than  twenty-one  months,  and  sank  June  13, 
1881.  The  nearest  coast  was  Siberia,  some 
four  hundred  miles  distant  On  sleds  and 
boats  mounted  on  runners  the  men  started 
southward  over  the  ice  in  three  parties. 
The  party  under  Lieutenant  Danenhower 
and  Chief  Engineer  Melville  entered  the 


Lena  River  and  was  rescued  by  the  natives. 
That  under  Lieutenant  DeLong  perished  of 
hunger  and  cold  on  the  delta  of  the  Lena. 
The  other  party  was  never  heard  from. 

At  Lady  Franklin  Bay  a  Signal  Service 
station  was  established  under  Lieutenant  A. 
W.  Greely  in  the  summer  of  1881,  for  the 
purpose  of  investigating  the  meteorology  of 
the  Arctic  regions.  Several  exploring  par- 
ties were  sent  out,  one  under  Greely.  Sup- 
plies expected  did  not  arrive,  and  the  Greely 
expedition  returned  southward  in  August, 
1883.  They  went  into  winter  quarters  at 
Cape  Sabine,  where  their  only  food  for  sev- 
eral weeks  was  moss  and  lichens  and  seal- 
skin broth.  June  22,  1884,  when  the  relief 
squadron  under  Commander  Schley  found 
the  party,  only  seven  of  the  original  twenty- 
five  members  were  alive.  Though  the  party 
continued  to  die  off,  one  by  one,  explora- 
tions were  continued,  and  the  results  of  the 
expedition  have  proved  of  great  value  to 
science. 

The  Signal  Service  of  the  United  States, 
under  General  William  B.  Hazen,  who  was 
appointed  December  8,  1880,  began  in  1881 
to  be  recognized  as  a  very  important  de- 
partment. Signal  Service  stations  were  es- 
tablished at  various  points  and  equipped 
with  the  latest  appliances  for  correct  obser- 
vations. Results  were  telegraphed  to  Wash- 
ington, and  the  workings  were  soon  regu- 
lated with  methodical  exactness.  The  track 
of  storms  across  the  continent  is  now  so 
clearly  marked  out  from  day  to  day,  and 
the  laws  of  climatic  movements  and  devel- 
opments are  so  well  understood,  that  data 
are  easily  obtainable  for  forecasting  the  time 
and  nature  of  any  important  meteorological 
change  likely  to  occur  in  any  part  of  the 
country. 

By  a  disastrous  flood  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  in  the  spring  of  1882,  100,000  persons 
were  made  homeless.  The  appropriations  by 
Congress  to  relieve  the  distress  of  the  suf- 
ferers were  liberal  and  timely,  and  the  sums 
contributed  by  all  the  people  were  princely 
and  unstinted. 

The  suspension  bridge  between  New  York 
and  Brooklyn  was  opened  May  24,  1883, 
having  been  begun  January  3,  1870.  The 
roadway  is  85  feet  wide  and  5,989  feet  long. 
The  towers  are  278  feet  high.  The  sus- 
pended span,  from  tower  to  tower,  is  1,596 
feet  long,  and  Hs  height  above  the  East 
River  at  high  tide  is  135  feet  Each  of 
the  four  cables  is  15  3-4  inches  in  diame- 
ter, containing  5,206  parallel  galvanized 
steel,  oil-coated  wires,  and  weighing,  with 
its  covering,  897  1-8  tons.  The  strength  of 


A   BRIEF   HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 


207 


the  four  cables  is  estimated  at  48,800  tons. 
The  Brooklyn  Bridge  railway  is  operated  by 
an  endless  wire  rope.  The  railroad  fare  one 
way  is  three  cents.  Foot  passengers  are  free 

Important  measures  passed  by  the  Forty- 
seventh  Congress  (1881-83)  were:  a  civil 
service  bill  regulating  the  method  of  ap- 
pointment and  promotions  in  the  civil  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States  by  means  of  a 
system  of  examinations,  and  a  bill  reducing 
single  letter  postage  from  three  cents  to  two 
cents  per  half-ounce. 

Important  measures  passed  by  the  Forty- 
eighth  Congress  (1883-85)  were:  a  bill  in- 
creasing from  one-half  an  ounce  to  one 
ounce  the  maximum  weight  of  a  letter  to 
be  carried  for  two  cents;  a  bill  constituting 
Alaska  a  civil  and  judicial  district,  with 
temporary  seat  of  government. at  Sitka,  pro- 
viding for  the  appointment  of  a  governor, 
judge,  marshal,  and  other  officers  to  serve 
four  years,  without  authorizing  a  legisla- 
tive assembly  or  a  territorial  delegate  in 
Congress. 

A  World's  Industrial  and  Cotton  Exposi- 
tion was  held  at  New  Orleans  in  the  win- 
ter of  1884-85.  It  was  intended  to  com- 
memorate the  centenary  of  the  cotton  indus- 
try in  this  country.  President  Arthur,  in  the 
presence  of  distinguished  men  in  the  Execu- 
tive Mansion  at  Washington,  opened  the  ex- 
position by  telegraph.  The  exhibition  was 
a  great  success,  the  exhibits  from  Mexico, 
West  Indies,  and  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica attracting  special  attention. 

The  administration  of  President  Cleve- 
land (1885-89)  was  marked  by  frequent  ef- 
forts to  change  the  economic  policy  of  the 
government  on  the  subject  of  the  tariff.  The 
Mills  Bill,  providing  for  the  reduction  of 
duties  on  imports  to  a  revenue  basis,  failed 
to  become  a  law.  Cattle  drovers  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  government  lands  in  the 
Far  West.  Many  new  cruisers  were  pro- 
jected and  built.  The  progress  of  the  coun- 
try was  satisfactory  and  the  policy  of  the 
administration  conservative.  General  Grant 
died  July  23,  1885,  at  Mount  McGregor, 
N.  Y.,  sincerely  mourned  by  the  entire 
reunited  nation  and  eulogized  in  many 
quarters  as  the  foremost  military  chieftain 
of  the  century. 

In  the  fall  of  1888  Hon.  Benjamin  Harri- 
son of  Indiana  was  elected  over  President 
Cleveland.  President  Harrison's  adminis- 
tration (1889-93)  was  marked  by  many 
stirring  events  and  important  public  acts. 
Six  new  States  were  admitted  into  the 
Union.  The  McKinle;r  Bill,  a  protective 
tariff  measure,  became  a  ^aw.  The  Congres- 


sional election  of  1890  returned  an  extraor- 
dinary Democratic  majority  to  the  House  of 
Representatives.  The  World's  Fair  site  was 
located  in  Chicago,  and  buildings  and  im- 
provements were  erected  and  projected  there 
on  a  scale  never  before  witnessed  in  the 
civilized  world.  The  census  of  1890  showed 
a  population  of  nearly  63,000,000.  Chicago 
passed  the  1,000,000  mark.  Chili  paid  $75,ooo 
indemnity  for  man-of-war's  men  killed  and 
injured  by  a  mob  in  Valparaiso,  and  Italy 
was  paid  a  liberal  indemnity  for  the  death 
of  Italian  citizens  in  the  Mafia  massacre 
at  New  Orleans. 

The  summer  and  autumn  of  1892  wit- 
nessed the  following  among  other  stirring 
events — viz. :  Civil  war  in  Tennessee  on  the 
subject  of  convict  labor  in  the  mines,  which 
was  put  down  after  much  reprehensible  de- 
lay on  the  part  of  the  State  authorities ;  riot- 
ous violence  in  mining  regions  near  Cceur 
d'Alene,  Idaho,  resulting  in  much  blood- 
shed and  not  suppressed  until  many  fiendish 
acts  of  cruelty  had  been  committed  by  the 
rioters;  a  switchmen's  strike  at  Buffalo,  in 
which  nearly  all  the  railroads  centring  at 
that  point  were  involved,  and  which  devel- 
oped such  serious  conditions  that  the  major 
portion  of  the  State  militia  was  despatched 
to  the  scene,  the  result  being  the  uncondi- 
tional declaring  off  of  the  strike,  after  much 
loss  of  property  and  disquietude  in  the  public 
mind  had  been  caused ;  a  great  lockout-strike 
at  the  Carnegie  Mills  in  Homestead,  Pa.,  by 
which  nearly  four  thousand  men  were  thrown 
out  of  employment  and  several  lives  lost  in 
a  battle  between  Pinkerton  guards  and  strik- 
ers, the  State  militia  of  Pennsylvania  finally 
taking  possession  of  the  town  and  mills; 
as  a  final  settlement,  the  leaders  of  the 
strikers  were  arrested  on  charges  of  murder 
and  treason,  and  some  of  the  officials  of  the 
mills  were  charged  with  conspiracy ;  the 
struggle  of  American  seaports,  especially 
New  York,  against  the  cholera  invasion 
from  Hamburg,  Russia,  and  France,  re- 
sulted in  a  signal  victory  for  the  vigilance 
of  the  great  metropolis.  President  Harri- 
son and  ex-President  Cleveland  were  again 
the  opposing  candidates  for  the  Presidency. 

A  treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Chili,  under  which  all  disputes  between  the 
two  countries,  including  claims  of  American 
citizens  for  damages  during  the  Chili-Peru 
War,  were  to  be  settled  by  arbitration,  was 
negotiated  by  Minister  Egan,  and  was  to  be 
submitted  to  the  President  and  Senate  as 
soon  as  possible  after  Congress  met  in  De- 
cember, 1892. 

The  issues  between  the  Democratic  and 


208 


A  BRIEF   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


Republican  parties  were  clearly  defined  in 
the  Presidential  and  Congressional  cam- 
paign of  1892.  The  Republicans  favored  the 
protective  principle  in  tariff  legislation,  on 
the  ground  that  American  industries  will 
be  thereby  built  up.  They  also  favored  a 
Federal  Elections  Bill,  giving  the  Federal 
authorities  the  right  of  supervision  over 
Congressional  and  Presidential  elections. 
On  the  tariff  question  the  Democrats  sharply 
declared  their  opposition  to  any  but  a  tariff 
for  revenue  only,  and  solely  for  the  needs 
of  the  government  economically  adminis- 
tered. They  opposed  the  proposed  Federal 
Elections  Bill  on  the  ground  that  it  au- 
thorized needless  interference  with  the  in- 
dividual and  was  liable  to  be  abused  so  as 
to  give  the  Federal  authorities  undue  power 
to  perpetuate  themselves  in  office. 

In  the  ensuing  election  ex- President 
Grover  Cleveland  was  re-elected. 

The  first  important  happening  in  1893 
was  the  opening  of  the  World's  Columbian 
Exposition  at  Chicago  in  May.  The  formal 
dedication  had  taken  place  in  October,  1892, 
and  the  Exposition  was  held  to  commemo- 
rate the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
discovery  of  America  by  Columbus.  The 
Exposition  lasted  for  six  months,  cost  a  lit- 
tle more  than  $31,000,000,  and  tnere  were 
more  than  21,000,000  paid  admissions. 

In  the  spring  of  the  same  year,  President 
Cleveland  called  a  special  session  of  Con- 
gress, which  repealed  the  law  obliging  the 
Government  to  purchase  for  coinage  4,500,- 
ooo  ounces  of  silver  each  month. 

In  January,  1893,  revolutionists  in  Hawaii, 
having  deposed  Queen  Liliuokalani,  the  gov- 
ernment de  facto  of  the  islands  applied  for 
admission  to  the  United  States.  Believing 
that  the  revolutionists  had  been  improperly 
assisted  by  the  American  Minister,  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  blocked  annexation  and  tried 
to  have  the  Queen  restored,  but  the  revolu- 
tionists declared  the  Republic  of  Hawaii  on 
July  4,  1894. 

In  1895,  on  account  of  a  disputed  bound- 
ary line  between  Venezuela  and  British 
Guiana,  this  country  came  perilously  near 
to  a  war  with  Great  Britain.  The  latter 
country  was  urged  by  our  State  Depart- 
ment to  submit  the  matter  to  arbitration,  but 
seemed  disinclined  so  to  do.  In  December, 
1895,  President  Cleveland  sent  to  Congress 
a  message,  in  which  he  declared  that  war 
with  Great  Britain  was  preferable  to  any 
surrender  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  This 
message  created  astonishment  and  consterna- 
tion in  England,  where  there  had  been  no 
idea  previously  that  war  with  the  United 


States  was  possible.  An  American  Com- 
mission was  appointed  to  discover  the  true 
location  of  the  disputed  boundary  line,  but 
before  this  Commission  had  had  time  to 
make  its  report,  Great  Britain  signed  a 
treaty  of  arbitration,  in  February,  1897,  iuid 
an  important  precedent  in  favor  of  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine  was  thereby  established. 

In  1896  another  Presidential  contest  toot 
place.  William  McKinley  of  Ohio  and  Gar- 
ret A.  Hobart  of  New  Jersey  headed  the 
Republican  ticket,  on  a  platform  calling  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  existing  gold  mone- 
tary system.  William  J.  Bryan  of  Nebraska 
and  Arthur  Sewall  of  Maine  represented  the 
Democratic  party,  on  a  platform  favoring 
the  unlimited  free  coinage  of  silyer  at  a 
ratio  of  16  to  i.  McKinley  and  Hobart  were 
elected. 

The  first  important  act  of  McKinley*s  Ad- 
ministration was  the  passage  of  a  tariff  act 
repealing  the  Gorman-Wilson  Bill  of  1894, 
and  substituting  a  method  of  "protection," 
which,  in  its  essential  features,  reproduced 
the  McKinley  Bill  of  1890.  This  bill  became 
a  law  July  24,  1897. 

In  1895  another  revolution  against  Span- 
ish authority  broke  out  in  Cuba.  Spain's 
conduct  of  the  war  aroused  such  indignation 
in  this  country  that  Congress  passed  a  reso- 
lution acknowledging  the  belligerency  of  the 
Cuban  rebels.  President  Cleveland  saw  fit 
to  ignore  this  resolution,  and  the  problem 
of  handling  the  question  in  a  manner  satis- 
factory to  our  people  was  left  to  President 
McKinley.  In  May,  1897,  Congress  voted 
an  appropriation  of  $50,000  to  be  immedi- 
ately applied  to  the  relief  of  the  starving 
Cubans. 

Late  in  1897  Weyler  was  recalled  as  Gov- 
ernor-General of  Cuba,  and  General  Blanco, 
a  more  humane  man,  took  his  place.  But 
affairs  went  from  bad  to  worse  in  Cuba, 
Spaniards  openly  abused  Americans,  and  the 
life  of  Consul-General  Lee  at  Havana  was 
frequently  threatened.  On  February  15,  1898, 
the  United  States  battleship  Maine,  then  at 
anchor  in  Havana  Harbor,  was  sunk  by  a 
submarine  torpedo,  and  266  of  her  officers 
and  men  were  killed.  In  a  few  hours  after 
receipt  of  the  fearful  news  in  this  country 
indignation  was  at  fever  heat,  and  war  was 
seen  to  be  inevitable. 

March  9,  Congress  placed  $50,000,000  in 
the  hands  of  the  President,  to  be  spent  at 
his  discretion  for  the  national  defence.  Five 
days  later  Spain  hurled  back  her  defiance 
by  ordering  a  fleet  of  cruisers  and  torpedo 
boats  to  sail  for  the  West  Indies.  Com- 
modore Schley  was  promptly  ordered  to 


A   BRIEF    HISTORY   OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


209 


mobilize  a  flying  squadron  at  Hampton 
Roads. 

April  was  a  month  of  war  fever  through- 
out the  nation.  Consul-General  Lee  was 
recalled  from  Havana,  and  on  April  n  his 
report,  which  contained  a  startling  arraign- 
ment of  Spanish  government  in  Cuba,  was 
read  to  Congress.  In  the  early  morning 
hours  of  April  19,  at  about  the  same  time 
when  Paul  Revere  took  his  famous  ride  on 
that  same  date  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  years  before,  the  Senate  first  and  the 
House  immediately  afterward,  passed  the 
historic  resolution,  insisting  that  "the  people 
of  Cuba  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free 
and  independent,"  and  calling  upon  Spain 
to  withdraw  at  once  from  the  island.  In 
the  event  of  Spain's  refusal,  the  President 
was  directed  to  use  the  land  and  naval 
forces  of  tnis  country  to  enforce  the  resolu- 
tion. 

Two  days  later  the  Spanish  Government 
handed  the  United  States  Minister  at  Ma- 
drid his  passport.  Three  days  after  that 
Congress  passed  a  formal  declaration  of 
war,  announcing  that  this  condition  had  ex- 
isted since  the  2ist. 

On  April  22,  the  President  proclaimed  a 
blockade  of  Cuban  ports,  and  sent  Admiral 
Sampson's  squadron  to  carry  it  into  effect. 
On  April  23,  a  proclamation  was  issued  call- 
ing for  125,000  volunteers.  Special  taxes 
were  levied,  and  a  temporary  loan  of  $100,- 
000,000  was  authorized. 

Commodore  Dewey's  fleet  of  six  small 
war  vessels  had  been  mobilizing  at  Hong 
Kong  for  some  time.  On  April  27,  Dewey 
sailed  for  the  Philippine  Islands.  On  the 
morning  of  Sunday,  May  i,  he  appeared  in 
Manila  Bay,  and  before  noon  had  sunk,  or 
otherwise  destroyed,  Admiral  Montojo's 
squadron  of  ten  vessels,  killing  and  wound- 
ing more  than  six  hundred  Spanish  sailors. 
Dewey's  loss  was  seven  men  slightly 
wounded.  The  hero  of  Manila  Bay  was 
promptly  made  a  Rear-Admiral,  and  later 
on  a  full  Admiral. 

Cervera's  fleet  from  Spain  reached  San- 
tiago de  Cuba  May  19.  Admiral  Schley, 
who  had  been  sent  in  pursuit,  quickly  bot- 
tled up  the  enemy's  fleet  in  the  harbor. 
Sampson,  after  a  feint  at  bombardment  of 
San  Juan  de  Porto  Rico,  joined  Schley,  and 
took  command  of  the  combined  fleet. 

There  being  some  danger  that  Cervera 
might  escape  some  dark  night,  Naval  Con- 
structor Hobson  and  seven  seamen  under- 
took to  sink  the  collier  Merrimac  across  the 
narrow  entrance  to  Santiago  Harbor.  This 
was  one  of  the  most  henic  feats  in  Ameri- 


can naval  history.  Owing  to  the  terrific 
Spanish  fire  it  was  impossible  to  sink  the 
vessel  at  just  the  point  where  it  had  been 
planned  to  do  it.  Hobson  and  his  men, 
though  unharmed,  became  prisoners  of  war, 
and  all  attempts  to  exchange  them  proved 
futile  for  several  weeks. 

By  the  latter  part  of  April  several  thou- 
sand of  the  cream  of  our  regular  army 
troops,  and  a  few  regiments  of  volunteers, 
were  in  process  of  mobilization  at  Tampa. 
Thereafter,  every  day  saw  the  arrival  of 
more  troops.  June  8  an  expeditionary  army 
embarked  at  Tampa,  but  was  recalled  before 
the  end  of  the  day  on  account  of  the  ru- 
mored presence  of  two  formidable  Spanish 
cruisers  in  Nicholas  Channel.  On  the  i4th, 
the  fleet,  consisting  of  more  than  thirty-five 
troopships  and  supply  ships,  and  guarded 
by  several  war  vessels,  sailed  from  Tampa. 
The  total  strength  of  the  land  forces  of  this 
expedition  was  nearly  sixteen  thousand  offi- 
cers and  men.  June  22,  the  expedition  landed 
at  Daiquiri,  Cuba,  and  two  days  later  the 
first  decisive  action  was  fought,  which  re- 
sulted in  driving  the  Spaniards  back  from 
Las  Guasimas  toward  Santiago.  On  July 
I,  the  outer  works  of  Santiago,  at  El  Caney 
and  San  Juan  Hill,  were  carried  after  bril- 
liant fights  that  won  the  warmest  commen- 
dation of  the  European  military  experts 
present.  On  July  2  there  was  more  desper- 
ate fighting,  that  made  the  fall  of  Santiago 
seem  certain. 

July  3,  Cervera,  between  the  two  fires  of 
our  army  and  navy,  was  ordered  to  force 
his  way  out  of  the  harbor.  In  the  fight  that 
followed  he  lost  his  fleet.  Admiral  Schley, 
who  was  second  in  command  of  the  Ameri- 
can fleet,  had  the  actual  conduct  on  our 
side,  though  Admiral  Sampson,  who  had 
gone  up  the  coast  for  a  conference  with 
General  Shafter,  returned  as  soon  as  he 
heard  the  opening  shots  of  the  fight. 

After  that,  General  Shafter  pressed  the 
enemy  for  immediate  surrender.  On  July 
14,  the  capitulation  of  Santiago  was  agreed 
to,  though  our  formal  occupation  of  the  city 
did  not  take  place  until  three  days  later. 
The  losses  were  about  1,500  men  killed  and 
wounded  on  either  side. 

The  best  strategic  work  of  the  war  was 
that  done  by  General  Miles,  who  was  sent 
in  the  latter  part  of  July  to  invade  Porto 
Rico.  While  he  was  still  marching  against 
the  capital,  San  Juan,  a  peace  protocol  was 
signed,  at  the  request  of  Spain,  on  Au- 
gust 12. 

Since  May,  troops  had  been  moving  from 
San  Francisco  to  assist  Admiral  Dewey  in 


210 


A  BRIEF   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


the  capture  of  Manila.  On  August  13,  be- 
fore news  of  the  protocol  had  arrived,  our 
land  forces,  under  General  Wesley  Merritt, 
moved  upon  the  city  during  a  furious  bom- 
bardment by  Dewey's  fleet  The  disheart- 
ened Spaniards  surrendered  after  a  mere 
show  of  resistance. 

December  10,  1898,  the  Peace  Treaty  be- 
tween the  two  countries  was  signed  at  Paris. 
The  freedom  of  Cuba  was  acknowledged  by 
Spain ;  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippines,  and  the 
island  of  Guam  were  ceded  to  us,  and  this 
country  agreed  to  pay  to  Spain  $20,000,000 
for  the  public  buildings  in  the  Philip- 
pines. 

July  6,  1898,  Congress  passed  a  joint  reso- 
lution annexing  the  Hawaiian  Islands  at 
the  request  of  the  inhabitants  thereof.  Tu- 
tuila,  one  of  the  Samoan  Islands,  was  ac- 
quired by  this  country  through  arrangement 
with  Great  Britain  and  Germany  in  1899. 
Wake  Island,  a  barren  rock  on  the  route  be- 
tween Hawaii  and  Hong  Kong,  was  an- 
nexed by  the  United  States  in  the  same  year. 
This  latter  island  was  of  value  only  as  a 
location  for  a  possible  cable  station. 

On  April  1 1,  1899,  Congress  passed  a  bill 
providing  for  Porto  Rico  a  territorial  gov- 
ernment differing  in  many  essential  re- 
spects from  that  given  to  any  territorial 
government  within  the  continental  limits. 
Supreme  authority  was  vested  in  a  Gov- 
ernor, to  be  assisted  by  an  Executive  Coun- 
cil, both  to  be  appointed  by  the  President; 
a  House  of  Delegates,  to  be  elected  by  the 
Porto  Ricans,  and  a  Supreme  Court,  to  be 
appointed  by  the  President,  was  provided 
for.  It  was  also  enacted  that  goods  im- 
ported from  the  United  States  into  Porto 
Rico  should  pay  a  duty  of  fifteen  per  cent 
of  the  duties  prevailing  at  United  States 
ports,  and  that  the  same  should  be  charged 
on  goods  shipped  in  the  opposite  direction. 
But  it  was  provided  that  these  tariff  charges 
should  remain  in  force  only  up  to  March 
i,  1902,  with  the  further  proviso  that  these 
tariffs  should  be  discontinued  in  case  local 
taxation  became  before  then  sufficient  for 
the  costs  of  the  Porto  Rican  insular  gov- 
ernment In  the  spring  of  1900  a  bill  was 
passed  by  Congress  returning  to  Porto 
Rico  nearly  $2,000,000  previously  collected 
on  imports  from  that  island. 

It  was  in  the  Philippines  that  our  great- 
est difficulties,  arising  out  of  the  changed 
condition  brought  about  by  the  war  with 
Spain,  came  to  the  surface.  February  4, 1899, 
just  before  the  Senate  ratified  the  treaty  ol 
peace  with  Spain,  the  Filipinos,  under  the 
leadership  of  Aguinaldo,  Luna,  and  other 


native  chiefs,  attacked  the  American  lines 
around  Manila.  The  insurgents  lost  about 
two  thousand  men,  and  were  driven  further 
back  from  the  city.  Aguinaldo  became  dic- 
tator of  the  rebellious  faction  of  the  na- 
tives. During  the  following  summer  Luna 
was  assassinated  by  an  officer  of  Aguinal- 
do's  body-guard,  and,  as  many  believed, 
by  the  order  of  Aguinaldo.  Throughout 
the  spring  and  summer  there  was  much 
spirited  fighting  by  our  regular  and  volun- 
teer troops,  though  at  about  this  time  the 
various  organizations  of  State  volunteers 
were  sent  home  in  the  order  in  which  they 
had  reached  the  islands.  Regulars  replaced 
them,  and  the  campaign  was  vigorously 
pushed.  By  the  fall  of  1899  all  semblance 
of  organized  insurgent  resistance  had  been 
dissipated.  From  then  on,  until  March, 
1901,  Aguinaldo  continued  to  be  an  elusive 
fugitive.  One  after  another  the  little  brown 
leaders  surrendered  their  commands,  but 
the  chief  cause  of  the  trouble  remained 
free  and  annoying.  Then  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral Frederick  Funston,  a  volunteer  officer 
from  Kansas,  contrived  a  ruse  by  which 
he  caused  himself  and  some  brother  officers 
to  be  led  into  the  presence  of  Aguinaldo  by 
a  body  of  native  troops  enlisted  in  the 
United  States  service  from  the  Macabebe 
tribe.  As  soon  as  he  found  himself  in  the 
presence  of  the  putative  Filipino  leader, 
Funston  gave  the  order  that  resulted  in  the 
capture  of  the  Malay  dictator.  Aguinaldo 
was  brought  to  Manila,  where  he  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States. 
Funston  was  made  a  Brigadier-General  in 
the  United  States  regular  army  as  a  re- 
ward for  his  signal  service  to  the  country. 
Following  the  capture  of  Aguinaldo, 
many  other  Filipino  leaders  surrendered 
and  the  insurrection  fizzled  out. 

In  the  fall  of  1900  another  Presidential 
contest  was  fought  out  along  the  lines  of 
that  of  1896.  President  McKinley  was  re- 
nominated  by  the  Republican  party,  with 
Theodore  Roosevelt  of  New  York  as  his 
running  mate.  William  J.  Bryan  was  again 
selected  as  the  standard-bearer  of  the 
Democratic  party,  with  Adlai  E.  Stevenson 
as  the  Vice- Presidential  candidate.  The 
Republican  party  was  returned  to  power 
by  a  great  majority  of  the  popular  vote. 

May  i,  1901,  saw  the  opening  of  the 
great  Pan-American  Fair  at  Buffalo.  In 
many  respects  this  Exposition  eclipsed  the 
great  World's  Fair  at  Chicago  in  1893. 
The  object  of  the  Pan-American  was  to 
present  in  bewildering  array  all  the  re- 
sources of  the  American  Continent,  and  to 


A   BRIEF    HISTORY   OF    THE   UNITED    STATES 


211 


bring  the  countries  thereof  into  closer  com- 
mercial union. 

A  few  months  before  this  the  world  wit- 
nessed the  most  extraordinary  military 
spectacle  known  to  history.  In  the  spring 
of  1900  China  stood  behind  the  blood-red 
curtain  of  war  against  the  entire  civilized 
world.  For  many  months  previous  there 
had  been  threats  of  rebellion  against  the 
imperial  government  of  China.  The  rebels 
belonged  to  a  secret  sect  known  as  the 
"Boxers." 

As  to  whether  the  "Boxers"  acted  in 
opposition  to,  or  in  accordance  with,  the 
real  wishes  of  the  Chinese  Government  may 
never  be  known  to  outsiders.  But  the  le- 
gations of  the  various  powers  represented 
at  Peking  were  besieged.  Baron  von  Ket- 
teler,  the  German  Ambassador,  was  mur- 
dered, and  the  same  fate  befell  an  official 
of  the  Japanese  legation.  At  about  this 
time  marines  of  the  various  powers  were 
landed  and  hurried  to  the  capital  of  China. 
Admiral  Seymour,  with  a  mixed  force  of 
two  thousand  men,  including  many  Amer- 
ican marines,  tried  to  reach  Peking,  but 
was  obliged  to  turn  back.  In  July,  after 
a  powerful  international  force  had  been 
landed  in  China,  a  bloody  engagement  was 
fought  between  the  allies  and  the  Chinese, 
who  were  now  composed  of  "Boxers"  and 
the  regular  troops  of  the  Empire.  After 
a  stubborn  fight  the  Chinese  were  defeated, 
though  a  month  more  was  consumed  by 
the  allies  in  reaching  Peking,  which  was 
captured  August  14. 

In  the  succeeding  months  many  punitive 
expeditions  were  undertaken  by  the  allied 
armies,  but  from  these  the  United  States 
forces  held  aloof.  No  section  of  Peking 
was  so  well  governed  as  that  which  fell 
to  the  rule  of  the  United  States  troops  as 
represented  by  the  Ninth  Infantry.  In 
May,  1901,  all  United  States  troops,  ex- 
cept a  small  legation  guard  under  com- 
mand of  Major  Robertson,  were  ordered 
back  to  Manila.  This  was  due  to  the  be- 
lief of  our  Government  that  we  had  no 
right  to  occupy  any  portion  of  Chinese  soil 
a  moment  longer  than  was  necessary  for 
the  protection  of  our  citizens  and  commer- 
cial interests.  Yet  the  Chinese  in  the  sec- 
tion of  Peking  that  was  temporarily  under 
the  administration  of  our  provost  guard  re- 
monstrated against  the  withdrawal  of  our 
troops.  A  petition  signed  by  five  thousand 
Chinese  of  wealth,  position,  and  cultivation 
declared  that  under  American  rule  they  had 
enjoyed  the  best  and  fairest  government 
known  in  their  hislory-^A  magnificent  trib- 


ute to  American  capacity  to  govern  wisely 
and  justly! 

While  holding  a  reception  in  the  Tem- 
ple of  Music  of  the  Pan-American  Exposi- 
tion, September  6,  President  McKinley  was 
twice  shot  by  an  anarchist,  Leon  Czolgoz. 
The  President  died  at  a  private  house  in 
Buffalo,  September  14,  and  on  the  same 
day  Vice- President  Roosevelt  took  the  oath 
of  office  as  President,  pledging  himself  to 
carry  out  the  policy  of  his  predecessor. 
The  assassin  was  executed  on  October  29. 
After  impressive  funeral  ceremonies  in  the 
Capitol  at  Washington,  September  19,  the 
remains  of  the  President  were  temporarily 
interred  at  Canton,  Ohio.  Unusual  honors 
were  paid  his  memory  in  Europe,  these  in- 
cluding services  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

The  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  regarding 
the  projected  Isthmian  Canal,  signed  Feb- 
ruary 5,  1900,  and  subsequently  amended  by 
the  Senate,  was  signed  by  the  President 
November  18.  On  June  28,  1902,  Congress 
passed  an  act  to  provide  for  a  canal  con- 
necting the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  authoriz- 
ing the  President  to  acquire  at  a  cost  not 
exceeding  $40,000,000  all  the  rights,  etc., 
of  the  Ntew  Panama  Canal  Company  of 
France,  also  perpetual  control  of  a  strip 
of  land  extending  from  ocean  to  ocean, 
with  the  right  to  dispose  of  the  waters 
thereof,  and  to  cause  the  construction  of 
a  ship  canal.  Failing  in  this,  he  was  au- 
thorized to  obtain  from  Costa  Rica  and 
Nicaragua  perpetual  control  of  territory 
for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  a 
canal  by  the  Nicaragua  route.  After  con- 
cluding a  contract  with  the  Panama  Canal 
Company,  Secretary  Hay  began  negotia- 
tions with  Colombia,  and  on  May  18  a 
treaty  was  concluded,  but  questions  of  sov- 
ereignty and  jurisdiction  were  left  unset- 
tled, and  negotiations  were  delayed  by  the 
civil  war  in  Colombia  and  the  opposition 
in  that  country  to  the  relinquishment  of 
sovereignty  and  the  small  amount  offered 
by  the  United  States.  The  treaty  was  re- 
jected by  Colombia,  August  17,  1903. 

On  May  15,  1902,  the  anthracite  coal  min- 
ers of  Pennsylvania  began  a  strike,  having 
failed  in  their  demands  for  a  shorter  work 
day,  a  minimum  day  wage-scale,  uniform 
increase  of  wages,  and  the  weighing  of 
coal  for  payments  by  the  amounts  mined. 
About  145,000  miners  went  out.  Rioting 
occurred,  with  persecution  of  non-union 
men,  and  some  destruction  of  property.  On 
July  30,  the  State  troops  were  called  out, 
and  on  September  23-24  President  Roose- 
velt intervened.  October  i,  a  conference 


'212 


A  BRIEF   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


of  railroad  presidents  and  labor  leaders 
was  held  at  the  White  House,  but  noth- 
ing was  effected.  On  October  13,  the 
mine  operators  agreed  to  submit  the  mat- 
ters under  dispute  to  the  arbitration  of  a 
commission  appointed  by  the  President. 
On  October  21,  the  miners  voted  in  favor 
of  the  plan  and  declared  the  strike  off. 
Cessation  of  work  for  five  months  caused 
a  "coal  famine,"  with  attendant  suffering 
among  the  poor  and  enormous  detriment 
to  business.  The  commission  began  its 
work  in  Washington,  October  24,  Judge 
Gray  of  the  United  States  Circuit  Court 
being  chairman,  and  continued  its  sessions 
until  February  13,  1903.  The  result  was 
that  the  miners  secured  a  sliding  wage 
scale,  shorter  hours,  and  an  increase  in  size 
of  mine  car  or  tipping,  to  be  accompanied  by 
proportionate  increase  in  rate  paid  per  car. 
Both  sides  agreed  to  abide  by  the  decision. 

The  visit  of  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia 
(February  23 — March  n)  was  productive 
of  much  international  good  feeling.  He 
was  present  at  the  launching  of  the  Em- 
peror's yacht,  the  Meteor,  at  Shooters  Isl- 
and, New  York  Bay,  Miss  Alice  Roosevelt 
naming  the  vessel;  was  given  the  freedom 
of  the  city  of  New  York,  was  most  cor- 
dially received  in  Washington  and  else- 
where in  the  country,  of  which  he  made  a 
tour,  and  left  bearing  the  title  of  LL.D., 
conferred  by  Harvard  University.  After 
his  return,  Emperor  William  presented  the 
people  of  the  United  States  with  a  bronze 
statue  of  Frederick  the  Great  to  be  erected 
in  Washington. 

Early  in  the  year  charges  against  the  mili- 
tary administration  in  the  Philippines  were 
made:  namely,  that  officers  had  tortured 
Filipinos,  burned  their  dwellings,  and  com- 
mitted other  barbarities.  The  President  or- 
dered a  full  investigation,  and  a  court-mar- 
tial was  held  in  Manila  in  April,  at  which 
General  Jacob  H.  Smith  admitted  that  he 


had  given  directions  to  kill,  burn,  and  lay 
waste  Samar,  but  claimed  that  he  had  not 
transgressed  the  laws  of  retaliation  recog- 
nized by  international  law.  The  court  sen- 
tenced him  to  be  admonished,  and  President 
Roosevelt  retired  him  from  active  service 
with  a  reprimand.  On  July  4,  civil  govern- 
ment was  established  in  the  Philippines  and 
amnesty  to  all  political  prisoners  was  pro- 
claimed. The  cost  of  the  operations  in  the 
Philippines  up  to  June  was  $170,326,586. 

On  October  14,  The  Hague  tribunal  ren- 
dered its  first  decision — in  favor  of  the 
United  States — in  the  matter  of  the  "Pious 
Fund,"  created  in  1697  for  the  support 
of  missions  in  California.  Mexico  .for  a 
number  of  years  had  refused  to  contribute 
from  this  fund  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
bishops  in  California,  holding  that  the 
Mexican  Church  alone  should  profit  by  it. 
On  November  29,  The  Hague  tribunal  ren- 
dered another  award  in  favor  of  the 
United  States,  in  the  matter  of  the  claim 
against  Russia  for  the  seizure  of  American 
vessels  by  Russian  warships  in  Behring  Sea 
in  1891. 

On  November  8  was  signed  the  reciproc- 
ity treaty,  arranged  in  September  by  Sir 
Robert  Bond,  Premier  of  Newfoundland, 
and  Secretary  Hay.  This  gives  free  admis- 
sion into  the  United  States  of  fishery  prod- 
ucts (fresh  cod  excepted)  and  crude  min- 
erals in  return  for  certain  privileges  in  the 
way  of  bait  to  American  fishing  vessels  in 
the  waters  of  Newfoundland. 

On  January  19, 1903,  messages  were  trans- 
mitted by  wireless  telegraphy  from  the  Mar- 
coni station  on  Cape  Cod  to  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, President  Roosevelt  and  King  Edward 
exchanging  greetings.  The  submarine  cable 
between  the  United  States  and  the  Philip- 
pines was  so  far  advanced  on  July  4  that 
the  President  sent  a  message  to  Honolulu 
on  that  date.  The  cable  was  completed  to 
Manila  not  long  afterward. 


OPERATION  OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES 

GOVERNMENT 


A~i  PRESCRIBED  by  the  Constitution,  and  as  denned  by  subse- 
quent laws  and  practices,  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
is  the  same,  as  far  as  outward  form  is  concerned.  That  the 
changing  conditions  of  life  and  civilization  on  this  continent  since  1789 
have  involved  numerous  departures  from  the  plans  originally  contemplated 
can  not  be  denied. 

Most  notable  among  these  is  the  difference  between  prescribed  theory 
and  actual  practice  in  the  matter  of  electing  the  President  and  Vice-Presi- 
dent.  These  Federal  officers  are  still  chosen,  formally,  by  the  Electoral 
College,  which  consists  of  members  appointed  from  each  State  to  the 
number  of  Senators  and  Representatives  allowed.  Although,  in  the  con- 
templation of  the  Constitution,  all  these  electors  shall  be  free  to  choose 
their  own  candidates,  quite  untrammelled  by  the  opinions  of  their  constit- 
uents— precisely  in  the  same  fashion  as  Congressmen  are  privileged  to  act 
— the  growth  and  development  of  parties  in  this  country  has  determined 
that  each  of  them  is  pledged  to  vote  for  some  certain  candidate.  Thus, 
the  original  object  sought  in  founding  the  Electoral  College  is  thwarted, 
and  the  matter  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  people,  or,  rather,  of  the  two 
or  three  powerful  political  parties. 

In  another  respect,  also,  the  present  hybrid  scheme  of  choosing  a  Presi- 
dent thwarts  the  choice  of  the  majority:  the  electors,  like  Congressmen, 
do  not  represent  equal  numbers  of  constituents.  Thus,  as  in  the  memorable 
national  election  of  1876,  a  Presidential  candidate  may  receive  the  greater 
number  of  popular  votes  actually  cast  in  the  country,  and  yet  fail  of 
the  required  majority  in  the  Electoral  College.  Such  facts  as  these  have 
created  a  strong  sentiment  in  late  years  for  the  abolishment  of  electoral 
voting  in  favor  of  direct  popular  choice. 


CONDUCT  AND  DEPARTMENTS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT 


NATIONAL  CONVENTIONS 

THE  first  step  in  the  process  of  choosing 
a  President  is  the  appointment  of  dele- 
gates to  the  national  conventions  of  the 
several  political  parties;  each  party  in  each 
State  sending  four  delegates-at-large,  and 
twice  as  many  district  delegates  as  the 


State  has  congressional  representatives. 
These  party  conventions  formulate  and 
adopt  the  platforms  for  the  forthcoming 
campaign,  and  nominate  the  candidates  for 
President  and  Vice- President. 

THE  ELECTORAL  COLLEGE  is  made  up,  as 
previously  stated,  of  two  Electors-at-large, 

(218) 


214      OPERATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT 


or  Senatorial  Electors,  and  as  many  Dis- 
trict Electors  as  there  are  Congressmen 
from  each  particular  State.  Each  party  in 
each  State  chooses  its  candidates  for  this 
body;  each  district  being  represented  by 
its  own  successful  candidate,  according  to 
the  popular  vote.  The  successful  electoral 
candidates  in  each  State  meet  at  their 
respective  State  capitals,  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  January  following  the  general  elec- 
tion, and  vote  for  the  candidates  heading 
the  party  tickets  with  which  each  member 
is  affiliated.  The  electoral  votes  are  for- 
mally counted,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  on  the  sec- 
ond Wednesday  in  February,  and  the  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President  declared  elected. 
In  case  of  non-election,  the  matter  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  Congress,  which 
chooses  candidates  by  two-thirds  vote. 

DEPARTMENTS    OF    THE    GOVERN- 
MENT 

The  Government  of  the  United  States 
consists  of  three  departments:  the  Execu- 
tive, the  Legislative,  and  the  Judiciary. 
The  Executive  is  represented  by  the  Presi- 
dent; the  Legislative,  or  law-making  pow- 
er, by  the  two  Houses  of  Congress;  the 
Judiciary,  by  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  and  the  numerous  Federal  District 
Courts  throughout  the  Union. 

THE  PRESIDENT  is  chosen  for  a  term  of 
four  years,  and  may  not  be  removed,  ex- 
cept by  impeachment  for  bribery,  treason, 
or  other  high  misdemeanors,  after  trial  be- 
fore the  Senate.  In  case  of  his  death, 
resignation,  disability,  or  removal,  the  law 
provides  that  the  Vice-President  shall  suc- 
ceed to  his  office  and  duties.  In  case  of 
the  removal,  resignation,  or  inability  of 
both  President  and  Vice-President,  the 
succession  is  as  follows : 

"In  case  of  the  removal,  death,  resigna- 
tion or  inability  of  both  the  President  or 
Vice-President,  then  the  Secretary  of  State 
shall  act  as  President  until  the  disability 
of  the  President  or  Vice-President  is  re- 
moved or  a  President  is  elected.  If  there 
be  no  Secretary  of  State,  then  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  will  act;  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  order  of  succession  is:  The 
Secretary  of  War,  Attorney-General,  Post- 
master-General, Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and 
Secretary  of  the  Interior.  The  acting  Presi- 
dent must,  upon  taking  office,  convene  Con- 
gress, if  not  at  the  time  in  session,  in 
extraordinary  session,  giving  twenty  days' 
notice.  This  act  applies  only  to  such  Cab- 


inet officers  as  shall  have  been  appointed 
by  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate, 
and  are  eligible  under  the  Constitution  to 
the  Presidency." 

THE  POWERS  OF  THE  PRESIDENT  are  in  no 
sense  legislative.  He  has  no  authority  to 
propose  or  issue  laws,  except  such  as  are 
passed  and  ratified  by  both  Houses  of  Con- 
gress. He  may,  however,  recommend  de- 
sirable legislation  in  his  annual  message, 
and,  provided  he  is  in  harmony  with 
Congress,  his  recommendations  are  usually 
acted  on.  He  possesses  also  the  power 
of  veto,  which  enables  him  to  kill  any  bill 
passed  by  Congress,  unless,  after  due  re- 
consideration, it  is  again  passed  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  both  Houses.  All  bills  passed 
by  Congress,  except  those  previously  vetoed 
by  the  President,  and  those  not  returned 
by  him  within  ten  days  after  submission, 
must  receive  his  signature,  in  order  to 
become  laws. 

Beyond  these  limits,  he  has  no  power  to 
influence  legislation,  except  that  he  may 
convene  extraordinary  sessions  of  Congress 
in  special  emergencies.  He  may  appoint 
all  Federal  officers,  not  chosen  by  popular 
election,  with  the  advice  and  approval  of 
the  Senate,  and  may  remove  incompetent 
and  dishonest  officials  in  the  same  class. 

In  the  making  of  treaties  with  foreign 
powers,  he  acts  solely  with  the  two-thirds 
majority  of  the  Senate,  but  he  has  the 
power  to  direct  the  movements  of  Army 
and  Navy,  as  Commander-in-Chief,  with 
the  advice  of  his  Cabinet  and  staff,  in  times 
of  war  and  peace.  He  has  also  the  power 
to  pardon  criminals  convicted  of  offences 
against  Federal  laws,  except  such  as  have 
been  duly  impeached  from  office. 

THE  CABINET,  or  advisory  council  of  the 
President,  consists  of  the  heads  of  nine 
Federal  Departments,  who  are  called  Secre- 
taries. These  Departments  are:  Of  State, 
War,  the  Navy,  the  Treasury,  the  Interior, 
Agriculture,  the  Post-Office,  Commerce,  and 
Justice.  The  head  of  the  Post-Office  De- 
partment is  known  as  the  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral, and  the  head  of  the  Judiciary  De- 
partment, as  the  Attorney-General. 

All  these  officers  are  appointed  by  th6- 
President  with  the  approval  of  the  Senate, 
and  hold  office  during  the  Presidential  term, 
subject  only  to  resignation  or  removal  for 
cause  by  the  President.  They  are  respon- 
sible only  to  him,  and  have  no  relations 
with  Congress.  Each  administers  the  affairs 
of  his  particular  department,  without  ref- 
pron-e  to  the  ^thers,  except  in  extraor- 


dinary  matters  that  come  before  the  Presi- 
dent  and   Cabinet. 

THE   LEGISLATIVE  DEPARTMNET 

The  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
compose  the  Legislative  Department  of  the 
Government. 

.THE  SENATE  consists  of  two  members 
from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legisla- 
ture to  represent  the  State  as  a  whole, 
like  delegates-at-large  in  the  party  national 
conventions,  or  electors-at-large  in  the 
Electoral  College. 

Each  Senator  is  elected  for  six  years, 
although  the  terms  are  so  arranged  that 
one-third  of  the  body  retires  every  three 
years.  A  Senator  must  have  been  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States  for  nine  years  before 
election,  must  be  at  least  thirty  years  of 
age,  and  a  legal  resident  of  the  State  he 
represents. 

THE  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES  is  com- 
posed of  members  elected  by  popular  vote 
from  the  various  States,  one  member  for 
each  154,325  inhabitants;  although  every 
State  is  entitled  to  at  least  one  representa- 
tive. To  be  eligible  as  a  representative  in 
Congress,  one  must  be  at  least  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  a  citizen  of  the  United  States 
for  at  least  seven  years  before  election,  and 
a  legal  resident  of  the  Congressional  Dis- 
trict he  represents. 

ELECTIONS  TO  MEMBERSHIP. — Both  Houses 
of  Congress  have  the  right  to  pass  on  the 
qualifications  of  new  members,  although 
these  are  elected  under  the  supervision  of 
the  laws  and  authorities  in  the  several 
States.  Although  each  new  member  must 
present  his  certificate  of  election  signed  by 
the  Governor  of  his  State,  there  have  been 
very  many  cases  of  contested  election — 
the  majority,  of  course,  being  in  the  House 
of  Representatives.  In  such  cases,  the 
papers  relating  to  the  claims  of  the  con- 
testant are  delivered  to  the  Clerk  of  the 
House,  who  refers  them  to  the  Committee 
on  Elections.  Meantime,  the  person  hold- 
in  the  Governor's  certificate  is  not  allowed 
to  assume  his  seat.  In  numerous  instances 
the  papers  in  the  case  have  been  so  volu- 
minous that  the  Committee  has  been 
obliged  to  delay  decision  for  several  weeks. 

COMPULSORY  ATTENDANCE. — Both  Houses 
of  Congress  have  the  power  to  compel 
the  attendance  of  members  not  absent  on 
valid  excuse.  Were  this  not  the  case,  it 
would  frequently  be  impossible  to  obtain 
a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business. 


In  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  Ser- 
geant-at-Arms  is  furnished  with  a  list  of 
absentees,  and  directed  to  find  and  take 
them  into  custody — the  order  of  arrest 
being  necessarily  discharged  before  the 
members  so  brought  in  are  allowed  to  vote. 
In  the  Senate,  the  Sergeant-at-Arms  may 
be  directed  by  the  majority  of  members 
present  to  request,  and,  if  necessary,  com- 
pel, the  attendance  of  absentees. 

In  the  Senate,  voting  is  always  by  "yeas" 
and  "nays,"  and  in  the  House,  by  ballot, 
except  in  reconsidering  vetoed  bills,  or  when 
the  decision  on  a  ballot  is  questioned. 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  BOTH  HOUSES  is 
permanent.  The  Vice-President  is  presid- 
ing officer  of  the  Senate,  or,  in  case  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  accession  to  the  Presi- 
dency, some  Senator  is  elected  by  the  mem- 
bers to  hold  the  office. 

The  House  of  Representatives  elects  one 
of  its  own  members  to  preside,  under  the 
title  of  Speaker.  The  members  of  both 
Houses  are  parcelled  into  various  standing 
committees,  which  examine  into  and  re- 
port on  proposed  laws  and  measures,  and 
draw  up  bills  for  consideration  by  the  full 
House.  Any  bill  to  become  a  law  must 
pass  both  Houses  by  a  majority  of  votes, 
but  it  may  be  originated,  formulated,  or 
amended  in  either  House;  but  a  bill  passed 
in  one  House  and  amended  in  the  other 
must  be  referred  back  again  for  approval 
and  repassage  in  its  revised  form.  In  ad- 
dition to  its  legislative  office,  the  Senate 
also  acts  as  an  advisory  body  to  the  Presi- 
dent in  the  matter  of  appointments,  treaties, 
and  in  some  other  matters  of  administrative 
concern.  It  is  also  a  high  court  for  im- 
peachment trials. 

THE  JUDICIARY  DEPARTMENT  consists  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
and  the  minor  Federal  and  District  Courts 
throughout  the  country.  Its  function  is  to 
hear  and  decide  causes  at  law  under  the 
Federal  statutes,  and  also  to  pass  on  the 
constitutionality  of  acts  passed  by  Con- 
gress. In  the  last  particular  it  has  a 
power  superior  to  either  the  Executive  or 
Legislative;  deciding  not  only  how  a  law 
shall  be  interpreted  and  enforced,  but  also 
whether  it  shall  continue  to  be  a  law  at 
all,  as  it  is  decided  to  be  in  or  out  of 
accord  with  the  Constitution.  The  various 
Federal  courts  throughout  the  Union  try 
cases  under  the  Federal  laws,  and  at  no 
time  deal  with  the  laws  of  the  various 
States,  unless  there  is  a  direct  bearing  in 
particular  cases. 


216      OPERATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT 


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Westmoreland  Co.,  Va... 

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Westmoreland  Co.,  Va... 
Quincy,  Mass  

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George  Washington.. 

John  Adams  
Thomas  Jefferson.  .  .  . 

James  Madison  

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Martin  Van  Buren.. 
William  H.  Harrison. 
John  Tyler  

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Benjamin  Harrison.. 
r^>^.  ..  /->i-...i__j 

William  McKinley.  .. 
Theodor*  Roonevelt.  . 

•-• 

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OPERATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT      217 


VICE-PRESIDENTS     OF     THE     UNITED     STATES 


NAME 

Birthplace 

Year)  Residence 

Qual 

ified 

-  Poli- 

tics 

Place  of  Death 

Year 

1826 
1826 
1836 
1812 
1814 
1823 
1850 
1862 
1850 
1862 
1864 
1874 
1853 
1875 
1891 
i87S 
1885 
1875 
1887 
1886 
1885 

Age  at 
Death 

9i 
83 

So 

73 
70 
Si 
68 
80 
70 

72 
72 

74 
67 
54 
81 
67 
62 

63 
68 

56 
66 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

6 
7 
8 
9 

10 

ii 

12 
13 
14 
IS 

16 
17 
18 
19 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

1735 
1743 
1756 
1739 
1744 
1774 
1782 
1782 
1780 
1790 
1792 
1800 
1786 
1821 
1809 
1808 
1823 
1812 
1819 
1830 
1819 
1824 
1835 
1844 
1858 

Mass  

1789 
1797 
1801 
1805 
1813 
1817 
1825 
1833 
1837 
1841 

1845 
1849 
1853 
1857 
1861 
1865 
1869 
1873 
1877 
1881 
1885 
1889 
1893 
1897 
1901 

Fed.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Dem. 
Dem. 
Dem. 
Dem. 
Whig. 
Dem. 
Dem. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Dem. 

Quincy,  Mass.  .  .  . 
Monticello,  Va.  .  . 
Staten  Island.  N.Y 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Staten  Island,  N.Y 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Kinderhook,  N.  Y. 
Frankfort,  Ky.  .  .  . 
Richmond,  Va.  .  .  . 
Philadelphia,  Pa.  . 
Buffalo,  N.  Y  

Thomas  Jefferson... 

Shad  well,  Va  

Virginia.  .  . 
New  York.. 
New  York.  . 
Mass  

George  Clinton  
Elbridge  Gerry  

Ulster  Co.,  N.  Y... 
Marble  head,  Mass.  . 
Scarsdale,  N.  Y... 
Abbeville  S  C  .  .  .  . 

Daniel  D.  Tompkins 
John  C.  Calhoun... 
Martin  Van  Buren.  . 
Richard  M.  Johnson. 
John  Tyler  
George  M.  Dallas.  .  . 
Millard  Fillmore... 
William  R.  King... 
J.  C.  Breckinridge.  .  . 
Hannibal  Hamlin... 
Andrew  Johnson.  .  .  . 
Schuyler  Colfax.... 

New  York.  . 
So.  Carolina 
New  York.  . 
Kentucky.  . 
Virginia.  .  . 
Pennsylva'a 
New  York.  . 
Alabama.  .  . 
Kentucky.  . 
Maine.  .... 

Kinderhook,  N.  Y. 

Green  way,  Va  
Philadelphia,  Pa.  .  . 
Summer  Hill,  N.Y. 
Sampson  Co.,  N.C. 
Lexington,  Ky  .  .... 
Paris,  Me  
Raleigh,  N.C  
New  York  City  
Farmington,  N.  H.  . 
Malone,  N.  Y  
Fairfield,  Vt  
Muskingum  Co.,  O. 
Shoreham,  Vt  
Christian  Co.,  Ky.  . 
Long  Branch,  N.J.  . 
New  York,  N.Y... 

Dallas  County,  Ala 
Lexington,  Ky.  .  . 
Bangor,  Me  
Carter  Co.,  Tenn.. 
Mankato,  Minn  .  .  . 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Malone,  N.Y  
New  York  City.  .  . 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Tennessee  .  . 
Indiana.  ... 
Mass  ...... 

William  A.  Wheeler. 
Chester  A.  Arthur  — 
T.  A.  Hendricks  
Levi  P.   Morton.... 
Adlai  E.  Stevenson.  . 
Garret  A.  Hobart.  .  . 
Theodore  Roosevelt. 

New  York.  . 
New  York.  . 
Indiana...  . 
New  York.. 
Illinois.  ..  . 
New  Jersey. 
New  York.  . 

Dem. 
Rep.. 
Rep.  . 

Paterson,  N.  J.  .  .  . 

1899 

55 

JUSTICES    OF    THE    UNITED     STATES     SUPREME     COURT 

(NAMES  OF  THE  CHIEF-JUSTICES  IN  ITALICS.) 


NAME 

Term 

Born 

Died 

NAME 

Term 

Born 

Died 

J0hn   Toy    N    Y  

1789-1795 

1829 

Samuel   Nelson    N    Y  

1845-1872 

187-1 

John  Rutledge    S.  C.  

1  789-  1  79  1 

1800 

1780 

1851 

William    Gushing,    Mass  

1789-1810 

1733 

1810 

Robert   C.   Grier,   Pa  

1846-1870 

1794 

1870 

1789-1798 

1798 

1851-1857 

1874 

John    Blair    Va     

1789-1796 

1800 

1853-1861 

1811 

1889 

Robert  H.    Harrison,    Md.  .  . 

1789-1790 

'745 

1790 

Nathan    Clifford     Me  

1858-1881 

1803 

1881 

James   Iredell    N    C  

1790-1799 

1751 

1799 

1861-1881 

1804 

1884 

1819 

1816 

William   Paterson,   N.  J  

1793-1806 

1806 

1862-1877 

1815 

1886 

John  Rutledge    S.  C  

1795-1795 

1739 

Stephen  J.   Field,   Calif  

1863-1897 

1816 

1807 

1741 

1811 

Salmon  P    Chase    O  

1864-1873 

1808 

1871 

1796-1800 

1807 

William   Strong,    Pa  

1870-1880 

1808 

1895 

Bushrod  Washington,   Va  — 
Alfred  Moore    N.  C.  

1798-1829 
1799-1804 

1762 
1755 

1829 
1810 

Joseph   P.    Bradley,    N.  J.  .. 
Ward  Hunt,   N.   Y  

1870-1892 
1872-1882 

1813 
1811 

1892 
1886 

John  Marshall    Va  

1801-1835 

i7s>; 

i8^e 

Morrison   R.    Waite    O  

1874-1888 

1816 

1888 

William   Johnson,    S.    C  
Brockholdt    Livingston,  N.  Y. 
Thomas    Todd,    Ky  

1804-1834 
1806-1823 
1807-1826 

1771 
1757 

1834 
1823 
1826 

John  M.  Harlan,   Ky  
William  B.  Woods,  Ga  
Stanley   Matthews,    O  

1877-..-. 
1880-1887 
1881-1889 

1833 
1824 
1824. 

1887 
1889 

Joseph    Story,    Mass  

181  1-1845 

iS^s 

Horace    Gray     Mass  

1881-  

1828 

Gabriel    Duval,    Md  

1811-1836 

1752 

1844 

Samuel  Blatchford,  N.  Y.  .  .  . 

1882-1893 

1820 

1893 

Smith  Thompson,   N.  Y.  .  .  .  . 
Robert  Trimble    Ky  

1823-1843 
1826-1828 

1767 

1843 
1828 

Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar,  Miss  .  . 
Melville    W.  Fuller    111  

1888-1893 
1888-  

1825 
1833 

1893 

John  McLean,  O  

1829-1861 

T7&C 

1861 

1889-.  .  .  . 

1837 

Henry    Baldwin,    Pa  

1890-.  .  .  . 

1836 

James  M.  Wayne,  Ga  

1835-1867 

1867 

1892-.  .  .  . 

1832 

Roger  B.   Taney,   Md  

1836-1864 

1777 

1864 

1893-1895 

1832 

1895 

Philip   P.    Barbour,   Va  
John    Catron,    Tenn  

1836-1841 
1837-1865 

1783 
1786 

1841 
1865 

Edward  D.  White,   La  
Rufus   W     Peckham  N  Y    . 

1893-  
1895-.  .  . 

1845 
1837 

John   McKinley,   Ala  

1837-1852 

1780 

1852 

Joseph    McKenna,    Calif.  .  .  . 

1897-.  •  •  • 

1843 

Peter  V.   Daniel,  Va.  ., 

1841-1860 

1785 

1860 

Oliver  W.   Holmes.   Mass.. 

IQ02-.  .  . 

1841 

218      OPERATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT 


HISTORICAL  AND   STATISTICAL  TABLE   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES   AND 

TERRITORIES 

SHOWING    THE    AREA    OF    EACH    IN    SQUARE   MILES,    AND    THE    DATE    OF    ADMISSION  OF  NEW 
STATES    INTO    THE    UNION,    AND    THE    DATES    OF   ORGANIZATION    OF   TERRITORIES 

STILL     REMAINING 

From    the    Report   of  the    Commissioner   of   the   General  Land  Office  with  Corrections.     The  areaa 
are  from  the  Census  Report  of  1890. 


THE  THIRTEEN 
ORIGINAL  STATES 

Ratified  the 
Constitution 

Area  of  the 
Orig*!  States 
in   Sq.   Miles 

STATES 

When  Admitted 

Sq.  Miles 

Dec.  28,  1846 
Dec.  29,  1845 
May,  29,  1848 
Sept.  9,  1850 
May,  u,  1858 
Feb.  14,  1859 
Jan.  29,  1861 
June  19,  1863 
Oct.  31,  1864 
March  i,  1867 
Aug.  i,  1876 
Nov.  3,  1889 
Nov.  3,  1889 
Nov.  8,  1889 
Nov.  ii,  1889 
July  3,  1890 
July  n,  1890 
Jan.  4,  1896 

56,025 
265,780 
56,040 
158,360 
83,365 
96,030 
82,080 
24,780 
110,700 
76,855 
103,925 
,      70,195 
76,850 
i45>3io 
66,880 
84,290 
97,576 
84,928 

New   Hampshire.. 
Massachusetts    .  .  . 
Rhode    Island  
Connecticut    

June  21,  1788 
Feb.     6,  1788 
May    29,  1790 
Jan.      9,  1788 
July    26,  1788 
Dec.    1  8,  1787 
Dec.    12,  1787 
Dec.      7,  1787 
April  28,  1788 
June  25,  1788 
Nov.  21,  1789 
May   23,  1788 
Jan.      2,  1788 

9,005 

8,315 
1,250 
4,990 
49,1/0 
7,8i5 
45,215 
2,050 
12,210 
42,450 
52,250 
30,570 
59,475 

Texas   

Wisconsin    

M.  nnesota  

New    York  

New   Jersey  

Pennsylvania    .... 
Delaware    

West  Virginia  .  .  . 

Maryland    

Nebraska  

North  Carolina.  .  . 
South   Carolina.  .  . 
Georgia    

Colorado   
North  Dakota   .  .  . 
South  Dakota  .... 

Washington  

Idaho   

Utah   

STATES 

When  Admitted 

Sq.    Miles 

Kentucky    

June         i,  1792 
March     4,  1791 
June         i,  1796 
Nov.       29,  1802 
April      30,   1812 
Dec.        n,  1816 
Dec.        10,   1817 
Dec.          3,   1818 
Dec.        14,   1819 
March    15,  1820 
Aug.       10,  1821 
June       15,  1836 
Jan.        26,  1837 
March      3,   1845 

40,400 
9,565 
42,050 
41,060 
48,720 
36,350 
46,810 
56,650 
52,250 
33,040 
69,415 
53,850 
58,915 
58,680 

Vermont   

TERRITORIES                                 Organized 

Ohio   

New  Mexico  ..    ..-  SM»*.  o-   1  8  eo 

Feb.  24,   1863 
June  30,   1834 
July    1  6,   1790 
Mar.     3,   1791 
July    27,   1868 
May     2,   1890 
July      6,   1898 
April  ii,   1899 
July      4,  1903 

District  of  Columbia  -1 

Alaska 

•Oklahoma  

Arkansas  

Hawaii    

Florida    

Philippine  Islands... 

OPERATION  OF  THE 
ENGLISH  GOVERNMENT 


_ .- 


THE  government  of  England  presents  several  anomalies  to  the  casual 
student:  it  is  a  monarchy  in  form,  but  a  republic  in  practice;  it 
is  conducted  with  reference  to  no  one  formal  organic  document, 
like  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  yet  the  principles  of  popular 
and  personal  rights,  supposedly  to  be  secured  by  such  an  instrument,  are 
jealously  and  effectively  conserved ;  it  retains  the  ancient  tradition  of  allow- 
ing a  hereditary  aristocracy,  represented  in  the  Upper  House  of  Parlia- 
ment, to  censor  all  laws  passed  in  the  House  of  Commons,  yet,  in  effect, 
the  popular  representatives  are  able  to  achieve  such  legislation  as  seems 
desirable;  it  maintains  an  established  church,  supported  by  taxation  and 
public  appropriations,  with  'c3  bishops  seated  in  the  House  of  Lords,  yet 
in  no  country  on  earth  is  religious  liberty  more  secure. 


THE  ADMINISTRATION   OF  THE  GOVERNMENT 


THE   FUNDAMENTAL   LAW 
HE   Constitution   of  England   is   found 

in  the  large  body  of  carefully  pre- 
served precedents  and  in  the  five  great  his- 
toric documents  that  define  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  English  liberty.  The  first  and 
most  notable  of  these  is  the  Magna  Char- 
ta,  signed  by  King  John  in  1215,  which 
grants  (i)  the  first  principles  of  represen- 
tative government,  in  the  formation  of 
Parliament  in  two  houses,  which  shall  pass 
upon  all  questions  of  taxation  and  the  mak- 
ing or  repealing  of  general  laws;  (2)  the 
right  of  each  man  to  a  fair  trial  by  a  compe- 
tent court  before  sentence  of  imprisonment, 
death,  or  forfeiture  of  property  is  imposed; 
(3)  trial  by  jury;  (4)  the  sanctity  of  jus- 
tice, against  delay  or  purchase.  These  princi- 
ples were  precisely  stated  under  sixty-three 
heads,  most  of  which  have  appeared  in  the 
Common  Law,  developed  in  later  times. 


The  second  great  document  is  the  Peti- 
tion of  Right,  formulated  in  1628,  which 
sets  forth  the  protest  of  Parliament  against 
sundry  abrogations  of  personal  rights  that 
had  been  practiced  during  the  centuries 
succeeding  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 

The  third  document  is  the  Habeas  Corpus 
Act,  dating  from  the  reign  of  Charles  II 
(1679),  which  still  further  contributed  to 
safeguarding  the  liberties  of  English  sub- 
jects by  providing  the  right  of  habeas  cor- 
pus, and  a  fair  and  adequate  trial  on  all 
charges  made  against  a  suspected  criminal. 

As  the  fourth  document  we  have  the  Bill 
of  Rights,  granted  by  William  and  Mary 
in  1689,  which  dealt  particularly  with  re- 
ligious liberties,  enacting  certain  principles 
looking  toward  the  preservation  of  Protes- 
tantism and  the  maintenance  on  the  throne 
of  rulers  of  the  reformed  faith.  To  this 
end,  many  of  the  principles  of  representa- 

(319) 


220 


OPERATION   OF   THE    ENGLISH   GOVERNMENT 


tive  government  were  reaffirmed  more  defi- 
nitely and  precisely. 

The  fifth  document,  the  Act  of  Settle- 
ment, formulated  on  the  accession  of  Wil- 
liam III  in  1701,  fixes  the  line  of  succession 
to  the  throne  with  the  Electress  Sophia  of 
Hanover  and  her  heirs,  as  the  nearest 
Protestant  descendants  of  the  Stuarts.  In 
attempting  to  still  more  firmly  establish  the 
liberties  of  the  English  people  against  the 
assumptions  of  the  Sovereigns,  it  enacts  that 
(l)  no  foreigner  shall  sit  in  Parliament 
nor  hold  office  under  the  Crown;  (2)  that 
the  King  shall  not  go  to  war  in  defence 
of  foreign  countries  without  the  permission 
of  Parliament;  (3)  that  the  King  shall  not 
pardon  any  official,  so  that  Parliament  shall 
be  unable  to  impeach  him. 

These  five  documents,  while  not  in  the 
precise  form  of  a  Constitution,  are  really 
sufficiently  extensive,  explicit  and  far-reach- 
ing in  their  provisions  to  serve  precisely 
the  same  end.  Furthermore,  so  far  as  the 
people  of  England  are  concerned,  they  have 
operated  eminently  well  to  the  preservation 
of  liberties  and  the  restraint  of  tyranny 
and  injustice  in  the  Sovereign  and  his 
ministers. 

THE  SOVEREIGN 

According  to  the  provisions  of  the  Act 
of  Settlement,  the  Sovereign  of  the  Brit- 
ish Empire,  ruling  under  the  title  of  King 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  Emperor 
of  India,  shall  be  a  direct  descendant  by 
the  eldest  line  of  the  Princess  Sophia  of 
Hanover,  a  Protestant  in  faith,  a  member 
of  the  Established  Church  of  England,  and 
married  only  to  a  Protestant.  On  account 
of  the  numerous  limitations  of  power  im- 
posed by  the  various  constitutional  acts 
already  mentioned,  and  by  the  customary 
disuse  of  other  rights  and  privileges,  such 
as  the  veto  power,  the  King  or  Queen  of 
Great  Britain  is  to  a  large  extent  a  figure- 
head. His  proper  sovereign  powers  are 
largely  delegated  to  his  ministers,  and  ex- 
ercised only  with  the  sanction  of  Parlia- 
ment. 

Although,  according  to  all  principles  and 
precedents,  he  has  the  sole  power  to  sum- 
mon, prorogue,  or  dissolve  Parliament,  even 
this  right  is  very  largely  exercised  with  the 
advice  and  on  the  responsibility  of  his  min- 
isters. He  is  required,  however,  to  deliver 
an  address  at  the  opening  of  Parliament, 
which  must  be  read  by  himself  or  some 
appointed  substitute.  Precedent  requires 
also  that  he  shall  sign  all  bills  passed  be- 
fore they  can  become  laws,  but,  as  a  gen- 


eral rule,  the  suggestions  of  the  ministry 
are  sufficient  to  secure  the  required  assent. 
Among  the  powers  still  exercised  freely 
by  the  Sovereign,  although  largely  in  con- 
sultation with  the  ministry,  is  the  right  to 
appoint  all  officers  of  the  Army  and  Navy, 
and  all  bishops  and  other  dignitaries  of 
the  Church  of  England,  and  the  right  of 
pardoning  criminals.  The  Sovereign  may 
not  be  removed  from  office  for  any  cause, 
and  the  ministers  are  responsible  for  his 
personal  conduct  in  all  respects. 

THE    PRIME    MINISTER 

The  really  active  and  responsible  head  of 
the  English  Government  is  the  Prime  Min- 
ister, who,  as  the  recognized  leader  of  his 
party  in  the  House  of  Commons,  succeeds 
to  the  office  on  the  downfall  of  the  oppos- 
ing forces,  through  failure  of  their  policy. 
Thus,  while  the  people  do  not  vote  directly 
for  the  Prime  Minister  or  any  other  ex- 
ecutive officer,  popular  sentiment,  expressed 
in  their  suffrage,  really  determines  who 
shall  succeed  to  the  office.  The  Sovereign, 
recognizing  the  choice  of  the  people,  ap- 
points the  recognized  leader  of  the  success- 
ful party  as  his  Prime  Minister. 

THE  CABINET 

The  Prime  Minister  succeeds  to  office 
along  with  a  number  of  other  ministers, 
or  secretaries,  who,  with  himself,  are  nom- 
inated and  recommended  by  the  dominant 
party  from  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  and 
confirmed  by  the  Sovereign. 

The  Cabinet  is,  in  fact,  a  direct  evolution 
of  the  Privy  Council,  which  has  been  rec- 
ognized as  the  body  of  advisers  to  the 
Sovereign,  often  to  the  detriment  of  popu- 
lar liberties,  since  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 
The  Privy  Council  was  always  a  rather 
loose  and  indefinite  body,  consisting  of 
members  of  the  Royal  Family,  the  high 
dignitaries  of  the  Church,  certain  lords  and 
exalted  officials,  and  persons  appointed  to 
the  title  of  Privy  Councillor  by  the  favor 
of  the  Sovereign.  The  entire  body  seldom 
met,  and  no  member  ever  attended  unless 
specially  summoned.  Since  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Cabinet  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  as  a  special  committee  of  the 
Privy  Council,  practically  all  its  functions 
have  been  taken  over,  and  the  body  has 
not  met  since  1839. 

The  Cabinet,  as  at  present  constituted, 
consists  of  seventeen  members  designated 
as  follows: 


OPERATION    OF   THE    ENGLISH    GOVERNMENT 


221 


1.  Prime  Minister  and  First  Lord  of  the 

Treasury. 

2.  Lord  High  Chancellor. 

3.  Lord  President  of  the  Council. 

4.  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 

5.  Secretary  of  the  Home  Department 

6.  Secretary  of  State  for  War. 

7.  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs. 

8.  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies. 

9.  Secretary  of  State  for  India. 

10.  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

11.  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland. 

12.  Chief  Secretary  of  the  Lord-Lieuten- 

ant of  Ireland. 

13.  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster. 

14.  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 

15.  Lord  of  the  Privy  Seal. 

16.  President   of   the   Local    Government 

Board. 

17.  President  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Each  of  them  conducts  the  affairs  of  his 
own  Department  so  long  as  he  is  supported 
by  Parliament,  but  is  obliged  to  resign  as 
soon  as  his  policy  fails  in  securing  the  ap- 
proval of  that  body.  Each  of  them  is  di- 
rectly responsible  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  the  inauguration  and  conduct  of 
any  lines  of  policy  that  may  be  adopted, 
and  continue  as  leaders  of  their  party  in 
the  House  only  so  long  as  their  measures 
are  successful. 

Although  the  Sovereign  has  not  sat  at 
meetings  of  the  Cabinet  since  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne;  he  is  theoretically  responsi- 
ble for  all  its  doings.  Practically,  however, 
the  responsibility  rests  in  the  members 
themselves,  and  through  them  in  Parlia- 
ment, to  which  they  are  responsible. 

PARLIAMENT 

The  English  Parliament  consists  of  two 
Houses — the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House 
of  Commons. 

Members  of  the  House  of  Lords  are 
drawn  (i)  from  the  peers  of  the  realm, 
either  such  as  inherit  their  titles  or  such 
as  are  created  by  the  Sovereign;  (2)  from 
the  bishops  of  the  Church,  who  have  seats 
in  the  House  by  virtue  of  their  office ;  (3) 
from  the  Irish  and  Scotch  peers ;  the  former 


elected  for  life  and  the  latter  for  the  dura- 
tion of  the  Parliament. 

The  presiding  officer  of  the  House  of 
Lords  is  the  Lord  High  Chancellor,  and, 
although  the  membership  is  between  500 
and  600,  a  quorum  may  be  constituted 
with  three  members  including  the  Presid- 
ing Officer. 

The  functions  of  this  body  are  to  review 
and  revise  all  laws  passed  by  the  House  of 
Commons,  except  laws  relating  to  public 
revenue  and  expenditure,  which  must  be 
passed  or  rejected  without  amendment. 
Special  committees  are  appointed  from 
among  its  members  to  inquire  into  special 
matters  that  can  not  be  referred  to  the 
whole  House.  It  also  acts  as  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Appeal  in  all  causes  that  are 
qualified  to  come  before  it. 

THE    HOUSE    OF    COMMONS 

The  Lower  House  of  the  British  Parlia- 
ment, known  as  the  House  of  Commons,  is 
composed  of  about  700  members  elected  by 
popular  ballot  from  the  various  districts 
of  England.  Each  member  must  be  at 
least  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  can  not 
be  a  clergyman,  an  English  or  Scottish 
peer,  or  the  incumbent  of  any  one  of 
several  specified  local  and  government  of- 
fices. The  term  of  office  is  seven  years, 
although  this  time  is  seldom  served  by  any 
one  member  after  one  election,  since  Par- 
liament is  generally  dissolved  before  its 
expiration,  thus  necessitating  a  new  elec- 
tion. 

The  presiding  officer,  or  Speaker,  is 
elected  by  the  majority  of  the  members 
from  among  their  number.  A  quorum  is 
constituted  by  forty  members,  including 
this  officer. 

The  House  of  Commons  acts  under  the 
direction  of  the  Ministry,  subject  to  the 
reports  of  its  own  select  committees,  speci- 
ally appointed  to  inquire  into  proposed 
measures.  It  may  originate  and  pass  any 
measure  of  law  in  concurrence  with  the 
House  of  Lords,  but  all  bills  relating  to 
taxation  and  the  granting  of  supplies  must 
be  originated  by  this  body,  and  can  not  be 
revised  by  the  Upper  House. 


15 


222 


OPERATION    OF   THE    ENGLISH   GOVERNMENT 


A  TABLE  OF  THE  KINGS  AND  QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND 


Name 

SAXONS    AND    DANES 

Acces- 
sion 

Died 

839 
858 
860 
866 
871 
901 
925 
940 
946 
955 
958 
975 
979 
1016 
1016 
1035 
1040 
1042 
1066 
1066 

1087 

IIOO 

"35 
"54 

1189 
"99 
1216 
1272 
1307 
1327 
1377 

Dep.  1399 

1413 
1422 
Dep.  1461 

1483 
1483 
1485 

1509 
1547 
1553 

1558 
1603 

Age 

Reigned 

827 
837 
858  1 
858  » 
866 
871 
901 
925 
940 
946 
955 
958 
975 
979 
1016 
1017 
'035 
1040 
1042 
1066 

1066 
1087 

I  100 

1135 

"54     ' 
1189 
"99 
1216 

1272 
1307 
1327 

1377 

1399 
1413 
1422 

1461 
1483 
1483 

1485 
I5<>9 
1547 

1553 
te  c8 

52 
46 

23 

20 

3i 
17 

28 
40 

64 

60 
43 
67 

49 

56 
42 
Si 
65 
67 
43 
65 

33 

46 
34 
49 

4i 

12 

33 

52 

55 
16 

42 
69 

12 

«9 

2 

8 

5 
30 
24 
»5 
6 
9 
3 
17 
4 
37 
i 
18 
5 

2 
24 

o 

21 

13 
35 

19 

35 

10 

'7 
56 
35 
20 
50 

22 

'4 
9 
39 

23 
0 

2 

24 
38 

6 

5 
45 

ETHELWULF     

1P,THKI,BAIJ>        ..,,,,. 

Son  of  Ethel  wulf  

ETHELRED     

Third  son  of  Ethelwulf                            .  • 

ALFRED     

EDWARD  THE  ELDER.... 
ATHELSTAN     

EDMUND    

EDHED    
EDWY    

Brother    of    Edmund  

EDGAR    

EDWARD  THE  MARTYR.. 
ETHELRED    II  

Son     of     Edgar  

EDMUNB    IRONSIDE  

Eldest   son    of    Ethelred  

CANUTE   

By   conquest   and   election  

HAROLD  I  

Son    of   Canute  

EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR 
HAROLD  II  

WILLIAM   I  

Son  of  Ethelred  II  

Brother-in-law  of  Edward  

THE    HOUSE    OF    NORMANDY 
Obtained   the   Crown   by  conquest  

WILLIAM  II  
HENRY    I  

Third  son  of  William  I  
Youngest   son   of  William   I  

STEPHEN  

Third  son  of  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois,  by 
Adela,  fourth  daughter  of  William  1... 

THE  HOUSE  OF  PLANTAGENET 

Son  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  by  Matilda, 
only  daughter  of  Henry  I  

HENRY    II  

JOHN     
HENRY    III   .    . 

Sixth  and  youngest  son  of  Henry  II.... 

EDWARD  I  

Eldest  son  of  Henry  III  

EDWARD    II  

Eldest  surviving  son  of  Edward   I  

EDWARD    III  

Eldest   son   of   Edward   II  

RICHARD    II  

Son  of  the  Black  Prince,  eldest  son  of 
Edward    III  

HENRY    IV  

THE  HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER 

Son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  fourth  son  of  Ed- 
Ward   III  

HENRY  V.  . 

Eldest  son  of  Henry  IV  

HENRY    VI  

Only  son  of  Henry  V.    (Died   1471).... 

THE  HOUSE  OF  YORK 

His  grandfather  was  Richard,  son  of  Ed- 
mund,   fifth    son    of    Edward   III;    and 
his     grandmother,     Anne,     was     great- 
granddaughter   of  Lionel,   third  son   of 
Edward  III  

EDWARD  IV  

Eldest    son   of   Edward    IV  

RICHARD   III  

Younger   brother  of   Edward   IV  

HENRY    VII     

THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR 

Son  of  Edmund,  eldest  son  of  Owen  Tu- 
dor,   by    Katharine,    widow    of    Henry 
V;     his     mother,     Margaret     Beaufort, 
was    great-granddaughter    of    John     of 

HENRY  VIII     

EDWARD    VI  

Son  of  Henry  VIII    by  Jane  Seymour.  . 
Daughter    of    Henry    VIII    by    Katherine 

MARY   I  

ELIZABETH    . 

DaiiffVifpr  nf  flrnrv  VTTT    tiv   Antw  Bnlpvn 

OPERATION    OF   THE    ENGLISH    GOVERNMENT 


223 


A    TABLE    OF    THE    KINGS    AND    QUEENS    OF    ENGLAND— (continued) 


Name 

THE   HOUSE   OF   STUART 

Son    of    Mary    Queen    of    Scots,    grand- 
.  daughter     of     James     IV     and      Mar- 
garet, daughter  of  Henry  VII  

Acces- 
sion 

Died 

Age 

Reigned 

JAMES    I  

1603 
1625 

1649 
i6S3 
1658 

1660 
1685 

1689 
1702 

1714 
1727 
1760 
1820 
1830 

1837 
1901 

1625 
1649 

1658 
Res.  1659 

1685 
Dep.  1688 
Dec.  1701 

1702 
1694 
1714 

1727 
1760 
1820 
1830 
1837 

1901 

58 
48 

59 

54 
68 

Si 

32 

49 

67 
77 
82 
68 
72 

82 

22 

24 

25 
3 

13 
6 

12 

I 

33 
60 
10 
7 

64 

COMMONWEALTH     

CHARLES   II  
JAMES    II  

Richard   Cromwell,   Lord   Protector  

THE    HOUSE    OF    STUART—  Restored 

Eldest  son  of  Charles  I  
Second  son  of  Charles  I  (died  Sept.  16,1701) 
(Interregnum,  Dec.  1  1  ,  1  688  —  Feb.  13,1  689) 
Son    of   William,    Prince    of    Orange,    by 
Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  I  

WILLIAM   III  

and 

GEORGE    I  

THE    HOUSE    OF    HANOVER 

Son    of   Elector   of   Hanover,    by    Sophia, 
daughter     of     Elizabeth,     daughter     of 
James  I  

GEORGE  II  

GEORGE    III  

GEORGE  IV  

Eldest  son   of  George   III 

WILLIAM    IV  

VICTORIA  

Daughter    of    Edward,    fourth    son    of 
George    III  

EDWARD   VII  

Eldest  son  of  Victoria 

SOVEREIGNS    OF    SCOTLAND    FROM    A.D.  1057  TO   THE   UNION    OF 

THE    CROWNS 


NAMES 


BEGAN    TO    REIGN 


NAMES 


BEGAN    TO    REIGN 


057,  Apr. 
092,  Nov. 
094,  May 
095,  Nov. 
097,  Sept. 
107,  Jan.     8 
124,  Apr.  27 
153,  May  24 
165,  Dec.     9 
214,  Dec.     4 
249,  July     8 
286,  Mar.  19 
292,  Nov.  17 
306,  Mar.  27 
120.  Tune     7 

Roberf  II   (Stuart)  

Robert    III    

James   I    

James    II    

Edgar  

James   III    

1460,  Aug.     3 

Alexander  I   '.  —  . 
David   I    

James    IV    
James  V    
Mary    

1488,  June  n 
1513,  Sept.     9 

William  (The   Lion)    

Francis   and    Mary    

1  558,  Apr.  24 

Mary    

Henry  and  Mary   

1  565,  July  29 

Margaret  i 
John  (Balliol)  i 

Mary     
James  VI  

1567,  Feb.   10 

Robert  I  (Bruce)  '  i 

(Ascended  the   throne  of 
March  24.    1601.) 

England  as  James  I., 

David  II    . 

WELSH    SOVEREIGNS    OR    PRINCES— A.D.  840  TO  1282 


Roderic   the    Great    840 

Anarawd,    son   of   Roderic    877 

Howel  Dha,  the  Good 943 

Jefan    and    Jago    948 

Howel  ap  Jefan,  the  Bad   972 

Cadwallon,    his   brother    984 

Meredith  ap  Owen  ap  Howel  Dha   985 

Idwal  ap  Meyric  ap   Edwal   Voel    992 

Llewelyn  ap  Sitsylht  1015 

lago  ap  Idwal  ap  Meyric 1023 

Griffith  ap  Llewelyn  ap  Sitsylht.     Killed  ....  1039 


Bleddyn 1063 

Trahaern  ap  Caradoc   1073 

Griffith   ap  Cynan    1079 

Owain    Gwynedd    1136 

David  ap  Owain  Gwynedd    1 169 

Llewelyn    the   Great    H94 

David  ap  Llewelyn    1240 

Llewelyn  ap  Griffith,  last  Prince,   1246;  slain  1282 
Edward    of   Carnarvon,    afterward    King    Ed- 
ward II  of  England;  born 1284 

Created  Prince  of  Wales    1301 


r Tin  Tin  mi  11  n  ii  ii  nil  mi  1111  iiiui  ir  ll  mill  11 11 11  iiJi  ii  11 11 1111 1111 1111 1111 11  im  ii  11  ii  mill  ii  im  1111  mi  mill 


OPERATION  OF  THE 
FRENCH  GOVERNMENT 


THE  present  government  of  France  is  republican,  under  the  provisions 
of  the  Constitution  adopted  February  25,  1875.  Historically  speak- 
ing, the  present  order  is  known  as  the  "Third  Republic,"  and,  as 
such,  succeeded  to  power  on  the  downfall  of  the  "Second  Empire"  in  1870. 
After  numerous  difficulties  and  continued  oppositions  from  the  monarchical 
parties,  the  Constitution  was  finally  adopted,  and,  with  a  number  of  emen- 
dations and  changes  made  in  succeeding  years,  still  continues  to  be  the 
organic  law  of  France. 

The  French  Constitution  relates  almost  wholly  to  the  nature,  powers, 
and  manner  of  election  of  government  officers ;  all  these  points  being  most 
elaborately  developed,  in  order  to  prevent  the  slightest  miscarriage  or 
irregularity  that  might  give  opportunity  to  the  persistent  opponents  of 
the  republican  form  of  government. 

In  order  to  revise  and  amend  the  Constitution,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies,  the  two  Chambers  of  the  National  Leg- 
islature, shall  meet  as  one  body  to  deliberate  the  matter,  under  the  title 
of  the  "National  Assembly."  This  body  can  meet,  however,  only  after 
the  joint  vote  of  both  Houses,  or  Chambers,  has  declared  that  revision  or 
emendation  is  desirable. 


THE  PRESIDENT 

THE  President  of  the  French  Republic 
must  be  a  citizen  of  France  and  unre- 
lated by  birth  with  any  family  that  has  ever 
occupied  the  French  throne.  He  is  elected 
for  a  term  of  seven  years  by  the  National 
Assembly,  which  is  formed  by  the  two 
Chambers  sitting  together  for  the  purpose. 
Once  elected,  he  can  not  l»e  removed,  un- 
less impeached  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
and  tried  on  the  charge  of  high  treason  be- 
(224) 


fore  the  Senate.  In  case  of  his  death,  re- 
moval, or  resignation,  executive  duties  are 
discharged  by  the  Council  of  Ministers,  or 
Cabinet,  until  the  National  Assembly  has 
elected  a  successor. 

The  duties  and  capacities  of  the  French 
President  include  supreme  command  of  the 
Army  and  Navy  of  the  Republic;  the  mak- 
ing of  appointments  and  removals,  each 
such  act,  however,  requiring  the  counter- 
signature  of  the  Minister  whose  Depart- 


OPERATION    OF   THE    FRENCH    GOVERNMENT 


225 


ment  is  concerned;  the  making  of  treaties, 
alliances,  and  commercial  agreements,  and 
the  granting  of  pardons.  He  must  also 
sign  all  bills  passed  by  the  Chambers — the 
counter-signature  of  one  of  the  Ministers 
being  required  in  every  case — but,  instead 
of  the  veto  power  possessed  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  he  can  only 
demand  reconsideration  of  any  measure  by 
the  Chambers. 

The  President  has  power  to  adjourn  the 
sessions  of  the  Chambers  at  any  time  for 
not  more  than  one  month.  He  can  also 
call  extraordinary  sessions,  when  occasion 
demands,  and  order  extra  sessions  at  his 
discretion.  After  the  regular  session  of 
the  Chambers  has  lasted  five  months,  he 
can  close  it,  and,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Senate,  can  dissolve  the  Deputies  at  any 
time;  thus  necessitating  a  new  election, 
which  he  can  direct  at  discretion.  He  can 
not  dissolve  the  Senate,  however,  his  action 
in  regard  to  the  Deputies  merely  closing 
the  Senatorial  session,  without  terminating 
its  life.  He  may  suggest  legislation  in  a 
message  read  at  the  opening  of  the  Cham- 
bers by  one  of  the  Ministers. 

According  to  the  wording  of  the  Con- 
stitution, "The  President  of  the  Republic 
has  the  initiative  of  the  laws,  concurrently 
with  the  members  of  the  two  Chambers. 
He  promulgates  the  laws  when  they  have 
been  voted  by  the  two  Chambers :  he  looks 
after  and  sees  to  their  execution.  He  has 
the  right  of  pardon ;  amnesty  can  be  granted 
by  law  only.  He  disposes  of  the  armed 
force.  He  appoints  to  all  civil  and  mili- 
tary positions.  He  presides  over  national 
festivals ;  envoys  and  ambassadors  of  for- 
eign powers  are  accredited  to  him.  Every 
act  of  the  President  of  the  Republic  must 
be  countersigned  by  a  Minister." 

THE    COUNCIL    OF    MINISTERS 

The  Cabinet  or  Council  of  Ministers 
forms  the  second  department  of  the  Ex- 
ecutive, sharing  with  the  President  in  the 
administration  of  the  laws  and  public  af- 
fairs of  the  Nation.  It  has  eleven  mem- 
bers chosen  by  the  President,  generally 
from  the  Chambers,  and  these,  as  mem- 
bers of  the  Cabinet,  are  recognized  as 
leaders  in  the  Chambers  with  special  priv- 
ileges in  debate;  as  members  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ministers,  they  conduct  the  affairs 
falling  in  the  jurisdiction  of  their  several 
departments.  According  to  precedent,  the 
President  may  appear  in  the  Chambers, 
although  since  the  administration  of  Presi- 


dent Thiers,  who  took  active  part  in  the 
debates  on  restoring  the  monarchy,  the 
Ministers  alone  have  represented  the  Ex- 
ecutive in  the  legislative  body. 

The  members  of  the  Council  preside  over 
the  following  departments: 


1.  Department 

2.  Department 

3.  Department 

4.  Department 

5.  Department 

Worship. 

6.  Department 

onies. 

7.  Department 

8.  Department 

9.  Department 

10.  Department 

11.  Department 


of  War. 

of  Foreign  Affairs, 
of  Finance, 
of  Public  Instruction, 
of    Justice    and    Public 

of  Marine  and  the  Col- 

of  Public  Works. 

of  Agriculture. 

of  Commerce. 

of  the  Interior. 

of  Posts  and  Telegraphs. 


The  President  has  a  seat  in  all  the  meet- 
ings of  the  Council  of  Ministers,  shaping 
and  directing  the  policy  of  administration; 
although  the  Ministers  are  not  responsible 
to  him,  but  "jointly  and  severally  to  the 
Chambers  for  the  policy  of  the  Govern- 
ment, and  individually  for  their  personal 
acts."  If  the  policy  of  the  Ministers  is 
not  sustained  by  the  Chambers,  their  resig- 
nations must  be  submitted. 

In  addition  to  the  Cabinet,  the  President 
appoints  the  Council  of  State,  composed  of 
Councillors,  Masters  of  Requests,  and  Au- 
ditors, and  presided  over  by  the  Minister 
of  Justice.  Its  members  "may  be  dismissed 
only  by  decree  rendered  in  the  Council  of 
Ministers."  This  latter  body  has  the  duty 
of  advising  on  all  matters  of  law,  admin- 
istrative by-laws,,  and  regulations,  submitted 
either  by  the  Chambers  or  the  Executive, 
and  its  decision  is  final  in  all  disputes  on 
these  points. 

THE   CHAMBERS 

The  two  Chambers  are  the  Senate  and 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

According  to  the  provisions  of  the  Con- 
stitution, "the  Senate  consists  of  300  mem- 
bers; 225  elected  by  the  Departments  and 
Colonies  and  75  elected  by  the  National 
Assembly. 

"No  one  can  be  Senator  unless  he  is  a 
French  citizen,  forty  years  of  age  at  least, 
and  enjoying  civil  and  political  rights." 

The  term  of  office  is  nine  years,  but  the 
rotation  is  so  arranged  that  one-third  of 
the  members  shall  retire  every  three  years. 

The  business  of  the  Senate  is  largely  in 
the  hands  of  Bureaux,  which  are  chosen 


226 


OPERATION    OF   THE    FRENCH   GOVERNMENT 


monthly  by  lot  to  appoint  all  special  com- 
mittees on  bills  and  measures,  except  such 
as  are  directly  elected  by  the  full  mem- 
bership for  special  purposes. 

The  Senate  also  chooses  its  own  presid- 
ing officer,  known  as  the  President,  and 
its  Vice-Presidents  and  other  officers.  Its 
quorum  is  a  majority  of  members.  Its 
duties  are  to  originate  all  legislative  meas- 
ures, except  bills  relating  to  revenue,  ap- 
propriations, etc.,  in  which  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  must  take  the  initiative,  and  in 
reviewing  and  amending  all  acts  passed  by 
the  Deputies. 

THE  CHAMBER   OF  DEPUTIES 

Members  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
are  elected  from  each  Department  of  France, 
and  from  several  of  the  Colonies  by  popu- 


lar vote;  the  regulation  specifying  one 
deputy  for  each  70,000  inhabitants.  The 
term  of  office  is  four  years. 

To  be  eligible  to  this  body  the  sole  re- 
quirements are  that  a  man  shall  be  a  citi- 
zen of  France  and  at  least  twenty-five  years 
of  age. 

Like  the  Senate,  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties chooses  its  own  parliamentary  officers, 
and  delegates  the  business  of  its  special 
committees  to  bureaux,  which  are  monthly 
chosen  by  lot.  It  may  originate  and  pass, 
concurrently  with  the  Senate,  all  bills  on 
public  matters,  but  is  required  by  law  to 
originate  all  measures  relating  to  finance 
and  appropriations.  It  may  bring  charges 
against  the  President  of  the  Republic,  but 
only  the  Senate  can  act  as  a  court  to 
try  him. 


FRENCH  DYNASTIES  AND  SOVEREIGNS 


The  Merovingians 
Hairy,"     King    of    the 


Salic 


Clovis,     "The 
Franks... 
Childeric  III,  last  of  the  race 

The  Carlovingians 

Pepin,  "The  Short,"  son  of  Charles  Martel.. 
Charlemagne,  The  Great,  Emperor  of  the  West 
Louis  V,  "The  Indolent,"  last  of  the  race... 

The  Capets 
Hugh  Capet,  "The  Great" 

Louis  IX,   "St.   Louis" 

Charles  IV,  "The  Handsome" 


428 
737 


75* 
768 
986 


The  House  of      Valois 

Philip  VI  de  Valois,  "The  Fortunate" 

Henry  III,  last  of  the  race 

The  House  of  Bourbon 
Henry  IV,  "The  Great,"  King  of  Navarre... 

Louis   XIII,    "The  Just" 

Louis  XIV,  "The  Great,"  Dieudonne 

Louis  XV,  "The  Well-beloved" 

Louis  XVI  (guillotined  January  21,  1793)... 
Louis  XVII    (never  reigned) 

The  First  Republic 

The  National  Convention  first  sat. .  .Sept.  21, 
The  Directory  nominated Nov.  I, 

The  Consulate 
Bonaparte,  CambaceVes,  and  Lebrun.  ..Dec.  24, 

Bonaparte,  Consul   for   10  years May  6, 

Bonaparte,  Consul  for  Life Aug.  2, 


987 
1226 
1322 

1328 
IS74 

1589 
1610 
1643 
1715 
1774 
1793 


1792 
1795 


1799 
1802 
1802 


The  Empire 

Napoleon  I  decreed  Emperor May  18,   1804 

Napoleon  II  (never  reigned)  died. ..  .July  23,  1832 

The  Restoration 

Louis  XVIII  re-entered  Paris May  3,  1814 

Charles   X   (deposed  July  30,    1830,  died  No- 
vember 6,   1836) 1824 

Heir-expectant,    Henry,    Comte    de   Chambord 

Sept.  29,   1820 

The  House  of  Orleans 

Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the  French 1830 

(Abdicated  Feb.  24,  1848,  died  Aug.  26,  1850.) 
Heir-apparent,  Comte  de  Paris,  born.  .Aug.  24,   1838 

The  Second  Republic 

Provisional  Government  formed Feb.  22,  1848 

Louis  Napoleon  elected  President. ..  .Dec.  10,  1848 

The  Second  Empire 

Napoleon  III  elected  Emperor Nov.  22,  185* 

(Deposed  Sept.  4,   1870,  died  Jan.  9,   1873.) 

The  Third  Republic 

Committee  of  Public  Defence Sept.  4,  1870 

L.  A.   Thiers  elected  President Aug.  31,  1871 

Marshal  MacMahon  elected  President .  May  24,  1873 

Jules  GreVy  elected  President Jan.  30,   1879 

Sadi   Carnot   elected    President Dec.  3,   1887 

Casimir-Perier  elected  President June  27,   i?9< 

Felix  Faure  elected  President Jan.   17,   1895 

Emile  Loubet  elected    President Feb.  18, 


OPERATION  OF  THE 
GERMAN  GOVERNMENT 


ALTHOUGH,  previous  to  the  establishment  of  the  modern  German 
Empire  in  1871,  the  various  states  and  cities  of  Germany  had  been 
accustomed  for  several  centuries  to  send  representatives  to  the 
general  diets  and  had  formed  themselves  into  a  Confederation  for  offensive 
and  defensive  purposes,  there  was  no  organic  unity  among  them  that  should 
constitute  an  undivided  German  nation.  Each  state,  as  also  several  of 
the  more  important  cities,  continued  to  be  ruled  by  its  own  independent 
and  supreme  sovereign.  At  the  end  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  how- 
ever, the  long-contemplated  end,  of  an  organic  empire,  was  finally  attained, 
with  the  King  of  Prussia  as  its  President,  under  the  title  of  Emperor 
(Kaiser). 

While  the  Emperor  was  proclaimed  supreme  ruler  of  Germany,  under 
the  provisions  of  the  Agreements  of  Federation  formally  adopted  at  Ver- 
sailles on  January  18,  1871,  the  rulers  of  the  several  German  states,  such 
as  Bavaria,  Wiirtemburg,  Baden,  Hesse,  etc.,  were  still  recognized  as  sov- 
ereigns possessed  of  a  considerable  measure  of  independence.  In  this 
respect  the  federation  of  the  German  Empire  resembles  that  of  the  several 
States  of  the  American  Union,  whose  sovereignty  is  still  affirmed,  in  spite 
of  the  indissolubleness  of  their  alliance.  The  territory  included  in  the 
German  Empire  covers  the  states  of  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wiirtem- 
burg, Baden,  Hesse,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Saxe- Weimar,  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  Oldenburg,  Brunswick,  Saxe-Meiningen,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha,  Anhalt,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  Schwarzburg-Sonderhau- 
sen,  Waldeck,  Reuss,  Schaumburg-Lippe,  Lippe,  Lubeck,  Bremen,  Ham- 
burg. 

The  federal  government  of  all  these  states  and  cities  is  formulated  in 
the  Constitution  issued  by  imperial  proclamation  April  16,  1871.  It  con- 
tains fourteen  chapters  and  seventy-seven  articles.  Its  chapters  deal  with 
the  following  subjects :  (i)  Territory;  (2)  Legislation;  (3)  Federal  Coun- 
cil; (4)  The  Presidium;  (5)  The  Diet;  (6)  Customs  and  Commerce;  (7) 
Railways;  (8)  Mails  and  Telegraphs;  (9)  Marine  and  Navigation;  (10) 
Consular  Affairs;  (n)  Military  Affairs;  (12)  Finances;  (13)  Settlement 
of  Disputes;  (14)  General  Provision  for  revising  the  Constitution. 

(237) 


228 


OPERATION    OF   THE    GERMAN    GOVERNMENT 


DEPARTMENTS  AND  POWERS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT 


THE    EMPEROR 

THE  Chief  Magistrate,  or  President,  of 
the  German  Empire  is  the  King  of 
Prussia,  who  holds  office  for  life  by  virtue 
of  inheritance,  under  the  title  of  Emperor. 
He  is  irresponsible  and  can  not  be  removed 
or  impeached  for  any  cause  whatsoever. 

By  virtue  of  his  office  the  Emperor  is 
the  federal  representative  of  the  Empire, 
and  is  empowered  to  conclude  peace,  make 
treaties  and  other  alliances  with  foreign 
powers,  without  reference  to  the  legislative 
assemblies,  except  in  such  matters  as  con- 
cern customs  duties,  commerce,  and  im- 
posts, which  constitutionally  fall  under  the 
surveillance  of  the  representatives.  The 
Emperor  can  also  declare  war  on  any  for- 
eign power  that  has  made  an  attack  on  the 
coasts  or  territory  of  the  Empire,  but  for 
an  offensive  war  the  consent  of  the  Bun- 
desrath  is  required.  He  is  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  entire  military  and  naval 
forces  of  the  Empire,  and  has  supreme 
control  over  their  organization  and  equip- 
ment. He  is  particularly  authorized  to 
maintain  the  Army  at  its  full  strength  and 
to  select  suitable  places  for  garrisons  and 
fortifications,  as  well  as  to  control  the  ap- 
pointment and  transfer  of  officers,  accord- 
ing to  his  own  judgment. 

The  Emperor  has  the  right  to  appoint 
the  Chancellor  of  the  Empire  and  any  civil 
officers.  He  may  also  discharge  the  Chan- 
cellor, and,  with  the  counter-signature  of 
that  officer,  may  remove  any  other  official. 
He  has  the  power  to  grant  pardons;  may 
declare  martial  law,  whenever  necessary 
in  his  opinion,  and  may  summon,  open,  ad- 
journ, and  close  the  two  Houses  of  the 
Legislature,  or  dissolve  the  Reichstag,  with 
the  advice  or  consent  of  the  Bundesrath. 

In  the  matter  of  legislation  he  has  the 
right  of  promulgating  or  giving  necessary 
authority  to  any  bills  passed  by  the  two 
Houses  of  the  Imperial  Legislature.  While 
the  right  of  veto  is  not  definitely  accorded, 
he  may  refrain  from  promulgating  any 
law,  on  the  ground  that  it  involves  a 
change  in  the  Constitution,  unless  it  has 
been  passed  by  forty-five  out  of  the  total 
of  fifty-eight  votes  in  the  Bundesrath. 

THE   CHANCELLOR 

The  responsible  administrative  head  of 
the  German  Empire  is  the  Chancellor,  who 
is  appointed  by  the  Emperor  and  retained 


in  office  at  his  pleasure  solely,  not  being 
removable  by  legislative  action.  In  one 
aspect  his  duties  closely  resemble  those  of 
the  English  Prime  Minister,  but  he  does 
not  form  a  cabinet,  and  is  also  presiding 
officer  in  the  Bundesrath. 

The  Chancellor  must  be  one  of  the 
seventeen  Prussian  representatives  in  the 
Bundesrath,  in  which  he  represents  the 
Emperor  as  King  of  Prussia.  He  con- 
trols all  the  departments  of  the  Govern- 
ment through  a  central  bureau ;  superin- 
tends the  administration  of  laws  in  the 
various  states;  and  renders  an  annual  bud- 
get and  an  account  of  the  condition  of  the 
Empire  to  the  Reichstag. 

THE    BUNDESRATH 

The  Upper  House  of  the  Imperial  Ger- 
man Legislature  is  known  as  the  Bundes- 
rath, which  word  is  best  to  be  translated 
Federal  Council.  This  body  consists  of 
fifty-eight  members  from  all  the  States  of 
Germany,  apportioned  as  follows:  seventeen 
members  from  Prussia,  including  Hanover, 
the  Electorate  of  Hesse,  Holstein,  Nassau, 
and  Frankfort;  six  from  Bavaria;  four  each 
from  Saxony  and  Wurtemburg;  three  each 
from  Baden  and  Hesse;  two  each  from 
Brunswick  and  Mecklenburg- Schwerin,  and 
one  each  from  the  remaining  seventeen 
States.  These  members  are  not  elected, 
but  are  appointed  by  the  Kings  or  other 
rulers  in  their  several  States. 

In  the  Reichstag,  as  in  other  branches 
of  the  Government,  the  ascendency  of  Prus- 
sia is  maintained.  The  Imperial  Chancel- 
lor is  its  chairman,  and,  at  a  regular  meet- 
ing, himself  or  his  accredited  representa- 
tive constitutes  a  quorum  for  the  trans- 
action of  business.  In  case  of  a  tie  in 
the  voting  on  any  question,  the  decision  is 
given  to  Prussia,  whose  representatives  are 
required  to  cast  an  undivided  vote.  The 
Chancellor  votes  with  the  other  Prussian 
representatives. 

The  business  of  the  Bundesrath  is  largely 
divided  among  seven  permanent  committees, 
which  are  annually  appointed  by  the  Coun- 
cil from  among  its  own  members;  except 
those  on  the  Army  and  Navy,  whose  mem- 
bers are  chosen  by  the  Emperor  himself, 
always  appointing  one  Bavarian  to  the 
former.  No  other  restrictions  as  to  mem- 
bership are  prescribed,  except  that  each 
committee  must  contain  representatives  of 


OPERATION    OF   THE    GERMAN    GOVERNMENT 


229 


at  least  four  of  the  German  States.  These 
permanent  committees  are  (i)  on  the  army; 
(2)  on  the  navy;  (3)  on  duties  and  taxes; 
(4)  on  commerce  and  trade;  (5)  on  rail- 
roads, post-offices,  and  telegraphs;  (6)  on 
the  judiciary;  (7)  on  accounts.  In  addi- 
tion, there  is  an  annually  elected  commit- 
tee on  foreign  affairs,  to  be  composed  of 
the  plenipotentiary  representatives  of  Ba- 
varia, Saxony,  and  Wiirtemburg,  and  of 
two  other  States. 

The  duties  of  the  Bundesrath  include 
the  origination  of  bills  to  be  sent  to  the 
Reichstag  in  the  name  of  the  Emperor. 
The  particular  departments  affected  by  its 
deliberations  are  (i)  measures  proposed 
by  or  to  be  submitted  to  the  Reichstag; 
(2)  general  provisions  for  the  execution  of 
laws  thoughout  the  Empire;  (3)  measures 
looking  to  the  remedying  of  defects  in  ex- 
isting laws.  By  a  wise  provision,  all  bills 
of  local  application  are  voted  on  only  by 
representatives  of  the  interested  States. 

THE   REICHSTAG 

The  Lower  House  of  the  German  Im- 
perial Legislature  is  known  as  the  Reichs- 
tag, which  is  by  translation  the  Imperial 
Diet.  It  consists  of  representatives  from 


every  German  State,  elected  by  popular 
suffrage  and  apportioned  at  the  ratio  of 
one  to  every  100,000  inhabitants.  To  be 
eligible  to  the  Reichstag  a  candidate  must 
be  at  least  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and 
have  resided  at  least  one  year  in  the  State 
he  is  to  represent. 

For  the  transaction  of  business  the  mem- 
bers are  divided  by  lot  into  seven  sections, 
from  which  select  committees  are  appointed, 
as  required.  There  are  no  permanent  com- 
mittees. The  president  and  other  officers 
are  elected  by  the  members,  and  a  quorum 
for  business  must  always  be  a  majority. 

The  Reichstag  has  power  to  originate 
bills  and  to  pass  laws  in  concurrence  with 
the  Bundesrath;  a  majority  of  votes  being 
always  essential  to  the  passage  of  a  meas- 
ure. Its  concurrence  in  a  number  of  laws 
is  required  by  the  Constitution,  and  it  may 
withhold  its  sanction  to  such  measures  by 
majority  vote.  It  is  also  allowed  to  in- 
quire into  certain  matters  of  administra- 
tion, among  which  are  questions  of  trade, 
customs,  weights  and  measures,  banking, 
railroads,  navigation,  postal  and  telegraph 
affairs,  judicial  administration  and  the  ex- 
ecution of  sentences,  the  Army  and  Navy, 
the  press,  trade  unions,  etc.,  etc. 


DESCRIPTIVE  ASTRONOMY 


A>TRONOMY  (from  the  Greek,  astron,  a  star,  and  nomos,  a  law) 
is,  comprehensively,  that  science  which  explains  the  nature  and 
motions  of  the  bodies  filling  infinite  space,  including  our  own 
globe,  in  its  character  of  a  planet  or  member  of  the  solar  system.  The 
science  may  be  divided  into  two  departments — i.  Descriptive  Astronomy, 
or  an  account  of  the  systems  of  bodies  occupying  space;  2.  Mechanical 
Astronomy,  or  an  explanation  of  the  physical  laws  which  have  produced 
and  which  sustain  the  arrangements  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  of  all  the 
various  results  of  the  arrangement  and  relations  of  these  bodies.  Ura- 
nography  is  a  subordinate  department  of  the  science,  presenting  an  account 
of  the  arrangements  which  have  been  made  by  astronomers  for  delineating 
the  starry  heavens  and  working  the  many  mathematical  problems  of  which 
they  are  the  subject. 


THE   PLANETS,  SATELLITES,  AND   FIXED   STARS 


THE  field  contemplated  by  the  astrono- 
mer is  no  less  than  INFINITE  SPACE. 
So,  at  least,  he  may -well  presume  space  to 
be,  seeing  that  every  fresh  power  which  he 
adds  to  his  telescope  allows  him  to  pene- 
trate into  remoter  regions  of  it,  and  still 
there  is  no  end.  In  this  space,  systems, 
consisting  of  suns  and  revolving  planets, 
and  other  systems  again,  consisting  of  a 
numberless  series  of  such  lesser  systems, 
are  suspended  by  the  influence  of  gravita- 
tion, operating  from  one  to  another,  yet 
each  body  at  such  a  distance  from  another, 
as,  though  the  mind  of  man  can  in  some 
instances  measure,  it  can  in  none  conceive. 
We  begin  with  what  is  usually  called  the 
Solar  System — that  is,  the  particular  solar 
system  to  which  our  earth  belongs. 

THE    SOLAR    SYSTEM 

The  solar  system,  so  named  from  sol 
(Latin),  the  sun,  consists  of  the  sun  in 
the  centre,  numerous  planets,  and  an  un- 
known number  of  bodies  named  comets. 
The  word  planet  is  from  the  Greek  planao, 
to  wander,  because  the  few  such  bodies 
known  to  the  ancients  were  chiefly  remark- 
able in  their  eyes  on  account  of  their  con- 
stantly shifting  their  places  with  reference 
to  the  other  luminaries  of  the  sky.  Comets 

(230) 


are  so  named  from  coma  (Latin),  a  head 
of  hair,  because  they  seem  to  consist  of 
a  bright  spot,  with  a  long  brush  streaming 
behind. 

Some  of  the  planets  have  other  planets 
moving  round  them  as  centres — the  moon, 
for  instance,  round  the  earth.  These  are 
called  secondary  planets,  moons,  or  satel- 
lites; while  those  that  move  round  the  sun 
are  called  primary  planets.  The  primary  plan- 
ets consist:  ist,  of  eight  larger  planets,  in- 
cluding the  earth ;  their  names,  in  the  order 
of  their  nearness  to  the  sun,  are — Mercury, 
Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
Herschel  or  Uranus,  and  Neptune.  2d.  A 
group  of  lesser  planets,  which  are  generally 
known  as  asteroids.  These  bodies,  number- 
ing between  400  and  500,  are  all  very  small. 
The  entire  surface  of  one  of  the  larger 
asteroids  may  be  equal  to  that  of  Texas. 
There  are  many  asteroids  whose  areas, 
respectively,  do  not  equal  that  of  Rhode 
Island. 

The  planets  move  round  the  sun  on 
nearly  one  level  or  plane,  corresponding 
with  the  centre  of  his  body,  and  in  one 
direction,  from  west  to  east.  The  second- 
ary planets,  in  like  manner,  move  in  planes 
round  the  centres  of  their  primaries,  and 
in  the  same  direction,  from  west  to  east. 
These  are  denominated  revolutionary  mo- 


DESCRIPTIVE   ASTRONOMY 


231 


tions ;  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  they 
are  double  in  the  case  of  the  satellites, 
which  have  at  once  a  revolution  round  the 
primary,  and  a  revolution,  in  company 
with  the  primary,  round  the  sun.  The  path 
described  by  a  planet  in  its  revolution  is 
called  its  orbit. 

Each  planet,  secondary  as  well  as  pri- 
mary, and  the  sun  also,  has  a  motion 
in  its  own  body,  like  that  of  a  bobbin 
upon  a  spindle.  An  imaginary  line,  form- 
ing, as  it  were,  the  spindle  of  the  sun  or 
planet,  is  denominated  the  axis,  and  the 
two  extremities  of  the  axis  are  called  the 
poles.  The  axes  of  the  sun  and  planets  are 
all  nearly  at  a  right  angle  with  the  plane 
of  the  revolutionary  movements.  The  mo- 
tion on  the  axis  is  called  the  rotatory  mo- 
tion, from  rota,  the  Latin  for  a  wheel. 
The  sun,  the  primary  planets,  and  the 
satellites,  with  the  doubtful  exception  of 
two  attending  on  Uranus,  move  on  their 
axes  in  the  same  direction  as  the  revolu- 
tionary movements,  from  west  to  east. 

The  Sun  is  a  sphere  or  globe  of  865,000 
miles  in  diameter,  and  rotates,  or  revolves 
upon  its  axis,  in  between  twenty-five  and 
twenty-six  days.  When  viewed  through  a 
telescope,  the  surface  appears  intensely  bright 
and  luminous,  as  if  giving  out  both  heat 
and  light  to  the  surrounding  planets.  But 
on  this  surface  there  occasionally  appear 
dark  spots,  generally  surrounded  with  a 
border  of  less  dark  appearance;  some  of 
which  spots  have  been  calculated  to  be  no 
less  than  45,000  miles  in  breadth,  or  nearly 
twice  as  much  as  the  circumference  of  the 
earth.  The  region  of  the  sun's  body  on 
which  the  spots  appear,  is  confined  to  a 
broad  space  engirdling  his  centre.  These 
are  sometimes  observed  to  come  into  sight 
at  his  western  limb,  to  pass  across  his  body 
in  the  course  of  twelve  or  thirteen  days, 
and  then  disappear.  They  are  sometimes 
observed  to  contract  with  great  rapidity, 
and  disappear  like  something  melted  and 
absorbed  into  a  burning  fluid.  Upon  the 
bright  parts  of  the  sun's  body  there  are 
also  sometimes  observed  streaks  of  un- 
usual brightness,  as  if  produced  by  the 
ridges  of  an  agitated  and  luminous  fluid. 
It  has  been  surmised,  that  the  sun  is  a 
dark  body,  enveloped  in  an  atmosphere 
calculated  for  giving  out  heat  and  light, 
and  that  the  spots  are  produced  by  slight 
breaks  or  openings  in  that  atmosphere, 
showing  the  dark  mass  within.  Though 
so  much  larger  than  the  earth,  the  matter 
of  the  sun  is  only  about  a  fourth  of  the 
density  or  compactness'  of  that  of  our 


planet,  or  little  more  than  the  density  of 
water. 

The  sun  is  surrounded  to  a  great  dis- 
tance by  a  faint  light,  or  luminous  matter 
of  extreme  thinness,  shaped  like  a  lens  or 
magnifying-glass,  the  body  of  the  sun  be- 
ing in  the  centre,  and  the  luminous  matter 
extending  in  the  plane  of  the  planetary 
revolutions,  till  it  terminates  in  a  point. 
At  particular  seasons,  and  in  favorable 
states  of  the  atmosphere,  it  may  be  ob- 
served before  sunrise,  or  after  sunset,  in 


THE    SOLAR    SYSTEM 

RATE  OF  MOVEMENT  OF  THE  PLANETS  IN  MILES  PER 
MINUTE. — Mercury,  1796;  Venus,  1334;  Earth, 
1133;  Mars,  905;  Vesta,  905;  Juno,  905;  Ceres, 
693;  Pallas,  693;  Jupiter,  490;  Saturn,  363; 
Uranus,  255;  Moon,  38. 

DENSITIES  OF  PLANETS  COMPARED  WITH  WATER, 
WHICH  is  CONSIDERED  AS  ONE. — The  Sun,  i, 
2-i3ths;  Mercury,  9,  i-6th;  Venus,  5,  n-isths; 
Earth,  4,  s-ioths;  Mars,  3,  2-7ths;  Jupiter,  I, 
i-24th;  Saturn,  o,  13-3265;  Uranus,  o,  99-iooths. 

INCLINATIONS  OF  ORBITS  TO  THE  ECLIPTIC. — Mer- 
cury, 7°  o'  9"  i;  Venus,  3°  23'  28"  5;  Mars,  i* 
51'  6"  2;  Vesta,  7°  5'  9"  o;  Juno,  13°  4'  9"  7; 
Ceres,  io°37'26"2;  Pallas,  34°  34' 55"  o;  Jupi- 
ter, i°i8'si"3;  Saturn,  2°  29'  35"  7;  Uranus, 
o°  46'  28"  4. 

the  form  of  a  cone  pointing  obliquely  above 
the  place  where  the  sun  is  either  about  to 
appear  or  which  he  has  just  left.  It  is 
termed  the  Zodiacal  Light. 

Mercurv  the  nearest  planet  to  the  sun, 
is  a  globe  of  about  2,992  miles  in  diameter, 
rotating  on  its  axis  in  24  hours  and  5^ 
minutes,  and  revolving  round  the  central 
luminary,  at  a  distance  of  33,000,000  miles 
in  88  days.  From  the  earth  it  can  only 
be  seen  occasionally  in  the  morning  or 


232 


DESCRIPTIVE   ASTRONOMY 


evening,  as  it  never  rises  before,  or  sets 
after  the  sun,  at  a  greater  distance  of  time 
than  I  hour  and  50  minutes.  It  appears 
to  the  naked  eye  as  a  small  and  brilliant 
star,  but  when  observed  through  a  tele- 
scope, is  horned  like  the  moon,  because  we 
only  see  a  part  of  the  surface  which  the 
sun  is  illuminating.  Mountains  of  great 
height  have  been  <-bserved  on  the  surface 
of  this  planet,  particularly  in  its  lower  or 
southern  hemisphere.  One  has  been  cal- 
culated at  io>4  miles  in  height,  being  about 
eight  times  higher,  in  proportion  to  the 
bulk  of  the  planet,  than  the  loftiest  moun- 
tains upon  earth.  The  matter  of  Mer- 
cury is  of  much  greater  density  than  that 
of  the  earth,  equalling  lead  in  weight,  so 
that  a  human  being  placed  upon  its  surface 
would  be  so  strongly  drawn  toward  the 
ground  as  scarcely  to  be  able  to  crawl. 

Venus  is  a  globe  of  about  7,660  miles  in 
diameter,  or  nearly  the  size  of  the  earth, 
rotating  on  its  axis  in  23  hours,  21  minutes 
and  19  seconds,  and  revolving  round  the 
sun,  at  the  distance  of  67,200,000  of  miles 
in  225  days.  Like  Mercury,  it  is  visible 
to  an  observer  on  the  earth  only  in  the 
morning  and  evening,  but  for  a  greater 
space  of  time  before  sunrise  and  after  sun- 
set. It  appears  to  us  the  most  brilliant 
and  beautiful  of  all  the  planetary  and  stel- 
lar bodies,  occasionally  giving  so  much 
light  as  to  produce  a  sensible  shadow. 
Observed  through  a  telescope,  it  appears 
horned,  on  account  of  our  seeing  only  a 
part  of  its  luminous  surface.  The  illumi- 
nated parts  of  Venus  occasionally  presents 
slight  spots.  It  has  been  ascertained  that 
its  surface  is  very  unequal,  the  greatest 
mountains  being  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, as  in  the  case  of  both  Mercury  and 
the  earth.  The  higher  mountains  in  Venus 
range  between  10  and  22  miles  in  altitude. 
The  planet  is  also  enveloped  in  an  at- 
mosphere like  that  by  which  animal  and 
vegetable  life  is  supported  on  earth,  and  it 
has  consequently  a  twilight.  Venus  per- 
forms its  revolution  round  the  sun  in  225 
days.  Mercury  and  Venus  have  been 
termed  the  Inferior  Planets,  as  being  placed 
within  the  orbits  of  the  earth. 

The  Earth,  the  third  planet  in  order,  and 
one  of  the  smaller  in  size,  though  not  the 
smallest,  is  important  to  us,  as  the  theatre 
on  which  our  race  have  been  placed  to 
"live,  move,  and  have  their  being."  It  is 
7,918  miles  in  mean  diameter,  rotating  on 
its  axis  in  24  hours,  at  a  mean  distance  of 
95,000,000  of  miles  from  the  sun,  round 
which  it  revolves  in  365  days,  5  hours.  56 


minutes,  and  57  seconds.  As  a  planet 
viewed  from  another  of  the  planets,  sup- 
pose the  moon,  "it  would  present  a  pretty, 
variegated,  and  sometimes  a  mottled  ap- 
pearance. The  distinction  between  its  seas, 
oceans,  continents,  and  islands  would  be 
clearly  marked;  they  would  appear  like 
brighter  and  darker  spots  upon  its  disk. 
The  continents  would  appear  bright,  and 
the  ocean  of  a  darker  hue,  because  water 
absorbs  the  greater  part  of  the  solar  light 
that  falls  upon  it.  The  level  plains  (ex- 
cepting, perhaps,  such  regions  as  the  Arabian 
deserts  of  sand)  would  appear  of  a  some- 
what darker  color  than  the  more  elevated 
and  mountainous  regions,  as  we  find  to  be 
the  case  on  the  surface  of  the  moon.  The 
islands  would  appear  like  small  bright 
specks  on  the  darker  surface  of  the  ocean; 
and  the  lakes  and  Mediterranean  seas  like 
darker  spots  on  broad  streaks  intersecting  the 
bright  parts,  or  the  land.  By  its  revolution 
round  the  axis,  successive  portions  of  the 
surface  would  be  brought  into  view,  and 
present  a  different  aspect  from  the  parts 
which  preceded." 

The  form  of  the  earth,  and  probably  that 
of  every  other  planet,  is  not  strictly  spher- 
ical, but  spheroidal,  that  is,  flattened  a  lit- 
tle at  the  poles,  or  extremities  of  the  axis. 
The  diameter  of  the  earth  at  the  axis  is 
26  miles  less  than  in  the  cross  direction. 
This  peculiarity  of  the  form  is  a  conse- 
quence of  the  rotatory  motion,  as  will  be 
afterward  explained. 

The  earth  is  attended  by  one  satellite, 
the  Moon,  which  is  a  globe  of  2,160  miles 
in  diameter,  and  consequently  about  a  49th 
part  of  the  bulk  of  the  earth,  revolving 
round  its  primary  in  27  days,  7  hours,  43 
minutes,  and  n  seconds,  at  the  distance 
of  238,000  miles.  The  moon  is  400  times 
nearer  the  earth  than  the  sun  is;  but,  its 
diameter  being  at  the  same  time  400  times 
less  than  that  of  the  sun,  it  appears  to  us 
of  about  the  same  size.  The  moon  rotates 
on  her  axis  in  exactly  the  same  time  as 
she  revolves  round  the  earth.  She  conse- 
quently presents  at  all  times  the  same  part 
of  her  surface  toward  the  earth.  Inspected 
through  a  telescope,  her  surface  appears  of 
unequal  brightness  and  extremely  rugged. 
The  dark  parts,  however,  are  not  seas,  as 
has  been  supposed,  but  more  like  the  beds 
of  seas,  or  great  alluvial  plains.  No  ap- 
pearance of  water,  or  of  clouds,  or  of  an 
atmosphere,  has  been  detected.  The  sur- 
face presents  numerous  mountains,  some  of 
them  about  a  mile  and  three-quarters  in 
Height,  as  has  been  ascertained  by  meas- 


DESCRIPTIVE   ASTRONOMY 


233 


urement  of  the  shadows  which  they  cast 
on  the  neighboring  surface.  The  tops  of 
the  mountains  of  the  moon  are  generally 
shaped  like  a  cup  or  basin,  with  a  small 
eminence  rising  from  the  centre,  like  many 
volcanic  hills  on  the  earth.  It  has  hence 
been  surmised  that  the  moon  is  in  a  vol- 
canic state,  as  the  earth  appears  to  have 
been  for  many  ages  before  the  creation  of 
man,  and  that  it  is  perhaps  undergoing 
processes  calculated  to  make  it  a  fit  scene 
for  animal  and  vegetable  life. 

The  moon  turning  on  its  axis  once  in 
a  little  more  than  27  days,  presents  every 
part  of  its  surface  in  succession  to  the 
sun  in  that  time,  as  the  earth  does  in  24 
hours.  The  day  of  the  moon  is  conse- 
quently nearly  a  fortnight  long,  and  its 
nights  of  the  .same  duration.  The  light  of 
the  sun,  falling  upon  the  moon,  is  partly 
absorbed  into  its  body;  but  a  r,mall  por- 
tion is  reflected  or  thrown  back,  and  be- 
comes what  we  call  moonlight.  The  il- 
luminated part  from  which  we  derive  moon- 
light is  at  all  times  increasing  or  dimin- 
ishing in  our  eyes,  as  the  moon  proceeds 
in  her  revolution  around  our  globe.  When 
the  satellite  is  at  the  greatest  distance 
from  the  sun,  we,  being  between  the  two, 
see  the  whole  of  the  illuminated  surface, 


TELESCOPIC    APPEARANCE    OF    THE    MOON 

which  we  accordingly  term  full  moon.  As 
the  moon  advances  in  her  course,  the  lu- 
minous side  is  gradually  averted  from  us, 
and  the  moon  is  said  to  wane.  At  length, 
when  the  satellite  has  got  between  the 
earth  and  the  sun,  the  luminous  side  is 
entirely  lost  sight  of.  The  moon  is  then 


said  to  change.  Proceeding  in  her  revolu- 
tion, she  soon  turns  a  bright  edge  toward 
us  which  we  call  the  new  moon.  This 
gradually  increases  in  breadth,  till  a  moiety 
of  the  circle  is  quite  filled  up;  it  is  then 
said  to  be  half  moon.  The  luminary,  when 
on  the  increase  from  new  to  half,  is  termed 


PHASES   OF    THE    MOON 

a  crescent,  from  crescens,  Latin  for  in- 
creasing; and  this  word  has  been  applied 
to  other  objects  of  the  same  shape — for 
instance,  to  a  curved  line  of  buildings. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  new  moon,  we 
usually  see  the  dark  part  of  the  body  faintly 
illuminated,  an  appearance  termed  the  old 
moon  in  the  new  moon's  arms.  This  faint 
illumination  is  produced  by  the  reflection 
of  the  sun's  light  from  the  earth,  or  what 
the  inhabitants  of  the  moon,  if  there  were 
any,  might  be  supposed  to  consider  as 
moonlight.  The  earth,  which  occupies  one 
invariable  place  in  the  sky  of  the  moon, 
with  a  surface  thirteen  times  larger  than 
the  apparent  size  of  the  moon  in  our  eyes, 
is  then  at  the  full,  shining  with  great  lustre 
on  the  sunless  side  of  its  satellite,  and  re- 
ceiving back  a  small  portion  of  its  own 
reflected  light.  The  light,  then,  which 
makes  the  dark  part  of  the  moon  visible 
to  us,  may  be  said  to  perform  three  jour- 
neys, first  from  the  sun  to  the  earth,  then 
from  the  earth  to  the  moon,  and  finally 
from  the  moon  back  to  the  earth,  before 
our  eyes  are  enabled  to  perceive  this  object. 

Mars,  the  fourth  of  the  primary  planets, 
is  a  globe  of  4,189  miles  in  diameter,  or 
little  more  than  a  half  of  that  of  the 
earth;  consequently,  the  bulk  of  this  planet 
is  only  about  a  fifth  of  that  of  our  globe. 
It  performs  a  rotation  on  its  axis  in  24 
hours,  37  minutes,  and  22  seconds,  and  re- 
volves round  the  sun,  at  a  distance  of  141,- 
000,000  of  miles,  in  686  days,  22  hours,  and 
18  seconds.  Mars  appears  to  the  naked 


234 


DESCRIPTIVE    ASTRONOMY 


eye  of  a  red  color;  from  which  circum- 
stance it  was,  probably,  that  the  ancients 
bestowed  upon  it  the  name  of  the  god  of 
war.  Inspected  through  a  telescope,  it  is 
found  to  be  occasionally  marked  by  large 
spots  and  dull  streaks,  of  various  forms, 
and  by  an  unusual  brightness  of  the  poles, 
As  the  bright  polar  parts  sometimes  pro- 
ject from  the  circular  outline  of  the  planet, 
it  has  been  conjectured  that  these  are 
masses  of  snow,  similar  to  those  which 
beset  the  poles  of  the  earth. 

Vesta,  Ceres,  Pallas,  and  Juno  are  among 
the  globes  revolving  between  the  orbits  of 
Mars  and  Jupiter,  in  paths  near  and  cross- 
ing each  other,  and  which  are  not  only 
much  more  elliptical  than  the  paths  of  the 
other  planets,  but  also  rise  and  sink  much 
further  from  the  plane  of  the  general 
planetary  revolutions. 

Vesta  is  of  a  bulk  only  i-is,oooth  part 
of  the  bulk  of  the  earth,  with  a  surface 
not  exceeding  that  of  the  kingdom  of 
Spain.  It  revolves  round  the  sun  in  3 
years,  66  days,  and  4  hours,  at  a  mean 
distance  of  225,500,000  miles.  Though  the 
smallest  of  all  the  planets,  it  gives  a  very 
brilliant  light,  insomuch  that  it  can  be 
seen  by  the  naked  eye. 

Juno  is  1,425  miles  in  diameter,  and 
presents,  when  inspected  through  the  tele- 
scope, a  white  and  well-defined  appear- 
ance. Its  orbit  is  the  most  eccentric  of 
all  the  planetary  orbits,  being  253,000,000 
of  miles  from  the  sun  at  the  greatest,  and 
only  126,000,000,  or  less  than  one-half,  at 
the  least  distance.  In  the  half  of  the 
course  nearest  to  the  sun,  the  motion  of 
the  planet  is,  by  virtue  of  a  natural  law 
afterward  to  be  explained,  more  than  twice 
as  rapid  as  in  the  other  part. 

Ceres  has  been  variously  represented  as 
of  1,624  and  160  miles  in  diameter.  The 
astronomer  who  calculated  its  diameter  at 
1,624  miles,  at  the  same  time  believed  him- 
self to  have  ascertained  that  it  has  a  dense 
atmosphere,  extending  675  miles  from  its 
surface.  It  is  of  a  reddish  color,  and  ap- 
pears about  the  size  of  a  star  of  the  eighth 
magnitude.  Ceres  revolves  round  the  sun, 
at  a  distance  of  260,000,000  of  miles,  in  4 
years,  7  months,  and  10  days. 

Pallas  has  been  represented  as  of  2,099 
miles  in  diameter,  with  an  atmosphere  ex- 
tending 468  miles  above  its  surface.  An- 
other astronomer  has  allowed  it  a  diame- 
ter of  only  80  miles.  It  revolves  round 
the  sun,  at  a  mean  distance  of  266,000,000 
miles,  in  4  years,  7  months,  and  n  days. 
However  unimportant  it  may  appear  beside 


the  large  planets,  it  has  a  peculiar  interest 
in  the  eyes  of  astronomers,  on  account  of 
its  orbit  having  a  greater  inclination  to 
the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  than  those  of  all 
the  larger  planets  put  together. 

Jupiter  is  the  largest  of  all  the  planets. 
Its  diameter  is  nearly  eleven  times  that  of 
the  earth,  or  85,000  miles,  and  its  volume  or 
mass  is  consequently  1,200  times  that  of  our 
globe.  The  density  of  Jupiter  is  only  a  fourth 
of  that  of  the  earth,  or  about  the  lightness  of 
water;  and  a  human  being,  if  transferred 
to  it,  would  be  able  to  leap  with  ease  over 
a  pretty  large  house.  It  performs  a  rota- 
tion on  its  axis  in  9  hours,  55  minutes,  and 
33  seconds,  or  about  two-fifths  of  our  day. 
It  revolves  round  the  sun,  at  a  distance  of 
482,000,000  miles,  in  4,332  days,  14  hours, 
and  24  minutes,  or  nearly  twelve  of  our 
years.  Viewed  through  a  telescope,  Jupiter 
appears  surrounded  by  dark  lines,  or  belts, 
which  occasionally  shift,  melt  into  each 
other,  or  separate,  but  sometimes  are  ob- 
served with  little  variation  for  several 
months.  These  belts  are  generally  near 
the  equator  of  the  planet,  and  of  a  broad 
and  straight  form;  but  they  have  been  ob- 
served over  his  whole  surface,  and  of  a 
lighter,  narrower,  and  more  streaky  and 
wavy  appearance.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
dark  parts  are  lines  of  the  body  of  the 
planet,  seen  through  openings  in  a  bright, 
cloudy  atmosphere. 

Jupiter  is  attended  by  five  satellites,  which 
revolve  round  it,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  moon  round  our  globe,  keeping,  like  it, 
one  face  invariably  presented  to  their  pri- 
mary. They  are  of  about  the  same  size  or 
a  little  larger  in  diameter  than  our  moon ; 
the  first  having  a  diameter  of  2,508,  the 
second  of  2,068,  the  third  of  3,377,  and 
the  fourth  of  2,890  miles.  The  first  re- 
volves round  the  primary  planet  in  I  day 
18  hours  28  minutes;  the  second  in  3  days 
13  hours  14  minutes;  the  third  in  7  days 
3  hours  43  minutes;  and  the  fourth  in  16 
days  16  hours  32  minutes.  These  satellites 
frequently  eclipse  the  sun  to  Jupiter;  they 
are  also  eclipsed  by  the  primary  planet, 
but  never  all  at  the  same  time.  Little  is 
known  about  the  fifth  satellite. 

Saturn,  seen  through  a  telescope,  is  the 
most  remarkable  of  all  the  planets,  being 
surrounded  by  rings  and  attended  by 
seven  satellites.  In  bulk  this  is  the  second 
of  the  planets,  being  71,000  miles  in  diame- 
ter, or  about  900  times  the  volume  of  the 
earth.  Its  surface  appears  slightly  marked 
by  belts  like  those  of  Jupiter.  It  performs 
a  rotation  on  its  axis  in  10  hours  14 


DESCRIPTIVE    ASTRONOMY 


235 


minutes,  and  revolves  round  the  sun  at 
a  distance  of  884,000,000  miles,  in  10,759 
days  2  hours  3  minutes,  or  about  29^2 
of  our  years.  At  such  a  distance  from  the 
sun,  that  luminary  must  be  diminished  to 
one-eightieth  of  the  size  he  bears  in  our 
eyes,  and  the  heat  and  light  in  the  same 
proportion.  The  matter  of  Saturn  is  one- 
eighth  of  the  density  of  our  earth. 

The  rings  of  Saturn  surround  the  body 
of  the  planet  in  the  plane  of  its  equator. 
They  are  thin,  like  the  rim  of  a  spinning- 
wheel,  and  are  always  seen  with  the  edge 
presented  more  or  less  directly  toward  us. 
They  are  luminous  with  the  sun's  light, 
and  cast  a  shadow  on  the  surface  of  the 
planet,  whose  shadow  is  also  sometimes 
seen  falling  on  part  of  the  rings.  The 
distance  of  the  inner  edge  from  the 
planet  is  calculated  at  about  19,000  miles, 
the  entire  breadth  from  the  inner  to  the 
outer  edge  is  28,538,  and  the  thickness  is 
not  more  than  100.  In  certain  positions  of 
the  planet  we  can  see  their  surface  at  a 
considerable  angle,  and  the  openings  or 
loops  which  they  form  on  the  sides  of  the 
planet.  At  other  times  we  see  their  dark 
side,  or  only  their  edges.  They  are  also 
occasionally  marked  by  small  spots.  The 
rings  of  Saturn  rotate  on  their  own  plane 
in  10  hours,  32  minutes,  15  seconds,  and  a 
part  of  a  second,  being  about  the  same 
time  with  the  rotation  of  the  planet. 

The  nine  satellites  of  Saturn  revolve 
around  it,  on  the  exterior  of  the  rings,  and 
almost  all  of  them  in  nearly  the  same 
plane.  They  are  so  small  as  not  to  be 
visible  without  a  powerful  telescope.  The 
two  inner  ones  are  very  near  to  the  outer 
edge  of  the  rings,  and  can  only  be  dis- 
cerned when  the  rings  are  presented  so 
exactly  edgewise  as  to  be  almost  invisible. 
They  have  then  been  seen  passing  like  two 
small  bright  beads  along  the  minute  thread 
of  light  formed  by  the  edge  of  the  rings. 
The  three  next  satellites  are  also  very 
small;  the  sixth  is  larger,  and  placed  at 
a  great  interval  from  the  rest.  The  eighth 
is  the  largest ;  it  is  about  the  size  of  the 
planet  Mars,  and  is  situated  at  nearly 
thrice  the  distance  of  the  sixth,  or  about 
2,300,000  miles  from  the  body  of  Saturn. 

The  revolutions  of  these  satellites  range 
from  i  to  79  days ;  and  it  has  been  ascer- 
tained of  some  of  them  that,  according  to 
the  usual  law  of  secondary  planets,  their 
rotations  on  their  axes  and  their  revolu- 
tions round  their  primary  are  performed 
in  the  same  time,  so  that,  like  our  moon, 
they  always  present  the  same  face  to  the 


centre  of  their  system.  The  orbit  of  the 
eighth  satellite  is  much  inclined  to  the  plane 
of  Saturn's  equator. 

Uranus,  or  Herschel,  given  the  latter  name 
after  its  discoverer,  is  a  globe  of  31,700  miles 
in  diameter,  rotating  on  its  axis  in  7  hours, 
and  performing  a  revolution  round  the  sun, 
at  a  distance  of  1,780,000,000  of  miles,  in 
84  of  our  years.  The  sun  to  this  remote 
planet  must  appear  only  a  4OOth  part  of 
the  size  which  he  bears  in  our  eyes.  Four 
satellites,  or  moons,  are  now  known  to 
attend  upon  Uranus. 

The  two  which  were  first  observed  cir- 
culate round  their  primary  in  orbits  almost 
perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic,  and  are  further 
supposed  to  move  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  that  of  all  the  other  planetary  motions — 
namely,  from  east  to  west. 

Neptune,  the  eighth  and  furthermost  of 
the  principal  planets  of  our  solar  system, 
is  not  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Its  exist- 
ence was  discovered,  in  1846,  by  the  com- 
putations of  Leverrier,  of  Paris,  and  Adams, 
of  Cambridge.  At  the  request  of  Lever- 
rier, Dr.  Galle,  of  Berlin,  looked  for  this 
huge  planet  and  found  it.  Neptune  is 
2,780,000,000  miles  from  the  sun,  and  re- 
quires 60,127  days  to  make  its  periodic 
revolution  around  the  sun.  The  period  of 
its  axial  rotation  is  not  yet  known. 

Unlike  Jupiter,  Saturn  and  Uranus,  Nep- 
tune is  not  well  supplied  with  satellites, 
having  but  one.  The  inhabitants  of  this 
planet,  if  it  has  any,  must  live  in  what 
we  might  call  perpetual  night  time,  for  at 
so  great  a  distance  the  sun  would  seem  only 
about  the  size  of  a  pinhead.  While  the 
diameter  of  Neptune  is  34,500  miles,  its 
density  is  calculated  to  be  but  one-fifth 
that  of  the  earth.  Lalande  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  first  astronomer  to  see  Nep- 
tune, in  1785,  but  he  failed  to  recognize  it 
as  a  planet. 

Some  idea  may  be  obtained  of  the  com- 
parative size  of  the  principal  objects  of  the 
solar  system,  by  supposing  a  globe  of  two 
feet  in  diameter,  placed  in  the  centre  of  a 
level  plain,  to  represent  the  sun ;  a  grain 
of  mustard-seed,  placed  on  the  circumfer- 
ence of  a  circle  164  feet  in  diameter,  for 
Mercury;  a  pea,  on  a  circle  of  284  feet, 
for  Venus;  another  pea,  on  a  circle  of 
430  feet,  for  the  Earth;  a  large  pin's- 
head,  on  a  circle  of  654  feet,  for  Mars; 
four-  minute  grains  of  sand,  in  circles 
of  from  T.OOO  to  1.200  feet,  for  Vesta, 
Ceres,  Pallas,  and  Juno ;  a  moderate  sized 
orange,  on  a  circle  of  nearly  half  a  mile 
in  diameter,  for  Jupiter;  a  small  orange, 


236 


DESCRIPTIVE    ASTRONOMY 


on  a  circle  four-fifths  of  a  mile  in  diame- 
ter, for  Saturn;  and  a  small  plum  or 
full-sized  cherry,  on  a  circle  of  a  mile 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  for  Uranus.  It 
is  calculated  that  the  united  mass  of  the 
whole  of  the  planets  is  not  above  a  6ooth 
part  of  the  mass  of  the  sun. 

The  sun  and  planets  are  represented,  with 
an  approximation  to  correctness,  in  philo- 
sophical toys  termed  orreries. 

THE    COMET 

Comets  are  light  vapory  bodies,  which 
move  round  the  sun  in  orbits  much  less 
circular  than  those  of  the  planets.  Their 
orbits,  in  other  words,  are  very  long  el- 
lipses, or  ovals,  having  the  sun  near  one 
of  the  ends.  Comets  usually  have  two  parts, 
a  body  or  nucleus,  and  a  tail ;  but  some 
have  a  body  only. 

The  body  appears  as  a  thin,  vapory, 
luminous  mass,  of  globular  form;  it  is  so 
thin,  that,  in  some  cases,  the  stars  have 
been  seen  through  it.  The  tail  is  a  lighter 
or  thinner  luminous  vapor  surrounding  the 
body,  and  streaming  far  out  from  it,  in 
one  direction.  A  vacant  space  has  been 
observed  between  the  body  and  the  en- 
veloping matter  of  the  tail ;  and  it  is 
equally  remarkable  that  the  tail  has  in  some 
instances  appeared  less  bright  along  the 
middle,  immediately  behind  the  nucleus, 
as  if  it  were  a  stream  which  that  nucleus 
had  in  some  measure  parted  into  two. 

Out  of  the  great  multitude — certainly  not 
less  than  1,000 — which  are  supposed  to  ex- 
ist, above  150  have  been  made  the  subject 
of  scientific  observation.  Instead  of  re- 
volving, like  the  planets,  nearly  on  the 
plane  of  the  sun's  equator,  it  is  found  that 
they  approach  his  body  from  all  parts  of 
surrounding  space.  At  first,  they  are  seen 
slowly  advancing,  with  a  comparatively  faint 
appearance.  As  they  approach  the  sun,  the 
motion  becomes  quicker,  and  at  length  they 
pass  round  him  with  very  great  rapidity, 
and  at  a  comparatively  small  distance  from 
"his  body.  The  comet  of  1680  approached 
within  one-sixth  of  his  diameter.  After 
passing,  they  are  seen  to  emerge  from  his 
rays,  with  an  immense  increase  to  their 
former  brilliancy  and  to  the  length  of  their 
tails.  Their  motion  then  becomes  gradu- 
ally slower,  and  their  brilliancy  dimin- 
ishes, and  at  length  they  are  lost  in  dis- 
tance. It  has  been  ascertained  that  their 
movement  round  the  sun  is  in  accordance 
with  the  same  law  which  regulates  the 
planetary  movements,  being  always  the 


quicker  the  nearer  to  his  body,  and  the 
slower  the  more  distant.  In  the  remote 
parts  of  space  their  motions  must  be  ex- 
tremely slow. 

Three  comets  have  been  observed  to  re- 
turn, and  their  periods  of  revolution  have 
been  calculated.  The  most  remarkable  of 
these  is  one  usually  denominated  Halley's 
Comet,  from  the  astronomer  who  first  cal- 
culated its  period.  It  revolves  round  the 
sun  in  about  seventy-five  years,  its  last 
appearance  being  at  the  close  of  1835. 
Another,  called  Encke's  Comet,  from  Pro- 
fessor Encke,  of  Berlin,  has  been  found 
to  revolve  once  in  1,207  days,  or  3j/j  years; 
but,  in  this  case,  the  revolving  body  is 
found,  at  each  successive  approach  to  the 
sun,  to  be  a  little  earlier  than  on  the  pre- 
vious occasion,  showing  that  its  orbit  is 
gradually  lessening,  so  that  it  may  be 
expected  ultimately  to  fall  into  the  sun.. 
This  fact  has  suggested  that  some  part  of 
that  space  through  which  the  comet  passes 
must  be  occupied  by  a  matter  presenting 
some  resistance  to  the  movement  of  any 
denser  body;  and  it  is  supposed  that  this 
matter  may  prove  to  be  the  same  which 
has  been  described  as  constituting  the  zo- 
diacal light  It  is  called  a  resisting  medi- 
um; and  future  observations  upon  it  are 
expected  to  be  attended  with  results  of  a 
most  important  nature,  seeing  that,  if  there 
be  such  a  matter  extending  beyond  the  or- 
bit of  the  earth,  that  planet,  in  whose  wel- 
fare we  are  so  much  interested,  will  be 
exposed  to  the  same  ultimate  fate  with 
Encke's  Comet. 

The  third,  named  Beila's  Comet,  from 
M.  Beila,  of  Josephstadt,  revolves  round  the 
sun  in  6^4  years.  It  is  very  small,  and  has 
no  tail.  In  1832,  this  comet  passed  through 
the  earth's  path  about  a  month  before  the 
arrival  of  our  planet  at  the  same  point. 
If  the  earth  had  been  a  month  earlier  at 
that  point,  or  the  comet  a  month  later  in 
crossing  it,  the  two  bodies  would  have 
been  brought  together,  and  the  earth,  in 
all  probability,  would  have  instantly  be- 
come unfit  for  the  existence  of  the  human 
family. 

Comets  often  pass  unobserved,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  part  of  the  heavens  in 
which  they  move  being  then  under  day- 
light. During  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun, 
which  happened  sixty  years  before  Christ, 
a  large  comet,  not  formerly  seen,  became 
visible,  near  the  body  of  the  obscured 
luminary.  On  many  occasions,  their  small- 
ness  and  distance  render  them  visible  only 
by  the  aid  of  the  telescope.  On  other  oc- 


DESCRIPTIVE   ASTRONOMY 


237 


casions,  they  are  of  vast  size.  The  comet 
now  called  Halley's,  at  its  appearance  in 
1456  covered  a  sixth  part  of  the  visible 
extent  of  the  heavens,  and  was  likened  to 
a  Turkish  cimeter.  That  of  1680,  which 
was  observed  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  had 
a  tail  calculated  to  be  123,000,000  miles 
in  length,  a  space  greater  than  the  distance 
of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  There  was  a 
comet  in  1744,  which  had  six  tails,  spread 
out  like  a  fan  across  a  large  space  in 
the  heavens.  The  tails  of  comets  usually 
stretch  in  the  direction  opposite  to  the  sun, 
both  in  advancing  and  retiring,  and  with 
a  slight  wave  at  the  outer  extremity,  as 
if  that  part  experienced  some  resistance. 

THE    STARS 

The  idea  at  which  astronomers  have  ar- 
rived respecting  the  stars,  is  that  they  are 
all  of  them  suns,  resembling  our  own,  but 
diminished  to  the  appearance  of  mere 
specks  of  light  by  the  great  distance  at 
which  they  are  placed.  As  a  necessary 
consequence  to  this  supposition,  it  may  be 
presumed  that  they  are  centres  of  light 
and  heat  to  systems  of  revolving  planets, 
each  of  which  may  be  further  presumed  to 
be  the  theatre  of  forms  of  beings  bearing 
some  analogy  to  those  which  exist  upon 
earth. 

The  stars,  seen  by  the  naked  eye  on  a 
clear  night,  are  about  two  thousand  in 
number.  This,  allowing  a  like  number  for 
the  half  of  the  sky  not  seen,  gives  about 
four  thousand,  in.  all,  of  visible  stars. 
These  are  of  different  degrees  of  brilliancy, 
probably  in  the  main  in  proportion  to  their 
respective  distances  from  our  system,  but 
also  perhaps  in  some  measure  in  propor- 
tion to  their  respective  actual  sizes.  As- 
tronomers class  the  stars  under  different 
magnitudes,  not  with  regard  to  apparent 
size,  for  none  of  them  presents  a  measur- 
able disk,  but  with  a  regard  to  the  various 
quantities  of  light  flowing  round  them; 
thus,  there  are  stars  of  the  first  magni- 


tude, the  second  magnitude,  and  so  on. 
Only  six  or  seven  varieties  of  magnitude 
are  within  our  natural  vision;  but  with 
the  telescope  vast  numbers  of  more  distant 
stars  are  brought  into  view;  and  the  mag- 
nitudes are  now  extended  by  astronomers 
to  at  least  sixteen. 

The  stars  are  at  a  distance  from  our 
system  so  very  great,  that  the  mind  can 
form  no  idea  of  it.  The  brilliant  one 
called  Sirius  or  the  Dog-star,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  the  nearest,  merely  because 
it  is  the  most  luminous,  has  been  reckoned 
by  tolerably  clear  calculation  'to  give  only 
i-2o,ooo,oooth  part  of  the  light  of  the  sun ; 
hence,  supposing  it  to  be  of  the  same  size, 
and  every  other  way  alike,  it  should  be  dis- 
tant from  our  earth  not  less  than  1,960,- 
000,000,000,000,000  miles.  An  attempt  has 
been  made  to  calculate  the  distance  of 
Sirius  by  a  trigonometrical  problem.  It 
may  be  readily  supposed  that  the  position 
of  a  spectator  upon  the  earth  with  respect 
to  celestial  objects  must  vary  considerably 
at  different  parts  of  the  year:  for  instance, 
on  the  2ist  of  June,  he  must  be  in  ex- 
actly the  opposite  part  of  the  orbit  from 
what  he  was  on  the  2ist  of  December — 
indeed,  no  less  than  190,000,000  of  miles 
from  it,  or  twice  the  distance  of  the  earth 
from  the  sun.  This  change  of  position 
with  relation  to  celestial  objects  is  called 
parallax.  Now,  it  has  been  found  that 
Sirius  is  so  distant,  that  an  angle  formed 
between  it  and  the  two  extremities  of  the 
earth's  orbit  is  too  small  to  be  appreciated. 
Were  it  so  much  as  one  second,  or  the 
3,6ooth  part  of  a  degree,  it  could  be  ap- 
preciated by  the  nice  instruments  we  now 
possess ;  but  it  is  not  even  this.  It  is 
hence  concluded  that  Sirius  must  be  at 
least  19,200,000,000  of  miles  distant,  how- 
ever much  more !  Supposing  this  to  be  its 
distance,  its  light  would  take  three  years 
to  reach  us,  though  travelling,  as  it  does, 
at  the  rate  of  192,000  miles  in  a  second 
of  time ! 


OU        INES     OF 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY  (from  the  Greek,  ge,  the  earth,  and  logos,  discourse) 
may  be  defined  as  the  science  which  describes  the  solid  ma- 
terials of  the  earth,  the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged, 
the  causes  which  have  effected  that  arrangement,  and  the  organic  re- 
mains which  are  found  in  them. 

At  some  places  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  found  to  consist  of  a  hard 
rock  of  crystalline  or  glassy  texture,  generally  called  granite,  though  subject 
to  a  considerable  number  of  varieties.  Granite  is  never,  except  in  peculiar 
circumstances,  found  in  the  form  of  a  layer,  whether  thick  or  thin,  but  gen- 
erally in  large,  irregular-shaped  masses;  and  no  other  kind  of  rock,  except 
in  equally  rare  and  peculiar  circumstances,  is  ever  found  beneath  it. 

At  other  places  the  earth's  immediate  surface  is  found  composed  of  some 
one  of  certain  kinds  of  rock  not  less  hard  in  texture  than  granite,  and  also 
of  a  crystalline  consistence,  but  always  found  in  layers  or  beds,  generally  of 
great  thickness. 

At  other  places  we  find,  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  rocks  of  a  com- 
paratively soft  and  not  of  a  crystalline  consistence,  forming  also  layers  or 
beds,  of  greater  or  less  thickness. 

In  some  places,  rock  of  a  very  hard  kind  is  found,  not  exactly  like  any 
of  the  above,  deposited  in  irregular  forms,  and  often  with  the  appearance 
of  having  penetrated  through  gaps  forcibly  made  in  other  rocks. 

Finally,  throughout  the  first  three  classes  of  rocks,  but  particularly  the 
first  two,  there  are  thin  veins  of  diverse  substances,  including  minerals. 


THE     STORY     OF     THE     ROCKS 


ROCKS   of  the   first  class   are  denomi- 
nated PLUTONIC  (from  Pluto,  the  god 
of  the  infernal  regions  among  the  ancients), 
as  supposed  to  have  been  formed  at  great 
depths  in  the  earth,  the  matter  having  been 
originally  in  a  hot  and  soft  state,  and  after- 
ward cooled  and  crystallized  slowly,  under 
such   enormous   pressure   as   prevented  the 
contained  gases  from  expanding.    The  term 
(288> 


unstratified  is  also  applied  to  this  class  of 
rocks. 

Rocks  of  the  second  and  third  classes 
are  called  AQUEOUS,  as  composed  of  matter 
deposited  by  water.  Those  of  the  second 
class  are  more  specially  named  Metamor- 
phic  (from  the  Greek,  metamorphosis,  a 
transformation),  as  supposed  to  have  un- 
dergone a  remarkable  change  in  the  course 


OUTLINES    OF   GEOLOGY 


239 


of  their  formation.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
matter  of  these  rocks,  derived  from  rocks 
of  the  granitic  kind,  and  suspended  in 
vast  oceans,  was,  when  deposited,  sub- 
jected to  a  great  heat  from  below,  which 
gave  it,  in  its  reconsolidation,  much  of 
that  crystalline  texture  which  it  had  in 
its  plutonic  form. 

Rocks  of  the  fourth  class  are  denomi- 
nated VOLCANIC,  as  being  evidently  composed 
of  lavas,  or  masses  of  fire-melted  rocky 
matter,  which  have  been  sent  upward  by 
volcanoes. 

Rocks  of  the  second  and  third  classes 
are  likewise  called  Stratified  Rocks,  as  be- 
ing invariably  found  in  strata  or  layers: 
Rocks  of  the  first  and  fourth  classes,  as 
wanting  this  peculiarity,  are  distinguished 
as  Unstratified  Rocks. 

The  plutonic  and  some  of  the  lower  meta- 
morphic  rocks  have  been  also  called  Pri- 
mary, or  Primitive  Rocks,  as  either  the 
first  formed  of  all,  or  formed  very  early. 
The  upper  metamorphic  rocks  have  in 
Jike  manner  been  called  the  Transition 
Series,  as  forming  a  kind  of  link  between 
the  primary  and  those  which  follow,  and 
partaking  of  the  characters  of  both.  Of 
the  remainder  of  the  aqueous  rocks,  a  con- 
siderable number,  being  the  lower  portion, 
are  sometimes  called  the  Secondary  Rocks, 
while  the  upper  are  named  Tertiary.  Igne- 
ous Rock  is  also  a  variant  name  for  the 
volcanic  kind. 

When  rocks  of  various  classes  are  seen 
at  or  near  the  same  place,  it  is  found 
that  those  of  the  second  (except  in  the  ex- 
traordinary circumstances  alluded  to),  lie 
above  those  of  the  first;  and  those  of  the 
third  above  those  of  the  second  and  first 
classes.  Special  kinds  of  aqueous  rock  are 
also  found  in  a  certain  order  above  one 
another — much  in  the  same  way  as  if  we 
were  to  place  a  book  of  many  volumes  on 
its  side,  having  previously  arranged  the 
volumes  according  to  ,.  their  numbers,  in 
which  case  the  second  would  be  above  the 
first,  the  third  above  the  second,  and  so 
on.  Rocks  are  thus  said  to  observe  an 
order  of  supraposition — the  volcanic  kind 
alone  observing  no  order. 

In  some  of  the  upper  metamorphic 
rocks,  and  in  all  those  of  the  secondary 
and  tertiary  series,  remains  of  plants  and 
animals  are  found,  showing  that  when 
these  rocks  were  formed,  the  earth  had 
become  a  scene  of  vegetable  and  animal 
life.  The  rocks  containing  these  organic 
remains  or  fossils,  are  called  FOSSILIFER- 
ous;  and  the  remaining  rocks,  from  their 


containing  no  such  relics,  are  called  NON- 

FOSSILIFEROUS. 

The  changes  produced  by  the  united  op- 
erations of  aqueous  and  igneous  agency  are 
in  part  represented  in  .the  subjoined  en- 
graving of  a  supposed  section  of  part  of 
the  earth's  crust. 

Now  to  begin  our  lesson! 

Here  are  three  pieces  of  stone: — 

1.  A  piece  of  Sandstone. 

2.  A   piece   of   Granite. 

3.  A   piece    of    Chalk. 

You  are  quite  familiar  with  each  of  these 
kinds  of  stone.  Sandstone  is  a  common 
material  for  walls,  lintels,  hearths,  and 
flagstones.  Granite  may  now  be  frequently 
seen  in  polished  columns  and  slabs  in  pub- 
lic buildings,  shops,  and  in  tombstones ; 
and  the  streets  in  many  of  our  large  cities 
and  towns  are  now  paved  with  it.  Com- 
mon white  chalk  is  well  known  to  every- 
body. 

Take  the  piece  of  sandstone  in  your 
hands  and  examine  it  carefully,  using  even 
a  magnifying  glass  if  the  grains  are  mi- 
nute. Then  write  down  each  of  the  char- 
acters you  observe  one  after  another.  You 
will  of  course  pay  little  heed  to  the  color, 
for  sandstone,  like  books,  may  be  red  or 
white,  green  or  yellow,  or  indeed  of  al- 
most any  color.  Nor  will  you  give  much 
weight  to  the  hardness  or  softness  as  an 
essential  character,  for  you  may  find  even 
in  a  small  piece  of  the  stone  that  one 
part  is  quite  hard  while  a  neighboring  place 
is  soft  and  crumbling. 

If  your  piece  of  sandstone  has  been  well 
chosen  for  you,  you  will  be  able  to  write 
down  the  following  characters : — 

1.  The  stone  is  made  up  of  small  grains. 

2.  The  grains  are  all  more  or  less  rounded 
or  worn. 

3.  By  scraping  the  surface  of  the  stone 
these  rounded  grains  can  be  separated  from 
the  stone,  and  when  they  lie  in  this  loose 
state  they  are  seen  to  be  mere  grains  of 
sand. 

4.  More  careful  examination  of  the  stone 
shows  that  the  grains  tend  to  lie  in  lines, 
and  that  these  lines  run  in  a  general  way 
parallel  with  each  other. 

5.  The  grains  differ  from  each  other  in 
size  and  in  the  material  of  which  they  are 
made.      Most    of   them   consist   of   a   very 
hard  white  or  colorless  substance  like  glass, 
some  are  perhaps  small  spangles  of  a  ma- 
terial which  glistens  like  silver,  others  are 
softer    and    of    various    colors.      They    lie 
touching  each  other  in  some  sandstones; 


240 


OUTLINES   OF   GEOLOGY 


in  others  they  are  separated  by  a  hard 
kind  of  cement  which  binds  them  all  into 
a  solid  stone.  It  is  this  cement  which 
usually  colors  the  sandstone,  since  it  is  often 
red  or  yellow,  and  sometimes  green,  brown, 
purple,  and  even  black. 

Summing  up  these  characters  in  a  short 
definition,  you  might  describe  your  sand- 
stone as  a  stone  composed  of  worn,  rounded 
grains  of  various  other  stones  arranged  in 
layers. 

Proceed  now  in  the  same  way  with  the 
piece  of  granite.  You  find  at  once  a  very 
different  set  of  appearances,  but  after  a  lit- 
tle time  you  will  be  able  to  make  out  and 
to  write  down  the  following: — 

The  stone  contains  no  rounded  grains. 

It  is  composed  of  three  different  sub- 
stances, each  of  which  has  a  peculiar  crys- 
talline form.  Thus,  one  of  these,  called 
feldspar,  lies  in  long  smooth-faced,  sharply 
defined  crystals  of  a  pale  flesh  color,  or 
dull  white,  which  you  can  with  some  diffi- 
culty scratch  with  the  point  of  a  knife. 
Another,  termed  mica,  lies  in  bright  glis- 
tening plates,  which  you  can  easily  scratch 
and  split  up  into  thin  transparent  leaves. 
If  you  compare  these  shining  plates  with 
the  little  silvery  spangles  in  the  sandstone', 
you  will  see  that  they  are  the  same  ma- 
terial. The  third,  named  quartz,  is  a  very 
hard,  clear,  glassy  substance  on  which 
your  knife  makes  no  impression,  but  which 
you  may  recognize  as  the  same  material 


out  of  which  most  of  the  grains  of  the 
sandstone  are  made. 

The  crystals  in  granite  do  not  occur  in 
any  definite  order,  but  are  scattered  at 
random  through  the  whole  of  the  stone. 

Here  are  characters  strikingly  different 
from  those  of  the  sandstone.  You  might 
make  out  of  them  such  a  short  definition 
as  this — Granite  is  a  stone  composed  of 
distinct  crystals,  not  laid  down  in  layers, 
but  irregularly  interlaced  with  each  other, 

Last1v  go  through  the  same  process  oi 
examination  with  your  piece  of  chalk.  At 
first  sight  this  stone  seems  to  have  no  dis- 
tinct characters  at  all.  It  is  a  soft,  white, 
crumbling  substance,  soils  your  fingers  when 
you  touch  it,  and  seems  neither  to  have 
grains  like  the  sandstone  nor  crystals  like 
the  granite.  You  will  need  to  use  a  mag- 
nifying-glass,  or  even  perhaps  a  micro- 
scope, to  see  what  the  real  nature  of  chalk 
is.  Take  a  fine  brush  and  rub  off  a  little 
chalk  into  a  glass  of  clear  water;  then 
shake  the  water  gently  and  let  it  stand 
for  a  while  until  you  see  a  layer  of  sedi- 
ment on  the  bottom.  Pour  off  the  water 
and  place  a  little  of  this  sediment  upon  a 
piece  of  glass,  and  look  at  it  under  the 
microscope  or  magnifying-glass.  You  will 
find  it  to  have  strongly  marked  characters, 
which  might  be  set  down  thus: — 

The   stone,   though   it   seems   to  the  eye 

much    more    uniform    in    its    texture    than 

|  either    sandstone    or    granite,    is    made    up 


(a)  Primary  Rock,  which  has  been  thrown  up,  so  as  to  disturb  and  mix  itself  with  the 
Secondary  Rocks;  (6)  Secondary  Rock,  thrown  into  inclinations  and  curves  by  the  rising  of 
the  Primary  Rock;  (c)  Tertiary  Formation,  deposited  in  a  hollow  formed  by  the  disturbance 
of  the  Secondary  Rocks;  (tf)  Basaltic  Columns;  (e)  A  fault  or  hitch  in  the  strata.  The  Circles 
are  bowlders  or  detached  stones  rounded  by  travelling  in  water,  and  deposited  in  hollows 
formed  by  water.  The  dots  indicate  beds  of  gravel,  immediately  beneath  the  soil. 


OUTLINES    OF   GEOLOGY 


241 


of  particles  resembling  each  other  in  color 
and  composition,  but  presenting  a  variety 
of  forms. 

It  consists  of  minute  shells,  pieces  of 
coral,  fragments  of  sponges,  and  white 
particles,  which  are  evidently  the  broken- 
down  remains  of  shells. 

As  a  brief  description  of  chalk  you  might 
say  that  it  is  a  stone  formed  out  of  the 
remains  of  once  living  animals. 

WHAT   STONES   HAVE  TO  TELL  US 

We  take  again  our  three  pieces  of  stone 
— sandstone,  chalk,  and  granite — and  com- 
pare other  stones  with  them.  We  get  out 
of  town  to  the  nearest  pit  or  quarry  or 
ravine,  to  any  opening  in  fact,  either  natural 
or  artificial,  which  will  enable  us  to  see 
down  beneath  the  grass  and  the  soil  of  the 
surface.  In  one  place  we  may  find  a  clay- 
pit,  in  another  a  sandstone  quarry,  in  an- 
other a  railway  cutting  through  chalk  or 
limestone,  in  another  a  deep  ravine  in 
hard  rocks  with  a  stream  flowing  at  its 
bottom. 

It  does  not  matter  for  our  present  pur- 
pose what  the  nature  of  the  opening  be, 
provided  it  shows  us  what  lies  beneath 
the  soil.  In  all  such  places  we  meet  with 
stone  of  some  kind,  or  of  many  different 
kinds.  By  a  little  practice  we  learn  that 
these  various  sorts  of  stones  may  be  usu- 
ally arranged  under  one  or  other  of  the 
three  divisions.  For  example,  a  large  num- 
ber of  stones  will  be  found  answering  to 
the  general  description  which  you  found 
to  be  true  of  sandstone.  These  will  of 
course  be  placed  together  with  our  piece 
of  sandstone.  Another  considerable  quan- 
tity of  stones  will  be  met  with  made  up 
wholly,  or  almost  wholly,  of  the  remains  of 
plants  or  of  animals.  These  we  arrange 
m  the  same  division  with  our  piece  of  chalk. 
Lastly,  a  good  many  stones  may  be  met 
with  built  up  of  crystals  of  different  kinds, 
and  these,  for  the  present,  we  class  together 
with  our  piece  of  granite. 

SEDIMENTARY   ROCKS 

To  each  of  these  groups  names  must  be 
given.  We  might  call  them  the  Sandstone 
group,  the  Chalk  group,  and  the  Granite 
grpup.  But  it  happens  that  other  names 
have  been  already  in  use,  which  will  be 
more  convenient.  Accordingly  we  shall  re- 
fer all  stones  having  characters  like  those 
of  sandstone  to  the  Sedimentary  Rocks ; 
those  formed  of  the  remains  of  plants  or 


animals,  as  chalk  is,  to  the  Organic  Rocks; 
and  those  having  a  crystalline  character, 
like  our  granite  group,  to  the  Igneous 
Rocks.  The  meaning  of  these  names  will 
be  seen  as  we  proceed. 

The  word  "rock"  is  applied  to  any  kind 
of  natural  stone,  whatever  may  be  its  hard- 
ness or  softness.  In  this  sense,  sand,  mud, 
clay,  peat,  and  coal  are  rocks,  as  much 
as  sandstone,  limestone,  or  granite. 

Sediment  is  something  which,  after  hav- 
ing been  suspended  in  or  moved  along  by 
water,  has  settled  down  upon  the  bottom. 

The  term  Sedimentary  Rocks  is  a  very 
expressive  one,  for  it  includes  stones  formed 
of  all  kinds  of  sediment,  whether  coarse  or 
fine. 

HOW    GRAVEL,    SAND,    AND    MUD    ARE    MADE 

You  have  taken  the  first  step  in  the  study 
of  the  Sedimentary  Rocks — you  now  know 
that  they  are  made  of  sediment,  such  as 
gravel,  sand,  and  mud.  How  "then  are 
gravel,  sand,  and  mud  made  at  the  present 
day? 

If  you  were  to  search  on  the  shore  of 
the  sea,  or  on  the  banks  of  a  river,  you 
could,  without  much  difficulty,  prove  in 
another  way  that  sand  and  gravel  only 
differ  from  each  other  in  the  size  of  their 
grains. 

Let  us  get  away  up  among  the  hills,  and 
watch  what  goes  on  where  the  brooks  first 
begin  to  flow.  Where  the  rocks  are  hard 
and  tough,  they  rise  out  of  the  hillsides, 
as  prominent  crags  and  cliffs,  down  which 
the  little  streamlets  dance  from  ledge  to 
ledge  before  they  unite  into  larger  streams 
in  the  bottom  of  the  valleys.  Now  let 
us  descend  the  brook  and  look  at  its 
channel  carefully  as  we  go.  The  red  frag- 
ments from  that  crag  will  be  easily  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  other  dull  gray  stones, 
which  have  been  detached  from  the  rest  of 
the  crags  on  either  side.  If  you  look  nar- 
rowly at  the  bits  of  stone  which  are  strewn 
about  upon  the  slope  you  will  notice  that 
they  are  all  more  or  less  angular  in  shape; 
that  is  to  say,  they  have  sharp  edges.  But 
those  in  the  brook  are  not  quite  so  rough 
or  so  sharp-edged  as  those  on  the  bare 
hillside  above.  Follow  the  brook  down 
the  valley  for  some  way  and  then  take 
another  look  at  the  stones  in  the  bed  of 
the  stream.  You  do  not  now  find  so  many 
big  blocks  of  the  red  stone,  and  those  you 
do  meet  with  are  more  rounded  and  worn 
than  they  were  near  the  crag.  They  have 
grown  smooth  and  polished,  their  edges 


OUTLINES   OF   GEOLOGY 


have  been  worn  off,  and  many  of  them  are 
well  rounded.  Once  more  you  make  a 
further  examination  still  lower  down  the 
valley,  and  here  and  there  where  the 
stream  has  thrown  up  a  bank  of  gravel, 
you  find  that  the  pieces  of  our  red  crag 
have  been  so  well  ground  away  that  they 
now  form  part  of  an  ordinary  water- worn 
gravel. 

HOW   GRAVEL,    SAND,    AND    MUD   BECOME    SEDI- 
MENTARY   ROCKS 

So  long  as  a  current  of  water  is  moving 
swiftly  it  keeps  the  gravel,  sand,  and  mud 
from  setting  down  on  the  bottom.  A 
rapid  current  will  hurry  along,  not  only 
mud  and  sand,  but  even  gravel.  As  its 
rapidity  flags,  first  the  gravel  will  sink  to 
the  bottom  as  a  sediment,  the  sand  will 
sink  more  slowly  and  be  carried  further, 
while  the  mud  will  hang  in  the  water  for 
a  long  time,  travel  a  much  greater  distance, 
and  only  fall  with  extreme  slowness  to 
the  bottom. 

The  sheets  of  sand,  gravel,  or  mud  which 
can  be  seen  on  the  seashore,  or  at  any 
lake  or  pool  on  land,  are  soft  or  loose 
materials.  Sandstone,  conglomerate,  shale, 
or  any  other  sedimentary  rock,  is  usually 
more  or  less  hard  or  compact. 

A  sedimentary  rock,  then,  is  one  formed 
from  sediment  which  was  derived  from  the 
waste  of  older  rocks,  and  deposited  in 
water.  It  usually  shows  the  stratified  ar- 
rangement characteristic  of  water-formed 
deposits.  Since  its  original  formation  it 
has  usually  been  hardened  into  stone  by 
pressure  or  infiltration. 

THE   REMAINS    OP   PLANTS    AND   ANIMALS 

Rain  can  wash  away  leaves  and  other 
pieces  of  plants,  and  allow  them  to  drop 
in  a  pool,  where  they  become  interstratified 
with  the  silt,  that  is,  are  deposited  between 
its  layers  and  covered  over  by  it. 

You  can  now  see,  therefore,  how  it  is 
that  pieces  of  ferns  or  any  other  kind  of 
land  plants  should  be  found  in  the  heart 
of  such  a  solid  stone  as  a  piece  of  shale. 
The  stone  was  once  merely  so  much  sedi- 
ment laid  down  below  water,  and  the  frag- 
mentary plants  were  drifted  away  from  the 
place  where  they  grew  until  at  last  they 
were  buried  among  that  sediment. 

It  is  not  only  plants,  however,  which 
occur  imbedded  in  sedimentary  rocks.  You 
will  notice  a  numbe»  of  shells  and  other 
animal  remains. 


A   QUARRY   AND  ITS   LESSONS 

Let  us  suppose  ourselves  to  be  in  a  quarry. 

In  the  first  place,  what  feature  about  the 
quarry  strikes  you  most  forcibly  when  you 
enter?  You  answer  readily,  the  Stratifica- 
tion of  the  rocks. 

In  the  second  place,  you  observe  that 
they  do  not  all  consist  of  the  same  ma- 
terials. Some  are  fine  conglomerate,  others 
of  various  kinds  of  sandstone,  and  some 
of  different  sorts  of  shales  or  clays. 

In  the  third  place,  let  us  ask  you  to 
point  out  which  are  the  oldest  of  the  beds. 
You  answer  without  hesitation  that  those 
at  the  bottom  of  the  quarry  must  be  the 
oldest,  because  they  certainly  were  depos- 
ited before  these  lying  above  them. 

We  split  open  some  of  the  lower  beds  of 
sandstone  and  find  their  surfaces  often 
covered  with  markings.  If  you  have  ever 
walked  along  a  flat  sandy  beach  you  must 
have  noticed  the  ripple-marks  which  the 
shallow  rippling  water  leaves  on  the  soft 
sand.  They  are  precisely  like  those  on 
the  sandstone.  You  may  see  them,  too, 
along  the  shelving  margin  of  a  lake,  in- 
deed wherever  water  has  been  thrown  by 
the  wind  into  little  wavelets  over  a  sandy 
bottom.  They  betoken  shallow  water.  Hence 
we  have  learned  one  important  fact  from 
our  quarry,  as  to  the  origin  of  these  rocks : 
viz.,  that  they  were  not  deposited  in  a  deep 
sea,  but  in  shallow  water. 

We  look  still  further  among  these  strata, 
and  notice  at  last  that  some  of  them  are 
curiously  covered  with  little  round  pits, 
about  the  size  of  peas  or  less.  How  did 
these  markings  come  there?  You  know 
that  when  drops  of  rain  fall  upon  a  smooth 
surface  of  moist  sand,  such  as  that  of  the 
beach,  they  each  make  a  little  dent  on  it 

Here,  then,  is  another  fact  which  throws 
still  more  light  on  the  history  of  these 
rocks.  The  ripple-marks  show  that  the 
water  must  have  been  shallow;  the  rain- 
prints  prove  that  it  must  have  risen  along 
a  beach  liable,  now  and  then,  to  be  laid 
dry  to  the  air  and  rain.  Now  can  we  tell 
whether  the  water  was  salt  or  fresh  ?  In 
other  words,  was  this  beach  the  shore  of 
a  lake,  or  of  the  sea? 

Again  we  turn  to  the  rocks  themselves, 
and  from  some  of  the  layers  of  shale  we 
pick  out  a  number  of  fossils,  which  enable 
us  to  answer  the  question. 

ROCKS    FORMED    OF    THE    REMAINS    OF    PLANTS 

Since  the  leaves,  branches,  and  stems 
of  plants,  and  the  shells  or  other  remains 


243 


of  animals,  are  sometimes  scattered  so 
abundantly  through  ordinary  sedimentary 
rocks,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  sometimes 
they  may  occur  in  such  quantity  as  to 
form  great  deposits  of  themselves.  You 
could  hardly  call  such  deposits  sedimen- 
tary, in  the  same  sense  in  which  common 
shale  and  sandstone  are  so  named.  We 
may  term  them  Organic  Rocks,  or,  Or- 
ganically derived  Rocks,  because  they  owe 
their  origin  to  the  accumulation  of  what 
are  called  organic  remains,  or  fossils;  that 
is,  the  remains  of  plants  or  animals. 

We  begin  with  those  rocks  which  have 
been  formed  out  of  the  remains  of  plants. 
As  an  illustration  let  us  ask  you  to  ex- 
amine carefully  a  piece  of  coal.  If  you 
master  all  that  it  has  to  tell  you,  you 
will  not  have  much  difficulty  in  tracing  out 
the  history  of  other  rocks  belonging  to 
this  series. 

Now  look  at  one  end  of  a  lump  of  coal, 
where  the  edges  of  the  layers  are  ex- 
posed. You  can  not  follow  them  with  the 
same  ease  as  in  the  case  of  a  piece  of 
shale,  for  they  seem  to  blend  into  one 
another.  But  you  may  notice  that  among 
the  layers  of  hard,  bright,  glossy  sub- 
stance, there  occur  others  of  a  soft  ma- 
terial like  charcoal.  A  mere  general  look 
at  such  a  piece  of  coal  would  show  you 
that  it  is  stratified. 

Let  us  suppose  ourselves  at  a  coal  mine. 
Now,  first  of  all,  you  see  that  the  coal 
occurs  as  a  bed,  having  a  thickness  of  a 
few  feet.  This  bedded  character  agreed 
with  what  you  have  already  noticed  as  to 
the  internal  layers  in  the  stone,  and  con- 
firms you  in  believing  that  coal  is  a  strati- 
fied rock.  Next  observe  that  the  pavement 
on  which  the  coal  rests,  and  the  roof  which 
covers  it,  are  both  made  of  very  different 
materials _  from  the  coal  itself.  Were  you 
to  cut  a  trench  or  section  through  pave- 
ment, coal,  and  roof,  you  would  prove  be- 
yond any  doubt  that  the  bed  of  coal  lies 
among  beds  of  common  sedimentary  rocks. 

You  are  driven  to  conclude  that  in  truth 
the  under-clay  is  an  old  soil,  and  the  bed 
of  coal  represents  the  vegetation  which 
grew  upon  it. 

ROCKS     FORMED    OUT    OF    THE    REMAINS    OF 
ANIMALS 

It  is  on  the  floor  of  the  great  sea  that 
the  most  wonderful  examples  occur  of  the 
way  in  which  rocks  are  gradually  built  up 
from  the  remains  of  animals  to  a  depth 
of  many  hundreds  or  thousands  of  feet,  and 


over     distances     of     many     hundreds     of 
miles. 

To  the  west  of  Britain  the  Atlantic 
soon  and  suddenly  deepens.  Its  floor  then 
stretches  away  to  Newfoundland  as  a  vast 
plain,  the  lowest  part  of  which  is  about 
14,000  feet  below  the  waves.  It  was  over 
this  wide  submarine  plain  that  the  tele- 
graph cables  had  to  be  laid,  and  hence 
numerous  soundings  were  made  all  the 
way  across  from  Ireland  to  the  American 
coast.  While  in  the  shallower  parts  of 
the  sea  the  bottom  was  found  to  be  cov- 
ered with  sand,  gravel,  or  mud,  from  the 
deeper  parts  there  came  up  with  the  sound- 
ing-lead a  peculiar  gray  sticky  substance 
known  as  ooze,  which  must  stretch  over 
that  wide  deep-sea  basin  for  many  thou- 
sands of  square  miles.  This  ooze  when 
dried  looks  like  a  dirty  kind  of  chalk. 
After  the  lapse  of  centuries,  if  the  de- 
posit were  to  remain  undisturbed,  and  if 
we  could  set  a  watch  to  measure  its 
growth,  we  should  find  it  to  have  risen 
upward  and  to  have  inclosed  the  remains 
of  any  star-fishes  or  other  sea-creatures 
which  chanced  to  die  and  leave  their  re- 
mains upon  the  bottom.  Hundreds  of 
feet  of  such  slow-formed  deposit  have  no 
doubt  already  been  laid  down  over  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean  between  Ireland  and 
Newfoundland.  Here,  then,  is  a  second 
and  notable  example  of  how  a  deep  and 
far-spread  mass  of  rock  may  be  formed 
out  of  the  remains  of  animals. 

WHAT   IGNEOUS    ROCKS    ARE 

This  word  igneous  means  literally  fiery. 
It  does  not  very  accurately  describe  the 
rocks  to  which  it  is  applied,  but  it  has 
long  been  in  use  to  include  all  rocks  which 
have  been  actually  melted  within  the  earth, 
or  which  have  been  thrown  out  at  the 
surface  by  the  action  of  volcanoes.  So  that 
the  Igneous  Rocks  owe  their  origin  to 
some  of  the  effects  of  the  internal  heat  of 
the  earth. 

You  will  find  that  the  solid  materials 
cast  up  by  volcanoes  are  of  two  kinds — 
1st,  streams  of  molten  rock  called  Lava, 
poured  down  the  sides  of  a  volcanic  moun- 
tain during  an  eruption:  and  2d,  immense 
quantities  of  dust,  sand,  and  stones,  cast 
up  into  the  air  from  the  mouth  of  the 
crater,  and  falling  down  upon  the  moun- 
tain, sometimes  even  all  over  the  sur- 
rounding country  for  a  distance  of  many 
miles. 

Here,  then,  are  two  very  dissimilar  kinds 


244 


OUTLINES   OF   GEOLOGY 


of  rock-material  discharged  from  the  in- 
terior of  the  globe.  The  lava  cools  and 
hardens  into  a  solid  rock.  The  loose  ashes 
and  stones,  likewise,  are  in  time  pressed 
and  hardened  into  more  or  less  firm  beds 
of  stone.  So  that  two  totally  distinct 
kinds  of  rock  are  laid  down  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  by  the  volcano.  In  the 
case  of  the  lava,  the  rock,  if  you  look  at 
it  with  a  magnify  ing-glass,  is  seen  to  be 
made  up  of  distinct  crystals  all  matted  to- 
gether. The  beds  of  ashes,  on  the  other 
hand,  no  matter  how  compact  they  may 
have  become,  are  found  to  be  made  up 
of  irregular  fragments  of  various  kinds  of 
stone,  and  of  all  sizes,  from  the  finest  dust 
up  to  big  blocks.  By  attending  to  this 
very  simple  and  intelligible  difference  you 
could  arrange  igneous  rocks  into  two  great 
groups — ist,  the  Crystalline,  that  is,  those 
which  are  made  up  of  crystals,  and  which 
have  once  been  in  a  melted  state;  and  2d, 
the  Fragmental,  that  is,  those  which  con- 
sist of  the  loose  materials  thrown  out 
during  volcanic  explosions. 

Crystalline  Igneous  Rocks. — When  the 
rock  was  still  melted  it  was  full  of  im- 
prisoned steam  and  gas  which  were  con- 
stantly striving  to  escape  to  the  surface. 
It  was  this  steam  which  collected  into  lit- 
tle bubbles  and  formed  the  curious  set  of 
holes  in  the  mass  of  the  still  molten  rock. 
In  the  same  way  the  holes  which  you 
often  see  in  the  heart  of  a  loaf  of  bread 
were  formed  by  the  struggles  of  the  steam 
to  escape  from  the  dough  as  it  was  heated 
in  the  oven. 

There  are  Fragmental  Igneous  Rocks. — 
Now  this  is  the  kind  of  material  under 
which  the  old  Roman  city  of  Pompeii  was 
buried.  It  fell  upon  the  streets  and  houses 
and  gradually  covered  them  up  as  the 
eruption  of  the  neighboring  volcano  con- 
tinued. And  at  this  day  the  workmen  find 
the  streets  and  chambers  all  choked  up 
with  layers  of  coarser  and  finer  volcanic 
ash  and  dust. 

These  masses  of  consolidated  volcanic  dust 
and  stones  are  known  by  the  name  of  Tuff. 

At  the  present  time  there  are,  it  is  said, 
about  270  volcanoes  either  constantly  or  at 
intervals  throwing  out  steam,  hot  ashes, 
and  lava,  in  different  parts  of  the  globe. 
Even  among  the  perpetual  snows  of  the 
South  Polar  regions  they  have  been  met 
with,  and  also  far  within  the  Arctic  Circle 
at  the  Island  of  Jan  Mayen. 

But  besides  these  volcanoes  which  are 
still  active,  many  others  occur  from  which 
no  eruptions  have  ever  been  seen  to  take 


place,  and  which  are  therefore  called  don- 
raant  or  extinct. 

WHERE    IGNEOUS    ROCKS    COME    FROM 

If  we  ask  you  from  what  source  the  Ig- 
neous Rocks  have  been  derived,  you  will 
reply  that  they  have  come  up  from  the 
intensely  hot  regions  within  the  earth. 

Deep  Borings  and  Mines. — If  you  were 
taken  down  to  the  bottom  of  a  deep  mine 
in  the  United  States,  you  would  find  the 
temperature  much  wanner  there  than  near 
the  surface,  and  a  similar  increase  of  heat 
would  meet  you  in  the  deep  mines  of  every 
country  in  the  world.  You  would  soon 
discover,  too,  that  on  the  whole  the  deeper 
the  mine  the  greater  the  warmth  would  be. 

Experiments  of  this  kind  have  been  made 
all  over  the  globe,  with  the  result  of  show- 
ing that  after  we  get  down  for  a  short  and 
variable  distance  below  the  surface,  we 
reach  a  temperature  which  remains  the 
same  all  the  year,  and  that  underneath  that 
limit  the  temperature  rises  about  i°  Fahr- 
enheit for  every  fifty  or  sixty  feet  of  de- 
scent. If  this  rate  of  increase  continues, 
we  should  get  uncomfortably  hot  before 
having  descended  very  far.  For  instance, 
at  a  depth  of  about  two  miles  water  would 
be  at  its  boiling-point,  and  at  depths  of 
twenty-five  or  thirty  miles,  the  metals 
would  have  the  same  temperatures  as  those 
at  which  they  respectively  melt  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth.  It  is  clear  from  this  kind 
of  evidence  that  the  inside  of  our  planet 
must  be  in  an  intensely  heated  condition. 

THE   CRUST    OF   THE    EARTH 

This  solid  rocky  outer  part  of  the  earth 
on  which  we  live,  into  which  men  sink 
mines  and  out  of  which  springs  arise,  is 
called  the  Earth's  Crust. 

The   rocks   of  which  this  crust  consist 
belong   mostly   to   the   Sedimentary   series, 
a  large  number  to  the  Organic  series,  and 
a    smaller,    but    still    considerable    propor- 
tion, to  the  Igneous  series. 

PROOFS   THAT   PARTS   OF  THE  CRUST   HAVE 
SUNK    DOWN 

Submerged  Forests,  are  to  be  regarded 
as  evidence  of  subsidence  of  the  earth's 
surface,  just  as  the  raised  beaches  are 
taken  as  proofs  of  upheaval. 

The  beds  of  coal,  for  example,  which 
once  flourished  as  green  forests  at  the 
surface,  are  now  found  buried  deep  within 
the  earth. 


OUTLINES   OF   GEOLOGY 


245 


Two  facts  are  now  very  clear  to  you 
about  the  crust  of  the  earth — 1st,  it  has 
often  been  pushed  outward,  so  as  to  rise 
above  the  level  of  the  sea;  and  2d,  it  has 
also  often  sunk  inward  so  as  to  carry  parts 
of  the  land  deep  beneath  the  sea-level.  But 
it  could  not  undergo  these  movements  with- 
out suffering  other  changes. 

PROOFS     THAT    THE    ROCKS     OF    THE    EARTH'S 

CRUST    HAVE    BEEN    TILTED,    CRUMPLED, 

AND    BROKEN 

The  crust  of  the  earth,  instead  of  being 
made  of  regular  layers  one  above  another, 
like  the  coats  of  an  onion,  has  been  so 
squeezed  and  fractured,  that  in  many  cases 
the  bottom  or  oldest  rocks  have  been 
pushed  up  far  above  the  newest. 

Wherever,  therefore,  strata  are  pushed 
up  or  let  down  more  at  one  place  than  at 
another,  without  being  actually  broken 
across,  they  must  be  thrown  into  an  in- 
clined position.  Now  this  unequal  and  ir- 
regular kind  of  movement  has  taken  place 
many  times  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 
If  you  look  at  the  stratified  rocks,  in  most 
parts  of  this  and  other  countries,  you 
will  seldom  find  them  quite  flat — usually 
they  are  inclined,  sometimes  gently,  some- 
times steeply,  so  that  they  have  not  only 
been  upheaved  out  of  the  sea,  but  have 
been  moved  irregularly  and  unequally. 

THE    ORIGIN    OF    MOUNTAINS 

First  of  all,  then,  when  any  chain  of 
mountains  is  examined  it  is  found  to  be 
made  of  rocks  belonging  to  one  or  more 
of  the  three  great  classes  with  which  you 
are  already  acquainted.  In  particular,  the 
great  mass  of  most  mountain  chains  con- 
sists of  various  kinds  of  stratified  rocks — 
such  as  sandstones,  conglomerates,  lime- 
stones, and  others.  Now  you  have  found 
that  these  rocks  have  been  laid  down  un- 
der water,  most  of  them  under  the  sea. 
They  often  contain  the  remains  of  shells, 
corals,  sea-urchins,  or  other  marine  crea- 
tures, and  these  remains  may  be  taken  out 
of  the  rocks  even  at  the  summits  of  the 
mountains.  No  clearer  proof  than  this 
could  be  required  to  show  that  mountains 
are  not  so  old  as  "the  beginning  of  things," 
for  these  fossils  prove  that  where  the 
mountains  now  stand  wide  seas  once  rolled. 
.  Again,  mountains  which  consist  of  rocks 
formed  originally  under  the  sea  must  owe 
their  existence  to  some  force  which  could 
raise  up  the  bed  of  the  sea  into  high  land. 
As  a  consequence  of  the  slow  cooling  of 
our  planet,  its  outer  crust,  under  the  enor- 


mous strain  of  contraction,  has  been  forced 
up  into  ridges  in  different  places,  with  wide 
sunken  spaces  between. 

The  ridges  form  mountain  chains,  while 
the  sunken  spaces  are  filled  with  the  waters 
of  the  ocean.  If  you  look  at  a  map  of  the 
world  you  may  trace  out  the  principal 
lines  of  elevation,  as  they  are  called,  over 
the  globe. 

HOW   THE   ROCKS    OF   THE   CRUST   TELL   THE 
HISTORY    OF    THE    EARTH 

'  Geological  history  brings  before  us,  in 
this  way,  many  facts  well  calculated  to 
impress  our  minds  with  the  great  an- 
tiquity of  our  planet,  and  with  the  mar- 
vellous chain  of  changes  by  which  the 
present  order  of  things  has  been  brought 
about.  We  learn  from  it  that  mountains 
and  valleys  have  not  come  suddenly  into 
existence,  such  as  we  now  see  them,  but 
have  been  formed  gradually,  by  a  long 
series  of  processes  similar  to  those  which 
are  even  now  slowly  doing  the  same  work. 
We  discover  that  every  part  of  the  land 
under  our  feet  can  yield  us  up  its  story, 
if  we  only  know  how  to  question  it.  And, 
strangest  of  all,  we  find  that  the  races  of 
plants  and  animals  which  now  tenant  land 
and  sea  are  not  the  first  or  original  races, 
but  that  they  were  preceded  by  others, 
these  again  by  others  still  more  remote. 
We  see  that  there  has  been  upon  the  earth 
a  history  of  living  things,  as  well  as  of 
dead  matter.  At  the  beginning  of  that 
wonderful  history  we  detect  traces  merely 
of  lowly  forms,  like  the  foraminifera  of 
the  Atlantic  ooze.  At  the  end  we  are 
brought  face  to  face  with  man — thinking, 
working,  restless  man,  battling  steadily 
with  the  powers  of  nature,  and  overcom- 
ing them  one  by  one,  by  learning  how  to 
obey  the  laws  which  direct  them. 

THE  VALUE  OF    SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE 

It  may  occur  to  the  reader  to  ask:  "Of 
what  practical  value  is  information  con- 
cerning geology,  or  any  of  the  other  sci- 
ences? How  will  such  knowledge,  unless 
I  devote  years  to  the  acquirement  of  it, 
aid  me  in  bettering  my  condition?" 

Huxley,  in  one  of  his  admirable  essays, 
answered  this  question.  He  told  of  the 
formation  of  an  English  company  for  the 
mining  of  coal.  The  supposed  vein  lay 
beneath  a  certain  formation  of  rock,  yet 
every  geologist  in  the  world  knew  that 
coal  could  not  be  found  below  that  stra- 
tum. Ignorance  of  this  fact  cost  the  in- 
vestors a  fortune. 


PRINCIPLES    OF 
PERSPECTIVE 


THE   word   perspective   means   "seeing  through,"   and   indicates  the 
fundamental  principle  of  the  arts  of  drawing  and  painting;   fur- 
nishing the  rules  by  which  the  artist  is  able  to  reproduce  the  appear- 
ance of  natural  scenery  and  several-sided  objects  upon  a  plane  surface. 
Like  every  other  subject  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  ability  to  apply  the 
rules  of  perspective  may  be  derived  either  from  a  naturally  quick  eye, 
trained  by  practice  to  correctly  reproduce  things  seen,  or  it  may  be  learned 
and  understood  by  mastering  certain  geometrical  rules,  such  as  will  enable 
the  production  of  effects  more  technically  correct. 


GENERAL  RULES  AND   PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTIONS 


IT  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  mathe- 
matical discussions  which  are  seldom 
of  practical  advantage  to  artists.  The  prin- 
ciples of  perspective  may  be  readily  under- 
stood by  a  few  simple  rules.  Probably  the 
most  important  principle  is  found  in  the 
method  of  tracing  a  landscape  on  a  plane 
surface.  Perfectly  described,  this  consists 
simply  in  drawing  the  more  distant  objects 
smaller  in  size  and  somewhat  above  those 
represented  to  be  close  at  hand.  That  this 
is  the  correct  method  may  be  readily  veri- 
fied by  a  simple  experiment.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, we  look  through  a  window  at  a 
landscape,  we  find  that  the  objects  further 
away  literally  appear  to  the  eye  higher  up 
than  those  close  at  hand,  as  may  be  shown 
by  holding  a  measuring  rule  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  vision.  The  same  facts 
may  be  better  observed  with  the  reflection 
of  a  landscape  in  a  looking-glass  or  on  a 
screen  of  a  photographic  camera.  More- 
over, the  objects  seen  in  both  cases  are 
actually  impressed  upon  a  virtually  plane 
surface — the  retina  of  the  eye — which  is 
(246) 


the  exact  prototype  in  nature  of  the  camera 
obscura. 

The  illustration  usually  given  for  the 
practical  demonstration  of  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  perspective  is  to  place  a  vertical 
plane,  such  as  a  transparent  screen  of 
glass,  between  the  observer  and  the  object 
seen.  Now,  although  the  observer  and  the 
object  are  actually  on  the  same  ground 
plane,  or  level,  the  object  seen  by  him 
will  appear  to  be  standing  in  an  elevated 
position  on  the  picture  plane,  with  the  in- 
tervening distance  of  ground  plane  between 
him  and  it  rising  to  its  level.  The  ex- 
planation of  this  fact  is  readily  obtained 
when  we  consider  that  the  rays  of  light 
converging  at  the  pupil  of  the  eye  really 
form  a  sort  of  imaginary  cone,  constantly 
increasing  in  diameter  and  having  its  apex 
at  the  eye. 

DISTORTION   OF   OBJECTS 

Objects  of  perfectly  rectangular  shape, 
when  viewed  at  an  oblique  angle,  appear 
to  taper  rapidly  toward  the  horizon  in  the 


PRINCIPLES   OF    PERSPECTIVE 


247 


picture.  Thus,  a  house,  whose  sides  are 
perfectly  rectangular,  and  the  peak  of 
whose  roof  is  perfectly  horizontal  to  the 
plane  of  the  ground,  if  viewed  from  a 
point  at  such  an  angle  to  one  of  its  cor- 
ners that  two  sides  may  be  seen,  should 
be  drawn  in  a  picture  with  the  base  line 
rising  from  the  corner  nearest  to  the  ob- 


HORI2.0N 


Diagram  of  Perspective,  showing  the  distortion  of  * 
rectangular  object  viewed  from  above 

server,  with  the  line  of  the  base  inclin- 
ing almost  as  rapidly  toward  this,  and  that 
of  the  eaves  inclining  at  a  somewhat  more 
gradual  angle.  If,  now,  we  extend  the 
three  lines  just  mentioned  so  that  they 
meet,  we  will  have  in  a  drawing  of  the 
level  landscape  the  approximate  position 
of  the  line  of  the  horizon. 

Of  course,  the  angles  of  variation  from 
the  horizontal  in  such  cases  vary  with  the 
height  of  the  building  and  its  position  in 
the  picture.  Correct  inclination  of  such 
lines,  however,  is  largely  a  matter  of  judg- 
ment and  experience.  By  remembering  that 
the  base  line  and  peak  line  of  an  object, 


like  a  building,  must  be  drawn  so  that,  if 
extended,  they  would  meet  at  the  horizon, 
the  true  effect  can  be  readily  obtained. 
Should  we  draw  the  base  line  and  peak 
line  parallel,  the  building  would  appear  to 
be  going  up  or  down  hill,  as  the  case 
might  be,  or  the  effect  of  showing  two 
sides  would  be  lost.  The  rules  applicable 
to  drawing  the  lines  of  buildings  apply 
also  to  the  drawing  of  other  parallel  Ikies, 
as,  for  example,  the  rails  of  a  railroad 
track  or  the  two  sides  of  a  street  If  we 
stand  at  the  end  -  of  a  long  street,  or  it* 
the  centre  of  a  railway  track  that  extends 
beyond  the  horizon,  the  parallel  lines  on 
either  side  will  apparently  come  closer  to- 
gether, and,  if  the  landscape  is  a  level  one, 
they  will  apparently  meet  at  the  point 
furthest  from  the  eye.  This  point  is  at 
the  horizon  and  is  called  the  "vanishing 
point."  In  speaking  of  landscapes  the 
word  "horizon"  is  used  to  indicate  the  line 
limiting  vision,  beyond  which  nothing  can 
be  seen.  The  best  example  of  this  may  be 
seen  in  a  view  looking  out  directly  upon 
the  ocean  or  upon  a  perfectly  level  prairie 
of  wide  extent.  In  drawing  such  views  as 
these,  the  line  of  the  horizon  should  be 
.placed  at  a  point  which  the  eye  judges  to 
be  directly  opposite  to  its  line  of  vision. 
This  is  above  the  base  of  the  picture,  which 
is  the  theoretical  ground  plane  on  which 
the  observer  stands.  But  it  is  somewhat 
below  the  point  at  which  it  should  be, 
supposedly,  if  intervening  distances  were 
actually  considered;  since,  according  to 
the  theory  of  the  picture  plane  previously 
explained,  the  object  of  vision  appears 
to  be  raised  above  the  ground  plane  on 
the  one  hand,  and  somewhat  lower  than 
the  sky  line  on  the  other,  by  virtue  of 


Diagram  illustrating  the  theory  of  the  picture  plane,  and  the  principles  of  perspective  in  drawing  and  painting 


248 


PRINCIPLES   OF    PERSPECTIVE 


the  fact  that  the  lines  of  vision,  converg- 
ing at  the  eye,  are  actually  nearer  together 
at  the  picture  plane  than  at  the  object  of 
vision. 

Other  principles  of  perspective  are  read- 
ily understood  from  the  foregoing  princi- 
ples as  well  as  from  ordinary  experience. 

Thus,  for  example,  it  is  familiar  to  any 
observer  that  the  top  of  an  object,  viewed 
from  above  at  an  oblique  angle,  must  be 
drawn  more  or  less  elliptical,  if  round,  and 
more  or  less  trapezoidal,  if  square.  That 
these  methods  reproduce  the  objects  pre- 


ing  a  very  tall  house,  but  slightly  removed 
from  the  theoretical  position  of  the  ob- 
server, the  line  of  the  peak  should  incline 
very  rapidly  toward  the  horizon,  while  that 
of  the  base  would  incline  more  gradually. 
Similarly,  when  such  an  object  is  further 
removed  from  the  observer  or  viewed  from 
a  somewhat  elevated  position,  the  condi- 
tions are  rapidly  reversed,  until  the  base 
line  inclines  more  rapidly  than  that  of  the 
peak.  This  fact  is  also  illustrated  in  the 
accompanying  diagrams. 

Probably  one  of  the  most  effective  meth- 


Diagram  showing  the  perspective  of  a  building,  with  drop  of  lines  to  the  horizon 


cisely  as  the  eye  sees  them,  rather  than 
as  the  mind  knows  them  to  be,  may  be 
readily  discovered  by  departing  from  the 
rules  laid  down.  The  picture  we  draw 
will  then  appear  as  something  other  than 
either  a  cylindrical  or  cubical  object. 

In  drawing  cubical  objects,  such  as 
houses,  etc.,  the  rule  of  perspective,  as 
shown  by  accompanying  diagrams,  involves 
that  the  greatest  inclination  from  a  line 
drawn  perpendicular  to  the  ground  line 
is  at  the  furthest  distance,  either  above  or 
below  the  plane  of  vision.  Thus,  in  draw- 


ods  for  mastering  the  details  of  perspec- 
tive, as  applied  to  the  reproduction  of 
landscapes,  is  to  use  a  camera  obscura,  by 
means  of  which  the  lines  of  distances  are 
reproduced  for  the  artist  precisely  as  the 
eye  sees  them  to  exist  in  nature.  Consid- 
erable experience  with  the  camera  obscura 
will  accustom  the  eye  to  the  correct  out- 
lines and  proportions,  and  eventually  en- 
able the  hand  to  reproduce  them  without 
such  artificial  assistance. 

As  a  good  general  rule,  geometrical  prin- 
ciples and  laws  of 'lines  and  angles  are  of 


PRINCIPLES   OF    PERSPECTIVE 


249 


Diagram  showing  the  drop  of  parallel  lines  to  the  horizon,  as  shown  with  a  railway  track,  telegraph 

lines,  and  fences 


very  little  use  to  artists  in  the  production 
of  landscapes  and  general  views.  The 
great  object  to  be  obtained -is  to  train  the 
eye  to  see  correctly  and  the  hand  to  re- 
produce exactly.  Of  course,  in  the  work 
of  drawing  a  city  street,  the  outside  of  a 
building,  or  the  interior  of  a  room,  con- 
siderable measuring  must  be  done  in  order 
to  obtain  correct  results;  but,  without  ade- 
quate drawing  of  the  eye  and  hand,  such 
measurements  are  of  little  account. 

In  drawing  many  objects  involving  a  con- 
siderable number  of  lines,  such  as  a  build- 
ing, a  very  ready  and  helpful  method  of 


obtaining  correct  proportions  is  to  employ 
the  following  simple  device.  Tie  a  string 
around  a  pencil  or  other  straight  stick  and 
hold  the  string  between  the  teeth  at  a  cer- 
tain point  indicated  by  a  knot  which  is 
tied  after  the  desired  proportions  of  the 
nearest  lines  have  been  obtained.  Propor- 
tionate lengths  of  all  other  lines  may  then 
be  obtained  by  stretching  the  string  held 
between  the  teeth,  marking  the  points  of 
the  figure  to  which  it  extends  above  the 
points  to  which  the  string  is  tied.  This, 
correctly  measured  off  on  paper,  will  give 
the  true  proportions  in  every  case. 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  ART 


WHILE  in  the  work  of  drawing  natural  scenery,  landscapes,  build- 
ings, etc.,  the  artist  needs  to  understand  the  laws  of  perspective, 
as  explained  in  the  preceding  article,  the  work  of  correctly  draw- 
ing human  and  animal  figures  demands  a  very  certain  and"  definite  knowl- 
edge of  anatomy  and  of  the  proportions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 
Correctly  speaking,  human  beings  and  animals  are  not  drawn  in  perspec- 
tive. Should  this  be  attempted  the  results  would  be  about  the  same  order 
of  distortion  as  is  found  in  photographs  of  people  and  animals  taken  with 
the  subject  so  posed  as  to  bring  the  parts  into  different  planes.  The  cor- 
rect procedure  with  figures  of  human  beings  is  to  draw  the  various  parts 
as  the  mind  knows  them  to  be,  rather  than  the  laws  of  perspective,  rigidly 
applied,  might  compel  us  to  represent  them. 

PRINCIPLES    OF    CORRECT    FIGURE     DRAWING 


GENERAL    PROPORTIONS 

WHILE  the  end  of  correctly  drawing  a 
living  being  is  in  many  respects  like 
that  of  drawing  any  other  objects,  natural 
or  artificial,  requiring  particularly  such 
training  of  the  eye  and  hand  as  shall  en- 
able correct  using  and  perfect  reproduction 
of  what  is  seen,  there  are  certain  laws  of 
proportion,  especially  thos£  applying  to  the 
human  figure,  which  must  be  thoroughly 
understood  and  applied.  For  example,  many 
youthful  artists  attempt  to  draw  the  hu- 
man face,  and  w.hile,  on  account  of  cer- 
tain natural  aptitudes,  they  can  perhaps  pro- 
duce a  good  likeness,  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  the  various  features  seem  so  utterly 
incorrect  that  the  effect  is  marred.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  artist  has  not  mas- 
tered the  fundamental  rules  for  drawing" 
the  face.  Although  there  are  numerous 
variations  in  the  proportions  of  the  face, 
as  in  other  parts  of  the  body,  it  may  be 
generally  assumed  that  a  face,  measured 
from  the  tip  of  the  chin  to  the  upper  edge 
of  the  forehead,  may  be  divided  into  three 
equal  parts.  These  are  measured  from  be- 
low, from  the  tip  of  the  chin  to  the  point 
of  the  nose,  and  from  thence  to  the  edge 
of  the  forehead.  These  measurements,  of 
course,  give  the  ideal  human  face,  but 
knowledge  of  the  rule  will  enable  the  ar- 
tist to  speedily  discern  and  reproduce  any 
variations  occurring  in  particular  subjects. 
(250) 


A  similarly  general  rule  makes  the  length 
of  the  human  hand,  measured  from  the  end 
of  the  palm  to  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger, 
exactly  the  same  as  the  length  of  the  face 
just  given.  Some  persons  and  races  have 
the  hands  somewhat  longer  than  this  meas- 
ure; others  have  them  shorter;  but  the  rule 
applies  to  well-formed  representatives  of 
European  nations.  A  general  rule  for  the 
length  of  a  human  figure  is  eight  heads — 
measured  from  the  tip  of  the  chin-  to  the 
top  of  the  skull,  not  including  the  hair — 
for  persons  above  the  average  height.  For 
persons  of  average  height,  or  below,  the 
most  approved  proportions  give  seven  and 
one-half  heads  from  the  base  of  the  heel 
to  the  top  of  the  cranium.  W'hile,  on  the 
basis  of  the  eight-head  measurement,  the 
exact  centre  of  the  body  is  at  the  pubic 
bone  for  representatives  of  both  sexes; 
with  many  figures  below  mediufti  height, 
the  centre  is  set  up  higher  on  account  of 
the  shortness  of  the  lower  limbs.  Such 
variations  need  not  be  considered,  however, 
as  the  aim  of  the  artist  is  to  reproduce  the 
ideal  and  normal,  rather  than  the  accidental 
variations  occasionally  occurring  in  real  life. 
Another  rule  of  proportions  followed  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians  is  to  make  the  total 
height  nineteen  times  the  length  of  the 
middle  finger;  but  this  rule  also  is  rather 
ideal  than  invariable,  although  it  may  be 
regarded  as  approximate  for  the  large  ma- 


251 


jority  of  figures.  It  is  useful  also  in  de- 
termining the  correct  size  of  the  hand  in 
any  given  figure,  since  the  middle  finger 
is  approximately  one- half  the  total  length 
of  the  hand. 

The   approximate   length   of  the  arm  in 
normal  male  figures  is  about  three  and  one- 


7— - 


6  — 


The  important  muscles  of  the  trunk — side  view: 
pectoralis  major  (i);  serratus  magnus  (2);  great 
oblique  (3) ;  trapezius  (4)  ;  dorsalis  magnus  (5) ; 
gluteus  maximus  (6) ;  deltoid  (7). 

half  heads  from  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger 
to  the  point  of  the  shoulder-blade.  With 
the  average  female  figure,  the  length  of  the 
arm  similarly  measured  is  nearly  three  and 
three-quarter  heads,  being  proportionately 
longer  than  in  the  average  male.  The 
length  of  the  leg  is  approximately  the  same 
in  both  sexes,  measuring  about  four  heads 
from  the  tip  of  the  heel  to  the  point  of 
the  femur,  which  is  approximately  on  the 
line  with  the  pubic  bone.  The  exact  cen- 
tre of  the  lower  limbs  goes  just  below  the 
patella  or  knee-cap. 

PHYSICAL   CONFORMATIONS 

Next  to  understanding  the  general  pro- 
portions and  relative  lengths  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  body  the  artist  should  under- 
stand at  least  the  general  outlines  of  con- 
formation, in  order  to  draw  a  figure  true 


to  life.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  correct 
proportions  be  observed :  he  must  know  the 
exact  outlines  and  shapes  of  the  various 
parts.  Knowledge  of  this  subject  can  come 
only  from  study  of  anatomy,  which  ac- 
quaints the  student  at  least  with  the  loca- 
tion and  extent  of  the  various  muscles,  as 
well  as  with  the  uses  for  which  they  are 
intended.  It  is  necessary  that  the  artist 
understand  the  uses  of  the  various  mus- 
cles, because  in  attempting  to  draw  a  figure 
in  action,  as,  for  example,  one  with  the  arm 
raised,  he  must  know  precisely  what  mus- 
cles are  in  action  and  should  be  empha- 
sized. As  this  matter  requires  exact  study, 
it  will  be  possible  only  to  point  out  the 
more  important  facts  connected  with  the 
muscles  of  the  body  and  several  limbs. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  TRUNK. — In  beginning 
the  study  of  the  muscles   with  the  trunk, 


5 


The  important  muscles  of  the  trunk — rear  view: 
trapezius  (i);  deltoid  (2);  latissimus  dorsi  (3); 
great  oblique  (4);  gluteus  maximus  (5). 

or  body,  we  find  that  the  most  prominent, 
and,  consequently,  the  ones  most  liable  to 
appear  with  a  figure  in  action,  are  the 
Great  Pectoral  Muscles,  which  are  attached 
to  the  internal  edge  of  the  clavicle,  and  in 
front  of  the  sternum  and  to  several  of 
the  ribs,  and,  at  the  other  hand,  to  the 


'252 


THE   ANATOMY   OF   ART 


bicipital  groove  of  the  humerus.  Directly 
beneath  the  Great  Pectoral  Muscle  is  the 
Serratus  Magnus,  apparently  running  in  the 
direction  of  the  ribs,  interlaced  by  several 
branches  of  the  Great  Oblique  Muscle,  which 
arises  from  the  front  half  of  the  Ileum  to 
the  lower  edges  of  the  seven  or  eight  last 
ribs.  Both  these  muscles,  particularly  the 
former,  are  very  prominent  in  well-devel- 
oped athletes,  and  their  conformation  and 
location  should  be  carefully  studied. 

The  most  prominent  muscles  at  the  back 
of  the  trunk  are  the  Latissimus  Dorsi,  which 
rises  on  either  side  from  the  attachments 
at  the  six  or  seven  last  dorsal  vertebrae, 


2  ---, 


...J? 


Important  muscles  of  the  arm — front  view:  deltoid 
(i);  triceps  (2);  biceps  (3);  first  radial  ex- 
tensor (4);  supinator  longus  (5);  second  radial 
extensor  (6);  great  palmar  (7). 

and  the  lumbar  and  sacral  vertebrae,  to 
the  bicipital  groove  of  the  humerus.  Its 
function  is  to  carry  the  arm  near  to  the 
body  downward  and  backward.  Above  and 
superimposed  on  the  last-named  muscle,  is 
that  known  as  the  Trapezium,  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  spines  of  almost  all  the  cervi- 
cal, and  sometimes  all  the  dorsal,  vertebrae, 
on  the  one  side,  and,  to  the  edge  of  the 
scapula,  acromion,  and  clavicle  on  the  other. 
Its  functions  are  to  lower  and  elevate  the 
shoulders  or  to  incline  the  head  backward. 
MUSCLES  OF  THE  ARM. — In  drawing  the 
arm  with  anatomical  correctness  the  prin- 
cipal points  to  be  observed  are  the  Deltoid 


Muscle,  which  is  a  nearly  triangular  mass 
attached  to  the  clavicle  and  shoulder-blade, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  humerus  on 
the  other.  It  is  fixed  so  that  the  Great 
Pectoral  Muscle,  in  front  of  the  Latissimus 


A  well-developed'  arm,  showing  the  deltoid,   triceps, 
biceps,  extensor,  and  abductor  muscles. 

Dorsi  in  the  rear,  are  both  attached  to  the 
humerus  at  points  beneath  it.  Its  function 
is  to  raise  the  arm  so  that  the  humerus 
shall  stand  at  right  angles  to  the  trunk. 

The  most  important  muscles  of  the  hu- 
merus are  the  biceps,  at  the  top,  and  the 
triceps,  at  the  bottom,  of  the  arm;  the 
former  having  as  its  object  to  raise  the 
forearm,  and  the  second  to  draw  it  straight 


A    well-developed    arm,    showing   the    muscles    that 
appear  most  prominent  in  the  position   assumed. 

again.  Similarly  the  most  important  mus- 
cles of  the  forearm  are  the  Supinator,  at 
the  top,  and  the  Extensor  muscles  at  the 
lower  sides  of  these.  The  former  is  con- 
tracted, and  becomes  apparent  when  hand 


THE   ANATOMY   OF   ART 


253 


is  clinched ;  the  latter,  when  the  fingers  are 
extended.  Taking  these  five  muscles  into 
consideration,  the  outer  appearance  of  the 
human  arm  may  be  very  well  outlined. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  LEG. — The  shape  of  the 
lower  limb  is  largely  determined  by  the 
conformation  of  several  large  muscles,  which 


..8 


Important  abdominal  and  femoral  muscles,  etc.: 
iliac  crest  (i);  aponeurosis  (2);  great  trochanter 
(3)  >  gluteus  maximus  (4) ;  biceps  (5) ;  rectus 
anticus  (6) ;  triceps  (7) ;  patella  (8).  The  large 
ligament  is  the  tensor  muscle  of  the  aponeurosis 
fasciae  late. 

are  made  prominent  when  brought  into 
action.  To  the  rear  of  the  femur  and  at- 
tached to  .the  thigh-bone  is  the  Biceps  or 
Flexor  Muscle,  whose  duty  it  is  to  turn 
the  leg  outward.  Superimposed  upon  this, 
and  on  the  outer  side  of  the  femur,  is  the 
Triceps  Muscle,  which  is  brought  into  ac- 
tion on  the  bending  of  the  knee.  To  the 
top  and  front  of  the  femur  is  the  large 
muscle,  known  as  the  Rectus  Anticus,  whose 
function  is  to  straighten  the  leg. 

On  the  lower  half  of  the  lower  limb  the 
most  important  muscle  is  the  Soleus,  which 
is  attached  at  the  top  to  the  posterior  part 
of  the  head  of  the  fibula  and  to  the  nearer 
edge  of  the  tibia,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
through  the  great  tendon  of  Achilles  to 
the  calcaneum  or  heel,  on  the  other.  This 
muscle,  which  forms  the  "calf"  of  the  leg, 
as  it  is  called,  has  as  its  function  to  ex- 
tend the  foot.  To  the  front  of  the  lower 
half  of  the  lev  IS  the  muscle  known  as 


Tibialis  Anticus,  which  arises  from  the 
outer  side  of  the  head  of  the  tibia,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  passes  over  the  cuneiform 
bone  to  the  great  toe.  Its  function  is  to 
bend  the  foot  inward  and  upward. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  NECK. — The  principal 
muscles  of  the  neck  that  must  be  consid- 
ered in  artistic  work  are  the  Sterno-Cleido 
Mastoids,  which  attach  to  the  skull  directly 
behind  the  ears,  and,  running  downward 
and  forward,  connect  to  the  interior  of 
the  collar-bone  and  sternum.  The  func- 
tion of  these  muscles  is  to  turn  the  head 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  when  one  of 
them  acts  alone,  or  to  bend  the  head  for- 
ward toward  the  chest,  when  both  act  to- 
gether. Although  they  are  seldom  very 
prominent,  except  in  subjects  having  a 
thin  or  muscular  neck,  they  must  be  care- 
fully considered  in  drawing  a  correct  outline 
of  the  throat,  particularly  with  the  head  in- 
clined sidewise  or  in  an  oblique  position. 

Above  and  forward  of  the  Sterno-Mastoid 
Muscles,  we  have,  on  either  side,  that  known 
as  Platysma  Myoides  which  is  attached  to 


3 


A.... 


The  important  muscles  of  the  lower  limb:  tibialis 
anticus  (i);  soleus  and  tendon  of  Achilles  (2); 
gastrocnemii  (3). 

the  jaw-bone  almost  from  the  chin  to  the 
hinge,  and,  at  the  lower  extremity,  arises 
from  the  fascia  covering  the  upper  part  of 
the  Deltoid  and  Pectoral  Muscles.  This 
muscle  is  a  very  thin  sheet  of  fibres  and 
is  seldom  apparent  on  the  surface,  except 
in  aged  people.  Its  principal  function,  so 

17 


264 


THE   ANATOMY   OF   ART 


far  as  concerns  the  artistic  significance  of 
the  anatomy,  is  to  depress  the  corners  of 
the  mouth,  thus  increasing  the  expression 
of  melancholy. 

THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  FACE,  while  not  ap- 
pearing so  strongly  on  the  surface  as  those 
of  the  limbs  and  trunk,  are  nearly  the 
most  important  to  the  artist.  This  is  true 


The  muscles  of  the  face  and  neck:  the  occipito- 
frontalis  (i);  the  orbicular  of  the  eyelids  (2); 
the  common  elevator  of  nose  and  upper  lip  (3) ; 
smaller  zygomatic  (4) ;  larger  zygomatic  (5) ; 
triangular  of  the  chin  (6) ;  sterno-cleido  mastoid 
(7);  latissimus  colli  (8). 

because,  by  the  use  of  these  muscles, 
the  various  expressions  of  the  human  face 
are  made.  In  order,  therefore,  to  cor- 
rectly reproduce  the  exact  expression  we 
may  have  in  mind,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
what  muscles  are  active  in  producing  it. 
The  most  important  muscles  of  the  face 
are  the  Occipito-Frontalis,  having  its  origin 


at  the  point  of  the  forehead  .and  its  inser- 
tion above  the  Orbicular  Muscles  of  the 
eyelids,  so  as  to  effect  the  elevation  of  the 
eyebrows,  as  in  expressions  of  astonishment, 
etc.,  by  which  the  forehead  is  wrinkled. 
The  Orbicular  Muscles,  being  circular  in 
shape,  contract  with  the  effect  of  depress- 
ing the  eyebrows,  producing  a  vertical  angle 
above  the  bridge  of  the  nose.  This  gives 
the  expressions  of  perplexity,  reflection,  etc. 

The  first  muscle  attached  to  the  mouth 
is  the  Zygomatic,  which  has  its  origin  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  chin-bone  and  its 
insertion  at  the  corners  of  the  mouth.  Its 
principal  function  is  to  draw  up  the  cor- 
ners of  the  lips,  thus  producing  the  ex- 
pression of  laughter  and  smiling.  It  also 
has  the  effect  of  elevating  the  muscles 
of  the  face  on  either  side,  so  as  to 
strongly  accentuate  the  naso-labial  lines, 
and  to  draw  them  up  toward  the  cheek- 
bone; also  producing  in  some  places  the 
radiating  folds  of  the  corners  of  the  eye 
known  as  "crow's-feet." 

Another  muscle,  known  as  the  Smaller 
Zygomatic,  attaches  to  the  mouth  on  either 
side  at  a  point  nearer  the  centre  of  the 
lips;  thus  acting  to  draw  up  the  centre 
rather  than  the  ends  of  the  lips,  and  pro- 
ducing the  expression  of  grief,  disgust,  and 
similar  sentiments;  also  being  the  muscle 
brought  prominently  into  action  in  weep- 
ing. This  muscle,  acting  with  the  so-called 
Common  Elevator  of  the  lips  and  nose, 
accentuates  the  expression  of  grief,  giving 
the  expression  of  despair  or  abandoned 
sorrow. 

Another  muscle  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  the  expressions  of  the  face  is  the 
so-called  Triangular  Muscle  of  the  chin, 
which  has  its  attachment  below  -the  fower 
lips  on  either  side.  It  operates  to  depress 
the  corners  of  the  mouth,  thus  producing 
the  expression  of  contempt,  discontent,  etc.. 
usually  accompanied  by  a  pursing  of  the 
lips  at  the  centre  and  a  strong  tension  on 
the  naso-labial  lines. 


II 


MEDITATION 


SORROW 


GRIEF 


CONTEMPT 


LANDSCAPE  painting  is  comparatively  a  modern  art.  Titian,  who 
lived  in  the  sixteenth  century,  is  generally  looked  upon  as  its 
founder.  By  landscape  painting  one  means  the  representation  of 
natural  scenery  for  its  own  sake.  Now,  of  course,  long  before  Titian, 
you  find  painters  painting  sky,  and  sea,  and  mountains,  and  trees,  and  paint- 
ing them  with  extreme  beauty  and  skill.  But  you  will  not  find  a  single 
instance  among  the  early  Italians  of  a  picture  existing  wholly  or  primarily 
for  the  sake  of  its  landscape.  Nay,  more  than  this;  you  will  find  scarcely 
a*ri  instance  in  which  the  landscape  is  much  more  than  a  beautifully  de- 
signed surrounding  for  figures;  a  surrounding  founded  indeed  upon  love 
and  observation  of  nature,  but  painted  primarily  for  exactly  the  same  reason 
as  still  earlier  the  gold  pattern  backgrounds  were  painted — that  is  to  say, 
simply  as  a  beautifully  designed  surrounding  for  figures.  Titian  com- 
menced a  new  order.  Natural  scenery  had  for  him  a  meaning  and  a  fas- 
cination in  itself  apart  from  human  beings.  And  so  Titian  commenced 
the  modern  art  of  landscape;  the  art  with  which  we  connect  the  great 
names  of  Holbein  and  Ruysdale  and  Caspar  Poussin,  and  Crowe  and  Cour- 
dette  and  Turner.  These  men  and  their  followers  rejoiced  in  natural 
scenery  purely  for  its  own  beauties,  and  tried  to  represent  it  as  they  saw  it 
under  its  different  aspects;  they  tried,  as  we  may  say,  to  give  portraits  of 
it,  to  give  its  genuine  effect;  they  did  not  use  it  simply  as  material  from 
which  to  work  out  beautiful  designs;  but  they  went  to  it  that  they  might 
know  its  appearance,  and  bear  record  of  that.  And  this  is  true  landscape 
painting. 

It  is  a  matter  of  wonder  that  the  art  of  landscape  painting,  which  is  now 
so  popular,  should  have  been  such  a  late  development  of  art!  The  answer 
to  that  question  would  lead  us  probably  into  a  somewhat  difficult  dis- 
cussion hardly  suited  to  these  pages.  But  we  may  say  this — in  early 
times,  nature,  as  we  call  it,  was  not  rejoiced  in  by  the  people  as  it  is  nowa- 
days, because  it  was  for  them  full  of  known  or  dreaded  perils,  and  they 
cared  neither  to  visit  it  nor  to  look  at  its  representation.  Many  of  these 
perils  were  real,  such,  for  instance,  as  those  of  a  robber  or  a  wild  beast; 
some  were  imaginary,  such  as  those  from  supernatural  beings.  If  every 
time  you  went  up  to  a  mountain  you  were  in  dread  of  meeting  a  spirit, 
and  every  time  you  went  into  a  forest  you  were  in  dread  of  meeting  a 
robber  or  a  wild  beast,  you  would  not  much  care  about  going  up  moun- 

CKD 


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tains  or  into  forests,  nor  would  you  care  about  paintings  of  these  dreadful 
places.  But  by  and  by  civilization  increased,  superstition  passed  away, 
people  came  to  be  more  and  more  at  their  ease  with  nature,  and  able  to 
gaze  on  her  with  enjoyment. 


PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  LANDSCAPE  PAINTING 


TECHNIQUE.— The  first  business  of  a 
student  is  to  learn  how  to  reproduce 
with  exactness  the  scene  before  him  or  her. 
When  you  go  out  to  draw,  determine  that 
you  will  do  your  best  to  match  the  colors 
and  the  tones  of  the  landscape  as  nearly  as 
ever  you  can.  Do  not  be  content  with  im- 
perfect knowledge  and  resources.  Do  not 
try  to  make  pretty  pictures;  endeavor  sim- 
ply to  make  a  study  which  shall  be  like 
the  thing  before  you.  By  and  by  you  will 
get  command  over  your  materials,  and  then 
it  will  be  time  enough  to  commence  paint- 
ing pictures.  But  over  your  materials  get 
command  as  soon  as  ever  you  can.  Grudge 
no  time  or  trouble  which  helps  you  on  with 
this.  Learn  how  to  do  whatever  you  want 
to  do,  to  imitate  whatever  you  want  to  imi- 
tate; this  is  studentship,  and  do  not  shirk  it. 

DETAIL;  MASS;  TONE. — The  great  diffi- 
culty which  most  people  find  when  they 
begin  landscape  painting  from  nature  arises 
from  detail.  Detail  is  a  terrible  task.  Let 
us  by  way  of  illustration  try  and  imagine 
some  simple  scene.  Supposing,  then,  we 
want  to  paint — shall  we  say  a  cottage,  with 
some  trees  in  the  background,  and  in  front 
a  stream  in  which  they  are  reflected.  Now, 
in  the  trees  there  will  be  visible  innumer- 
able leaves,  no  doubt,  and  branches,  and 
variations  of  color.  In  the  roof  it  is  per- 
fectly certain  that  there  will  be  a  thousand 
tints,  and  in  the  walls  a  thousand  streaks 
and  reflected  lights  and  tones;  and  then  all 
this  more  or  less  over  again  in  the  water 
with  increased  intricacy. 

Most  amateurs,  when  they  sit  down  to 
paint  such  a  thing,  begin  trying  bit  by  bit 
to  copy  each  leaf  and  twig,  and  tile  and 
stain.  One  knows  so  well  the  result — a 
thin,  toneless,  unproportional  drawing,  that 
has  no  true  art-value  whatever.  Well,  the 
first  thing  is  to  forget  absolutely  all  detail, 
and  to  aim  simply  at  mass  and  tone;  to 
aim  simply  at  getting  down  a  groundwork 
of  the  general  color,  which  shall  be  true  in 
its  broad  relation  of  light  and  dark,  and  of 
tint.  Into  this  you  may  work  any  amount 
of  detail  you  choose;  but  unless  you  have 
got  this,  all  Detail  is  worthless,  and  when 


you  have  gotten  it,  when  your  tone,  ac- 
quired by  broad  relation  of  light  and  dark 
and  of  tint,  is  true,  even  supposing  that  you 
carry  the  drawing  no  further,  it  has  real 
value  as  a  representation  of  the  scene  and 
as  a  piece  of  art. 

You  will  find  it  an  excellent  plan  at  the 
commencement  of  a  drawing  to  half-close 
your  eyes  as  you  look  at  the  landscape ;  in 
this  way  you  will  shut  out  all  detail  and 
will  see  the  scene  before  you  as  a  whole; 
you  will  see  it  in  its  broad  relations,  that 
is,  of  light  and  dark,  and  of  tint.  It  is 
exceedingly  useful,  too,  when  you  have  the 
time,  to  first  of  all  make  a  pencil  sketch  of 
the  scene  on  the  same  principle,  attending, 
that  is,  wholly  to  masses  and  tone.  You 
will  get  these  down  rightly  with  greater 
ease,  because  you  will  not  have  to  be  think 
ing  yet  of  what  the  colors  are  and  have  to 
match  them.  When  you  have  got  your 
black  and  white  study  correct — using  your 
pencil,  we  should  advise  you,  as  one  uses 
charcoal,  rubbing  it,  that  is,  with  your  fin- 
ger— then  on  a  new  piece  of  paper  begin 
coloring,  keeping  the  pencil  study  by  you 
as  your  scheme  of  mass  and  tone. 

BLOCKS;  BODY  COLOR;  INK;  COLORS. — Un- 
less you  have  a  long  while  before  you,  and 
can  return  to  your  subject  again  and  again, 
so  as  to  work  it  carefully  out,  we  advise 
you  not  to  make  your  landscape  studies  too 
large.  For  a  morning's  or  an  afternoon's 
work,  a  block  the  size  of  a  piece  of  note- 
paper  folded  out,  or  even  of  a  piece  of  note- 
paper  folded  in  two,  as  we  ordinarily  write 
on  it,  is  large  enough.  Paint  on  white  pa- 
per, and  on  white  paper  that  has  a  tolerable 
but  not  too  rough  grain.  You  will  find  it 
useful  to  use  body-color  with  a  fair-sized 
brush,  and  in  a  fluid  state,  when  you  are 
commencing  your  drawing,  when  you  are 
getting  in  the  broad  relation  of  light  and 
dark,  and  of  tint.  Into  the  body-color, 
while  it  is  still  fluid,  work  different  tints 
more  or  less  pure  as  you  want  them;  then, 
when  the  groundwork  is  dry,  draw  into  it 
the  main  form,  with  a  pen  charged  with 
indelible  brown  ink,  and  then  work  on  to- 
ward finishing  with  pure  colors.  You  need 


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257 


not  \n  this  way  fear  that  your  drawing  will 
rook  chalky;  it  will  not  in  the  least,  if  you 
work  your  pure  colors  in  with  tolerable 
skill.  And  as  for  the  brown  pen-lines,  also, 
they  will  disappear  if  you  like  to  work  on 
them  enough. 

As  to  colors,  it  is  well  to  have  a  moder- 
ate number  only  in  one's  box.  The  follow- 
ing list  will  serve  you  for  painting  most 
ordinary  landscapes.  Raw  Umber,  Burned 
Sienna,  Raw  Sienna,  Light  Red,  Rose  Mad- 
der, Brown  Madder,  Aureolin,  Cobalt  Blue, 
Viridian,  Olive  Green,  Black  and  Chinese 
White.  Every  artist,  of  course,  has  special 
colors  that  he  or  she  is  fond  of,  just  as  he 
or  she  has  special  methods ;  but  with  these 
colors  you  will  be  able  to  do  most  of  what 
you  find  to  do  as  soon  as  you  get  a  toler- 
able facility  in  combining  them. 

SKETCHING. — Amateurs  are  exceedingly 
fond  of  what  they  call  sketching.  We  all 
know  what  that  generally  comes  to — going 
out  and  choosing  some  large  piece  of  land- 
scape, and  then  making  nonsense  of  it ;  spoil- 
ing a  piece  of  paper  with  something  which 
has  no  drawing,  no  tone,  no  color,  but  which 
is  purely  rubbish.  Fly  from  the  temptation 
to  sketch  as  you  would  fly  from  the  Evil 
One  himself.  If  you  do  not  really  feel  that 
you  can  muster  energy  enough  to  learn  how 
to  draw  and  how  to  color,  do  not  set  your 
hand  to  the  business  at  all.  But  if  you  do, 
go  to  nature  and  to  the  masters,  reverently 
continuing,  and  try  to  let  this  witchery 
work  on  you,  grudging  no  pains  or  no  sacri- 
fice. You  may  not  do  great  things,  but  if 
you  have  any  true  art  instinct  at  all  you 
will  in  time  do  some  beautiful  things, 
things  which,  however  small  and  quiet,  it 
is  well  to  do ;  they  will  bring  you  happi- 
ness, and  they  will  bring  some  others,  of 
whom  it  is  worth  thinking,  happiness  also. 

PAINTING    ON    TERRA    COTTA 

In  painting  on  terra  cotta  it  is  best  to 
treat  your  whole  subject,  first  of  all,  in  light 
and  shade,  with  white  enamel,  using  it  thinly 
for  the  shadows,  and  thickly  in  the  light. 
As  the  unglazed  pottery  is  more  absorbent 
than  the  glazed,  more  oil  is  required  in  the 
enamel  when  used  for  this  purpose  than  for 
ordinary  work.  Remember  that  the  brush 
must  never  be  filled  with  enamel,  but  take 
as  much  on  the  tip  as  it  will  hold,  and  you 
will  begin  to  replenish  it  for  every  brush- 
mark.  It  will  not  be  found  at  all  easy  to 
do  this  well,  as  white  enamel  is  difficult  to 
lay  on  cleanly  and  smoothly,  until  the  stu- 
dent has  had  a  good  dea.  of  practice.  When 


the  whole  design  has  been  painted  in  this 
manner,  it  must  be  fired,  and  then,  if  the 
white  has  been  put  on  sufficiently  thick, 
the  design  will  be  glazed.  You  may  then 
tint  it  with  the  ordinary  china-painting  col- 
ors and  have  it  re-fired. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  painting  on  terra 
cotta  will  be  overcome  if  your  subject  is 
well  chosen.  Let  the  flowers  be  of  a  sim- 
ple, open  nature,  such  as  daisies,  hawthorn, 
blackthorn,  wild  roses,  any  sort  of  fruit 
blossoms,  buttercups,  or  primroses.  Any 
of  those,  and  many  others,  are  very  appro- 
priate, and  look  well ;  but  if  the  student  has 
chosen  anything  of  a  bell-shaped  nature,  or, 
more  still,  anything  elaborate,  such  as  col- 
umbine or  antirhinium,  success  will  be  most 
difficult  of  attainment. 

Colors  should  be  very  subdued  on  terra 
cotta:  Pale  Yellows,  White,  Dull  Greens, 
and  Browns  all  look  well,  with  possibly 
a  little  Turquoise  Blue.  It  is  best  for 
the  student  not  to  paint  on  terra  cotta  un- 
til he  can  conscientiously  assure  himself 
that  his  taste  is  well  trained,  and  his  ma- 
nipulations good. 

It  is  quite  allowable  to  mix  color  with 
the  enamel  for  the  first  firing,  but  there  is 
no  advantage  in  doing  so,  as  the  enamel 
makes  too  rough  a  surface  for  shading 
upon,  and  it  therefore  requires  a  second 
firing  before  it  can  be  finished.  If,  how- 
ever, for  anything  very  simple,  you  would 
like  to  try  it,  let  the  proportions  be  about 
four  of  enamel  to  one  of  color. 

Colored  glazed  plates  and  tiles  may  also 
be  painted  in  the  manner  described  for 
terra  cotta.  Beautiful  shades  are  to  be 
had  of  Celadon,  Chocolate,  Orange,  Blue, 
Green,  and  others. 

PAINTING   ON    CHINA 

In  commencing  the  study  of  China  Paint- 
ing it  will  be  well  if  the  student  starts  with 
the  firm  determination  of  completely  mas- 
tering the  use  of  his  materials.  And  even 
though  he  hiay  be  proficient  in  oils  or  wa- 
ter colors,  the  technique  is  so  different  that 
it  will  be  necessary  to  begin  at  the  very  be- 
ginning. 

If  the  student  knows  nothing  of  pottery 
painting,  by  all  means  let  him  begin  with 
over-glaze  in  preference  to  under-glaze 
painting.  In  the  former,  all  faults  (for  in- 
stance, brush  marks,  inefficient  dabbling, 
the  use  of  too  much  turpentine,  too  much 
or  too  little  oil)  are  apparent  on  the  sur- 
face. They  are  only  too  visible  the  instant 
they  are  perpetrated.  There  is  seen  to  be 
something  obviously  wrong,  and  if  the  stu- 


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dent  does  not  know  how  to  remedy  it,  he 
feels,  if  he  is  a  conscientious  worker,  that 
the  least  he  can  do  is  to  take  it  out,  and 
hope  for  more  skill  in  a  second  attempt. 
But  fn  under-glaze  painting,  work  often  has 
the  appearance  of  being  very  tolerably  well 
done  until  it  is  glazed  and  fired,  when  brush 
marks,  bad  edges,  and  harsn  lines  start 
forth  in  a  manner  that  is  most  unexpected 
and  disappointing. 

We  shall  confine  our  attention  entirely 
to  over-glaze  painting,  and  throughout  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  colors  men- 
tioned are  invariably  over-glaze  or  manual 
colors.  Enamel  colors  should  be  kept  care- 
fully apart  from  under-glaze  colors,  as  the 
smallest  grain  of  the  latter  mixed  with  the 
former  would  completely  spoil  the  effect. 
The  same  remark  applies  to  oil  paints,  and 
even  to  the  turpentine  in  which  brushes 
used  for  them  have  been  rinsed. 

In  choosing  your  earthenware  or  china, 
notice  that  the  glaze  is  smooth  and  even, 
without  specks  of  any  sort,  and  not  crazed, 
i.e.  requiring  either  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree of  heat  in  order  to  fuse  it. 

The  following  implements  and  colors  are 
absolutely  necessary.  Those  contained  in 
the  supplementary  list  will  be  found  a  great 
convenience  after  some  progress  has  been 
made: 

I  Steel  Palette  Knife. 

i  Glass  Muller. 

I  Hand  Rest. 

I  Medium- si  zed  Dabber. 

I  Small  Dabber  in  Quill. 

I  Sable  Crow  Writer. 

1  Plate  (glazed). 

2  or  3  sizes  of  Camel's-Hair  Brushes  for 
China  Painting. 

Several    6-inch    or    8-inch    Tiles     (also 
glazed)  to  be  used  for  Palettes. 
Turpentine. 
Fat  Oil  of  Turpentine. 
Spirits  of  Lavender,  or  Oil  of  Cloves. 

MOIST  WATER   COLORS 


Deep  Azure  Blue. 
German  Brown. 
Brunswick  Brown. 
Vandyke  Brown. 
Gray  Black. 
Royal  Purple. 
Rose-leaf  Green. 
Dark  Orange. 
Red. 

Strong  Yellow. 
China  Meglip. 


Outremer  Turquoise. 
Olive  Brown. 
Sepia. 

Deep  Black. 
Carmine. 
Deep  Green. 
Light  Sevres. 
Pearl  Gray. 
Persian  Yellow. 
White  Enamel. 


DRY  COLORS 

FOR    BEGINNERS 


Rouge  Orange. 

Noir  d'lvoire. 

Carmine  No.  2. 

Gris  Perle. 

Ocre. 

Vert  Chrome  Riche. 

Vert  Noir. 


Violet  de  Per. 
Bleu  Riche. 
Pourpre  Riche. 
Jaune  Orange. 
Brun  No.  4. 
Vert  Brun. 
White    Chrome 
(English). 


SUPPLEMENTARY   LIST 

FOR   THE    MORE    ADVANCED    STUDENT 


Jaune  a  Meier. 
Vert  Bleu  Riche. 
Brun  No.  3. 
Ivory  Palette. 


Rouge  Chair  No.  I. 
Carmine  No.  3. 
Evan's  Brown. 
Knife. 


All  the  colors  mentioned  in  the  list  will 
work  freely  together,  with  the  exception  of 
Brunswick  Brown  and  Red,  which  will, 
however,  mix  together,  and  with  black  and 
purple,  but  not  with  the  other  colors.  Work- 
ing with  the  moist  water  colors  will  be 
found  very  pleasant. 

In  sketching,  use  the  crayon  purchased 
for  that  purpose,  which,  being  of  an  oily 
nature,  will  not  be  washed  out  by  the  wa- 
ter-color passing  over  it.  It  will,  however, 
disappear  completely  in  the  firing.  The  man- 
ner of  working  is  very  much  the  same  as 
if  the  colors  were  mixed  with  oil.  The 
brush  must  be  kept  square,  and  the  mark 
of  color  may  be  retouched  again  and  again 
in  order  to  make  it  smooth.  If  a  large 
space  is  to  be  covered,  use  the  dabber.  More 
water  or  meglip  must  be  added  as  occasion 
requires;  but  too  much  of  the  former  is 
apt  to  produce  a  very  worky  appearance, 
and  if  too  much  of  the  latter  is  used  the 
color  will  take  a  long  time  to  dry.  For  a 
broad  sweep  of  color,  a  combination  of  the 
two  is  best.  .When  the  ground  is  laid,  and 
your  drawing  is  of  such  a  nature  that  you 
have  been  obliged  to  take  the  color  over  it, 
you  may  clean  out  your  design  with  great 
ease,  by  merely  washing  away  the  surplus 
color  with  a  brush  just  moistened  with 
water,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
brush  is  not  too  wet,  lest  the  work  shall 
be  made  messy.  The  pattern  may  also  be 
cleaned  out  either  with  a  penknife  or  with 
the  pointed  end  of  a  brush-handle.  These 
colors  are  perfectly  well  ground  and  free 
from  grit.  One  of  the  few  technical  diffi- 
culties connected  with  their  use  will  be 
overcome  if  the  student  will  never  try  to 
shade  his  work  without  drying  the  first 
washes  at  the  fire.  When  these  colors  are 
dry  they  are  easy  to  work  upon,  but  we  can 


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259 


not  sufficiently  impress  upon  the  student 
that  they  will  not  dry  of  their  own  accord. 
If  the  underworks  are  disturbed,  it  will 
show  that  these  remarks  have  not  been  at- 
tended to. 

With  reference  to  the  French  colors,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Iron  Reds 
(all  Reds  of  a  brick-dust  shade)  will  mix 
with  each  other,  or  with  Black  or  Violet  de 
5er,  and,  to  a  moderate  extent,  with  Jaune 
a  Meier,  or  Jaune  d'lvoire,  but  not  with 
other  colors.  If  mixed  with  Carmine,  Blue, 
etc.,  and  fired,  the  Red  would  all  disappear. 
However,  if  a  little  thought  is  bestowed  on 
the  subject,  this  is  no  very  great  disadvan- 
tage, as  by  using  Jaune  a  Meier  as  a  sort 
of  go-between,  you  may  blend  or  graduate 
Red  into  almost  any  other  color  you  wish. 
Say,  for  example,  that  you  desire  to  shade 
Red  into  Green;  a  good  Green  for  the  pur- 
pose can  be  made  with  Noir  d'lvoire  and 
Jaune  a  Meier,  both  of  which  colors  will 
mix  with  Red.  Or  if  a  brighter  Green  is 
required,  put  plenty  of  oil  into  your  Jaune 
a  Meier,  and,  with  different  brushes,  wash 
the  Red  on  to  one  end  of  the  space  to  be 
covered,  and  the  Green  on  to  the  other, 
blending  them  with  Jaune  a  Meier  in  the 
middle.  If  well  done,  the  effect  should  be 
smooth  and  the  gradation  uniform ;  but  if 
you  use  too  little  oil,  the  colors  will  join 
with  a  harsh  line.  Ochre  is  useful  for  shad- 
ing Yellow,  or,  used  by  itself,  for  the  warm 
glow  in  a  sunset  sky;  but  it  will  not  mix 
at  all  satisfactorily  with  Greens.  All  the 
other  colors  will  mix  freely  together;  but 
after  a  little  experience  you  will  find  that 
Browns  are  very  apt  to  fire  out,  i.e.  to  dis- 
appear in  the  firing,  leaving  the  other  color 
with  which  they  were  mixed  somewhat  of 
the  same  tone  as  if  it  had  been  used  pure; 
you  will  also  find  that  Blues,  Purples,  and 
Carmines  are  very  strong  in  their  effect, 
being  apt,  when  mixed  with  other  colors, 
to  show  more  after  they  are  fired  than  be- 
fore. White  Enamel  is  most  useful  for  lit- 
tle touches  of  white,  or  for  painting  on 
terra  cotta.  It  must  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean,  and  a  separate  palette  shoulfl  be  re- 
served for  it,  a  glass  one  being  preferable 
to  an  ordinary  tile.  Then  grind  it  with  a 
steel  knife,  but  use  a  glass  muller  or  ivory 
palette-knife,  otherwise  it  will  probably  be 
discolored  in  firing.  If  in  painting  with 
Enamel  you  find  it  is  inclined  to  spread, 
breathe  into  the  color  on  your  palette,  at 
the  same  time  mixing  it  with  a  little  more 
turpentine.  As  you  require  to  put  it  on 
rather  thickly,  do  not  use  too  much  oil. 


The  hand-rest,  if  placed  over  your  work, 
for  your  hand  to  rest  on  while  painting, 
will  greatly  help  you  to  avoid  rubbing  or 
scratching  your  work,  to  which  beginners 
are  very  prone.  It  will  also  assist  you  to 
acquire  a  light  touch.  A  tall  easel  is  a 
convenience,  as  it  will  save  much  stooping, 
and  you  can  also  see  the  general  effect  of 
your  work  better  when  it  is  not  flat  on  the 
table. 

If  you  have  any  facility  in  drawing  we 
recommend  you  to  sketch  your  work  with 
Indian  Ink,  water-color  carmine,  or  smoke ; 
and  if  with  the  first,  let  it  be  of  the  first 
quality,  or  there  may  be  impurities  in  it 
which  will  remain  after  firing.  If  the  last 
is  used,  it  is  merely  necessary  to  hold  a 
saucer  or  tile  over  the  flame  of  a  candle, 
and  then  use  the  carbon  while  it  collects 
with  a  little  turpentine.  If  your  design  is 
very  elaborate  and  you  wish  to  trace  it,  you 
may  do  so  by  making  use  of  either  of  the 
following  methods.  First,  and  least  ob- 
jectionable, is  the  process  known  as  "pounc- 
ing." Arrange  a  piece  of  tracing-paper 
over  your  design,  and  with  a  fine  hard 
pencil  make  a  careful  outline  of  your 
drawing. 

When  this  is  complete,  place  it  on  a 
cushion  or  anything  soft,  and  with  a  fine 
needle,  prick  along  every  line.  Finally, 
arrange  your  tracing  on  your  plate,  secure 
it  at  the  corners  with  a  wafer,  and  dust 
over  it  with  a  little  black-lead  or  fine  char- 
coal powder.  The  drawing  will  by  this 
means  be  transferred  to  your  plate  in  a 
series  of  dotted  lines.  It  is  then  ready  to 
be  sketched  with  India  Ink.  Afterward 
remove  all  the  dust  with  a  soft  brush 
or  cloth,  or  it  may  interfere  with  your 
painting. 

The  second  process  is  to  place  a  sheet 
of  black  tracing-paper  on  the  china,  and 
over  it  your  tracing;  then  go  over  all  the 
lines  again  with  a  hard,  fine-pointed  pencil, 
or  the  sharp  end  of  a  porcupine  quill.  The 
patterns  so  transferred  to  the  china  should 
be  strengthened  and  corrected  with  a  fine 
brush  and  India  Ink.  The  process  is' 
quicker,  but  it  is  also  dirtier,  and  you  are 
more  likely  to  lose  the  delicacy  of  your 
drawing,  although  in  simple  conventional 
borders  there  is  no  objection  to  this  method 
being  used.  As  the  great  advantage  which 
amateurs  possess  over  professional  china 
painters  is  the  power  of  spending  unlimited 
time  over  the  smallest  piece  of  work,  they 
should  never  run  the  risk  of  spoiling  their 
painting  by  using  inferior  methods. 


AIY  ONE  starting  for  the  first  time  as  a  sculptor  must  be  struck 
by  the  extreme  simplicity  of  the  material  and  the  ease  with  which 
the  rudiments  of  the  art  are  to  be  learned.  A  lump  of  soft  clay, 
a  board  to  put  it  upon,  and  a  few  wooden  tools  of  most  simple  shapes 
— these,  and  a  bit  of  sponge,  and  your  own  fingers  are  really  all  that  is 
necessary  to  produce  a  result.  When  the  result  has  been  attained,  and 
the  work  has  been  modelled,  then  no  doubt  there  are  a  few  things  to  learn 
to  enable  you  to  transpose  your  work — which  now  exists  in  soft  material — 
into  a  hard  and  more  durable  substance,  either  into  stone,  plaster,  or  terra 
cotta.  There  is  no  good  in  disguising  the  fact  that  to  carve  properly,  a 
strong  arm  and  a  firm  grasp  are  required,  and  that  is  not  consistent  with 
a  woman's  more  delicate  frame.  She  may  console  herself,  though,  with 
the  reflection  that  there  are  many  man  sculptors  who  do  not  do  their  own 
carving,  so  she  will  not  be  exceptional  if  she  employs  help  to  perform  that 
part  for  which  she  is  not  fitted. 

In  earlier  days  it  would  have  been  almost  impossible  for  ladies  to  take 
up  the  profession  of  a  sculptor,  as  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  clay 
model  was  much  less  depended  upon,  the  statue  in  marble  being  worked 
from  small  sketches  or  models,  and  not  so  elaborately  pointed  up,  or  so 
dependent  for  its  general  form  upon  mechanism  as  now.  With  all  this 
great  difference  it  is  still  a  pity  for  a  man  who  is  able  not  to  carve  or  finish 
his  marble  work  himself,  and  in  fact  our  best  work  has  been  produced  by 
the  sculptor's  own  chisel;  it  is,  however,  considered  legitimate  help,  and  a 
lady  would  be  justified  in  employing  assistance  in  that  branch  of  the  art. 

PRACTICAL     INSTRUCTIONS 


DIFFICULTIES    IN    MODELLING.— 
You  will   find  that  although  the  rudi- 
ments are  so  easily  learned,  the  art  of  mod- 
elling will  not  appear  so  very  easy;  and  if 
you  love  your  work,  you  will  find  there  is 
more  and  more  to  learn,  and  the  knowledge 
(260 


will  gradually  dawn  upon  you  that  sculp- 
ture is  not  merely  a  copy  of  what  you  see, 
but  rather  a  free  translation.  It  is  easier 
certainly  to  produce  a  show  in  this  art  than 
in  painting,  that  is,  it  requires  a  less  skilled 
artist  to  reach  to  a  certain  point  in  the  one 


SCULPTURE    MODELLING 


261 


than  in  the  other;  but  that  being  the  case, 
it  is  equally  certain  that  it  requires  greater 
art  to  put  individuality  into  sculpture  than 
into  painting,  and  to  touch  the  deeper 
chords  of  human  nature,  for  that  which 
helps  you  at  the  commencement  of  your 
career,  namely,  the  simplicity  of  your  ma- 
terials, impedes  you  as  you  march  onward, 
and  makes  it  very  difficult  for  you  to  im- 
press your  thoughts  into  it.  You  have  form, 
and  form  alone,  to  deal  with,  color  being 
entirely  excluded.  (The  question  of  poly- 
chromy  is  not  alluded  to  here,  as  the  color 
employed  by  the  Greeks  was  especially  un- 
realistic and  decorative  in  its  character.) 
Sculpture,  therefore,  is  one  step  further  off 
life  than  her  sister  art,  and  it  requires  more 
imagination  both  to  enjoy  it  thoroughly  and 
to  practice  it  to  perfection. 

To  prove  that  form  is  more  rarely  ap- 
preciated than  color,  we  would  instance  the 
general  opinion  of  faces  that  we  meet  at 
an  assembly.  Ask  why  a  certain  face  pleases 
more  than  another,  and  the  answer  will  be 
generally  one  based  on  complexion  and  ex- 
pression rather  than  on  form.  Now,  com- 
plexion is  impossible  to  render  in  sculpture, 
and  in  the  power  of  expression  the  art  is 
exceedingly  limited;  the  subtle  changings, 
the  exquisite  language  of  the  eye,  being  en- 
tirely outside  the  province  of  sculpture. 

We  will  assume  now  that  you  are  not 
troubling  yourself  about  the  limits  of  a 
sculptor's  art,  that  you  are  not  going  into 
the  abstruse  question  of  Lessing's  "Laoc- 
oon,"  about  what  can  and  what  can  not  be 
done,  nor  are  dreaming  at  present  of  rank- 
ing with  Phidias,  Michelangelo,  and  the 
other  giants,  but  are  simply  anxious  to  do 
your  little  in  the  modeller's  art,  and  would 
be  glad  if  all  unnecessary  difficulties  were 
cleared  for  you. 

A  few  axioms  may  be  useful  at  starting. 

I.  Do  not  be  afraid  of  making  a  muss; 
the  corollary  naturally  follows,  do  not  work 
on  a  carpeted  floor;  select  one  where  you 
can  do  as  you  like.  See  only  that  it  has  a 
good  light,  either  a  high  side-light  (block- 
ing out  the  lower)  or  a  skylight,  the  for- 
mer being  better  because  less  flattering  to 
your  work;  a  room  to  the  north  or  north- 
east is  preferable  in  order  to  avoid  the 
sun. 

•2.  Work  with  soft  clay,  and  have  a  sponge 
by  your  side  to  keep  your  fingers  from  stick- 
ing, and  let  the  clay  you  put  on  be  softer 
than  that  on  which  you  work.  The  prin- 
ciple of  modelling,  as  opposed  to  carving, 
is,  that  in  the  first  you  put  on,  and  in  the 
latter  you  lake  off.  In  using  the  wet 


sponge,  first  wash  the  clay  from  your  fin- 
gers, then  dry  them  on  a  cloth  or  towel. 

3.  Use  your  fingers  as  much  as  you  can, 
and  let  your  tools  be  as  simple  as  possible 
• — more  like  a  continuation  of  fingers,  as  if 
Nature  had  provided  you  with  two  or  three 
smaller    and    larger    ones.     Let    them    be 
slightly  curved,  just  as  your  fingers  when 
much    used    will    of   themselves    assume    a 
backward  turn. 

4.  Be  sure  you  consider  the  question  of 
weight   and   balance   when   arranging   your 
supports,  or  one  fine  morning  you  may  see 
your  work,  when  far  advanced,  lying  on  the 
floor.    If  you   anticipate  baking  when  the 
work  is  done,  you  must  either  have  no  sup- 
ports at  all,  or  place  them  in  such  a  manner 
that  you  can  easily  remove  them  when  the 


Wire  and  box-wood  clay  modelling  tools  for  shaping1 
where  the  fingers  cannot  be  used  conveniently. 

clay  is  tolerably  hard,  without  injuring  the 
surface  of  your  work. 

5.  All  clays  bake,  some  harder  than  oth- 
ers,   but   terra   cotta   merely   means    baked 
clay. 

6.  In  working  from  life,  depend  as  little 
as  possible  upon  measurements;  rely  upon 
the  eye,  and  so  cultivate  it. 

"These  few  precepts  in  thy  memory  see 
thou  character,"  to  quote  the  worldy-wise 
Polonius. 

In  working  from  life  you  should  also  try 
to  have  your  sitter  very  much  in  the  same 
light  as  your  work,  for  light  and  shade  are 
most  important  factors,  and  you  will  find 
that  the  relative  proportions  of  shadow  were 
wonderfully  understood  in  the  best  Greek 
work,  and,  in  fact,  in  all  good  work,  two 
equal  shadows  are  never  brought  near  to 
each  other. 

In  addition  to  clay,  you  also  use  wax  for 


262 


SCULPTURE    MODELLING 


modelling;  it  has  the  advantage  of  being 
much  cleaner,  but  still  we  should  not  rec- 
ommend it,  as  clay  admits  of  freer  and 
quicker  work,  and  the  end  is  attained  with 
more  facility.  English  clay  bakes  about  the 
same  color  as  when  moist.  The  French  is 
dark  gray,  and  bakes  a  light  reddish  hue. 
Besides  the  essentials — clay,  tools,  and  a 
board^-you  will  find  it  more  convenient  to 
have  a  proper  stand,  or  banker,  as  it  is 
called,  with  a  revolving  top,  so  that  you 
may  easily  turn  your  model  around,  for  it 
is  most  important  not  to  work  too  long  at 
one  view — it  is  the  fault  of  a  sculptor  when 
first  learning  to  model. 

Your  sitters,  too,  you  should  make  as 
comfortable  as  you  can,  so  that  you  are  not 
worried  by  their  not  being  at  their  ease ;  an 
office  revolving-chair  on  a  raised  dais  is  per- 
haps the  best  contrivance  you  can  have  while 
modelling  in  the  round,  to  take  relief  into 
consideration,  but  this,  though  often  tried 
at  starting,  we  should  not  recommend  at 
first.  It  has  difficulties  of  its  own,  which, 
when  understood,  might  hamper  you  when 
afterward  modelling  from  the  round.  These 
difficulties  of  treatment  will  be  overcome 
as  soon  as  you  have  learned  how  to  model 
at  all. 

One  great  advantage  a  sculptor  has  over 
a  painter  is  that  he  can  take  advantage 
of  artificial  lighting.  We  can  thus  throw 
the  light  where  we  will ;  for,  although  work 
will,  and  should,  look  better  in  a  certain 
light,  it  should  not  look  wrong  in  any.  It 
does  not  matter  very  much  what  you  choose 
to  model  first;  no  doubt  you  will  select 
something  difficult,  but  will  soon  discard 
it  for  some  more  simple  form.  A  foot,  or 
a  hand,  whether  antique  or  cast  from  life, 
is  as  good  as  anything,  or  a  face  where 
the  planes  are  simple  and  broadly  marked. 
For  the  foot  or  hand  you  would  probably 
require  no  support  at  all ;  for  the  head, 
just  an  upright  stick  fastened  well  into  a 
board,  or  bat,  as  we  call  it — that  is,  two 
boards,  each  about  eighteen  inches  or  two 
feet  square,  fixed  at  two  sides  with  two- 
inch  space  between,  one  above  the  other, 
parallel,  so  that  you  have  room  to  place 
your  tools  in  between  them.  When  you  have 
the  support  ready,  build  your  work  up  to 
the  bat,  keeping  the  upright  well  in  the  mid- 
dle, so  as  not  to  let  it  protrude  at  the  neck 
or  elsewhere.  Keep  your  work  clean-look- 
ing and  simple,  the  planes  all  distinctly 
marked,  and  particularly  avoid  all  details 
and  sharp  cuttings  until  you  have  the  gen- 
eral form  rightly  set  in.  It  is  good  not  to 
be  always  too  near  your  work.  Continually 


place  your  model  and  work  together,  so 
as  to  compare  them,  remembering  to  have 
them  at  the  same  angle  to  the  light.  You 
will  understand  by  this  that  it  is  seldom 
you  can  sit  to  your  work.  When  not  work- 
ing keep  damp  cloths  over  your  work,  and  do 
not  let  the  cloths  touch  the  more  important 
surfaces.  A  box  made  of  laths  covered 
with  oilcloth  is  even  better. 

If  you  should  intend  that  your  clay  model 
should  go  to  the  kiln  to  be  baked,  there  are 
two  or  three  particulars  you  must  carefully 
attend  to.  In  the  first  place,  see  that  your 
clay  is  quite  clean  from  lime,  plaster,  or 
stone,  as  the  presence  of  any  of  these  is 
sufficient  to  burst  your  work  and  make  pieces 
fly.  Secondly,  before  sending  it  away  from 
your  studio,  see  that  your  work  is  perfect- 
ly dry.  It  is  only  through  non-attention  in 
these  matters  that  much  of  the  beginner's 
work  is  spoiled  in  the  firing;  it  is  seldom 
the  fault  of  the  potter.  A  small  figure  can 
be  baked  solid,  but  a  large  one  should  al- 
ways be  hollowed  out,  as  there  is  much 
more  room  for  air  to  play  round  it.  If  you 
hollow  it  out,  take  care  that  there  are  a  few 
small  holes — in  unimportant  places  where 
they  would  not  be  seen — to  allow  of  escape 
of  air.  The  hollowing  out  should  be  done 
when  the  clay  is  totally  hard,  but  before 
it  is  quite  dry.  It  is  better  to  build  up  your 
work  solidly  and  hollow  it  out  afterward, 
than  to  hollow  it  out  from  the  first.  The 
latter  can  be  done,  but  the  difficulties  neces- 
sitated by  it  are  apt  to  distract  your  atten- 
tion from  your  chief  object,  as  very  great 
care  would  be  required  to  put  the  model 
together.  The  question  of  supports  has  been 
referred  to.  Most  busts  you  can  build  up 
without  any  support  at  all ;  and  for  statu- 
ettes you  can  generally  arrange  a  support 
that  can  readily  be  removed  when  the  clay 
becomes  of  sufficient  consistency  to  stand 
alone.  Take  care,  also,  that  the  clay  is 
well  kneaded,  so  that  it  holds  together, 
and  that  there  are  no  air-holes  present. 

You  can  never  be  quite  sure  of  the  color 
when  baked,  as  that  depends  a  little  upon 
the  surroundings  of  your  work  in  the  kiln, 
nor  can  you  always  avoid  slight  cracks. 

There  is  another  important  point  to  re- 
member about  terra  cotta.  As  clay  naturally 
shrinks  when  drying,  you  must  allow  for  it. 
If  you  should  want  your  work,  when  fin- 
ished, to  be  of  a  certain  size,  one-tenth  is 
generally  allowed — a  little  more  or  less 
would  depend  upon  the  degree  of  moisture 
that  is  in  the  clay,  but  it  is  seldom  neces- 
sary to  be  so  very  particular. 

There  are  drawbacks  to  terra  cotta,  but 


SCULPTURE    MODELLING 


263 


it  is  well  to  know  that  terra  cotta  can  be 
repaired.  A  thin  coat  of  distemper  or  paint 
will  hide  the  cracks,  although  it  also  slightly 
hides  the  more  delicate  modelling,  so  it  is 
not  therefore  to  be  recommended  for  finer 
work — better  show  the  cracks. 

If  you  don't  intend  to  have  your  work 
baked,  but  to  have  it  cast  in  plaster  prepara- 
tory for  bronze  or  marble,  you  need  not  be 
so  careful  in  preparing  your  clay,  neither 
need  you  consider  your  supports  except  for 
their  strength  and  position.  Do  not  attempt 
to  cast  your  work  yourself,  for  it  requires 
some  little  skill  to  mix  the  plaster,  and 
there  are  men  (molders)  who  make  it 
their  vocation — only  caution  them  that  you 
want  your  work  returned  to  you  exactly  as 
you  left  it,  otherwise  you  may  find  your 
surfaces  all  gone  and  worked  out,  or  fin- 
ished according  to  the  molder's  notion. 

These  remarks  will  assist  those  who  might 
try  to  model  unaided,  but  if  you  get  to  like 
the  work,  and  would  wish  to  succeed,  you 
should  take  a  few  lessons  from  an  expert, 
so  as  to  be  guided  in  your  progress. 

In  modelling,  remember  always  that  you 
have  merely  form  to  deal  with,  but  you 
have,  if  modelling  a  bust,  to  give  the  im- 
pression of  the  head  and  not  a  copy  of  it, 
and  this  is  where  the  art  of  the  sculptor  is 
called  into  play. 

In  sculpture  you  can  not  give  the  color 
to  the  eye;  you  can  not  give  eyelashes,  nor 
the  fineness  of  the  hair — all  these  points  so 
important  in  life — so  you  must  execute 
your  work  that  none  of  these  specialties 
should  be  missed.  "How  is  this  to  be 
done?"  you  will  ask.  In  a  great  measure 
it  must  be  left  to  you  to  decide,  to  your 
own  feeling  and  individuality.  There  are 
several  ways  of  interpreting  life,  and  sev- 
eral schools  formed  on  these  ways  of  exe- 
cution, and  a  sculptor  is  perhaps  the  last 
person  to  recommend  one  way  or  the  other, 
as,  if  he  loves  his  art,  he  has  become  a  spe- 
cialist himself,  and  would  unintentionally 
direct  you  toward  his  own  way  of  interpre- 
tation. He  can  teach  you  to  see  nature,  it 
is  true,  but  can  only  teach  you  to  render 
it  in  his  own  way — he  is  not  able  to  say 
which  is  the  right  way,  probably  there  isn't 
one;  it  is  only  a  matter  of  feeling. 

The  destination  of  a  work  as  well  as  the 
subject  itself,  are  most  important  factors  in 
determining  the  treatment. 

We  will  refer  to  one  or  two  ways  of 
treatment.  For  instance,  in  the  eyes  the 
Greeks  left  the  pupils  blank,  but  they  gath- 
ered shadow  by  sinking  the  whole  eye,  and 
generally  making  the  lower  eyelid  deeper 


than  the  upper.  We  moderns  usually  cut 
in  the  pupil,  and  leave  the  eye  where  nature 
placed  it,  conventionalizing  the  pupil  more. 
Perhaps  the  former  way  is  more  suitable 
for  ideal  work,  and  the  latter  for  portrait 
and  character.  The  disadvantage  of  the  lat- 
ter way  is  that  it  is  more  dependent  for  its 
true  effect  upon  the  light  in  which  it  may  be 
placed.  The  Roman  work  is  marked  much 
in  the  same  way  as  our  own,  only  not  so 
deeply. 

While  speaking  of  the  antique  we  caution 
you  against  a  too  free  use  of  it.  Students 
generally  commence  there,  and  they  stop 


Armature  or  support  for  a  clay  statue  during  work.  It 
is  composed  of  a  square  iron  rod,  with  lead  or  copper 
tubes  for  arms  and  leg?,  carrying  blocks  of  wood 
bung  by  wires  to  support  the  clay  of  the  limbs 

there  so  long,  that  the  development  of  all 
individuality  and  life  is  checked. 

It  is  certainly  useful  at  first,  because  you 
are  not  troubled  with  a  model's  varying 
phases,  but  when  you  have  attained  some 
little  proficiency  in  modelling,  it  would  be 
better  to  go  direct  to  life.  In  the  antique, 
as  in  other  work,  there  is  both  good  and 
bad.  Many  of  the  figures,  and  also  of  the 
busts,  are  merely  interesting  from  a  histori- 
cal point  of  view,  and  you  must,  as  a  stu- 
dent, look  at  them  from  the  artistic  side,  to 
see  whether  the  form  is  good,  the  lines  well 
composed,  and  whether  the  entire  builds  up 
into  one  artistic  whole. 


BRASS    WORK 


ir     ir     n    ir     n  f    rr    ir    if 


THIS  work  is  easy,  pretty,  and  effective,  and  is  well  suited  to  ladies, 
as  it  does  not  require  any  great  degree  of  strength. 

Most  of  us  know  what  is  meant  by  repousse  work  in  metal.  In 
that  kind  of  work  the  pattern  is  beaten  out  at  the  back  so  that  it  stands 
out  from  the  groundwork,  which  remains  at  its  old  level.  The  work 
which  we  are  about  to  describe  is  precisely  the  opposite  to  this.  Though 
the  effect  produced  is  somewhat  the  same,  it  is  attained  by  different  means. 
In  a  few  words,  instead  of  beating  out  the  pattern  from  behind,  the 
ground  is  beaten  down  from  in  front,  leaving  the  pattern  untouched. 


PRACTTCAL     INSTRUCTIONS 


TOOLS.— The  tools  required  for  this  work 
are  few  and  inexpensive.  The  beating 
down  of  the  metal  is  effected  by  means  of 
punches,  struck  by  a  mallet  or  hammer.  It 
is  well  to  use  punches  with  some  little 
pattern  on  them,  for  two  reasons:  first,  be- 
cause they  are  then  less  likely  to  slip  from 
the  exact  place  where  the  blow  is  required; 
find,  secondly,  because  such  punches  give  a 
grained  surface  to  the  groundwork,  and 
such  an  appearance  is  more  pleasing  than 
a  plain  surface,  and  affords  a  greater  con- 
trast to  the  smoothness  of  the  pattern. 
Punches  suitable  for  this  purpose  are  called 
"star"  and  "checkering"  punches. 

Besides  these  you  will  require  some  tool 
with  a  plain  edge  for  marking  out  lines  on 
the  pattern  itself.  For  this  purpose  a  blunt 
brad-awl  or  small  screw-driver  maybe  used, 
or  even  a  large  nail  filed  to  a  similar  edge; 
'hese  tools  should  not  be  sharp,  or  you  will 
un  the  risk  of  cutting  the  metal.  These 
are  also  useful  for  getting  into  sharp  angles 
in  the  pattern,  where  your  punches,  whether 
round  or  square,  can  not  go;  a  triangular 
file  broken  off  will  also  be  found  a  handy 
tool  for  this  purpose. 

If  you  have  any  doubts  of  your  ability  to 
hit  the  head  of  the  punch,  it  will  be  safer 
to  use  a  mallet  than  a  hammer,  as  a  miss 
means  an  awkward  rap  on  the  knuckles. 
You  will  requi«"-  -  pair  of  shell  shears  for 
(364) 


cutting  the   sheet   metal ;   these   are   like  a 
pair  of  very  strong  scissors. 

QUALITY  OF  METAL. — The  metal  itself 
should  be  brass,  at  any  rate  to  begin  with, 
though  if  you  like  you  may  use  silver  when 
you  get  on. 

The  kind  of  brass  to  use  is  sheet  brass; 
No.  7  gauge  will  be  found  to  be  of  a  proper 
thickness.  It  may  be  procured  of  any  length ; 
in  width,  from  two  or  three  inches  upward. 
It  is  sold  by  weight. 

THE  PATTERN. — The  first  thing  to  do  is 
to  decide  on  the  pattern,  and  we  would  sug- 
gest for  your  first  attempt  some  simple  de- 
sign on  a  small  piece  of  brass ;  a  plain  Latin 
cross  on  a  bit  four  inches  by  three  inches 
will  do  very  well ;  or,  if  you  like,  the  initial 
letter  of  your  name.  Cut  your  brass  to  the 
size  required  with  the  shears ;  you  will  find 
it  rather  difficult  to  make  a  straight  cut  of 
any  length  at  first.  This  is  because  the"  part 
cut  off  does  not  yield  and  get  out  of  the 
way  like  paper  or  cloth.  You  will  have  to 
bend  it  out  of  the  way ;  it  can  easily  be  flat- 
tened afterward  with  the  hammer. 

Cut  out  a  piece  of  thin  paper  (tissue  paper 
does  well)  the  exact  size  of  the  brass,  and 
on  it  trace  your  pattern.  Flatten  the  brass, 
and  gum  the  paper  to  it.  Never  mind  if 
there  are  a  few  small  wrinkles ;  these  will 
vanish  when  the  paper  dries.  Thin  paper 


BRASS   WORK 


265 


is  recommended  because  thick  paper  is  apt 
to  loosen  and  come  off  when  the  punch  is 
applied.  This  sometimes  occurs  even  with 
thin  paper,  and  if  you  find  this  happening, 
it  is  best  to  trace  the  pattern  through  the 
paper  on  the  brass  with  some  sharp  instru- 
ment, taking  care  to  scratch  only  very 
faintly.  You  can  then  wash  off  the  paper, 
and  be  independent  of  it. 

PREPARING  FOR  WORK. — To  work  on  the 
brass,  it  must  be  fastened  down  in  some 
manner,  and  the  most  convenient  way  of 
doing  this  is  to  put  a  strip  of  wood  on  each 
end  and  screw  it  down.  The  brass  need 
only  be  covered  by  the  wood  for  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  or  even  less.  The  board 
to  which  it  is  screwed  should  lie  quite  flat 
and  firm  on  the  table,  and  the  table  itself 
should  be  a  carpenter's  bench,  or  some  very 
strong  and  steady  piece  of  furniture. 

The  most  essential  point  about  the  punch- 
ing is  that  it  should  be  commenced  at  the 
edges  of  the  brass,  and  worked  inward  to- 
ward the  middle.  If  the  piece  of  brass  you 
are  using  is  larger  than  is  really  required, 
it  may  be  fastened  down  at  once  as  recom- 
mended above.  But  if  it  is  only  the  exact 
size,  the  edges,  which  are  to  go  under  the 
strips  of  wood,  must  be  first  punched. 

Holding  the  punch  perfectly  perpendicu- 
lar, strike  firmly  with  the  mallet,  or  ham- 
mer, so  as  to  dent  the  brass. 

DEVELOPING  THE  PATTERN. — Begin  at  one 
corner,  and  work  all  around  the  edge,  al- 
lowing the  marks  to  overlap  each  other 
somewhat  irregularly,  so  as  to  do  away 
with  any  suggestion  of  pattern  in  the 
groundwork.  When  you  have  got  all 
round,  do  a  second  row  inside  the  first  in 
the  same  irregular  manner.  Enough  of  the 
ground  will  now  be  done  to  enable  you  to 
fasten  it  down  with  the  strips  of  wood,  and 
you  can  then  proceed,  working  inward  to- 
ward the  pattern.  As  you  get  on  you  will 
see  the  inworked  portion  in  the  centre 
(containing  all  the  pattern)  rising  up  in 
relief.  You  must  ncrw  be  guided  by  the 
pattern  itself.  If  it  is  a  figure  with  no 
grounding  in  the  middle,  proceed  with  the 
punching  right  up  to  the  edges  of  the  pat- 
tern. If  it  has  an  isolated  piece  of  ground- 
work in  it,  for  instance,  if  it  has  the  letter 
O,  it  will  be  well  at  this  stage  to  begin 
punching  the  middle,  and  working  alter- 
nately thence  to  the  pattern,  and  from  the 
outside  also,  for  if  you  go  quite  up  to  the 
pattern  from  the  outside  before  you  touch 
the  middle,  the  brass  will  have  risen  to  such 
a  height  that  it  will  be  difficult  to  punch  it 
down  neatly. 


On  the  same  principle  if  the  pattern  has 
some  groundwork  running  into  it,  as  in  the 
letter  V,  you  should  commence  working  up 
into  this  place  before  you  have  reached  the 
pattern  from  the  outside. 

As  a  general  rule,  it  is  a  good  thing  to 
keep  the  advancing  line  of  dents  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  outline  all  round,  that  is 
to  say,  the  punch-marks  should  give  a  rough 
representation  of  this  outline.  But  no  rule 
can  be  laid  down  on  this  point,  and  a  few 
attempts  will  show  you  with  tolerable  cer- 
tainty how  to  proceed  in  any  particular  case. 

HOLDING  THE  PUNCH. — As  you  get  near 
to  the  pattern  a  new  difficulty  encounters 
you.  This  is  caused  by  the  fact  that,  as  the 
centre  has  risen,  you  are  working  each 
punch-mark  on  a  sloping  surface  of  brass. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  punch  will 
slip  when  struck,  and  will  not  make  a  clean 
dent. 

This  is  very  annoying,  especially  as  it 
occurs  chiefly  when  you  are  approaching 
the  outline  of  the  pattern  and  wish  every 
blow  to  tell  in  exactly  its  right  place. 

It  may  be  avoided  by  holding  the  punch 
very  firmly  against  the  brass  and  by  giving 
the  head  of  it  a  slight  inclination  outward 
from  the  pattern,  so  that  the  blow  may  be 
directed  really  at  right  angles  to  the  sur- 
face, as  was  the  case  before  the  rising  of 
the  pattern  took  place.  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  mention  that  the  punch  is  usually 
held  in  the  left  hand,  and  the  mallet  or 
hammer  in  the  right,  though  it  is  some- 
times convenient  to  work  the  reverse  ways. 

When  you  have  worked  up  to  the  pattern 
in  this  manner,  and  have  carefully  gone 
round  the  outline,  wash  off  the  paper  trac- 
ing, if  you  have  retained  it  till  now.  You 
will  then  be  able  to  see  many  little  places 
which  require  punching,  and  this  can  be 
easily  done  by  the  aid  of  the  eye  alone. 

If  the  punch-marks  appear  too  marked  or 
regular  in  any  part  of  the  ground,  go  over 
this  again,  until  the  whole  groundwork  pre- 
sents a  uniformly  dented  appearance. 

LINES  ON  THE  PATTERN. — If  any  lines  have 
to  be  marked  out  on  the  pattern  itself,  this 
is  the  time  to  do  it.  Intricate  work  on  the 
pattern  is  difficult  and  not  effective,  but  in 
many  cases  some  simple  lines  must  be  made. 

For  instance,  if  a  butterfly  has  been  rep- 
resented, it  would  be  hopeless  to  attempt  any 
reproduction  of  the  pattern  on  its  wings, 
but  it  would  be  easy  (and  sufficient)  to 
mark  out  the  division  between  its  front  and 
hind  wings  and  the  segments  of  its  body. 
This  should  be  done  with  the  small  screw- 
driver or  brad-awl  mentioned  before.  They 


266 


BRASS    WORK 


should  be  used  as  a  punch,  and  the  lines 
marked  out  by  light  blows  of  the  hammer, 
as  it  is  not  desired  to  sink  these  lines  down 
to  the  level  of  the  groundwork.  In  fact, 
if  they  are  well  marked,  the  less  indented 
they  are  the  better.  Be  careful  to  hold 
these  chisel-shaped  implements  upright  when 
rtruck,  as  you  do  not  want  to  dig  the  cor- 
ners into  the  work. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  any  idea  on  paper 
of  the  exact  force  which  should  be  given 
to  the  blows  of  the  mallet  or  hammer,  but 
a  few  trials  will  put  you  in  the  way  of  it. 
The  brass  should  be  considerably  indented, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  you  must  be  careful 
to  avoid  making  a  hole.  • 

Perhaps  you  will  be  able  to  get  on  better 
with  thinner  brass  than  we  have  recom- 
mended; this  is  a  matter  of  individual  pref- 
erence. 

FINISHING. — Your  work  is  now  finished 
as  far  as  the  punching  goes,  and  you  can 
remove  the  slips  of  wood  which  have  been 
holding  it  down  and  examine  it  at  your 
leisure. 

You  will  probably  find  that  it  has  a  slight 
curl  in  it  and  will  not  lie  flat.  This  may 
be  removed  by  beating  the  groundwork 
lightly  with  a  small  hammer,  and  it  will 
be  found  useful  to  beat  it  from  behind,  by 
turning  it  upside  down  and  beating  it  on 
the  projecting  corner  of  a  board.  Of  course, 
this  corner  must  not  project  on  the  pattern, 
or  the  raised  work  will  be  beaten  down. 

If  any  fragments  of  paper  remain,  or  any 
gum,  they  can  be  removed  by  warm  water 
and  rubbing  with  a  rag. 

POLISHING. — The  whole  work  can  now  be 
polished,  using  sifted  whiting,  tripoli  pow- 
der, or  anything  of  that  kind  which  will 
not  scratch  the  brass.  It  will  be  a  matter 
of  taste  or  convenience  whether  you  prefer 
the  brass  to  look  old  or  to  keep  it  polished. 
In  the  former  case,  it  only  requires  to  be 
let  alone,  and  in  a  very  short  time  it  will 
tr»se  its  bright  polish  and  the  pale  yellow 
color  which  it  will  have  immediately  after 
it  is  cleaned.  But  if  you  wish  it  always  to 
shine,  you  must  either  be  always  polishing 
it  or  else  it  must  be  "lacquered." 

"LACQUERING"  brass  is  nothing  more  than 
varnishing  it  with  a  transparent  varnish, 
which  protects  it  from  the  action  of  the  air 
and  enables  the  lustre  to  be  seen  through 
it.  The  varnish  used  for  this  purpose  is 
"shellac"  varnish,  and  is  made  by  dissolv- 
ing shellac  in  spirits  of  wine.  As  you  will 
only  require  a  small  quantity,  it  will  be 
better  to  buy  it  than  to  try  to  make  it 
yourself. 


Before  applying  it  see  that  the  brass  is 
perfectly  clean,  then  warm  it,  and  lay  on 
the  varnish  with  a  small  brush.  It  will  dry 
rapidly,  and  be  hard  and  transparent  if  the 
work  has  been  properly  carried  out.  If  the 
varnish  becomes  too  thick,  as  it  will  do  if 
the  cork  is  ever  left  out,  it  may  be  thinned 
by  adding  some  methylated  spirits,  and  the 
brush  can  be  cleaned  in  the  same  liquid, 
which  may  also  be  used  for  cleaning  old 
lacquer  off,  or  for  removing  an  unsatis- 
factory coat  before  applying  a  fresh  one. 

MOUNTING. — The  work  is  now  ready  for 
fixing  wherever  you  intend,  and  this  leads 
us  to  consider  to  what  purposes  such  work 
is  applicable.  It  may  be  generally  stated 
that  wherever  a  decorative  panel  of  moder- 
ate size  is  required,  this  metal  work  will 
be  found  suitable.  Perhaps  the  simplest 
thing  to  begin  on,  after  your  first  attempt, 
will  be  a  door-plate.  We  do  not  mean  the 
brass  plate  on  the  outside  of  the  front  door, 
which  conveys  to  passers-by  the  name  and 
profession  of  the  occupier,  but  the  plates 
used  on  room  doors  to  prevent  the  door 
from  being  soiled  by  the  fingers.  Such  a 
plate  should  be  attached  to  the  door  by 
very  small  brass-headed  screws,  and  holes 
to  receive  them  should  be  drilled  in  the 
corners.  If  it  is  not  lacquered  and  re- 
quires to  be  cleaned,  it  is  as  well  to  cut 
out  of  a  piece  of  pasteboard  a  hole  the 
exact  shape  of  the  plate.  This  pasteboard 
should  be  held  over  the  plate  while  it  is 
being  cleaned,  and^  will  protect  the  door 
from  being  injured  by  whatever  composi- 
tion is  used. 

USES  OF  BRASS  WORK. — Brass  work  may 
be  advantageously  substituted  fdr  mirrors  in 
the  mahoganized  furniture  so  fashionable  at 
present,  and  it  may  also  be  used  for  the 
panels  in  the  lid  and  sides  of  a  wooden 
coal-box.  A  small  shield,  with  a  crest 
or  coat  of  arms  worked  on  it,  is  an  effec- 
tive ornament  in  wall  decoration.  Panels 
should  have  a  slight  margin  left  outside 
the  worked  part;  this  will  be  found  useful 
in  fixing. 

You  may  also  try  to  make  a  circular  card- 
tray,  or  an  oblong  pen-tray.  A  margin 
must  be  left  to  form  the  sides  of  these 
articles,  and  the  punching  should  begin 
from  the  inside  of  this  margin. 

This  will  cause  the  sides  to  rise  some- 
what, and  will  be  sufficient,  unless  a  very 
deep  tray  is  desired.  In  this  case  more 
slope  may  be  given  by  denting  lines  with 
your  chisel-shaped  tool  on  the  margin  at 
right  angles  to  the  edge.  This  will  give  a 
crimped  look  to  the  margin  and  make  it 


BRASS   WORK 


267 


rise.  The  blows  should  be  harder  at  the 
outside. 

TIME  REQUIRED. — It  may  be  well  to  say 
a  few  words  about  the  time  and  labor  re- 
quired for  this  work.  The  time  taken  in 
drawing  the  pattern  will  of  course  be  less 
if  the  worker  is  gifted  with  sufficient  ar- 
tistic power  to  enable  him  to  rapidly  sketch 
the  outline  from  the  subject,  whatever  it 
may  be,  but  a  very  short  time  will  suffice 
even  for  those  who  have  to  trace  their 
outlines.  Leaves,  etc.,  may  be  put  on  the 
paper,  and  the  outline  traced  directly  from 
them. 

Anybody  can  draw  geometrical  patterns 
with  rule  and  compasses,  though  we  think 
they  are  usually  unsuited  to  brass  work. 

The  actual  labor  of  working  the  punch 
is  very  slight,  though  it  may  be  found  that 
the  hand  which  holds  it  is  apt  to  get 
rather  cramped  at  first.  The  time  required 
will,  of  course,  depend  greatly  on  the  in- 
tricacy of  the  pattern,  more  care  being  re- 
quired where  there  is  much  outline,  but  at 
the. same  time  there  will  be  less  ground  to 
do  if  the  pattern  covers  much  space. 
About  twenty  minutes  should  be  ample  for 
a  square  panel  of  five  inches  in  the  side, 
that  is  to  say,  with  an  average  pattern,  but 
this  is  not  meant  to  include  tracing  or  fix- 
ing the  paper  design. 

SUITABLE  DESIGNS. — With  regard  to  the 
sort  of  designs  which  can  appropriately  be 
represented,  it  is  really  so  much  a  matter 
of  taste  that  no  absolute  rule  can  be  laid 
down.  Speaking  generally,  any  subject 
which  can  be  expressed  chiefly  by  means 
of  outline  is  suitable.  Leaves,  either  singly 
or  in  the  form  of  sprays,  .will  do  very  well. 
One  should  go  to  the  right  source  for 
the  model — nature  herself.  Of  course,  any 
kind  of  motto  or  saying  may  be  worked 
on  a  band  of  brass,  if  you  have  a  suitable 
place  to  put  it  in  when  finished. 

Insects  produce  an  effective  and  quaint 
appearance.  Butterflies  and  moths,  with 


their  wings  extended,  or  flies,  with  the 
wings  closed  about  the  back,  are  easy  and 
striking,  while  beetles  have  quite  a  "cun- 
ning" look.  Some  large  beetle  should  be 
chosen,  either  the  Egyptian  scarabaus  or 
the  large  water-beetles  of  the  ponds. 

You  cau  attempt  to  imitate,  if  you  will, 
the  old  repousse  work,  of  which  Cellini 
was  such  a  master,  though  you  will  per- 
haps be  unable  to  try  it  on  the  same  pre- 
cious metals  which  were  placed  at  his  com- 
mand by  his  wealthy  and  influential  pa- 
trons. Learn,  however,  to  command  your 
temper  better  than  he  did;  you  may  be 
sure  that  your  work  will  be  none  the 
worse  for  that 

In  these  days,  a  greater  respect  for  life 
prevails  than  in  his  age,  and  when  we 
want  to  defeat  a  rival,  we  do  so  by  trying 
to  make  our  work  better  than  his,  and  not 
by  an  appeal  to  arms. 

A  little  care  and  pains  will  enable  you  to 
turn  out  very  fair  work,  and  you  will  be 
surprised  and  pleased  to  find  what  a  won- 
derful effect  may  be  produced  by  such  sim- 
ple means.  You  will  have  to  exercise  your 
forethought  in  the  selection  of  a  subject 
within  the  range  of  the  process  and  the 
reach  of  .your  own  powers,  and  your  man- 
ual dexterity  will  be  called  out  in  the  exe- 
cution of  the  work.  It  is  an  old  saying, 
but  a  very  true  one,  that  what  is  worth 
doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well. 

Work  done  badly  bears  on  it  the  stamp 
of  its  own  worthlessness,  the  confession 
that  the  workman  had  not  thought  it 
worth  doing.  A  beginner's  work  can  not 
be  as  good  as  that  of  an  old  hand,  but 
let  it  be  the  beginner's  best,  and  nobody 
should  complain.  And  whatever  you  do, 
fit  yourself  up  a  workshop  of  your  own, 
where  you  can  carry  out  your  brass  work 
or  wood  carving  and  other  such  employ- 
ment conveniently,  without  fear  of  inter- 
ruption, or  of  being  told  you  make  a 
"horrible  mess." 


WOOD  CARVING 


THE  art  of  wood  carving  Is  a  very  ancient  one  and  has  always  been 
the   close   rival   to   sculpture   or   carving   in   stone;   although,   of 
course,  its  greatest  field  has  ever  been  in  the  line  of  producing 
household  furniture  and  interior  decorations.     Like  several  other  arts,  its 
essential  principles  are  extremely  simple,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  after 
the  uses  of  the  various  tools  have  been  thoroughly  understood,  any  one 
with  artistic  taste  and  sufficient  perseverance  to  persist  in  the  study  of 
the  art  should  soon  become  a  good  wood  carver. 


PRACTICAL      PRINCIPLES 


VARIETIES   OF   WOOD  CARVING 

THERE  are  several  varieties  of  wood 
carving  which  may  be  classified  ac- 
cording to  the  style  of  work  or  the  style 
of  designs.  Under  the  first  head,  there  are 
three  varieties — flat  or  stamped  work,  in- 
taglio or  sunken  work,  and  round  carving 
or  lowered  work.  So  far  as  the  style  of 
designs  is  concerned,  there  are  a  number 
of  varieties  belonging  mostly  under  the  head 
of  intaglio  and  incised  work — such  are  the 
majority  of  designs  in  scroll  work  and 
geometrical  figures,  rosette  work,  or  dia- 
pering, and  the  effective  chip  carving. 

TOOLS. — The  tools  used  in  wood  carving 
are  of  a  few  varieties  of  chisels  and 
gouges.  The  chisels  have  flat  blades,  such 
as  are  used  in  carpenter  work,  while  the 
gouges  and  modellers  have  the  cutting  edge 
more  or  less  curved  according  to  require- 
ments. The  manner  of  using  these  tools 
is  much  the  same  as  in  carpentering;  the 
general  plan  being  to  drive  the  cutting  edge 
into  the  wood  with  a  rawhide  mallet,  or 
•with  a  wooden  club  cut  down  to  form  a 
handle  at  one  end. 

FLAT  CARVING. — The  ordinary  flat  carv- 
ing; which  is  the  variety  most  often  under- 
taken by  the  beginners,  is  produced  by 
merely  tracing  a  design  on  the  surface  of 
a  panel  and  then  cutting  around  it  care- 
fully with  a  chisel-shaped  gouge  having  a 
deeply  grooved  cutting  end,  almost  U- 
shaped;  this  is  called  a  "veiner."  When 
a  design  is  thoroughly  cut  out,  the  back- 
(268) 


ground  effect  is  produced  by  use  of  a 
stamp  or  punch.  When  this  kind  of  work 
is  well  done,  it  is  highly  effective,  but,  as 
a  general  rule,  its  use  is  confined  to  house- 
hold furniture,  panels,  etc. 

INTAGLIO  CARVING. — The  variety  of  carv- 
ing work  known  as  intaglio  is  produced  in 
much  the  same  manner,  except  that,  in- 
stead of  being  left  flat,  the  body  of  the 
design — leaves,  flowers,  etc. — is  cut  out,  leav- 
ing the  background  in  relief.  The  work  of 
cutting  out  the  design  is  done  chiefly  with 
small  gouges,  after  which  the  background 
is  usually  hammered  in,  as  with  the  former 
variety  of  carving. 

SUNKEN  WORK. — Closely  allied  to  the 
intaglio  and  flat  carving,  at  least  in  the 
manner  of  its  production,  is  the  variety  of 
work  found  with  flat  designs  and  sunken 
background.  The  background  is  cut  out, 
leaving  the  design  in  flat  relief.  It  is  used 
largely  in  panel  and  scroll  work,  on  house- 
hold furniture,  etc. 

LOWERED  WORK. — The  round  carving,  or 
lowered  work,  is  the  most  difficult,  as  well 
as  the  most  artistic,  variety  of  wood  carv- 
ing. Its  successful  production  depends,  of 
course,  upon  the  extensive  use  of  carving 
tools  and  wide  experience  in  handling  de- 
signs. Briefly  described,  the  process  of 
producing  this  kind  of  carving  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  design  is  first  transferred  to  the 
surface  of  the  wood,  being  traced  on  with 
a  pencil,  so  that  its  outlines  are  clear  and 


WOOD    CARVING 


269 


sharp.  The  next  step  is  to  cut  out  the  de- 
sign, which  is  done  with  a  flat  chisel,  usu- 
ally with  one  about  one-half  inch  across. 
This  is  grasped  firmly  in  the  left  hand,  so 
that  the  blade  touches  the  wood  at  a  slight 
angle  from  the  perpendicular.  With  the 
use  of  a  mallet  the  point  of  the  chisel  is 
driven  into  the  wood  to  a  certain  definite 


/    )   } 


WOOD  CARVING  TOOLS,  CHISELS,  GOUGES  AND 
MODELLERS,  ALSO  SHAPES  OF  CUTTING  EDGES 

depth,  which  is  generally  not  more  than  a 
half-inch  at  each  incision.  This  process  is 
called  "stabbing."  After  the  design  has 
been  thoroughly  cut  out,  especial  care  be- 
ing taken  to  make  the  incisions  to  the 
same  depth  in  every  case,  the  background 
may  be  carefully  cut  away  on  all  sides, 
leaving  the  design  in  high  relief.  The  best 
procedure  in  this  work  is  to  shave  the 
wood  out  gradually,  and  not  to  attempt 
cutting  out  large  chips  at  a  time.  It  is 
also  better  to  cut  across  the  grain  in  many 
varieties  of  wood,  thus  avoiding  the  dan- 
ger of  splitting  or  tearing. 

When  the  background  is  thoroughly  and 
cleanly  cut  away  from  the  design,  the  work 


of  modelling  or  shaping  the  essential  de- 
tails of  figures  may  be  undertaken.  This 
work  had  better  be  guided  by  the  use  of 
clay  or  wax  models,  wherever  possible,  or 
with  the  use  of  the  natural  objects  them- 
selves. When  flowers  or  leaves  are  to  be 
cut  out,  the  upper  surface  of  the  design  is, 
of  course,  modelled  first,  the  shape  and  the 
conto  :r  being  carefully  formed  with  suit- 
able gouges  and  modellers.  After  the  upper 
surface  is  complete,  the  wood  may  be  cut 
away  beneath  to  a  level  with  the  back- 
ground, to  give  the  necessary  relief  effect. 
This  work  is,  of  course,  extremely  delicate, 
and  required  the  utmost  skill  and  experi- 
ence, particularly  in  the  production  of  de- 
signs of  flowers,  leaves,  birds,  etc.,  in  which 
some  portions  of  the  figures  are  almost  en- 
tirely cut  under. 

MODELLING. — The  work  of  modelling  the 
surface  of  carved  figures  is  a  detail  re- 
quiring much  skill  and  taste.  According 
to  many  authorities  it  is  desirable  that  the 
carver  have  clay  models  to  work  from,  as 
by  this  means  he  is  able  to  obtain  a  far 
more  complete  idea  of  the  designs  to  be 
produced  than  would  be  possible  from 
the  best  drawing  or  print,  and,  in  many 
cases,  from  nature  itself.  The  use  of  clay 
is  recommended  for  the  production  of  trial 
models,  since  it  is  far  more  readily  worked 
than  wood,  and  the  carver  can  speedily 
judge  of  the  effect  of  his  design.  This  is, 
however,  a  mere  detail,  to  be  determined 
largely  by  the  experience  of  the  carver, 
or  by  the  degree  of  skill  he  may  possess. 

CLAMPING  AND  WORKING. — In  the  work 
of  carving,  the  wood  should  always  be 
firmly  clamped  to  the  table,  in  order  to 
prevent  all  slipping.  When  the  carver  is 
working  upon  an  article  composed  of  sep- 
arate parts — such  as  boxes,  and  easels,  and 


DESIGN  FOR  ROSKTTK  WORK 


270 


WOOD    CARVING 


several  other  articles  of  furniture — it  is 
necessary  that  each  portion  be  carved  and 
worked  separately.  This  is  necessary,  both 
because  the  carver  can  obtain  the  requisite 
grip  upon  his  material  only  by  taking  each 
piece  separately,  and,  also,  because,  if  the 
work  was  attempted  on  the  completed  ar- 
ticle, straining  and  breakage  would  prob- 
ably result. 

POLISHING. — After  the  work  of  carving 
designs  is  completed,  and  the  parts  of  the 
box,  or  other  article  of  furniture,  have 
been  put  together,  the  work  may  be  pol- 
ished. This  process  is  accomplished  by 
thoroughly  smoothing  all  surfaces  with  fine 
sandpaper,  and  then  smoothing  down  the 
plain  portions  with  pumice-stone  and  oil. 
When  the  perfect  smoothness  has  been  at- 
tained in  this  manner,  a  thorough  coat 


DESIGN  FOR  CHIP  CARVING 

of  boiled  linseed  oil  may  be  applied  with 
a  brush.  After  thoroughly  drying  in  some 
place  out  of  the  reach  of  dust,  another 
coat  of  boiled  oil  may  be  applied ;  and 
this  process  may  be  repeated  as  many  as 
three  or  four  times,  if  desired. 

CARE  OF  TOOLS. — An  all-essential  point  in 
successful  wood  carving  is  to  maintain  the 
tools  in  good  condition  and  perfectly  sharp. 
Of  course,  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  of 
the  best  quality,  and  made  of  the  finest 
steel,  since  in  this  art,  more  than  in  car- 
pentry, a  poor  chisel  or  gouge  is  a  serious 
consideration.  Carving  tools  are  sharpened 
not  alone  on  one  side,  as  with  a  carpen- 
ter's chisels  and  gouges,  but,  after  the 
edge  has  been  thoroughly  formed  with  a 
stone  or  wheel,  the  inside  edge  must  also 
be  ground  on  a  small  piece  of  oil  stone 
called  the  "slip."  These  slips  are  mounted 


in  wooden  holders  so  that  they  may  be  in- 
serted in  a  vise  and  held  fast  while  the  edge 
of  the  tool  is  being  ground.  It  is  a  com- 
paratively simple  matter  to  grind  carving 
tools  properly  when  the  matter  is  once 
thoroughly  understood.  It  is  always  more 
convenient  to  follow  the  plan  of  doing  one's 
own  sharpening  than  to  depend  upon  the 
convenience  of  carpenters  or  machinists. 


DESIGN  FOB  PANEL  IN  RAISED  CARVWG 


VARIETIES  OF  WOOD.  —  A  skilful  wood 
carver  can,  of  course,  work  with  almost 
any  kind  of  wood,  provided  it  be  suffi- 
ciently close-grained  to  prevent  tearing  or 
splitting  with  the  application  of  tools.  The 
best  woods  for  this  purpose,  however,  are 
black  walnut,  oak,  mahogany,  and  cherry; 
all  of  which  are  close-grained  and  not  liable 
to  mar  the  design  by  warping  or  splitting 
in  sufficiently  heavy  work. 


PYROGRAPHY 


THE  form  of  artistic  work  known  as  pyrography  is,  briefly,  drawing 
outlines  and  shaded  pictures  on  wood  or  leather  with  a  red-hot 
needle,  or,  as  in  former  times,  with  heated  pokers  of  various  sizes. 
By  a  little  practice,  any  one  proficient  in  pencil  drawing  can  very  soon 
learn  to  produce  clean  and  handsome  sketches  by  this  process.     Since,  to 
all  intents  and  purposes,  it  is  merely  drawing  with  a  hot  point,  instead 
of  with  a  black  lead,  it  will  be  necessary  to  do  no  more  than  to  touch 
briefly  on   several  matters  connected   with  the  necessary   apparatus   and 
its  operation. 


PRACTICAL     INSTRUCTIONS 


THE  NEEDLE.— The  first  step  in  ren- 
dering pyrography  a  practicable  art,  at 
the  present  day,  has  been  in  substituting 
a  hollow  point  of  platinum  for  the  heated 
pokers  of  former  times.  The  platinum 
point  is  screwed  into  a  metal  tube  sur- 
rounded by  a  cork  handle,  and  connected, 
through  a  long  pipe,  with  the  stopper  of 
a  small  bottle  filled  with  gasoline.  Open- 
ing into  the  gasoline  bottle  is  another  rub- 
ber tube,  at  the  extremity  of  which  is  a 
double  elastic  bulb,  for  the  purpose  of  forc- 
ing air  through  the  gasoline,  and  thence 
through  the  first  rubber  tube  to  the  plati- 
num needle. 

PREPARING  FOR  WORK. — To  heat  the  tube 
sufficiently  to  begin  work,  it  is  necessary 
only  to  begin  forcing  air  through  the  gaso- 
line, with  the  result  that  the  carburetted 
mixture  is  forced  into  the  needle.  This 
mixture,  being  highly  inflammable,  will 
ignite  and  maintain  the  tube  at  a  high 
temperature  by  thrusting  it  into  the  flame 
of  an  alcohol  lamp.  When  the  desired 
degree  of  redness  appears  upon  the  point, 
it  may  be  withdrawn  from  the  alcohol 
flame,  and  is  then  ready  for  beginning 
work.  The  advantage  of  using  platinum 
for  the  needle  is  that  this  metal  more 


readily  absorbs  and  retains  the  inflammable 
gas  than  any  other. 

OPERATING. — In  working  with  the  pyro- 
graphic  needle,  it  is  necessary  only  to  con- 
stantly force  air  from  the  bottle  of  gaso- 
line, in  order  to  maintain  the  required  tem- 
perature. A  little  practice  will  very  soon 
enable  one  to  make  clean-cut  and  even 
lines,  provided  only  that  the  needle  be 
kept  constantly  heated. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS. — There  are  really 
very  few  points  that  a  person  at  all  ac- 
quainted with  pencil  drawing  will  need  to 
learn  in  mastering  the  art  of  pyrography, 
although  there  are  several  matters  which 
must  be  carefully  understood,  on  account 
of  the  difficulty  of  handling  a  peculiarly 
shaped  drawing  instrument,  and  of  using 
fire  as  a  means  of  marking. 

In  the  first  place,  the  student  must  learn, 
by  careful  practice  and  observation,  ex- 
actly what  degree  of  heat  is  indicated  by 
the  color  of  the  needle,  and  exactly  how 
much  pressure  of  the  hand  is  required  to 
make  lines  of  the  desired  depth  and  heavi- 
ness on  given  kinds  of  wood.  It  is  es- 
sential that  he  be  careful  about  this  mat- 
ter, since  very  many  handsome  designs 

(271) 


272 


PYROGRAPHY 


AN  EFFECTIVE  AND  EASILY  PRODUCED  DESIGN  FOR  PYROGRAPHIC  DRAWING 


are  marred  by  an  incorrect  use  of  lines 
and  shading.  The  temperature  of  the 
needle  may  be  regulated  by  varying  the 
amount  of  air  forced  through  the  gasoline, 
and  the  proper  temperature  for  a  given 
kind  of  wood,  together  with  the  pressure 
required  in  any  case,  may  soon  be  found 
by  careful  experiment. 

In  making  curved  lines  one  must  always 
be  careful  to  remember  that  he  is  using 
an  instrument  shaped  somewhat  like  a  pen, 
and  that,  in  order  to  produce  the  effect 
desired,  he  must  change  the  position  of 
his  hand  gradually.  If  this  rule  is  not 
carefully  observed,  the  needle  will  burn 
a  jagged  and  ugly  line,  where  a  clean  and 
even  one  was  desired. 

Another  point  of  considerable  importance 
is  to  avoid  making  deep  points  at  the  be- 
ginning and  at  the  end  of  a  straight  line; 
this  result  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hand, 
unless  trained  by  careful  practice,  is  liable 
to  pause  at  the  commencement  and  end  of 
a  stroke.  A  perfectly  artistic  line  can  best 
be  made  by  bringing  the  needle  lightly 
down  upon  the  wooden  surface,  causing 
the  line  to  be  only  a  part  of  the  sweep 


described  by  the  wrist.  It  is  necessary, 
however,  that  the  strokes  be  made  lightly, 
since  the  needle  is  fragile,  and,  when  once 
broken,  can  not  be  readily  repaired. 

In  the  production  of  really  artistic  ef- 
fects, such  as  landscapes,  human  faces, 
figures,  animals,  etc.,  considerable  practice 
is  necessary  to  enable  the  production  of 
the  required  quality  of  lines  at  the  various 
points.  A  heavy  line  in  a  portion  of  a 
picture  that  should  be  lightly  shaded  will 
mar  the  general  effect  very  much  more 
than  a  light  line  at  a  point  to  be  heavily 
shaded.  The  ability  to  produce  the  proper 
strength  and  quality  of  lines  can  be  ac- 
quired only  by  careful  practice  with  vari- 
ous kinds  of  wood  and  with  various  tem- 
peratures of  the  needle.  Beyond  this  the 
matter  belongs  more  properly  to  drawing 
in  general,  and  the  effect  is  to  be  deter- 
mined solely  by  the  skill  of  the  artist. 

As  regards  the  kind  of  wood  to  be  used 
in  this  work,  it  may  be  said  that  the  best 
quality  is  of  close  grain  and  medium  soft. 
To  use  wood  that  is  too  soft  involves  the 
danger  of  making  lines  deep  and  heavy. 
With  a  very  hard  wood  the  irregularity  of 


PYROGRAPHY 


273 


the  lines  is  nearly  the  greatest  source  of 
trouble.  However,  with  sufficient  practice, 
very  nearly  any  kind  of  wood  from  white 
pine  to  box-wood  may  be  successfully  used. 
The  most  usual  quality  of  wood  for  this 
purpose  is  bass-wood,  white-wood,  and 
pine ;  good  effects  have  been  produced  with 
box-wood  and  others  of  close  grain.  If 
the  artist  will  thoroughly  understand  the 
fact  that  good  pyrographic  work  demands 
the  use  of  clean  and  even  lines  of  pencil 
drawing,  or  any  other  branch  of  art,  he 
will  experiment  carefully  to  acquire  the 
ability  of  producing  them. 


In  burning  pictures  and  figures  on  leather 
new  difficulties  arise ;  not  only  does  this 
substance  so  vary  at  different  points  as  to 
make  the  production  of  even  lines  very 
difficult,  even  with  the  greatest  skill,  but 
the  ill-smelling  smoke  that  results  from 
burning  it  is  both  trying  to  the  eyes 
and  nauseating.  The  smoke  produced  by 
burning  several  qualities  of  wood  is  al- 
most as  disagreeable,  but  the  would-be 
pyrographist  must  accustom  himself  to 
such  annoyances,  or,  by  careful  handling 
of  his  instrument  and  the  habit  of  working 
rapidly,  reduce  them  as  far  as  possible. 


THE  APPARATUS  USED  IN  PYROGRAPHIC  WORK 


RUDIMENTS  OF  MUSIC 


IN  studying  music  it  is  quite  as  essential  to  learn  the  meaning  and  value 
of  musical  notes,  signs,  and  terms,  as  it  is  to  learn  reading,  in  order 
to  understand  a  language.     Indeed,  in  every  case,  the  knowledge  of 
reading  is  necessary  to  a  thorough  understanding.     Without  the  ability 
of  reading  properly,  in  either  music  or  language,  the  student  is  deprived 
of  the  best  source  of  instruction  and  the  best  corrective  of  errors,  as  well 
as  shut  out  from  most  of  the  thoughts  and  achievements  of  his  prede- 
cessors. 


THE   PRINCIPLES  OF  MUSICAL   NOTATION 


HTHE  TONES  OF  THE  SCALE.— All 
*  musical  ideas  are  expressed  by  the 
seven  tones  of  the  natural  scale,  which  are 
designated  by  the  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  B,  or,  by  the  syllables 
Do,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si  (or  TV).  On 
the  pianoforte,  or  any  other  instrument, 
these  tones  follow  each  other  in  regular 
succession  from  A  to  G;  each  G  being  suc- 
ceeded by  the  A  of  another  series  higher, 
or  more  treble,  in  sound.  When  several 
successive  notes  are  sounded  in  succession, 
we  have  a  scale.  The  word,  "scale,"  is  de- 
rived, through  the  Italian,  from  the  Latin 
scalaria,  a  "ladder,"  which,  in  turn,  comes 
from  the  verb,  scandere,  "to  climb";  thus 
indicating  a  regular  progress  by  consecu- 
tive steps,  either  upward  to  the  high,  or 
treble,  notes,  or  downward  to  the  low,  or 
bass,  notes.  The  terms,  "low"  and  "high," 
as  applied  to  musical  tones,  are  derived 
from  the  use  of  the  human  voice,  in  which 
the  bass  notes  are  apparently  formed  in 
the  chest,  according  to  the  theories  of 
some,  while  the  treble  notes  vibrate  in  the 
highest  cavity  of  the  head. 

A  complete  scale  beginning  at  C,  for  ex- 
ample, and  running  through  all  the  inter- 
vening tones,  either  above  or  below,  up  or 
down,  is  called  a  gamut;  and  all  the  notes, 
(274) 


taken  together  from  any  one  note  to  its 
similarly  lettered  counterpart,  eight  notes 
above  or  below  it,  form  an  octave,  which  is 
the  Latin  word  for  "eighth." 

THE  ACCIDENTAL  SEMITONES. — In  addition 
to  the  seven  tones  already  mentioned,  which 
are  known  to  musicians  as  full  tones  or 
naturals,  each  octave  contains  five  others, 
known  as  semitones  (half  tones)  or  acci- 
dentals. These  are  the  sounds  represented 
by  the  black  keys  on  the  piano  or  organ, 
and  are  designated  in  musical  writing  as 
the  "sharps"  (*)  or  "flats"  (b)  of  the 
notes,  either  immediately  below  or  imme- 
diately above  each  of  them.  Thus  the 
black  note  on  the  piano,  immediately  fol- 
lowing C  and  preceding  D,  may  be  indi- 
cated in  written  music  either  as  C$  or  Db. 

The  semitones,  occurring  as  they  do  in 
the  musical  octave,  naturally  vary  the  in- 
tervals, distances,  or  sound-values  between 
several  notes  in  each  series.  Thus,  while 
the  intervals  between  F  and  G,  G  and  A,  A 
and  B,  C  and  D,  D  and  E,  are  all  whole 
tones,  since  a  semitone  occurs  between  each 
two  of  them,  the  interval  between  B  and 
C,  and  between  E  and  F,  is  only  a  semitone 
because  no  other  sound  intervenes,  each 
following  the  other  directly  on  the  piano 
keyboard.  The  distance  between  any  two 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


275 


tones  in  the  scale  is  called  an  interval,  and, 
because  there  are  eight  natural  tones  in  a 
complete  octave,  it  follows  that  there  are 
seven  intervals,  or  thirteen  "half  steps." 
There  are,  also,  two  kinds  of  scale,  the 
diatonic  and  the  chromatic.  The  former 
contains  only  eight  tones,  sounded  as  ex- 
plained later;  the  second  advances  by  a 
succession  of  semitones  precisely  as  they 
occur. 

THE  TIME  ELEMENT. — In  producing  mu- 
sic, it  is  necessary  to  have,  not  only  differ- 
ent tones,  but  also  variations  of  time;  for, 
as  may  be  readily  understood,  if  every  tone 
were  sounded  for  exactly  the  same  length 
of  time,  the  effect  of  the  music  would  be 
very  unsatisfactory,  and  its  power  of  ex- 
pression extremely  limited. 

CLASSES  OF  NOTES.— There  are,  therefore, 
seven  different  classes  of  notes  used  in 
writing  music,  and  any  of  them  may  be 
used  for  any  tone  in  the  scale.  They  be- 
gin with  the  whole  note,  or  semibreve, 
which  is  sounded  in  the  violin,  mandolin, 
and  guitar,  and  on  the  wind  instruments, 


same  with  three  hooks;  and  the  sixty- 
fourth,  the  same  with  four  hooks. 

When  several  quavers,  or  other  hooked 
notes  of  the  same  class,  follow  in  succession, 
the  hooks  are  extended  into  bars,  which 
connect  all  the  notes  in  each  series.  Thus, 
a  series  of  quavers  has  one  bar;  a  series 
of  sixteenth  notes,  two  bars;  a  series  of 
thirty-second  notes,  three  bars,  etc.  Fre- 
quently, we  find  eighth  and  sixteenth  notes, 
or  sixteenth  notes  and  thirty-second  notes, 
in  a  series,  extra  bars  being  added  to  re- 
duce the  time  of  the  smaller  notes  in  any 
case  desired. 

THE  STAFF. — In  order  to  combine  the 
notes  of  any  required  time-value  with  the 
proper  tones,  in  writing  a  musical  composi- 
tion, the  notes  are  written  upon  what  is 
known  as  the  staff  or  stave.  This  consists 
of  five  horizontal  parallel  lines  with  four 
equal  spaces  between  them.  The  lines  are 
designated  as  first,  second,  third,  etc.,  from 
the  bottom;  the  spaces,  as  first,  second, 
third,  etc.,  also  from  the  bottom.  A  note 
may  be  either  on  a  line,  when  the  line 


THE    NOTES    AND    CORRESPONDING    RESTS 

Whole  Note.  Half.  Quarter.  Eighth.  i6th.  szn 


64th. 


—  f2  

f  

f  

n 

ij 

—  ~  —  5  

| 

D 

y 

a 

B 

Whole  Rest. 

Half. 

Quarter. 

Eighth. 

i6th. 

V 

32nd. 

M 

64th. 

™  

•  

—  f-°«-*— 

=1  

9  

-I 

=1  

,__g     ..  ._ 

NOTES. 


RESTS. 


for  the  full  time  represented — this  is  gen- 
erally the  period  occupied  while  one  counts 
"four,"  at  the  ordinary  conversational  rate 
of  utterance — and,  on  the  piano  and  organ, 
he  key  is  held  down  during  the  same 
period.  The  remaining  six  notes  are  frac- 
tional parts  of  the  semibreve,  and  are  desig- 
nated as  the  half  note,  or  minim,  two  of 
which  are  equal  to  one  whole  note,  in  point 
of  time  occupied  in  sounding;  the  quarter 
note  or  crotchet;  the  eighth  note  or  quaver; 
the  sixteenth  note  or  semiquaver;  the 
thirty-second  note  or  demisemiquaver ;  and 
the  sixty-fourth  note  or  hemidemisemi- 
quaver.  The  semibreve  is  indicated  by  an 
oval  figure,  somewhat  like  the  letter  O 
tipped  to  one  side;  the  minim  is  the  same 
figure  with  a  stem  at  one  end  extending 
either  up  or  down;  the  crotchet  is  a  black 
note  with  a  similar  stem;  the  quaver  is  a 
black  note  with  a  stem  carrying  a  hook  at 
its  further  end;  the  semiquaver  is  the  same 
with  two  hooks;  the  demisemiquaver  is  the 


passes  through  it,  or  on  a  space,  when  it 
is  between  two  lines. 

As  written,  the  staff  gives  opportunity  for 
indicating  eleven  full  tones,  counting  one 
note  written  below  the  first  line,  and  an- 
other written  above  the  fifth  line.  Since, 
however,  this  number  of  notes  represents 


LINES. 


SPACES. 


m 


a  very  small  fraction  of  the  tones  actually 
available  in  any  instrument,  it  is  necessary 
to  resort  to  several  additional  devices,  in 
order  to  enable  the  musician  to  find  the 
tone  indicated  by  any  given  note  with  least 
possible  trouble. 

The  first,  and  most  important,  device  of 
this  description  is  to  divide  musical  nota- 
tion into  two  clefs,  called,  respectively,  the 
bass  and  the  treble  clefs.  As  written  for 
all  modern  instruments,  the  treble  clef  has 


276 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


the  tone,  represented  by  the  G  above  middle 
C  on  the  piano  keyboard,  on  the  second  line, 
and  the  bass  clef  the  tone  corresponding 
to  the  pitch  of  F  below  middle  C  on  its 
fourth  line. 

LEGER  LINES. — The  second  device  for 
simplifying  musical  notation  consists  in  the 
use  of  leger  lines,  which  are,  briefly,  merely 
extra  lines  either  above  or  below  the  staff, 
for  writing  notes  outside  of  the  limited 
range  of  the  staff  tones  in  either  clef. 
Thns,  there  may  be  any  number  of  lines  or 
spaces,  above  or  below  the  staff,  but  each 
note,  whether  on  a  line  or  on  a  space,  must 
have  sufficient  number  of  lines  between  it 
and  the  staff,  to  indicate  the  precise  rela- 
tive position  of  its  tone.  In  order  to  un- 
derstand the  system,  involved  in  separat- 
ing the  clefs  and  using  leger  lines,  we  may 
point  out  that  the  tone,  represented  by  mid- 
dle C  on  the  piano,  is  written  on  the  first 


leger  line  above  the  bass  staff,  and  on  the 
first  leger  line  below  the  treble  staff.  Thus, 
the  C  below  middle  C  is  written  on  the 
second  space  of  the  bass  staff,  and  the  C 
above,  on  the  third  space  of  the  treble 
staff.  The  leger  lines  are  designated  as  the 
first,  second,  third,  etc.,  lines  above,  or  first, 
second,  third,  etc.,  lines  below  the  staff. 
The  first  note  above  the  staff  is  said  to  be 
on  the  first  space  above,  and  the  first  note 
below  the  staff,  on  the  first  space  below. 

THE  OTTAVA. — The  third  device  for  sim- 
plifying musical  notation  is  to  use  the  ot- 
tava,  which,  written  above  the  staff,  thus, 
8va.  with  a  series  of  dots,  or  a  waved  line, 
following,  indicates  that  the  notes  written 
on  the  staff  are  to  be  played  an  octave 
higher.  Accordingly,  the  octave  is  raised, 
so  long  as  the  dotted  line  extends  over  the 
staff.  The  dotted  line  following  the  sign 
for  the  ottava  sometimes  ends  with  the 
word  loco,  which  indicates  that  the  music 
is  to  be  played  thereafter  as  written.  If 
the  sign,  8va.,  is  followed  by  the  word, 
bassa,  the  notes  are  to  be  played  an  octave 
lower  than  written.  Sometimes,  particu- 
larly where  the  last  sign  has  been  used, 
the  word,  alta,  is  used  to  indicate  that  the 
notes  are  to  be  played  an  octave  higher. 
When  the  tones,  to  be  indicated  by  notes, 
are  either  so  far  below  the  treble  staff,  or 
so  far  above  the  bass  as  to  render  difficult 


the  use  of  leger  lines,  ottavas,  etc.,  the  op- 
posite clef  sign  is  written  on  the  staff,  and 
the  tones  indicated  accordingly.  On  re- 
turning again  to  the  staff  compass,  the 
proper  clef  sign  is  written  again,  and  the 
notation  changes  accordingly. 

THE  CLEFS. — As  it  is  necessary  to  indi- 
cate the  clef  in  which  a  given  bar  of  music 
is  written,  the  treble  is  indicated  by  a  sign 
resembling  the  figure  &,  which  is  said  to 


Treble  or  G  clef. 


Bass  or  F  clef. 


represent  the  old  Gothic  G,  and  the  bass 
clef,  by  a  mark  resembling  the  letter  C, 
which  is  said  to  represent  the  Gothic  sign 
for  F. 

THE  BRACE. — When  two  staves  of  music 
are  intended  to  be  played  simultaneously, 
they  are  connected  by  a  brace.  Thus,  two 
treble  staves  may  be  connected,  when  the 
music  indicates  a  duet  for  two  violins,  a 
flute  and  violin,  or  any  two  other  instru- 
ments having  their  music  in  this  clef,  or 
for  a  human  voice  with  an  instrumental 


•y- 


accompaniment.  Music  for  the  piano  or 
organ  is  written  with  a  treble  and  a  bass 
staff  joined  by  a  brace,  and  when  music  for 
the  human  voice,  or  some  treble  instrument, 
is  to  be  played  at  the  same  time,  an  extra 
staff  is  written  above  the  F  clef,  and  con- 
nected to  the  end  of  the  staff  above  the 
brace. 

THE  RESTS. — We  have  learned  thus  far 
that  true  music  requires,  not  only  varia- 
tion in  tones,  which  is  supplied  by  the  musi- 
cal scale,  but,  also,  variation  in  time,  which 
is  supplied  by  the  notes  of  different  lengths, 
and  combinations  of  the  same.  In  order, 
however,  to  fulfil  all  the  requirements  of 
modern  music,  it  is  necessary  that  the  ef- 
fect of  tone  and  time  be  heightened  by 
measured  intervals  of  silence.  This  re- 
quirement is  supplied  by  the  marks  of  no- 
tation known  as  rests.  Moreover,  these 
rests-  must  be  of  varying  length,  exactly  like 
the  notes.  The  accompanying  diagram  il- 
lustrates the  seven  kinds  of  rests,  with  the 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


277 


notes  to  which  they  correspond  in  length. 
The  whole  rest,  as  shown,  is  always  writ- 
ten below  the  fourth  line  of  the  staff;  the 
half  rest,  above  the  third  line;  the  quarter 
rest  has  two  forms,  the  most  common 
being  a  short  line  with  a  hook  turned  to 
the  right;  the  eighth  rest  resembles  the  first 
form  of  the  quarter  rest,  except  for  the 
fact  that  the  hook  is  turned  toward  the  left ; 
the  sixteenth  rest  has  two  hooks  like  the 
sixteenth  note;  the  thirty-second  rest,  three 


whole  note,  plus  one  minim,  plus  one 
crotchet.  A  minim  followed  by  two  dots 
has  the  value  of  a  half  note,  plus  one 
crotchet,  plus  one  quaver.  Rests,  also,  may 
be  extended  in  time  by  dots  written  after 
them,  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the 
notes. 

OF  THE  MEASURE.— The  last,  but  perhaps 
the  most  important,  element  in  musical  no- 
tation is  that  of  measure,  which,  properly 
speaking,  supplies  the  metrical  rhythm  to 


RESTS  IN  ONE  OR  MORE  MEASURES 

268  8 


20 


N^= 

=^= 

Mp— 

~Bg^~|==ngii^== 

^=1 

hooks  like  the  thirty-second  note,  and  the 
sixty-fourth  rest,  four  hooks  like  the  sixty- 
fourth  note. 

Rests  are  never  connected  by  a  tie,  but 
follow  one  another  in  succession,  until  the 
required  period  of  silence  is  completely  in- 
dicated. When  more  than  one  bar  rest  is 
required,  it  is  indicated,  as  shown  on  the 
accompanying  staff,  the  notation  varying 
according  to  the  number  of  bars  to  be 
rested.  More  frequently,  however,  the  rest 
for  one  bar  is  indicated  by  the  somewhat 
elongated  whole  rest  with  some  figure 
above  it;  for  indictaing  the  rest  for  more 
than  one  bar  slanting  parallel  lines  are 
used. 

DOTTED  NOTES. — Similar  in  character  to 
the  rests  are  the  dots,  which  frequently 
follow  the  notes.  Instead  of  indicating  an 
interval  of  silence,  these  dots  require  that 
the  notes  preceding  them  be  increased  in 
time.  Thus,  one  dot  following  a  note  in- 


a  musical  composition.  We  may  have  a 
series  of  notes  of  known  time-values,  writ- 
ten upon  a  staff,  so  as  to  indicate  certain 
tones.  But,  unless  the  composition  be  prop- 
erly punctuated,  or  divided  into  distinct 
sections,  like  the  words  or  phrases  of  writ- 
ten language,  it  is  entirely  unintelligible. 
Accordingly,  each  staff  in  a  musical  com- 


Bar. 


Bar. 


Bar. 


Measure. 


Measure. 


position  is  divided  into  a  series  of  sections, 
commonly  known  as  bars  or  measures; 
each  of  which  is  equal  in  time-value  with 
every  other  in  the  same  piece. 

Such  a  division  is  indicated  by  a  line 
drawn  perpendicular  to  the  lines  of  the 
staff,  and,  with  braced  staves,  directly 
through  both  clefs.  The  conclusion  of  a 


Dotted  Notes. 


DOTTED  NOTES  AND  RESTS 


/•?  . 

(^  • 

T-.  

--;  

—  Sri  

^  . 

^  .  1 

—  ^  ^ 

—  f-^- 

p    . 

~fT- 

equal  to. 

gy   r?   i 

mm* 

1 

3 
~*  —  •   ^ 

—  g  

1*     P     ^ 

Rests. 

=t= 

^ 

•  • 

*L* 

•1 

n 

>-h  —  h  —  h- 

£    &   u 

—  4^- 

"T" 

volves  that  the  time  of  the  note  is  increased 
one-half.  A  whole  note  followed  by  one 
dot  is  to  be  sounded  to  the  value  of  three 
minims,  etc.  Where  two  dots  follow  a 
note  the  time  of  that  note  is  to  be  in- 
creased three-quarters.  Thus,  a  whole  note 
followed  by  two  dots  has  the  value  of  a 


composition  of  music,  or  of  a  principal 
part,  is  indicated  by  two  thick  lines  drawn 
across  the  staff.  When  these  lines  have 
two  dots  to  the  left  that  part  of  the  music 
which  precedes  them  is  to  be  repeated. 
When  the  dots  are  both  to  the  right  and 
left  of  the  bars,  the  measures  both  preced- 


278 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


ing  and  following  them  must  be  repeated. 
This  is  called  a  double  repeat. 

REPEAT  SIGNS. — While  treating  of  the  mu- 
sical measures  in  general  we  may  turn  our 
attention  to  the  subject  of  repeat  signs. 
The  methods  of  indicating  that  a  measure 
or  a  succession  of  measures  must  be  re- 
peated are  various.  In  addition  to  the  re- 
peating dots  before  heavy  bars,  as  already 
mentioned,  we  frequently  find  the  letters, 
D.  C.  (de  capo),  written  over  a  double 
bar.  This  signifies  that  the  opening  strains 
of  the  piece  must  be  again  played  before 
concluding.  In  other  pieces  the  final  bars 
have  horizontal  lines  ruled  above  them 
with  the  figures  I  and  2,  indicating  that  the 
piece  is  to  be  played  down  to  the  measure 


written  between  the  bars  of  each  measure 
must  have  the  same  value,  as  counted  by 
the  student  in  practicing,  or  must  occupy 
precisely  the  same  amount  of  time  in  play- 
ing as  the  notes  contained  in  every  other 
measure  in  that  particular  piece.  On  the 
other  hand,  different  compositions  vary  in 
time,  and,  consequently,  also,  in  value  of 
each  separate  measure. 

The  accompanying  figure  illustrates  the 
value  of  almost  all  the  common  measures. 
These  are  indicated  by  numbers  written 
after  the  signature  at  the  beginning  of  the 
first  staff.  Thus,  the  common  or  4-4  meas- 
ure indicates  that  the  value  of  a  whole  note 
is  to  be  counted  in  each  bar.  This  may 
be  one  whole  note,  two  minims,  or  four 


EXAMPLES   OF   REPETITION 


marked  i ;  then  repeated,  so  as  to  end  with 
the  measure  marked  2,  omitting  i.  The 
sign  of  repeat,  or  return,  shaped  liked  a 
crossed  S  with  dots  on  either  side  indi- 
cates that,  beginning  with  the  measure  over 
which  it  is  written,  the  music  must  be  re- 
peated a  second  time  to  the  point  where  it 
is  found  again,  or  where  the  word,  "fine," 
occurs,  or  any  sign  designating  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  piece.  The  word,  bis,  placed 
over  one  or  more  bars  of  music,  or  placed 
at  the  beginning  of  a  series  of  bars,  and 
followed  by  a  wavy  line,  indicates  that  these 
measures  are  to  be  played  twice;  the  word, 
bis,  being  the  Latin  for  "twice." 

TIME  VALUES  OF  MEASURES. — As  already 
stated,  the  measures  or  bars  on  the  musi- 
cal staff  indicate  so  many  divisions  equal 
in  respect  to  time.  That  is  to  say,  the  notes 


crotchets,  the  last  being  the  most  usual. 
In  order,  therefore,  to  learn  the  correct 
time  for  playing  a  piece  written  in  this 
measure  the  student  should  count  "four" 
between  each  pair  of  bars;  making  the 
counting  as  even  as  possible,  or  using  a 
metronome  to  secure  positive  accuracy.  In 
the  same  fashion,  the  2-4  measure  indi- 
cates the  value  of  one  minim  or  two  crotch- 
ets, each  measure  being  counted  thus,  i, 
2;  the  3-4  measure  is  equivalent  to  a  dotted 
minim  or  three  crotchets,  and  may  be  meas- 
ured by  counting  thus,  I,  2,  3.  The  values 
of  the  other  measures  are  given  in  the 
diagram.  In  every  case  the  upper  figures 
indicate  the  number  of  notes  to  be  used  in 
regularly  measured  bars,  and  the  lower 
figure  the  kind  of  notes  to  be  so  used,  usu- 
ally either  fourth  or  eighth  notes. 


INDICATIONS    AND    TIME-VALUES   OF    MEASURES 

Common  time.        Two  four.  Three  four.         Three  eighth.         Six  eighth.  Nine  eighth.         Twelve  eighth. 


H"^"4  — 

2 

ESE 

* 

_g  

9  

t^ 

The  value  is  a 
whole  note. 

-A  

Half  note. 

-4  

A  %  note  dotted. 

&=r=F- 

A 

H 

#  note  dotted. 

F-r  S 

a  measures  of  •}£. 

•  P  »  ^*TF 

3  measures  of  ^. 

4  measures  of  J^. 

-t-'P'  f  f-' 

—  T  

1.1.1,1   1    1 

1   TT 

RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


279 


COUNTING  TIME. — In  attempting  to  play 
a  given  piece  of  music  the  first  thing  that 
is  essential  to  the  beginner  is  that  he  care- 
fully consider  at  all  times  the  precise  value 
of  the  notes  used.  This  is  the  reason  that 
in  practicing  a  piece  he  counts  each  meas- 
ure as  above  indicated.  He  must  always 

TIME  OF  VARIOUS  MEASURES 


Count.    1334,     1334,     1234.     1234. 


m 


Count.     1 


i  2. 


-H          • 


Count.    123,        123,       12       3,       123. 


Count.     123,         123, 


23          123. 


remember  that  a  minim  is  equal  to  two 
crotchets,  and  must  count  i,  -2,  for  it,  where 
the  crotchets  count  I.  It  will  always  be 
the  best  plan  for  the  beginner  in  music  to 
count  the  measures  aloud,  as  he  is  prac- 
ticing them.  While,  of  course,  it  is  of 
prime  importance  that  he  learn  to  read  the 
music  correctly,  striking  the  tones  pre- 
cisely as  they  are  indicated  on  the  staff, 
it  is  undesirable  to  begin  either  too  fast  or 
too  slow,  since,  in  either  case,  he  will  lose 
the  sense  of  proper  proportion.  If  he  be- 
gin too  slow,  he  will  confirm  himself  in 
the  habit  known  as  "dragging"  or  "hanging 
back" :  if  he  begins  too  fast,  he  will  run  the 
risk  of  stumbling  and  slurring,  where  he 
should  give  distinct  and  studied  expres- 
sion. A  good  rule  given  by  music  teachers 
is  as  follows:  "Never  begin  a  piece  at  a 
rate  more  rapid  than  you  can  readily  con- 
tinue to  the  end." 

MUSICAL  ACCENT. — After  the  student  has 
thoroughly  mastered  the  measures  of  mu- 
sic, so  as  to  be  able  to  play  any  indicated 
time  correctly  and  evenly,  he  is  ready  to 
take  up  the  last  element  of  music — accent. 
This  matter  holds  -precisely  the  same  rela- 
tion to  properly  played  music  that  accent 
and  stress  hold  in  properly  spoken  lan- 


guage. Just  as  we  notice  that  a  person, 
speaking  with  a  certain  rapidity,  will  give 
approximately  the  same  time  value  to  the 
vowels  and  syllables  of  equal  length,  which, 
if  arranged  in  the  regular  order,  called 
"rhythm,"  would  give  true  poetry,  so,  in 
music,  the  division  into  bars  or  measures 
indicates  the  time-values,  while  the  proper 
accent  supplies  the  other  element  of  mu- 
sical rhythm.  Although  accent  is  not  regu- 
larly indicated  in  musical  compositions,  the 
proper  sign  is  an  arrowhead  pointing  to- 
ward the  right.  This  is  not  used  in  ordi- 
nary notation,  since  the  rules  of  accent  are 
definitely  established  for  the  various  kinds 
of  measure.  Thus,  the  rule  is  that,  for 
common  time  2-4,  6-8,  and  all  other  even 
numbers,  each  measure  is  accented  both  at 
the  beginning  and  at  the  middle.  A  3-4, 
3-8,  or  other  odd-numbered  measure,  is 

ACCENTS  OF  EVEN  MEASURES 


ACCENTS  OF  ODD  MEASURES 


accented  upon  the  first  note  only  of  the 
measure.  These  rules  are  indicated  in  the 
accompanying  figures.  In  order  to  facili- 
tate the  correct  phrasing  of  a  piece  in  a 
measure  indicated  by  odd  numbers,  such 
as  3-4,  3-8,  also  6-8,  the  notes  taking  bars 


280 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


across  the  stems  are  combined  in  groups 
of  three  each.  However,  in  time  indicated 
by  even  numbers,  notes  requiring  bars  are 
combined  in  groups  of  even  numbers. 

IRREGULAR  ACCENT. — While,  as  we  have 
already  learned,  accent  is  not  indicated 
when  it  follows  regular  rules,  it  is  neces- 
sary, for  the  proper  effect  of  the  piece,  to 
introduce  irregular  accents  at  points  in  the 
measure  other  than  those  on  which  the 
^tress  properly  falls.  The  most  important 
irregular  accents  in  common  use  are  those 

EMPHASIS 


ES^feE 


1 


fz 

SYNCOPATION 
—  ft 


Count. 


known  as  emphasis  and  syncopation.  These 
are  distinguished  principally  in  the  fact  that 
emphasis  indicates  merely  that  a  particular 
stress  is  to  be  thrown  upon  an  unaccented 
part  of  the  measure;  while,  syncopation  in- 
volves that  the  weaker  part  of  a  measure 
is  to  be  given  greater  importance  than  that 
regularly  taking  the  accent,  and,  hence, 
called  the  "stronger"  part  of  the  measure. 
Both  of  these  irregular  accents  may  be  in- 
dicated by  the  characters,  fs,  rf,  meaning 
respectively,  the  Italian  words,  forsando, 
"forcibly,"  and  rinforzando  "very  forcibly," 
or  "with  additional  force."  They  are  also 
indicated  by  arrowheads  and  carets. 

ON    SYNCOPATIONS. — The    syncopation    is 
an  accent  often  very  difficult  to  render  cor- 


easier  than  is  possible  in  very  many  pieces. 
In  order  to  learn  it  correctly,  the  student 
had  best  count  each  measure  thus,  "one 
and,  two  and,"  playing  the  second  note  on 
saying  "and";  holding  it  down  until  he  has 
said  "two,"  and  releasing  it  only  when  he 
emphasizes  the  second  "and,"  and  plays  the 
remaining  notes  of  the  measure. 

Another  variety  of  syncopation,  very 
commonly  met,  occurs  when,  in  one  clef  or 
part,  the  notes  are  regular  in  their  rhythmi- 
cal position,  and,  in  the  other  clef  or  part, 
commence  at  the  middle  of  each  note  in 
the  first  clef  or  part,  being  prolonged  to  the 
middle  of  the  next  This  variety  of  syn- 
copation' does  not  always  interfere  with  the 
regular  accent  belonging  to  the  measure. 
In  the  annexed  example,  taken  from  a  piano 
score,  we  will  see  that  the  eighth  note, 
which  begins  the  first  measure  in  the  bass 
clef,  is  simultaneous  through  one-half  its 
time  with  a  sixteenth  rest  in  the  treble. 
The  eighth  note  beginning  the  first  meas- 
ure of  the  treble,  therefore,  begins  1-16 
from  the  start,  involving  that  the  last  note 
of  the  bar  be  a  sixteenth  note,  in  order  to 
complete  the  time. 

THE  TIE. — This  example  shows  the  tie, 
which  often  occurs  in  simple  pieces,  and 
indicates  briefly  that  the  notes  joined  by 
it,  if  representing  the  same  tone,  are  to  be 
played,  not  separately  as  written,  but  by 
one  note  held  down  for  the  full  period  in- 
dicated. If,  for  example,  we  have  a  piece 
written  in  6-8  time,  in  which  three  six- 
teenth notes,  representing  the  same  tone, 
are  joined  in  a  series  of  four,  with  a  bar 
across  their  stems,  the  tie,  written  under- 
neath them,  means  simply  that  the  tone 
indicated  is  to  be  held  down,  while  three 
of  the  sixteenth  notes  are  counted.  The 
reason  for  writing  such  notes  in  this  man- 


SYNCOPATED   PASSAGE   AND   TIE 


• 

i,   -F      J 

1 

^3 

/I^P  2       " 

g 

9— 

—  1  — 

33 

*ch  >\      i 

—  « 

3 

0 

= 

3    *  *  . 

-f=^= 

9- 

f           x- 

\|w  ..^  —  i  —  ,  —  -H  — 

i              1 

1  

rectly,  as  it  is  extremely  probable  that  the 
wrong  time  will  be  given  to  the  measure  in 
which  it  occurs.  In  the  above  example  of 
2-4  time,  the  accented  note  in  the  three 
measures  is  a  crotchet.  This  makes  the 
proper  rendering  of  the  accent  somewhat 


nef,  different  from  that  in  which  they  are 
played,  is  to  maintain  the  unity  of  the  time 
indicated  in  the  signature.  With  the  piano 
or  organ,  such  a  tone  is  held  down  for  the 
required  period,  but  with  the  violin  or 
mandolin  it  must  be  constantly  sounded. 


281 


THE  SLUR,  GROUPS  OF  NOTES. — A  mark 
similar  to  the  tie,  thus  given,  is  used  to  in- 
dicate several  other  musical  variations.  As 
shown  in  the  accompanying  diagrams,  we 
have  the  arc-shaped  line,  known  as  a  slur, 
to  indicate  groups  of  notes.  In  indicating 
the  groups  known  as  triplets,  the  slur  is 
drawn  over  three  notes  with  a  figure  3  be- 
neath— occasionally,  also,  the  figure  3  alone 
is  used.  With  notes  written,  as  in  the  ex- 
ample, with  the  signature  giving  2-4  time, 


vided  as  if  they  were  in  9-8  time,  the  accent 
falling  on  the  rest,  G  and  A,  and  not  on  C. 
In  accenting  the  C  above  middle  C,  the 
groups  here  shown  would  become  simply 
double  triplets,  and  not  sextolets.  Such  a 
measure  as  this  must  always  be  accented  as 
evenly  as  possible,  without  violating  the 
given  time. 

Other  similar  combinations  of  slurred 
notes  are  indicated  in  the  accompanying 
diagram;  the  first  indicating  seven  to  be 


SEXTOLETS   AND    TRIPLETS 


t    ?    »- 


4       4 


fi: 


=^=^=--f^ E 

»        4        4 *- 


1/a.-^ 

p       p 

p 

KY\A       _/       J       J 

f 

Efa    m     m     m 

| 

1  

f&2—0  •  

1  

—  i  

^^"^  4 

9 

m 

we  would  count  "two"  for  the  measure, 
playing  the  triplets,  or  three  slurred  notes, 
in  even  time  with  the  three  quarter  notes 
in  the  bass.  A  precisely  similar  notation  is 
used  to  indicate  sextolets,  a  figure  6  inside 
the  slur,  indicating,  as  in  this  example,  that 
six  notes  are  to  be  played  in  the  time  of 
four.  In  both  cases  the  slurred  notes  are 
to  be  played  smoothly  and  in  unbroken  se- 
quence. 

If  these  sextolets  are  to  be  played  di- 
vided, as  in  the  next  figure,  we  must  always 
divide  them  two  and  two,  never  three  and 
three:  this  rule  is  invariable.  In  the  fol- 
lowing example  the  groups  should  be  di- 


played  in  the  time  of  four;  the  second,  ten 
to  be  played  in  the  time  of  eight,  etc. 

LEGATO  PASSAGES. — The  slur  placed  over, 
or  under,  any  combination  of  notes  on  dif- 
ferent lines  and  spaces  signifies  that  they 
must  be  performed  smoothly  and  connect- 
edly, as  in  the  groups  already  noticed. 
This  notation  is  known  as  legato,  signify- 
ing "bound  or  united." 

STACCATO  PASSAGES. — The  opposite  of 
legato  is  the  movement  known  as  stac- 
cato, signifying  "marked  and  distinct,"  and 
represented  by  a  dot  placed  immediately 
above  or  below  the  head  of  a  note.  The 
effect  is  that  each  tone  is  to  be  played, 


EXAMPLES   OF   SEXTOLETS 


Count.      1 


282 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


LIGATURED   GROUPS   OF   NOTES 


ILLUSTRATION    OF  LEGATO 


EXAMPLE    OF   WRITING   AND    PERFORMING    STACCATO 

Written  thus  :  Played  thus  : 


m 


DOUBLE    STACCATO,   AS    WRITTEN    AND    PLAYED 
Written  thus  :  Played  thus : 

•4 


F^S 

^^iE* 


FP^Ff 


as  if  entirely  detached  from  others,  so  that 
there  is  a  marked  interval  between  each 
sound,  which  amounts  virtually  to  a  rest. 
Thus,  if  three  crotchets  in  a  measure  are 
marked  staccato,  they  are  to  be  played  like 
three  quavers,  each  followed  by  a  quaver 
rest. 

When  the  note  is  marked  with  a  small 
point,  instead  of  a  dot,  it  indicates  that  the 
playing  is  to  be  particularly  short  and  dis- 
tinct. Thus,  a  measure  containing  three 
pointed  crotchets  is  to  be  played  as  three 
semiquavers  of  the  same  tones,  each  fol- 
lowed by  a  semiquaver  rest  and  a  quaver 
rest,  in  order  to  fill  out  the  time  of  the 
measure. 

The  signs  of  legato  and  staccato  are  fre- 
quently combined  in  music  written  for  the 
violin,  and  indicate  that  the  tones  are  to 

DEMI-LEGATO    NOTES 

-PS 


be  detached  by  so  many  distinct  movements 
of  the  bow  in  one  direction,  be  it  either  up 
or  down.  Since  these  dots  and  slurs  are  of 


almost  constant  occurrence,  they  rank 
among  the  most  important  things  that  the 
student  must  thoroughly  master  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  studies. 

ABBREVIATIONS  IN  WRITING  Music. — In 
order  to  simplify  the  writing  of  music,  a 
number  of  abbreviations  are  commonly 
used,  particularly  where  successions  of  sim- 
ilar notes  are  required.  These  occur  fre- 
quently in  scores  for  various  instruments, 
and  must  be  thoroughly  understood,  al- 
though not  more  than  a  passing  mention 

WHOLE    NOTE   IN    EIGHTHS 


is  necessary  to  describe  them.  For  ex- 
ample, when  a  whole  note  occurs  in  a 
measure,  with  a  single  diagonal  dash  above 
it,  the  meaning  is  that  it  is  to  be  played  as 
eight  eighth  notes,  as  in  the  example.  A 
double  dash  over  a  whole  note  indicates, 
similarly,  that  it  is  to  be  played  as  sixteen 
sixteenth  notes.  The  same  rules  apply  to 
all  other  notes,  as  shown  in  the  following 
examples. 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


283 


INDICATIONS   OF  REPEATED   NOTES 


When  a  series  of  similar  notes,  as  a  scale 
or  trill,  is  to  be  repeated  a  certain  number 
of  times  the  repetition  is  indicated  by  di- 
agonal dashes,  shown  in  the  accompanying 
figures.  This  sign  is  used  very  largely  in 
writing  music  for  the  violin  and  mandolin, 
and  is  repeated  as  many  times  as  the  writ- 


the  marked  tone,  very  quickly  and  in  rapid 
succession.  When  this  mark  is  on  one  of 
two  notes  with  their  stems  connected  with 
a  bar,  the  trill  is  to  be  played  by  sounding 
the  tone  marked,  the  tone  above  it,  the  tone 
marked  again;  then  the  second  of  the  two 
written  tones,  as  in  the  example.  The  first 


REPETITIONS    OF    DEFINITE    MOVEMENTS 


ten  scale  or  trill  is  to  be  repeated;  thus 
greatly  simplifying  the  notation.  In  every 
case,  however,  the  rule  requires  that  the 
tones,  repeated  by  this  sign,  should  always 
have  precisely  the  same  value  as  the  notes 
written  down. 

SHAKES    AND    TRILLS. — Another    familiar 
abbreviation  used  in  instrumental  music  is 


shake  is  known  as  the  plain  shake,  the  sec- 
ond  as   the   passing   shake. 

The  so-calied  turned  shake,  or  trill,  is  in- 
dicated and  played  as  in  the  following  ex- 
ample; always  beginning  as  the  plain  shake, 
with  the  tone  above  that  written  and  end- 
ing with  the  tone  written,  so  as  to  join  to 
the  other  notes  in  a  measure.  Shakes  and 


PLAIN  SHAKE 


Written. 


Played. 


-jr  —  —  «  — 

1  D  



§—  =F- 
^  r~ 

1  !  

,     1     r«^-T  r  r  i 

,  , 

9 

•     LL  i  '  i   i  " 

PASSING  SHAKE 


Written.  /  /£= 


Played, 


the  shake  or  trill,  which,  placed  over  a  note, 
indicates  that  it  is  to  be  played  as  a  suc- 
cession of  notes  to  its  full  time-value. 
When  the  sharp  waved  line  is  written  over 
a  note,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  fig- 
ure, it  is  played  as  a  trill  of  two  notes ;  the 
tone  above  being  sounded  first,  and  then 


trills  are  among  the  principal  embellish- 
ments used  in  the  music  for  stringed  in- 
struments. They  should  be  carefully  played 
in  time,  and  not  used  so  frequently  as  to 
involve  loss  of  their  effect 

THE    ARPEGGIO. — The    familiar    abbrevia- 
tion known  as  arpeggio  is  a  chord  preceded 


284 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


y 

EXAMPLES    OF   TRILL 
tr 

TtL^  

w<u*n 

Ml  _  2  1 

Preparative.                                                                                               Resolution. 

TT*-                                                      —  P*  —  !  1  — 

Played. 

_Lr               /^f 

Written. 

fnr  1  ^  

Preparative.                                                                                                            Resolution. 

Played 

**— 

THE   ARPEGGIO 
As  wntten.                                                      As  Played. 

^_g_        _z=i  4_                                ^_|  g_  i 

w— 

<-<5>  1  1  1  1  i  «  «  «.  

r              i  1  jxu 

1  1/iftV 

<^                   1                 _iij*fff           5^ 

IMCJ. 

f»  1  J—  i—  I—  i—  i—  1—  i—  *  —  r£  

Written. 


Played. 


THE    TREMANDO 


Tremando. 


i=^3  i  j  i-j-i^y 


Written. 


EXAMPLES   OF   THE   GRUPETTO   OR    TURN 

Plain  Turn.  Inverted  Turn.  Turn  after  a  Dot.  c\5 

2. 


RUDIMENT?   OF    MUSIC 


285 


by  a  waved  line,  as  in  the  accompanying 
example  from  the  piano  score.  As  indi- 
cated, it  is  to  be  played  by  striking  the  low- 
est tone  first;  then,  that  tone  with  the  one 
next  above;  then  three  tones  together,  etc., 
until  the  entire  chord  has  been  played  pro- 
gressively. Each  chord  thus  struck  must 
be  played  very  quickly,  and,  when  the  se- 
quence is  played,  the  full  chord  must  be 
held  down  until  the  value  of  a  whole  note 
has  been  counted.  Another  form  of  arpeg- 
gio is  shown  in  the  accompanying  example, 
in  which  the  repetition  of  a  trill  is  indi- 
cated by  the  tones  composing  it,  written 
as  a  chord ;  their  common  stem  being 
crossed  by  bars. 

THE  TURN. — The  last  form  of  abbrevia- 
tions that  requires  notice  is  that  known  as 
the  turn,  which  is  indicated  by  a  figure  re- 
sembling a  reversed  S;  either  laid  on  its 
side,  to  give  the  plain  turn,  or  standing 
upright,  to  give  the  inverted  turn.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  two  is  simple  and  read- 
ily explained,  since,  for  all  the  various  com- 
binations, as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
examples,  but  one  sequence  of  tones  is  rec- 
ognized for  each  variety.  When  the  note 
is  marked  with  a  plain  turn  the  sequence 
is  played  thus :  A  series  of  three  notes  of 
1-4  value  of  the  note  written,  formed  by 
the  tone  above  that  written,  the  tone  writ- 
ten, the  tone  below,  and,  second,  the  tone 
written  with  the  note  with  one-half  of  the 
value  given.  With  the  inverted  turn  the 
sequence  is  simply  reversed;  consisting  in 
playing  the  tone  below,  the  tone  written, 
the  tone  above,  and  ending  with  the  tone 
written  at  one-half  time.  When  a  turn  is 


turn  is  sometimes  written  with  grace  notes 
giving  proper  combinations  with  the  writ- 
ten tone  at  full  size,  but  the  sequence  is 
always  played  with  the  proportional  time 
indicated  in  the  accompanying  figures. 

The  final  forms  of  embellishments  used 
in  musical  notation  is  that  known  as  the 
grace  note  or  appoggiatura.  This  is  usu- 
ally a  small  note  reversed  and  added  to  the 
regular  notes  in  the  bar  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  expression  to  the  piece  or  relieving 
the  effect  of  too  great  uniformity.  Very 
frequently  the  grace  note  is  in  value  about 
one-half  of  the  note  it  precedes;  although 
this  matter  is  determined  largely  by  the 
use  it  is  intended  to  serve,  and  the  kind  of 
piece  in  which  it  is  written. 

In  general,  there  are  two  varieties  of 
grace  notes:  the  greater  and  the  lesser. 
The  effect  of  the  former  is  fo  reduce  the 
time  of  the  note  which  it  precedes.  The 
lesser  appoggiatura  is  written  as  a  small 
no^e  of  one-half  value,  before  any  of  regu- 
lar size.  Thus,  a  quaver  before  a  crotchet 
indicates  two  quavers. 

As  a  general  rule,  when  the  grace  note 
is  to  be  played  with  particular  rapidity — 
instead  of  varying  the  performance  from 
the  written  score — it  carries  a  small  cross 
on  its  stem. 

The  double  appoggiatura,  so  called,  con- 
sists of  two  notes  connected  by  bars  writ- 
ten before  the  regular  notes  of  a  measure, 
and  to  be  played  in  a  light  and  collected 
manner.  It  may  be  understood  that  the 
effect  produced  is  similar  to  that  given  by 
the  turn,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
diagram.  The  turn  is  frequently  indicated 


EXAMPLES    OF   APPOGGIATURA    OR    GRACE-NOTE 

JU. 


placed  over  a  note  joined  by  bars  to  the 
stem  with  other  notes,  the  succession  indi- 
cated is  to  be  played  by  four  notes  of  one- 
quarter  the  value  of  that  written.  A  turn 
written  with  a  sharp  sign  involves  that  the 
tone  below  that  written  shall  be  sharped, 
when  sounded.  A  turn  written  with  a  Hat 
sign  indicates  that  the  tone  above  that  writ- 
ten rhall  be  Hatted,  wher  sounded  The 


by  three  small  or  grace  notes,  placed  in 
regular  order  before  and  after  the  regular 
notes.  This  arrangement  is  occasionally 
known  as  choice  notes,  and  always  indi- 
cates that  the  combination  is  to  be  played 
as  indicated  in  the  diagram. 

THE  SIGNS  OF  TONE  MODIFICATION. — In 
beginning  the  study  of  the  musical  scale  it 
is  desirable  to  fully  understand  the  various 

19 


286 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


characters  used  in  writing  music.  These 
are  the  signs  for  the  sharp  ($),  the  flat  (b), 
the  double  sharp  (X),  the  double  flat  Cob), 
and  the  natural  (t|).  They  may  be  written 
in  the  signature  at  the  beginning  of  a  staff, 
or  before  any  single  note  at  any  place  on 
the  staff.  The  effect  of  placing  a  sharp 
sign  before  any  note  on  the  staff  indicates 
that  it  is  to  be  raised  a  semitone.  Thus, 
this  sign  before  C,  D,  F,  G,  or  A  indicates 
that  a  black  note  on  the  piano  or  organ  is 
to  be  sounded,  but,  if  written  before  E,  it 
indicates  that  F  is  to  be  sounded,  and,  if 
before  B,  that  C  is  to  be  sounded.  Sim- 
ilarly the  flat  sign  before  any  note  on  the 
staff  indicates  that  it  is  to  be  lowered  a 
semitone.  Thus,  before  D,  E,  G,  A,  and  B, 
it  indicates  a  black  note  on  the  piano  or 
organ ;  but  before  F  it  indicates  E,  and,  be- 
fore C,  it  indicates  B.  The  signs  for 
double  sharp  and  double  flat  are  less  often 
met.  The  first,  however,  raises  the  note 
a  whole  tone;  the  second  lowers  it  a  whole 
tone.  Thus,  a  double  sharp  sign  before  C, 
D,  F,  G,  A  indicates,  respectively,  D,  E, 
G,  A,  B;  before  B  it  indicates  C8,  and  be- 
fore D  it  indicates  F*.  The  double  flat 
sign  similarly  lowers  the  note  a  whole  tone. 


Placed  before  C,  it  gives  Bb ;  before  F,  it 
gives  Eb.  The  natural  sign  contradicts  a 
flat  or  sharp  indicated  in  the  signature,  call- 
ing for  the  natural  tone.  It  also  restores 
the  single  flat  or  sharp  after  the  double 
sign  in  either  case.  Whenever  a  sharp  is 
placed  before  the  last  note  of  a  space  or 
measure,  the  same  note  is  to  be  played 
sharped  in  the  following  measure,  unless 
on  its  next  occurrence  it  is  preceded  by  the 
natural  sign. 

THE  MAJOR  SCALE. — The  major  scale  is 
composed  of  five  whole  tones  and  two  semi- 
tones; every  major  scale  being  constructed 
on  precisely  this  principle.  The  two  semi- 
tones occur  between  the  third  and  fourth, 
and  between  the  seventh  and  eighth  de- 
grees of  the  scale,  either  in  ascending  or 
descending;  the  degrees  being  counted  from 
the  lowest  tone  upward.  The  scale  of  C 
is  called  the  model  or  natural  scale,  be- 
cause all  of  its  tones  are  whole  tones  and 
naturals;  being  produced  entirely  by  the 
white  keys  on  the  piano  or  organ.  As 
shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  the 
semitones  occur  between  E  and  F,  and  be- 
tween B  and  C,  o«-  between  three  and  four, 


and  seven  and  eight,  as  already  indicated. 
The  different  tones,  or  degrees,  of  the  scale 
are  regularly  named,  as  follows:  the  first 
is  called  one,  or  the  tonic ;  the  second,  two, 
or  supcrtonic;  the  third,  three,  or  mediant; 
the  fourth,  four,  or  subdominant;  the  fifth, 
five,  or  dominant;  the  sixth,  six,  or  sub- 
mediant;  the  seventh,  seven,  or  leading 
note;  the  eighth,  eight,  or  octave.  As  may 
be  seen,  there  are  but  seven  tones  in  the 


•       '  ' 

1    Z?    ' 

t?d 

_*/ 

—&- 

-^- 

*?         2          3  —    45878. 

CD         EFGABC. 

major  scale,  the  eighth  being  the  same  as 
the  first,  except  that  it  is  an  octave  higher 
in  ascending,  or  an  octave  lower  in  de- 
scending. 

The  major  scale  may  be  formed  with  any 
other  tone,  natural  or  accidental,  as  its  first 
and  eighth,  but  it  must  invariably  have  the 
semitones  between  the  third  and  fourth  and 
the  seventh  and  eighth  degrees,  which  in- 
volves that  certain  notes  must  be  sharped, 
in  order  to  produce  the  correct  effect  of  the 
regular  sequence  of  sound.  Thus,  the  scale 
of  G,  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram, 
has  the  second  semitone  between  six  and 
seven,  or  between  E  and  F,  when  composed 
only  of  natural  tones.  Therefore,  in  order 
to  make  the  sequence  of  tones  correct,  the 
seventh  degree,  or  F,  must  be  sharped. 
This  simple  principle  enables  the  transpo- 
sition of  the  scale  without  trouble  to  the 
trained  musician,  when  transposition  be- 
comes necessary,  as,  for  example,  when  ac- 
companying the  piano  on  the  cornet.  Re- 
membering that  all  ascending  intervals  must 
be  between  whole  tones,  except  those  be- 
tween the  third  and  fourth,  and  the  seventh 


^ 

** 

\ 

r(£B—  &— 

a> 

1 

rap  zi  .  .  .  .  .  . 

12           34567 
G         A          B         C        D        E         Ff 

8 
G. 

and  eighth  degrees,  enables  the  ready  con- 
struction of  a  major  scale  in   any  key. 

THE  SEQUENCE  OF  MAJOR  SCALES. — The 
easiest  clew  to  the  formation  of  the  various 
major  scales,  beginning  with  C,  is  to  form 
each  succeeding  scale  a  fifth  higher  or  a 
fourth  lower;  or,  more  correctly  speaking, 
on  the  seventh  semitone  after  the  tonic  of 
the  previous  scale,  counting  upward,  or,  on 
the  fifth  semitone  after  that  same  tone, 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


287 


THE    MAJOR    SCALES    AND    SIGNATURES 


Key  of  C. 


-&- 


Key  of  G.  g 
Key  of  D. 


(52- 


-&; 


txo d- 


1 


Key  of  A.   gg 
Key  of  E. 
Key  of  B. 

Key  of  F$. 


KeyofCtf. 


Key  of  F. 


Key  of  Eft. 
Key  of  Aft. 


ia: 


Key  of  Cfe. 


288 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


counting  downward.  Thus,  we  have  the 
regular  succession  of  major  scales  from  C 
as  follows:  G,  D,  A,  E,  B,  Fit,  Cl  The 
scale  of  G  has  one  sharp,  F;  D  has  two, 
F  and  C;  A,  three,  F,  C,  G;  E,  four,  F,  C, 
G,  D;  B,  five,  F,  C,  G,  D,  A.  Similarly 
the  scale  of  F  flat  has  six  sharps,  F,  C,  G, 
D,  A,  E;  and  the  scale  of  C  flat  seven,  F, 
C,  G,  D,  A,  E,  B.  In  each  successive  key 
the  last  sharp  sign  at  the  signature  always 
corresponds  to  the  seventh  degree  of  the 
scale  in  that  key,  as  may  be  readily  under- 
stood on  examining  the  annexed  scales. 
These  scales  are  shown  as  played  and  with 
their  proper  signatures  in  the  accompany- 
ing diagrams. 

FORMATION  OF  SIGNATURES. — The  matter 
of  scales  is  exceedingly  important  to  the 
correct  writing  and  playing  of  music,  since 
any  composition  written  in  a  given  key,  like 
a  scale  beginning  with  any  one  tone  in  this 
list,  is  invariably  played  with  the  notes 
belonging  to  that  scale  only,  and  introduces 
variations  from  these,  as  embellishments, 
for  the  sake  of  harmony  and  other  effects. 
Thus,  a  piece  with  a  clean  signature  is 
said  to  be  written  in  the  key  of  C ;  one  with 
F  sharped,  in  the  key  of  G ;  one  with  F  and 
C  sharped,  in  the  key  of  D ;  one  with  F,  C, 
and  G  sharped,  in  the  key  of  A,  etc.,  ac- 
cording to  the  scheme  of  the  major  scales 
and  their  proper  signatures  given  in  the 
accompanying  diagrams. 

In  view  of  what  has  just  been  said,  the 
student  must  carefully  notice  that  the  first 
sharp  at  the  signature  is  placed  on  F,  the 
second  on  C,  the  third  on  G,  the  fourth 
on  D,  the  fifth  on  A,  the  sixth  on  E,  the 
seventh  on  B.  Furthermore,  CJf  never  oc- 
curs at  the  signature  without  the  F#;  Gtf 
never  occurs  without  F#  and  C$  preceding 
it;  DJ  never  occurs  without  the  F$,  Of,  and 
GJf  preceding  it,  etc.,  throughout  the  entire 
list. 

MAJOR  SCALES  WITH  FLATS.— The  major 
scales  may  be  written  with  Hats,  as  well  as 
with  sharps,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
diagrams.  The  rule,  in  forming  the  proper 
sequence  from  C,  is  to  make  each  succes- 
sive scale  on  the  tone,  either  three  and  a 
half  tones  above  or  four  and  one-half  tones 
below ;  which  is  to  say,  on  the  fifth  semi- 
tone after  the  previous  tonic,  counting  up- 
ward, or,  on  the  seventh  semitone  after  it, 
counting  downward.  This  rule  gives  the 
following:  C,  F,  Bb,  Eb,  Ab,  Db,  Gb,  Cb 
(or  B).  The  signatures  of  the  other  keys 
and  scales  show  the  first  "flat  on  B,  the  sec- 
ond on  E,  the  third  on  A,  the  fourth  on  D, 
the  fifth  on  G,  the  sixth  on  C,  the  seventh 


on  F.  As  with  the  sharps,  this  sequence 
of  flats  at  the  signatures  is  always  invari- 
able; no  one  fiat  occurring  without  those 
regularly  preceding  it  in  the  above-named 
sequence.  Furthermore,  the  last  fiat  sign 
at  the  signature  of  any  given  key  always 
corresponds  to  the  fourth  degree  of  its 
scale.  The  sharps  are  added  by  ascending 
fifths,  the  fiats,  by  ascending  fourths. 

THE  MINOR  SCALE. — The  major  scale  on 
every  key  has  a  relative  minor  scale  having 
the  same  signature.  The  minor  scale  is 
constructed  like  the  major  scale,  except 
that,  in  ascending,  the  semitones  always  oc- 
cur between  the  second  and  third,  and  be- 
tween the  seventh  and  eighth  degrees;  while, 
in  descending,  they  are  always  found  be- 
tween the  fifth  and  sixth,  and  second  and 
third  degrees,  counting  from  the  lowest 
note.  The  relative  major  and  minor  scales 
have  the  same  signatures.  The  character- 
istic difference  between  the  two  is  in  the 
nature  of  the  interval  from  the  first  to  the 
third  note  of  the  scale.  When  that  interval 
forms  two  whole  tones — which  is  to  say, 
a  "major  third" — the  scale,  or  mode,  is 
major.  Thus,  the  scale  of  C  major  has  the 
first  three  degrees,  C,  D,  E,  constituting  an 
interval  of  two  whole  tones  after  the  tonic. 
If,  however,  the  interval  consists  only  of 
a  tone  and  a  semitone — which  is  to  say,  a 
"minor-third" — the  scale  or  mode  is  minor. 
Thus,  the  minor  scale  beginning  with  C — 
it  is  the  relative  minor  of  Eb  major, 
signature  three  flats — has  the  first  three 
notes,  C  D,  Eb,  constituting  an  inter- 
val of  one  tone  and  a  semitone  after  the 
first.  The  difference  between  the  major 
and  minor  modes  on  any  tonic  is  well  il- 
lustrated by  the  respective  major  and  minor 
chords.  Thus,  CEG  is  major,  while  CEbG 
is  minor. 

DERIVING  RELATIVE  MINOR  KEYS. — In  or- 
der to  find  the  relative  minor  of  any  given 
major  key  or  tonic — which  is  to  say,  the 
scale  having  the  same  signature,  save  for 
the  accidental  semitones  between  the  seventh 
and  eighth  degrees,  in  ascending — the  rule 
is  to  take  the  note  three  semitones  below 
the  tonic  of  the  major  scale,  as  the  first 
degree  of  the  minor  scale.  The  ascending 
scales  may  then  be  formed  by"  observing 
the  rules  regarding  the  positions  of  the  semi- 
tones, as  already  given. 

VARIETIES  OF  MINOR  SCALE. — On  the  basis 
of  several  variations,  in  both  ascending  and 
descending,  three  varieties  of  minor  scale 
are  recognized  by  musicians:  the  harmonic, 
the  melodic,  and  the  combined. 

The     harmonic    minor    scale    raises    its 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


289 


DIATONIC   MAJOR   SCALE   OF    C. 

ASCENDING.  DESCENDING. 

CDEFGABC.  CBAGFEDC. 


••-tone,     tone,  semitone,  tone,  tone,  tone,  semitone.  semitone,  tone,    tone,    tone,  semitone,  tone,     tone.^- 

one,      two,    three,     four,    five,      six,    seven,  eight.      eight,  seven,     six,     five,    four,    three,      two,       one. 


MELODIC    MINOR    SCALE   OF   A. 


HARMONIC    MINOR    SCALE   OF    A. 


p — ffg; 


, — &«$: — «- 


COMBINED    MINOR    SCALE   OF   A. 


J±= 


seventh  degree  one  semitone,-  in  both  as- 
cending and  descending. 

The  melodic  minor  scale  raises  its  sixth 
and  seventh  degrees  each  one  semitone  in 
ascending,  and  restores  them  both  in  de- 
scending. Thus,  the  melodic  minor  scale 
of  A,  which  is  the  relative  of  C  major,  and 
is  written  with  the  same  signature,  has  the 
sixth  (F)  and  seventh  (G)  degrees  sharped 
in  ascending,  but  has  both  natural  in  de- 
scending. In  this  manner,  although  there 
is  a  whole  tone  between  the  seventh  and 
eighth  in  descending,  the  semitone  is  pre- 
served between  the  sixth  and  seventh,  ac- 
cording to  the  rule  already  given. 

The  combined  minor  scale  is  like  the 
melodic  form  in  ascending — having  both  its 
sixth  and  seventh  degrees  raised  one  semi- 
tone. It  is,  however,  like  the  harmonic 
form  in  descending — having  the  sixth  de- 
gree one  semitone  above  the  fifth,  or  re- 
storing it,  as  in  the  melodic  scale.  The 
seventh  degree,  however,  is  always  one 
semitone  lower  than  the  eighth.  *It  thus 
preserves  the  semitone  between  the  fifth 
and  sixth. 

These  rules  are  applicable  in  all  minor 
scales.  Therefore,  in  writing  a  musical 


composition  in  the  key  of  D,  with  two 
sharps,  the  relative  minor  B  may  be  intro- 
duced, as  desired,  by  using  the  minor  semi- 
tones, as  in  the  following  examples. 

By  using  the  sharp  signs  before  the  notes 
in  the  last  measure,  the  key  of  D  is  still 
maintained.  This  key,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  involves  that  the  scale  should  be  D, 
E,  Fft,  G,  A,  B,  Ctf ;  with  the  relative  minor 
as  B,  Of,  D,  E,  F$,  G*,  AS,  B;  which,  in 
descending,  again  gives  B,  Aft,  G,  Ftf,  E,  D, 
Ctf,  B.  These  rules  apply  in  all  minor 
scales. 

THE  CHROMATIC  SCALE. — The  so-called 
chromatic  scale  is  formed  by  twelve  con- 
secutive semitones  upon  any  degree  of  the 
major  or  minor.  In  other  words,  it  is 
formed  by  adding  to  the  seven  principal 
tones  of  the  major  or  minor  scales  the  re- 
maining five  semitones.  The  construction 
of  the  chromatic  scale  of  C  is  indicated  in 
the  accompanying  diagrams;  the  notes  hav- 
ing the  sharps,  or  signs  of  elevation  in  as- 
cending, and  the  flats,  or  signs  of  depres- 
sion, in  descending. 

CHORDS. — In  closing  this  brief  review  of 
the  rudiments  of  music,  it  seems  desirable 
to  add  a  few  words  regarding  the  forma- 


KEY   OF   D,  WITH    RELATIVE    B   MINOR 


m 


290 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


tion  of  chords;  since  this  will  be  a  matter 
of  considerable  importance  in  later  stages 
of  study.  The  formation  of  chords  de- 
pends immediately  upon  the  construction  of 
the  scale.  Thus,  in  any  given  key  or  scale, 
it  is  found  that  certain  combinations  of 
notes  form  a  pleasing  and  harmonious  ef- 
fect, fitting  into  the  melody  of  the  piece, 
without  introducing  any  suggestions  of  an- 


val  correspond  to  the  descriptions  already 
given,  the  major  being  a  semitone  larger 
than  the  minor,  and  the  minor  being  a  semi- 
tone smaller  than  the  major.  In  order  to 
avoid  confusion  in  terminology,  the  term 
perfect  is  substituted  for  major  on  three 
intervals  or  degrees  of  the  scale,  the  fourth, 
fifth,  and  eighth.  These  perfect  intervals 
correspond  to  the  major  scale,  in  which 


CHROMATIC   SCALE. 

j lii. 


w 


^ 


AAJB     C     B     BbAAbGGbF     E    Eb    D     Bfr  C 


other  key.  Certain  other  chords,  while  not 
actually  displeasing,  are  less  suitable  for 
musical  purposes,  and  are  seldom,  if  ever, 
used. 

The  construction  of  chords  proceeds  on 
intervals  of  the  scale;  each  chord  being 
named  according  to  the  degree  of  the  scale, 
upon  which  it  is  constructed.  An  interval 
has  already  been  defined  as  the  distance  be- 
tween two  natural  tones,  or  between  two 
whole  tones,  on  all  but  two  degrees  of  the 
scale.  Thus,  the  distance  from  one  white 
key  to  another  on  the  piano  keyboard  is  an 
interval. 

INTERVALS. — In  discussing  the  subject  at 
the  present  time,  we  may  define  an  interval 
as  the  "distance  between  two  degrees  of 
a  scale,"  reckoning  from  the  lower  or 
higher  of  the  two  notes,  containing  it  and 
counting  the  first  as  one.  Thus,  the  inter- 


there  is  always  a  perfect  fourth,  fifth,  and 
eighth,  and  a  major  second,  third,  sixth, 
seventh,  and  ninth.  An  augmented  interval 
is  one  that  is  raised  a  semitone  above  the 
major  interval  and  a  diminished  interval  is 
one  that  is  lowered  a  semitone  below  the 
minor  interval.  All  intervals,  except  the 
second,  sixth,  and  ninth,  may  be  dimin- 
ished; and  ail,  except  the  third,  seventh, 
and  ninth,  may  be  augmented.  There  may 
also  be  a  major  or  a  minor  second,  third, 
sixth,  seventh;  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  eighth 
intervals  never  being  distinguished  by  these 
terms.  To  be  brief,  the  second  may  be 
major,  minor,  augmented;  the  third,  major, 
minor,  diminished;  the  fourth  and  fifth, 
perfect,  augmented,  diminished;  the  sixth, 
major,  minor,  diminished;  the  seventh, 
minor,  diminished,  augmented;  the  eighth, 
perfect,  augmented,  diminished;  the  ninth, 


EXAMPLES    OF    VARIOUS   INTERVALS 


i 


flfcj 


t?  -<; 


i>r^ 


++2          ++4          ++5 


+  4  «          4+8 


--»  --4 


i-  -«S»-  -<£?- 

-  -  5  -  -  7  -  -  • 


val  from  C  to  E  is  a  third,  and  that  from 
C  to  G  is  a  fifth.  In  the  construction  of 
scales,  intervals  may  be  divided  into  five 
classes:  perfect  (O),  major  (  +  ),  minor 
( — ),  augmented  (+  +),  and  diminished 

( ).     These  are  used  in  the  formation 

of  chords,  according  as  the  mode  is  major 
or  minor,  and  may  be  briefly  defined  as  fol- 
lows: a  major  interval  and  a  minor  inter- 


major  or  minor.  By  understanding  the  re- 
lation of  these  terms  to  the  major  scale,  all 
intervals  may  be  readily  formed. 

In  the  formation  of  chords  of  any  number 
of  notes,  the  component  tones,  being  prop- 
erly in  one  scale  or  key,  are  designated  as 
degrees.  The  intervals  of  a  chord  may  be 
consecutive  or  inverted.  An  interval  is 
said  to  be  "inverted"  when  its  lower  degree 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC 


291 


is  transferred  an  octave  higher,  or  its  higher 
degree  is  transferred  an  octave  lower.  By 
inversion,  perfect  intervals  remain  perfect. 
This  is  evident,  since,  as  may  be  readily 
discovered,  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  eighth, 
either  above  or  below,  are  always  exactly 
the  same  number  of  semitones  from  the 
fundamental.  This  is  true  of  no  other  in- 
tervals. By  inversion,  however,  major 
intervals  become  minor;  the  minor  be- 
come major;  the  diminished  become  aug- 
mented, and  the  augmented  become  dimin- 
ished. 

The  simplest  kind  of  a  musical  chord  is 
the  triad,  which  is  a  combination  of  three 
different  tones;  the  lowest  being  called  the 
fundamental,  and  the  other  two  being  its 
third  and  fifth.  The  most  common  chords 
in  the  major  mode  are  formed  on  the  first, 
fourth,  and  fifth  degrees.  To  form  satisfac- 
tory chords  on  the  other  degrees,  the  notes 
must  be  modified,  according  to  the  posi- 
tion. 

There  are,  thus,  four  kinds  of  triads: 
major,  minor,  diminished,  and  augmented. 
The  major  triad  consists  of  a  major  third 
above  the  fundamental,  with  a  minor  third 


tively,  as  the  fourth  and  sixth  of  the  rela- 
tive minor;  thus  leaving  only  twelve  pos- 
sible triads  in  each  key 

• 

ON  PRACTICING 

The  following  extract  contains  much  use- 
ful information  to  guide  the  student  in  the 
necessary  work  of  practicing,  which  is  so 
great  a  part  of  musical  education  that  too 
much  space  can  not  be  given  to  it  in  any 
treatise  on  the  rudiments  of  music : 

"The  common  saying  that  'practice  makes 
perfect,'  can  not  be  definitely  applied,  from 
the  fact  that  to  merely  devote  a  certain 
amount  of  time  every  day  to  the  practice  of 
the  violin,  piano,  or  any  other  instrument 
will  not  result  in  ability  to  correctly  render 
the  simplest  form  of  music,  should  a  lack 
of  the  right  condition  of  the  mind  cause,  as 
it  always  does,  a  failure  of  correct  physical 
control ;  consequently,  such  a  statement  can 
only  be  made  in  a  conditional  point  of  view. 
If  the  pupil  can  not  devote  any  more  than 
an  hour  a  day  to  practice,  then  it  is  better 
to  divide  the  time,  if  possible,  into  two 
courses,  as  this  brings  the  effect  of  each 


CHORDS  IN  C  MAJOR. 
-         -         -f         +        - 


CHORDS  IN  A  MINOR. 


6       06        05 
+  3       -  8        -  8 


above  it,  or,  of  a  major  third  and  a  perfect 
fifth.  A  minor  triad  consists  of  a  minor 
third  and  a  major  third  above  it,  or  of  a 
minor  third  and  a  perfect  fifth  above  the 
fundamental.  A  diminished  triad  is  made 
of  two  minor  thirds,  or  a  minor  third  and 
a  diminished  fifth.  A  diminished  triad  con- 
sists of  two  major  thirds,  or  a  major  third 
and  an  augmented  fifth.  Thus,  as  may  be 
understood  by  what  has  already  been  said, 
the  first,  fourth,  and  fifth  triads  in  every 
major  scale  are  major  triads ;  the  second, 
third,  sixth  are  minor;  and  the  seventh  is 
diminished.  Also,  in  every  minor  scale,  the 
first  and  fourth  are  minor;  the  fifth  and 
sixth  are  major;  the  second  and  seventh 
are  diminished,  and  the  third  is  augmented. 
Triads  may  be  formed  upon  either  major 
or  harmonic  minor  scales;  the  latter  being 
almost  the  typical  practice,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  example.  In  this  example 
we  see  also  that  the  second  and  fourth  triad 
of  the  major  scale  are  the  same,  respec- 


course  of  practice  closer  together,  which  has 
a  good  result.  The  scholar  should  be  deter- 
mined to  observe  every  feature  pertaining  to 
the  art,  which  will  be  complying  with  the 
necessary  obligations  indispensable  to  its 
acquirement. 

"Trying  to  play  tunes  by  ear  is  a  great 
drawback  to  progress,  and  a  waste  of  time, 
as  these  easy  melodies  can  be  quickly  learned 
after  sufficient  practical  ability  shall  have 
been  acquired. 

"One  of  the  greatest  faults,  and  conse- 
quently an  obstruction  to  effective  progress, 
is  failing  to  practice  exercises  and  lessons 
in  the  early  period  of  the  study  in  a  slow 
degree  of  time,  which  gives  the  opportunity 
of  detecting  all  apparent  mistakes. 

"The  student  must  bear  in  mind  that 
while  he  continues  to  be  incapable  of  cor- 
rectly performing  the  simplest  grade  of  mu- 
sic, he  will  also  continue  to  be  incapable  of 
correctly  rendering  music  of  a  higher 
grade." 


DICTIONARY    OF 
MUSICAL  TERMS 


A.    By,  for. 

ACCELLERANDO.    Accelerating  the  movement. 

ACCENT.  Stress  or  force  upon  a  tone.  It 
is  sometimes  indicated  by  a  sign,  thus  A- 

ACCOMPANIMENT.  The  part  added  to  the 
principal  one  by  way  of  enhancing  the 
effect  of  the  composition. 

ADAGIO.     Very   slow   degree  of  movement. 

ADAGISSIMO.     Extremely  slow. 

AD  LIBITUM.  At  will  or  discretion.  It 
implies  that  the  time  of  some  particular 
passage  is  left  to  the  pleasure  of  the  per- 
former, or  that  he  is  at  liberty  to  intro- 
duce whatever  embellishments  his  fancy 
may  suggest 

AFFETTUOSO.     Tender,  affectionate. 

AGITATO,  or  CON  AGITAZIONE.  With  agita- 
tion, anxiously. 

AL,  or  ALL,  ALLA.    To  the;  in  the  style  of. 

ALLEGREMENTE.     With  quickness. 

ALLEGRETTO.  Somewhat  cheerful,  but  not 
so  quick  as  Allegro. 

ALLEGRETTO  SCHERZANDO.  Moderately  play- 
ful and  vivacious. 

ALLEGREZZA.  Joy;  as,  Con  Allegresza,  joy- 
fully, animatedly. 

ALLEGRISSIMO.     Extremely  quick  and  lively. 

ALLEGRO.  Quick,  lively.  This  term,  imply- 
ing a  rapid  and  vivacious  movement,  is 
frequently  modified  by  the  addition  of 
other  words ;  as,  Allegro  Agitato,  quick, 
with  anxiety  and  agitation. 

AL  SEGNO,  AL  SEG,  or  the  character  J//»  sig- 
nifies that  the  performer  must  return  to 
a  similar  character  in  the  course  of  the 
movement,  and  play  from  that  place  to 
the  word  fine,  or  to  the  mark  o  over  a 
double  bar. 

ANDANTE.      A    movement    somewhat    slow 
and   sedate.     This   term   is   often   modi- 
fied,  both   as  to  time  and   style,  by  the 
addition  of  other  words. 
(292) 


ANDANTINO.  Somewhat  slower  than  An- 
dante. 

ANIMATO,  or  CON  ANIMA,  or  ANIMOSO.  With 
animation,  in  a  spirited  manner. 

ANNULAIRE.  Third  finger,  or  next  to  the 
little  finger. 

A  QUARTRE  MAINS.  For  four  hands.  For 
two  performers  on  one  pianoforte. 

A  PIACERE,  or  A  PIACIMENTO.  At  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  performer. 

APPOGGIATURA.  A  note  of  embellishment 
usually  written  in  a  small  character. 

APPOGGIATO.     Dwelt,  leaned  upon. 

ARIA.     Song  or  air. 

ARIOSO.     In  the  style  of  an  air. 

ARPEGGIO,  or  ARPEGGIANDO,  or  ARPEGGIATO. 
Passages  formed  of  the  notes  of  chords 
taken  in  rapid  succession,  in  imitation  of 
the  harp,  are  said  to  be  in  arpeggio. 

ASSAI.  Very,  extremely.  This  adverb  is 
always  joined  to  some  other  word,  of 
which  it  extends  the  signification;  as, 
Adagio  Assai,  very  slow;  Allegro  Assai, 
very  quick. 

A  TEMPO,  or  A  TEM.    In  a  regular  time. 

A  TEMPO  GIUSTO.    In  strict  and  equal  time. 

ATTACA,  or  ATTACA  SUBITO,  implies  that  the 
performer  must  directly  commence  the 
following  movement. 

BALLAD.     A  short  and  familiar  song. 

BARCAROLLE.  Songs  of  the  Venetian  gon- 
doliers or  boatmen. 

BEN.  Well;  as,  Ben  Marcato,  well  marked. 
This  expression  indicates  that  the  passage 
must  be  executed  in  a  clear,  distinct,  and 
strongly  accented  manner. 

BEN  TENUTO.    Held  on,  fully  sustained. 

Bis.  Twice.  This  term  indicates  that  a 
certain  passage,  distinguished  by  a  curve 
drawn  over  or  under  it,  nvst  be  per- 
formed twice. 


293 


BRILLANTE.  Showy  and  sparkling  style  of 
performance. 

BRIO,  or  BRIOSO,  or  CON  BRIO.  With  bril- 
liancy and  spirit. 

BRISK.     Sprinkled,  broken  into  arpeggios. 

CADENCE.  A  close  in  melody  or  harmony; 
an  ornamental  and  extemporaneous  pas- 
sage introduced  at  the  close  of  a  regular 
composition. 

CALANDO.  Gradually  diminishing  in  tone 
and  quickness. 

GALORE.  With  much  warmth  and  anima- 
tion. 

CANONE.  Canon  or  catch  for  several  voices 
or  instruments. 

CANON.     Interrupted   imitation. 

CANTABILE.  In  a  graceful  and  singing 
style. 

CANTANTE.  The  part  to  be  executed  by 
the  voice. 

CAPELLA,  ALLA.     In  the  church  style. 

CAPO.     The  head,  or  beginning. 

CAPRICCIO.  Fanciful  and  irreg*lar  species 
of  composition. 

CAVATINA.  An  air  of  one  movement  or 
part  only,  occasionally  preceded  by  a 
recitative. 

CHANT.  A  song  or  melody;  the  vocal 
part. 

CHE.  Than;  as,  Poco  piu  che  andante, 
rather  slower  than  andante. 

CHROMATIC.  Proceeding  by  semitones,  or 
formed  by  means  of  semitones. 

CODA.  A  few  bars  added  at  the  close  of 
a  composition,  beyond  its  natural  ter- 
mination. 

CON.  With ;  as,  Con  espressione,  with  ex- 
pression; Con  *»n>,  with  brilliancy  and 
spirit. 

CON"EI<TO.  Concord,  agreement:  a  selec- 
tion of  pieces  is  sometimes  so  called. 

CONCERTO.  A  composition  intended  to 
display  the  powers  of  some  particular 
instrument,  with  orchestral  accompani- 
ments. 

CON  DOLCEZZA.     With  sweetness. 

CON  DOLORE.     Mournfully,  with  pathos. 

CON   GRAVITA.     With  gravity. 

CON  GRAZIA.     With  grace. 

CON  GUSTO,  GUSTOSO.    With  taste. 

CON    IMPETO.     With   impetuosity. 

CON  Mom  In  an  agitated  style;  with 
spirit. 

CON  SPIRITO.     With  quickness  and  spirit. 

COUNTERPOINT.  The  art  of  composing  music 
in  harmonious  parts  which  have  individu- 
ality. 

CRESCENDO,  or  CRES.  With  a  gradually 
increasing  quantity  of  tone. 


DA.     By. 

DA  CAPO,  or  D.  c.  From  the  beginning; 
an  expression  which  is  often  written  at 
the  end  of  a  movement,  to  indicate  that 
the  performer  must  return  to  and  finish 
with  the  first  strain. 

DAL.  By;  as,  Dal  Segno,  from  the  sign;  a 
mark  of  repetition. 

DECRESCENDO.  Gradually  decreasing  in  quan- 
tity of  tone. 

DELICATEZZA.  Delicacy;  as,  Con  Delica- 
tezza,  with  delicacy  of  expression. 

DELICATO.     Delicately. 

DIATONIC.  Naturally ;  that  is,  according 
to  the  degrees  of  the  major  or  minor 
scale,  or  by  tones  and  semitones  only. 

DILUENDO.  The  gradual  dying  away  of  the 
tone  until  it  arrives  at  extinction. 

DIMINUENDO,  or  DIM.  Implies  that  the 
quantity  of  tone  must  be  gradually  di- 
minished. 

Di  MOLTO.  This  expression  serves  to  aug- 
ment the  signification  of  the  word  to 
which  it  is  added;  as  Allegro  di  molto, 
very  quick. 

DIVERTIMENTO.  A  short,  light  composition, 
vocal  or  instrumental,  written  in  a  famil- 
iar and  pleasing  style. 

DOLCE,  or  DOL.     A  soft  and  sweet  style. 

DOLCEZZA,  or  CON  DOLCEZZA.  With  soft- 
ness and  sweetness. 

DOLCEMENTE.  Played  in  a  sweet  and  grace- 
ful style. 

DOLOROSO.     A  soft  and  pathetic  style. 

DOMINANT.     The  fifth  note  of  any  scale. 

DOPPIO.     Double. 

DOUCE.     Sweet,   soft,  harmonious. 

Doux.     Sweet,   soft. 

DROITE.     Right. 

DUR.    Major,  in  relation  to  modes  and  keys. 

DYNAMICS.  That  department  of  music 
wich  treats  of  the  power  or  force  of 
tones. 

E,  or  ED.  The  Italian  conjunction  and;  as, 
Flauto  e  Violino,  flute  and  violin ;  No- 
bilimente  ed  Animato,  with  grandeur  and 
spirit. 

ELEGAMENTE  or  ELEGANTE.  Written  or 
played  with  elegance. 

ELEGANZA.     With  elegance,  gracefully. 

ENERGICO,  or  CON  ENERGIA,  or  ENERGI- 
CAMENTE.  With  energy. 

ESPRESSIVO,  or  CON  ESPRESSIONE.  With  ex- 
pression. 

ESTRAVAGANZA.  Extravagant  and  wild  as 
to  composition  and  performance. 

ETUDE.     A  study. 

EXTEMPORE.  Without  previous  composing, 
unpremeditated. 


294 


DICTIONARY    OF    MUSICAL   TERMS 


FACILITA.  A  facilitation,  an  easier  adap- 
tation. 

FANTAIS6IE,     Or     FANTASIA.        A     Species     of 

composition  in  which  the  author  gives 
free  scope  to  his  ideas,  without  regard 
to  those  systematic  forms  which  regulate 
other  compositions. 

FINALE.  The  last  piece  of  any  act  of  an 
opera,  or  of  a  concert;  also  the  last 
movement  of  a  symphony  or  sonata,  in 
the  German  style. 

FINE.     The  end. 

FORTE,  or  FOR.,  or  f.     Loud. 

FORTISSIMO,  or  ff.    Very  loud. 

FORZANDO,  or  FORZ.,  or  fz.  Mark  the  note 
with  peculiar  emphasis  or  force. 

FUGUE.  A  contrapuntal  composition  in  which 
a  subject  proposed  by  one  part  is  imi- 
tated by  the  others  in  accordance  with 
certain  laws. 

Fuoco,  CON.     With  intense  animation. 

FURIOSO,  or  CON  FURIA.     With  fire. 

GAIEMENT.     In  a  cheerful  and  lively  style.  ' 

GALLOPADE.  A  galop;  a  quick  German 
dance  tune. 

GALOP,  or  GALOPPE.  A  quick  species  of 
dance,  generally  in  2-4  time. 

GAUCHE.     Left. 

GIUSTO.     In  just  and  exact  time. 

GLISSANDO.  A  rapid  sliding  over  the  white 
keys  with  the  nail ;  a  movement  of  the 

-  hand  up  the  string  of  a  violin  or  other 
stringed  instrument,  producing  all  the 
tones  in  succession. 

GRACES.  Occasional  embellishments  fre- 
quently indicated  by  the  composer,  some- 
times spontaneously  introduced  by  the 
performer.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  the  Appoggiatura,  the  Turn,  and  the 
Shake. 

GRANDIOSO.  Written  or  played  in  a  grand 
and  elevated  style. 

GRAN  GUSTO.  In  an  elevated  and  grand 
style. 

GRAVAMENTE.     Dignified  and  solemn. 

GRAVE.  The  slowest  degree  of  movement; 
also,  a  deep,  low  pitch  in  the  scale  of 
sounds. 

GRAVITA,  Gravity;  as  Con  Gravita,  with 
gravity. 

GRUPPETTO.    A  group  of  notes;  a  turn. 

GRUPPO.     A  turn,  or  grace. 

GUSTO,  GUSTOSO,  or  CON  GUSTO.  With 
taste,  elegantly. 

HARMONY.     The  science  of  chorus. 

HOLD.  A  character  (thus,  T  )  indicating 
that  the  tone  or  silence  may  be  pro- 
longed. 


IL.    The. 

IMITAZIONE.     An  imitation. 

IMPETUOSO.     With  impetuosity,  impetuously. 

IMPROMPTU.  An  extemporaneous  produc- 
tion. 

IMPROVISAIRE.  To  compose  or  sing  extem- 
poraneously. 

IN.    In;  as,  In  tempo,  in  time. 

INNOCENTE,  or  INNOCENTEMENTE.  In  an 
artless  and  simple  style. 

INTERLUDE.  An  intermediate  strain  or 
movement. 

INTERVAL.  The  difference  of  pitch  between 
two  tones;  the  distance  between  two 
degrees  of  the  natural  scale. 

INTRADA,  or  INTRODUZIONE.  A  short  intro- 
ductory movement. 

ISTESSO.  The  same ;  as,  Istesso  tempo,  the 
same  time. 

LARGHETTO.  A  time  slow  and  measured  in 
its  movement,  but  less  so  than  Largo. 

LARGHISSIMO.     Extremely  slow. 

LARGO.  A  very  slow  and  solemn  degree  of 
movement. 

LEGATO.   In  a  smooth  and  connected  manner. 

LEGATISSIMO.  Exceedingly  smooth  and  con- 
nected. 

LEGEREMENT.     With   lightness   and   gayety. 

LEGGIARDO.     Light,  gentle. 

LEGGIERAMENTE.     Lightly,   gently. 

LEGGIERO,  or  CON  LEGGIEREZZA.  With  light- 
ness and  facility  of  execution. 

LEGGIERISSIMO.  With  utmost  lightness  and 
facility. 

LENTANDO.     With  increasing  slowness. 

LENTEMENTE,  or  LENTO.     In  slow  time. 

LIAISON.  Smoothness  of  connection;  also 
a  bind  or  tie. 

Loco.  This  word  implies  that  a  passage  is 
to  be  played  just  as  it  is  written  in  re- 
gard to  pitch :  it  generally  occurs  after 
8va  alt  a,  or  8va  bassa. 

MA.  But;  as,  Allegro  ma  non  troppo, 
quick,  but  not  too  much  so. 

MAESTOSO.  With  majestic  and  dignified  ex- 
pression. 

MAIN.  The  hand ;  as,  Main  Droite,  Main 
Gauche,  or  M.  D.,  M.  G.,  the  right  or 
left  hand  in  piano  music. 

MARCATO.     In  marked  and   emphatic  style. 

MARCIA.     A  march. 

MARZIALE.     In  a  martial  style. 

MELANGE.  A  composition  founded  on  sev- 
eral favorite  airs ;  a  medley. 

MEME.  The  same;  as,  Meme  movement, 
in  the  same  tune. 

MESTO.     Mournfully,  sadly,  pathetically. 

MESTOSO.     Sadly,  pensively. 


DICTIONARY    OF    MUSICAL   TERMS 


295 


METRONOME.  An  ingenious  instrument  for 
indicating  the  exact  time  of  a  musical 
piece  by  means  of  a  pendulum,  which 
may  be  shortened  or  lengthened  at  will. 

MEZZO.     In  a  middling  degree  or  manner; 
as,  Mezzo  forte,  rather  loud;  Mezzo  piano, 
rather  soft. 

MEZZO  CARATTERE.  A  moderate  degree  of 
expression  and  execution. 

MINUETO.  A  slow,  graceful  dance;  an  air 
or  tune  in  $4  time;  a  movement  of 
quicker  time  used  as  the  conclusion  of 
sonatas,  etc. 

MODERATO.  With  a  moderate  degree  of 
quickness. 

MODULATION.  A  transition  from  one  key 
to  another,  brought  about  by  the  aid  of 
one  or  more  notes  or  harmonies  which 
are  common  to  the  key  left  and  that 
which  follows. 

MOLL.  Minor,  in  relation  to  modes  and 
keys. 

MOLTO.  Very,  extremely;  as,  Molto  alle- 
gro, very  quick;  Molto  adagio,  extremely 
slow. 

MORCEAU.  A  short  musical  composition  of 
any  kind. 

MORDENTE.     A  beat  or  transient  shake. 

MORENDO.  Gradually  subsiding  in  tone  and 
time :  dying  away. 

Mosso.  Movement;  as,  Piu  mosso,  with* 
more  movement,  quicker. 

MOTO,  or  CON  MOTO.     With  agitation. 

MOVIMENTO.     Time,  movement. 

NOBILE,  or  NOBILEMENTE.  With  nobleness, 
grandeur. 

NOTTURNO.  A  composition,  vocal  or  in- 
strumental, suitable  for  evening  recrea- 
tion, from  its  elegance  and  lightness  of 
character. 

O.  Or;  as,  Flauto  o  Violino,  flute  or 
violin. 

OBLIGATO,  or  OBLIGATE.  Parts  of  a  com- 
position indispensable  to  its  just  perform- 
ance, and  which,  therefore,  can  not  prop- 
erly be  omitted. 

OTTAVA,  or  SVA.  An  octave.  This  word 
is  generally  joined  with  ALTA  or  BASSA: 
the  first  signifies  that  the  passage  to  which 
it  is  applied  must  be  played  an  octave 
higher  than  it  is  written;  the  second, 
that  it  must  be  played  an  octave  lower. 

OVERTURE.  An  introductory  symphony  to 
an  oratorio  or  opera,  consisting  of  sev- 
eral different  movements. 

PASSIONATE.     In   an   impassioned  manner. 
PATETICO.     Pathetically. 
PATHETIQUE.    Pathetic. 


PASTORALE.     A  soft  and  rural  movement. 

PEDALE.  A  pedal  or  stationary  bass.  In 
piano  music  this  term  implies  that  the 
performer  must  press  down  the  pedal 
which  takes  off  the  dampers. 

PERDENDO,  or  PERDENDOSE,  or  PERDEN.  A 
gradual  diminution,  both  in  the  quantity 
of  tone  and  speed  of  movement. 

PEU.    A  little. 

PHRASE.  A  short  musical  sentence  con- 
taining an  incomplete  idea. 

PIACERE.  Will,  pleasure;  as,  A  piacere,  that 
is,  at  the  performer's  pleasure  in  regard 
to  time. 

PIANISSIMO,  or  pp.     Extremely  soft. 

PIANO,  or  p.     Soft. 

Piu.  An  adverb  of  augmentation;  as,  Piu 
presto,  quicker;  Piu  piano,  softer. 

PLAINTTVO.     Expressively,  plaintively. 

PLUS.  More;  as,  Plus  anime,  with  greater 
animation. 

Poco.  A  little,  rather,  somewhat;  as, 
Poco  presto,  rather  quick;  Poco  piano, 
somewhat  soft. 

Poco  A  Poco.  By  degrees,  gradually;  as, 
Poco  a  poco  crescendo,  louder  and 
louder  by  degrees ;  Poco  a  poco  diminu- 
endo, softer  and  softer  by  degrees. 

Poi.  Then;  as,  Piano  poi  forte,  soft,  then 
loud. 

POLACCA,  or  POLONAISE,  or  POLONOISE.  A 
slow,  Polish  dance,  in  $£  time,  of  a 
peculiar  rhythmical  construction,  as  the 
melodical  members  usually  terminate  on 
the  third  crotchet  of  the  bar. 

POMPOSO.    In  a  grand  and  pompous  manner. 

PORTAMENTO.  The  manner  of  sustaining 
and  conducting  the  voice;  a  gliding  from 
one  note  to  another. 

POSSIBILE.  Possible;  as,  Piu  forte  possi- 
bile,  as  loud  as  possible. 

POTPOURRI.     A  fantasia  upon  favorite  airs. 

PRECIPITATO.     In  a  hurried  manner. 

PRECISIONS.    With  precision,  with  exactness. 

PRELUDIO.     A  prelude  or  introduction. 

PREMIERE.  First;  as,  Premiere  fois,  first 
time. 

PRESTISSIMO.  The  most  rapid  degree  of 
movement. 

PRESTO.     Very  quick. 

PRIMO.  First;  as,  Violino  primo,  first  vio- 
lin; Tempo  primo,  in  the  first  or  original 
time. 

QUADRILLE.     A  French  dance. 

QUARTET.     A   composition   for  four  voices 

or  instruments. 
QUASI.     In   the   manner  or   style  of;   as, 

Quasi  allegretto,  like  an  allegretto. 
QUIETO.   With  calmness,  with  repose,  quietly. 


296 


DICTIONARY   OF    MUSICAL   TERMS 


RADDOLCENDO,  or  RADDOLCENTE.  With  aug- 
mented softness. 

RALLENTANDO.  A  gradual  diminution  in 
the  speed  of  the  movement,  and  a  cor- 
responding decrease  in  the  quantity  of 
tone. 

RAPIDO.     Rapidly. 

RETARDANDO.     Moving  slower  and  slower. 

RlNFORZANDO,    RINFORZATO,    Or    RINF,    Or    RF. 

With  additional  tone  and  emphasis. 

RITENENTE,  or  RiTENUTO.  A  keeping-back ; 
a  decrease  in  the  speed  of  movement. 

ROMANCE.  A  short,  lyric  tale;  a  musical 
composition  suggesting  a  romantic  nar- 
ration. 

ROMANZA.  Set  to  music;  or  a  simple  and 
elegant  melody  suitable  to  such  words. 

RONDEAU,  or  RONDO.  A  composition  of  sev- 
eral strains  or  members,  at  the  end  of 
each  of  which  the  first  part  or  subject 
is  repeated. 

SCHERZANDO,      SCHERZANTE,      SCHERZOSO,      Or 

SCHERZ.  In  a  light,  playful,  and  sportive 
manner. 

SCHERZO.  A  composition  in  a  playful  or 
sportive  style. 

SEGO.  A  sign;  as,  Al  segno,  return  to 
the  sign;  Dal  segno,  repeat  from  the 
sign. 

SEGUE,  or  SEGUITO.  Now  follows,  or,  as 
follows;  as  Segue  il  coro,  the  chorus 
follows;  Segue  la  finale,  the  finale  now 
follows.  It  is  also  used  to  indicate  in 
similar  or  in  like  manner,  to  show  that  a 
subsequent  passage  is  to  be  played  like 
that  which  precedes  it. 

SEMPLICE,  or  SEMPLICEMENTE.  With  sim- 
plicity, artlessly. 

SEMPRE.  Always;  as,  Sempre  staccato,  al- 
ways staccato  or  detached;  Sempre  forte, 
always  loud;  Sempre  pin  forte,  continu- 
ally increasing  in  force. 

SERIOSO.     In  a  serious  style. 

SERPEGGIANDO.  Gently  and  silently  creep- 
ing onward,  quietly  advancing. 

SFORZATO,  or  SFORZANDO,  or  SF.  Implies 
that  a  particular  note  is  to  be  played 
with  emphasis. 

SICILIANA.  A  movement  of  a  slow,  sooth- 
ing, pastoral  character,  in  6-8  time,  re- 
sembling a  dance,  peculiar  to  the  peas- 
antry of  Sicily. 

SINFONIA.  A  symphony  or  orchestral  com- 
position in  many  parts. 

SLENTANDO.  A  gradual  diminution  in  the 
time  or  speed  of  the  movement. 

SMORZANDO.  A  gradual  diminution  as  to 
tone. 

SOAVE.    In  a  soft,  sweet,  and  delicate  style. 


SOGGETTO.    The  subject  or  theme. 

SOLI  (plural  of  SOLO).  Implies  that  two  or 
more  principal  parts  play  or  sing  to- 
gether. Such  parts  are  never  doubled. 

SOLO,  or  SOLA.    Alone. 

SOLO.  A  composition,  or  even  a  passage, 
for  a  single  voice  or  instrument. 

SONATA,  or  SONATE.  A  composition  con- 
sisting of  several  movements,  generally 
for.  a  single  principal  instrument,  with 
or  without  accompaniments. 

SOSTENUTO,  or  SOST.  Sustained,  continuous 
in  regard  to  tone. 

SPIRITO,  or  CON  SPIRITO.    With  spirit 

SPIRITOSO.    With  great  spirit. 

STACCATO.  Implies  that  the  notes  are  to 
be  played  distinct,  and  detached  from 
one  another. 

STESSO.     Means  the  same. 

SUBITO.  Quickly;  as,  Volti  subito,  turn 
quickly. 

SUITE.  A  series,  a  collection;  as,  Une 
suite  de  pieces,  a  series  of  lessons. 

SYNCOPATE.  In  a  constrained  and  synco- 
pated style. 

SYNCOPATION.  The  connecting  the  last  note 
of  one  bar  to  the  first  note  of  the  next, 
so  as  to  form  but  one  note  of  a  duration 
equal  to  both:  this  displaces  the  accent 
and  produces  a  peculiar  effect. 

TACET.  Implies  that  during  a  movement, 
or  part  of  a  movement,  some  particular 
instrument  is  to  be  silent;  as,  Flaute 
facet,  the  flute  is  not  to  play. 

TANTO,  or  TON.  Not  so  much;  not  too 
much. 

TARDO.     Slowly,  in  a  dragging  manner. 

TEMA.     A  subject  or  theme. 

TEMPESTOSO.     In  a   tempestuous  manner. 

TEMPO  COMODO.  In  a  convenient  degree  of 
movement. 

TENDREMENT.    Affectionately,   tenderly. 

TENERAMENTE,  TENERO,  or  CON  TENEREZZA. 
Tenderly. 

TENUTO,  or  TEN.  Implies  that  a  note,  or 
notes,  must  be  sustained  or  kept  down 
the  full  time. 

THEME.    A  subject. 

TIMOROSO.    With  timidity  and  awe. 

TRANQUILLO,  TRANQUILLAMENTE,  or  CON 
TRANQUILLEZA.  Tranquilly,  composedly. 

TREMENDO.  With  a  tremendous  expression, 
horribly. 

TREMANDO,  TREMOLATE,  or  TREMOLO.  The 
reiteration  of  a  note  or  chord  with  great 
rapidity,  so  as  to  produce  a  tremulous 
kind  of  motion. 

TRILLANDO.  A  succession  of  shakes  on  dif- 
ferent notes. 


DICTIONARY    OF    MUSICAL   TERMS 


297 


TRILLE,  or  TRILLO.    A  shake. 

TRIO.  A  piece  for  three  voices  6r  instru- 
ments. This  term  also  denotes  a  second 
movement  to  a  waltz,  march,  minuet,  etc., 
which  always  leads  back  to  a  repetition 
of  the  first  or  principal  movement 

TRIPLET.  A  group  of  three  notes,  arising 
from  the  division  of  a  note  into  three 
equal  parts  of  the  next  inferior  duration. 

TUTTA  FORZA.  With  the  utmost  vehe- 
mence, as  loud  as  possible. 

TUTTI  (PLURAL,  all).  A  term  used  to  point 
out  those  passages  where  all  the  voices 
or  instruments,  or  both,  are  to  be  in- 
troduced. 

UN.     A;  as,  Un  poco,  a  little. 

VALCE,  or  VALSE.    A  waltz. 

VELOCE,  or  CON  VELOCITA.    In  rapid  time. 


VELOCISSIMO.     With    extreme    rapidity. 

VIBRANTE.  A  peculiar  manner  of  touching 
the  keys  of  the  piano. 

VIGOROSO,  or  VIGOROSAMENTE.  Boldly,  vigor- 
ously. 

VISTAMENTE,  or  viTE.     With  quickness. 

VlWCE,    VIVAMENTE,    Or   CON   VIVATICA.     With 

briskness  and  animation. 
VIVACISSIMO.     With  extreme  vivacity. 
VIVATICA.     Vivacity. 

Vivo,  or  CON  VIVEZZA.     Animated,  lively. 
VOCE.     The  voice. 
VOLTA.    Time  of  playing  a  movement;  as, 

Prim,    volta,    the    first    time    of    playing, 

etc. 

VOLTI  SUBITO,  or  v.  s.     Turn  over  quickly. 
VOLVANTE.     In    a    light    and    rapid    man- 


WALZER.     A  waltz. 


THE  PIANO  SELF-TAUGHT 


IN  beginning  the  study  of  the  piano,  the  student  has  the  advantage  of 
an  instrument  in  which  every  tone  is  to  be  produced  by  a  distinct 
and  separate  key,  and  is  not  obliged,  therefore,  to  master  the  difficult 
science  of  producing  different  tones  by  shortening  or  lengthening  a  string. 
The  keys  are  arranged  on  a  board  convenient  to  the  player  sitting  in  front 
of  the  instrument,  and  any  desired  tone  within  the  usual  compass  of  seven 
octaves,  or  about  fifty  natural  tones,  may  be  produced  at  will  by  simply 
pressing  the  proper  key. 


PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE    PIANO  STUDENT 


THE  KEYBOARD.— As  is  familiar  to 
every  one,  the  keyboard  of  the  piano 
or  organ  is  composed  of  a  row,  or  series, 
of  white  and  black  keys.  The  white  keys 
sound  the  natural  notes  in  every  case,  and 
the  black  keys,  the  sharps  and  fiats.  While 
the  white  keys  follow  one  another  in  un- 
broken succession,  the  black  keys  are  ar- 
ranged in  alternative  groups  of  two  and 
three,  each  such  group  being  separated  from 
that  next  following  by  two  white  keys  hav- 
ing no  black  one  between. 

TONE- VALUES  OF  THE  KEYS. — The  names 
of  the  keys  and  tones  to  which  they  corre- 
spond may  be  readily  understood  by  the  ac- 
companying table  of  the  piano  keyboard. 
In  this,  diagram,  as  will  be  seen,  the  treble 
clef  begins  at  middle  C,  which  is  the  fourth 
C  counting  from  bass  end  of  the  keyboard. 
It  corresponds  to  a  tone  in  the  octave  rep- 
resented by  the  conversational  pitch  of  the 
usual  male  voice ;  the  C  next  below  being 
the  low  tone  for  the  male  voice,  and  the  C 
next  above  being  about  the  correct  pitch  for 
the  average  female  singer. 

ON  THE  INTERVALS. — The  distance  between 
each  key  and  the  one  next  to  it  is  one  semi- 
tone. Thus,  the  distance  between  two  white 
keys  having  a  black  one  between  is  one 
whole  tone,  while  the  distance  between  two 
white  keys  without  a  black  key  is  only  a 
semitone.  Therefore,  since  each  black  note 
represents  the  sharp  of  the  key  below  or 
the  Hat  of  the  key  above,  it  follows  that 
when  two  white  keys  come  together,  with- 
out a  black  one  between  them,  the  one  above 
is  the  sharp  of  the  one  below,  and  that,  in 
turn,  is  the  Hat  of  the  former.  Thus,  BS  is 


Ol ;  ES  is  Ft| ;  Fb  is  Ell.  Each  octave,  there- 
fore, contains  seven  keys  representing  nat- 
urals ;  five  whole  tones  and  two  semitones, 
in  addition  to  the  five  accidentals  repre- 
sented by  the  black  keys. 

POSITION  IN  PLAYING. — In  playing  the 
piano,  the  performer  sits  directly  before  the 
centre  of  the  keyboard,  in  order  to  be  able 
to  reach  all  the  keys  easily;  the  piano  stool 
being  raised  to  a  height  sufficient  to  enable 
the  arms  to  hang  from  the  shoulders  in  a 
light  and  easy  manner  without  straining 
or  cramping  its  movements,  while  bring- 
ing the  joint  of  the  elbow  to  the  level  of 
the  keyboard.  The  object  of  having  the 
arm  at  this  particular  level  is  to  secure, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  the  best  effect  and  the 
most  artistic  touch,  which  can  result  only 
when  the  muscles  of  the  wrist  and  fingers 
work  easily  and  without  constraint. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  TOUCH. — In  beginning  the 
study  of  the  piano,  the  first  difficulty  en- 
countered in  developing  a  really  finished 
touch  will  be  found  to  lie  in  the  fact  that 
the  fingers,  each  of  which  should  properly 
press  its  key  with  perfectly  even  force  and 
effect,  so  differ  in  strength  among  them- 
selves that  this  result  is  by  no  means  easy 
to  attain.  The  thumb  is  usually  the  strong- 
est, after  which  come  the  first  and  second 
fingers,  then  the  little  finger,  leaving  the 
third  the  weakest  of  all.  Added  to  this  fact, 
we  find  that  the  third  finger  does  not  move 
so  readily  as  the  first,  second,  and  fourth, 
nor  as  the  thumb.  It  will  move  very  read- 
ily when  the  second  finger  is  moved  at  the 
same  time,  but  by  itself  its  efforts  are  weak 
and  ineffective  On  account  of  this,  very 

(299) 


300 


THE    PIANO    SELF-TAUGHT 


many  beginners  on  the  piano  develop  the 
bad  habit  of  using  the  first,  second,  and 
fourth  fingers  and  the  thumb,  in  most  of 
their  playing,  and  of  giving  the  third  finger 
as  little  to  do  as  possible.  If  this  habit 
is  persisted  in,  the  performance  will  always 
be  indifferent,  since,  with  that  finger  imper- 
fectly developed,  the  artistic  production  of 
difficult  compositions  will  be  largely  impos- 
sible. From  another  point  of  view  also 
it  is  essential  that  all  the  fingers  of  each 
hand  be  developed  as  evenly  as  possible, 
since  in  properly  shading  and  accenting 
music  the  pianist  must  know  exactly  what 
degree  of  force  is  required  in  every  case. 

EXERCISES    FOR   THE   FINGERS. — The   best 
possible  exercise  for  strengthening  the  fin- 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  PERFORMANCE. — To 
sum  up  the  essentials  of  a  correct  touch  on 
the  piano,  we  may  specify  the  following 
three  heads: 

(i.)  EQUALITY  OF  STRENGTH. — Every  note 
should  be  precisely  like  every  other  in  point 
of*  the  strength  with  which  it  is  struck,  and 
the  loudness  of  the  tone  produced. 

(2.)  EQUALITY  IN  TIME. — Each  note  must 
follow  that  preceding  it  in  precisely  the 
same  degree  of  movement;  every  note  of 
equal  value  being  held  down  for  precisely 
the  same  period,  as  indicated  by  the  met- 
ronome or  timed  counting;  every  note  of 
larger  or  smaller  value  being  given  propor- 
tionately. In  practicing  the  scales,  all  notes 
are  equal  in  time,  whether  the  movement 


POSITION    OF    HAND    AND    ARM    AT    THE   KEYBOARD 


gers,  and  later  developing  a  good  touch,  is 
playing  the  scales  constantly  and  persist- 
ently. Such  a  practice  not  only  strengthens 
the  fingers  by  compelling  each  one  to  act 
with  equal  strength,  giving  forth  even  tones, 
but  also  increases  their  individual  activity, 
so  that  the  tones  may  follow  one  another 
readily.  For  the  attainment  of  the  latter 
end,  it  is  particularly  desirable  that  the 
easiest  exercises  be  practiced,  carefully 
observing  the  correct  fingering,  as  indi- 
cated in  the  printed  notes.  The  fingering 
indicated  in  piano  instruction  books  is  cal- 
culated with  great  care,  to  the  end  of  en- 
abling the  student  to  develop  readiness  and 
rapidity  of  touch.  It  is,  therefore,  in  every 
sense,  desirable  that  directions  should  be 
implicitly  followed  at  the  start,  leaving  all 
exercise  of  judgment  in  these  matters  for 
a  period  when  practice  has  made  expert. 
The  same  observations  apply  equally  to  the 
study  of  any  other  musical  instrument:  per- 
fect tone  production  in  playing  the  scales 
ensures  the  exercise  and  experience  neces- 
sary for  performing  any  kind  of  composi- 
tion. 


be  fast  or  slow,  and  it  should  be  the  con- 
stant aim  of  the  student  to  make  their  dura- 
tion exactly  even  in  every  case. 

(3.)  EQUALITY  IN  HOLDING  DOWN  NOTES. 
— Every  key  should  be  held  down  exactly 
the  same  period  in  playing  the  scales,  and 
for  this  reason  the  student  should  carefully 
cultivate  the  habit  of  counting  correctly 
the  value  of  every  note.  Each  finger  should 
keep  its  key  pressed  down  until  the  follow- 
ing key  is  struck,  raising  it  at  precisely  the 
moment  that  the  next  finger  touches  its 
key.  This  rule  must  also  be  observed  in 
passing  the  thumb  under  the  fingers,  or  in 
passing  the  fingers  over  the  thumb,  in  mov- 
ing the  hand  up  or  down,  into  a  new  posi- 
tion. 

It  is  positively  essential  that  these  rules 
be  carefully  observed,  in  order  to  develop 
the  ability  to  play  evenly  and  with  good 
effect.  All  scales  and  finger  exercises  are, 
therefore,  to  be  practiced  very  slowly  at  the 
start,  and  with  most  precise  attention  to  the 
smallest  details  of  time  and  touch. 

ON  CORRECT  TONE-PRODUCTION. — In  order 


THE    PIANO    SELF-TAUGHT 


301 


to  secure  facility  in  producing  good  tones 
on  the  piano,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind 
that  the  interior  mechanism  is  such  that 
musical  sounds  result  only  when  the  fol- 
lowing conditions  are  complied  with: 
(i.)  Each  key  must  be  struck  straight 


left  hand,  of  course,  in  the  reverse  order. 

(2.)  In  all  major  keys  with  flats,  the 
thumb  of  the  right  hand  is  used  only  on 
the  first  (do)  and  the  fourth  (fa).  This 
rule  has  very  few  exceptions. 

(3.)   The  thumb  and  little  finger  should 


EXERCISE    IN    NOTES    AND   RESTS 


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downward  and  exactly  in  the  middle ;  never 
sidewise. 

(2.)  After  striking,  the  key  must  be  so 
firmly  pressed  down  as  to  render  the  full 
tone  of  the  instrument  audible. 

(3.)  Although  the  finger  must  be  raised 
before  striking  the  key,  in  any  case,  it  is 
desirable  to  avoid  raising  it  so  high  that 
the  blow  on  the  key  will  be  heard,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  tone  produced  by  the  string. 

(4.)  The  arm  and  hand  should  never 
make  a  jumping  movement,  even  when  strik- 
ing a  key  with  considerable  force  since  the 
fingers  can  not  produce  pleasant  and  tran- 
quil tones  with  an  unsteady  hand  and  arm. 

All  these  rules  should  be  observed  as 
strictly  in  runs,  skips,  extensions,  etc.,  as  in 
slow  and  quiet  passages. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  FINGERING. — In  the  matter 
of  developing  correct  fingering  on  the  piano 
the  following  rules  must  be  carefully  ob- 
served : 

(i.)  The  fingering  must  always  be  cal- 
culated so  as  to  preserve  the  natural  posi- 
tion of  both  hands  on  the  keyboard.  The 


be  used  on  the  black  keys  only  when  there 
are  so  many  of  them  indicated  in  the 
printed  music  that  correct  execution  re- 
quires it.  Even  in  this  case  it  should  be 
avoided  as  often  as  possible. 

(4.)  Repeated  notes  should  always  be 
played  with  different  fingers. 

(5.)  The  fingering  of  arpeggios  must  al- 
ways be  the  same  as  would  give  the  chord 
indicated,  when  all  the  notes  are  to  be 
struck  simultaneously. 

(6.)  A  finger  may  be  slipped  from  a 
black  key  to  the  following  white  one  in 
quick  and  legato  passages;  but,  when  the 
movement  is  slow,  another  finger  should 
play  the  following  note. 

(7.)  In  playing  octaves  the  little  fingers 
should  not  be  placed  upon  the  black  keys, 
except  where  necessary. 

(8.)  In  playing  chords  of  three  notes  the 
fingering  should  be  so  calculated  as  to 
leave  the  unemployed  fingers  over  the  long- 
est interval. 

(9.)  In  chords  of  four  notes  the  unem- 
ployed finger  should  be  over  the  interval  of 


WHOLE    NOTES    AND    RESTS,    COMMON    TIME 
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natural  position  of  the  hand  is  found  when 
the  thumb  and  four  fingers  rest  evenly  and 
lightly  on  five  consecutive  keys ;  the  right 
hand  having  the  thumb  on  the  lowest  note 
and  the  little  finger  on  fhe  highest,  and  the 


the  fourth,  unless  that  interval  be  made 
with  the  thumb,  in  which  case  the  unem- 
ployed finger  should  be  over  the  shortest 
interval. 

(10.)  Doubts  as  to  the  proper  method  of 

20 


302 


THE    PIANO   SELF-TAUGHT 


fingering  a  given  piece  correctly  may  always 
be  settled  by  referring  to  the  indicated  fin- 
gering of  the  diatonic  scale  of  the  key  in 
which  the  piece  is  written. 

(n.)  The  diatonic  scales  are  all  fingered 
upon  the  same  principles.  Since  the  thumb 
and  the  first  and  second  fingers  are  used 
twice  on  the  treble  scale,  this  is  fingered, 
so  that  the  third  finger  is  used  only  once  in 
every  octave.  This  fingering  is  based  upon 
the  scientific  fact  that  if  the  third  finger 
is  placed  upon  its  proper  key,  the  others  will 
take  their  correct  places.  For  this  reason, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  notes,  the 
third  finger  is  used  only  in  the  second  posi- 
tion in  each  octave.  In  the  scales  for  the 
bass  clef  the  fingering  is  generally  marked, 
so  as  to  give  the  first  note  with  the  thumb 
or  third  finger;  the  second  with  the  second 
finger;  the  third  with  the  first,  and  the 
fourth  with  the  thumb;  making  the  second 
position  of  the  octave  with  the  third,  sec- 
ond, first,  and  thumb.  According  to  this 
scheme,  the  third  finger  may  be  used  in 
both  positions,  although  many  instructors 
recommend  that  the  student  begin  the  scale 
with  the  thumb. 
FINGERING  THE  SCALES. — The  following 


excellent  rules  for  fingering  the  scales  are 
given  in  a  well-known  book  of  instruction, 
for  piano  students : 

"THE  DIATONIC  SCALES  are  all  fingered 
upon  the  same  principles.  As  the  thumb, 
first  and  second,  or  second,  first  and  thumb, 
are  always  used  twice,  and  the  third  finger 
once,  in  each  octave,  it  follows  that  if  the 
third  finger  is  placed  upon  its  proper  key, 
the  other  fingers  will  readily  take  their 
proper  place. 

"!N  THE  MAJOR  SCALES,  place  the  third 
finger  of  the  right  hand,  in  Scale  of  C,  on 
B;  G  on  FS;  D  on  CS;  A  on  GS;  E  on 
D$;  B  on  AS;  F$  on  AS;  C*  on  A*;  Ab  on 
Bb;  Eb  on  Bb;  Bb  on  Bb;  F  on  Bb. 

"Left  hand. — Third  finger  in  Scale  of  C 
on  D ;  G  on  A ;  D  on  E ;  A  on  B ;  E  on  FS ; 
B  on  FS;  F*  on  FS;  Of  on  FS;  Ab  on  Db ; 
Eb  on  Ab;  Bb  on  Eb;  F  on  G. 

"The  Scales  of  C,  G,  D,  A,  and  E  are 
fingered  with  the  third  finger  of  the  right 
hand  on  VII;  and  the  third  finger  of  the 
left  upon  II  of  the  scale. 

"The  Scales  of  B,  FS,  and  CS  employ  only 
two  white  keys  in  each  octave — which  are 
played  with  the  thumb.  The  black  keys  are 
played  with  i — 2:  2 — i:  or,  i — 2 — 3:  3 — 2 — I. 


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THE    PIANO    SELF-TAUGHT 


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Most  of  the  Flat  keys  have  a  similar 
fingering,  viz. —  the  THIRD  finger  of  the 
right  hand  always  falls  on  Bb  in  the  keys 
of  F,  Bb,  Eb,  Ab,  Db,  and  Gb.  In  the  left 
hand,  the  THIRD  finger  will  fall  on  IV  of  the 
scale  in  the  keys  of  Bb,  Eb,  Ab,  and  Db. 

"!N  THE  MINOR  SCALES  place  the  third 
finger  of  the  right  hand  in  Scale  of  C  on 
B;  G  on  F*;  D  on  Ctf;  A  on  Gtf;  E  on 
Djt;  B  on  AS;  Fff  on  D;  Of  on  A;  F  on 
Bb;  Bb  on  Bb;  Eb  on  Bb;  Ab  on  Bb. 

"Left  hand.— Third  finger  in  Scale  of  C 
on  D ;  G  on  A ;  D  on  E ;  A  on  B ;  E  on  F* ; 
B  on  Ftf;  Ftf  on  FS;  Ctf  on  F*;  F  on  G; 
Bb  on  Gb;  Eb  onGb;  Ab  on  G." 


IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SCALES. — Since  the 
practice  of  the  scales  is  nearly  the  most 
important  element  in  obtaining  a  correct 
understanding  of  the  piano,  it  may  be  said 
truly  enough  that  the  student  need  study 
little  else  until  he  has  thoroughly  mastered 
them.  If  he  has  been  perfectly  attentive 
and  conscientious,  he  will  then  be  able  to 
play  with  perfect  equality  of  force  and  time, 
and  with  such  a  thorough  understanding  of 
fingering  that  he  will  be  able  to  perform 
other  pieces  without  the  delays  caused  by 
interference  and  uncertainty  in  this  respect. 
It  is  desirable,  if  not  necessary,  to  impress 
upon  the  student's  mind  that,  in  the  work 


804 


THE    PIANO    SELF-TAUGHT 


PIECE    IN  TWO-FOURTH    TIME 

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sHI 


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1234 

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Fine. 


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Fine,  signifies  the  end  of  die  piece. 


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This  means,  to  repeat  from  this  mark  §:  to  the  Fbe  or  end. 


PIECE    IN    THREE-EIGHTH    TIME,  INCIDENTAL    SHARP 
Count  three  eighths  in  each  measure. 


THE    PIANO    SELF-TAUGHT 


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of  practicing,  he  should  always 
play  by  note,  avoiding  the  habit  of 
playing  from  ear  or  memory.  It 
is  often  desirable  to  be  able  to  play 
without  notes,  or  to  learn  a  melody 
easily  on  hearing  it  a  few  times. 
But  it  is  even  more  important  that 
the  student,  by  constant  attention 
to  the  written  notes,  should  culti- 
vate the  ability  to  read  rapidly  and 
correctly.  This  is  nearly  the  best 
method  of  learning  to  read  at  sight 
in  any  musical  instrument. 

RULES  FOR  PRACTICING. — In  prac- 
ticing, the  student  must  be  partic- 
ularly careful  to  avoid  forming  hab- 
its of  moving  the  head,  body,  or 
arms  in  any  way  other  than  is  act- 
ually necessary.  To  be  sure,  in 
striking  high  notes  in  the  treble 
and  low  notes  in  the  bass,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  incline  the  body  to  one 
side  or  to  the  other,  but  nearly  all 
other  movements,  which  are  too 
frequently  seen  among  otherwise 
good  players,  are  to  be  avoided,  as 
far  as  possible.  Among  such  unde- 
sirable movements  are  inclining  the 
body  forward,  as  if  a  difficult  pas- 
sage of  music  could  be  simplified 
on  being  viewed  closer  at  hand;  the 
habits  of  nodding  the  head  or 
drumming  with  the  feet,  in  keep- 
ing time.  It  is,  also,  essential  to 
the  best  quality  of  touch — conse- 
quently, also,  to  the  best  tone-pro- 
duction— that  the  fingers  be  as  even 
and  well  regulated  as  possible.  The 
student  should  avoid  forming  the 
habits  of  lifting  the  fingers  too 
high ;  of  straightening  them  on  rais- 
ing from  a  key,  or  of  moving  the 
arm  or  wrist,  in  the  effort  to  pro- 
duce emphasis.  While  it  is  diffi- 
cult for  a  beginner  on  the  piano 
to  develop  more  than  the  rudiments 
of  a  good  touch,  it  is  desirable  that 
he  understand,  at  the  start,  that  the 
greater  majority  of  emphatic  pas- 
sages and  strong  accents  may  be 
rendered  by  simply  varying  the 
force  used  in  pressing  down  the 
key.  The  method  of  varying  the 
force,  however,  to  suit  the  require- 
ments of  finished  performance,  can 
be  learned  only  as  the  result  of 
extended  and  earnest  practice. 

FAULTS  TO  BE  AVOIDED. — Among 
other  faults  to  be  avoided  from  the 
start  are  the  habits  of  rendering 
the  retardando  too  slowly  or  the 


806 


THE    PIANO   SELF-TAUGHT 


n 

XJ 


** 


'Q 


THE    PIANO    SELF-TAUGHT 


307 


accellerando  too  rapidly.  The  notion  that 
these  signs  demand  such  a  radical  change 
in  movement,  as  to  affect  the  time  in  which 
the  piece  is  written,  involves  that  the  best 
effect  of  the  playing  is  lost. 

USE  OF  THE  PEDALS. — In  connection  with 
the  faults  just  mentioned  it  is  desirable  to 
further  warn  the  student  against  incorrect 
use  of  the  pedals.  Although  the  proper 
places  for  using  the  pedals  are  usually 
marked  in  compositions  for  the  piano,  the 
finished  performer  will  frequently  use  them 
at  other  points,  according  to  his  own  theory 
of  interpreting  the  music.  However,  until 
the  student  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  use  and  effect  of  the  pedals,  and  has  also 
developed  by  practice  the  comprehension 
of  the  proper  points  at  which  to  use  the  left 
one,  for  damping  the  vibrations,  or  the 
right,  for  lifting  the  damper  from  the 
strings,  thus  diminishing  or  increasing  the 
quality  of  the  sound,  he  had  best  avoid 
using  them,  except  as  indicated  in  written 
music. 

RULES  FOR  FINGER  MOVEMENTS. — When 
executing  scales  and  runs,  the  easiest  move- 
ments are  as  follows : 

(i.)  Bend  the  hand  slightly  upward,  al- 
though avoiding  all  marked  and  ungraceful 
attitudes. 

(2.)  Hold  the  arm  slightly  away  from 
the  body,  keeping  it  steady,  without  twist- 
ing or  turning,  while  it  follows  the  move- 
ment of  the  hand,  up  or  down  the  keyboard. 

(3.)  In  passing  the  thumb  under  the  fin- 
gers, move  it  under  each  finger  consecu- 
tively, as  that  finger  strikes  its  key.  In 
learning  this  movement,  particular  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  thumb  in  practicing. 

(4.)  Avoid  the  tendency  of  the  first  fin- 
ger to  remain  on  its  key,  after  striking. 
This  is  a  common  fault  in  playing  scales. 

(5.)  In  order  to  learn  the  passing-under 
of  the  thumbs,  carefully  practice  each  hand's 
part  separately. 

FINGER  AND  WRIST  ACTION. — In  effective 
playing,  three  distinct  actions  are  resog- 
nized:  (i)  simple  finger  action  with  the 
wrist  held  firmly;  (2)  wrist  action  down- 
ward; (3)  wrist  action  upward. 

Simple  finger  action  is  used  in  playing 
any  series  of  connected  or  legato  notes,  ex- 
cept, perhaps,  in  playing  runs  of  thirds, 
sixths  and  octaves. 

Wrist  action  downward,  with  apparent 
raising  of  the  hand,  is  used  in  playing  (i) 
repeated  notes ;  (2)  the  first  note  of  a  group 
or  phrase;  (3)  chords;  (4)  octaves  in  ordi- 


nary use;  (5)  demi-legato  notes,  with  as 
little  raising  of  the  hand  as  possible;  (6) 
stafccato  notes,  with  a  somewhat  freer  rais- 
ing of  the  hand;  (7)  double  staccato  notes, 
or  staccato  played  rapidly,  except  when  a 
dot  or  point  indicates  the  last  note  of  a 
group  or  phrase. 

Wrist  action  upward  is  used  principally 
in  playing  notes  followed  by  a  rest,  and 
staccato  notes  to  be  rendered  slowly. 

ON  PLAYING  OCTAVES. — In  playing  oc- 
taves, the  student  should  be  particularly 
careful  to  shape  his  practice,  with  a  view 
to  developing  easy  and  graceful  movements 
that  do  not  disturb  the  normal  rhythm  of 
playing.  Facility  in  playing  octaves  de- 
pends on  the  proper  use  of  the  wrist.  The 
hand  should  be  raised  at  the  wrist  before 
striking,  and,  then,  with  an  easy  movement, 
thrown  down,  as  it  were,  upon  the  key- 
board. As  soon  as  the  required  notes  have 
been  struck,  the  hand  must  be  again  raised 
at  the  wrist,  in  readiness  to  strike  the  next 
octave,  if  there  is  one ;  or  to  resume  its  nor- 
mal position,  in  readiness  to  strike  the  next 
succession  of  notes.  In  playing  octaves,  the 
student  should  lift  his  hand  at  the  wrist, 
but  he  must  not  understand  that  this  lift- 
ing is  to  be  at  a  large  angle,  or  any  further 
above  the  keys  than  is  necessary  to  enable 
the  hand  to  move  backward  or  forward  to 
the  indicated  position  for  making  the  oc- 
tave. Briefly  expressed,  he  is  required  only 
to  lift  his  fingers  from  contact  with  the 
keys. 

FAMILIARITY  WITH  KEYS. — One  point  that 
it  is  particularly  desirable  to  keep  carefully 
in  mind,  while  practicing,  is  developing  an 
easy  familiarity  with  every  key — which  is 
to  say,  every  scale  or  octave  written  in  par- 
ticular keys,  as  already  explained  in  the 
section  on  the  rudiments  of  music.  Al- 
though the  effect  of  sharps  or  flats  at  the 
signature  may  seem  an  uncertain  and  com- 
plicated matter  to  the  beginner,  it  is  a 
thing  which  must  be  carefully  studied,  at 
the  start,  and  when  once  mastered,  as  it 
must  soon  be,  will  remove  very  many 
causes  of  perplexity  in  his  subsequent 
studies.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  no  more 
difficult  to  play  a  piece  having  a  number 
of  sharps  and  flats  than  to  play  in  the  simple 
key  of  C.  The  black  keys  are  narrow,  and, 
hence,  somewhat  more  difficult  to  press  down 
firmly  and  fully,  but  if  the  student  will  once 
accustom  himself  to  reading  the  signature 
correctly,  understandingly,  and  rapidly,  one 
serious  difficulty  will  be  overcome  for  him. 


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(308) 


THE     VIOLIN 
SELF-TAUGHT 


THE  most  familiar  of  the  stringed  instruments  is  the  violin,  whose 
shape,  construction,  and  manner  of  playing  are  familiar  to  all. 
Briefly  described,  it  consists  of  a  peculiarly  shaped  box,  called  the 
body,  at  one  end  of  which  is  attached  the  neck.  The  two  ^ides  of  the  box, 
or  body,  are  called,  respectively,  the  belly  and  the  back;  both  being  care- 
fully shaped,  or  arched,  in  order  to  afford  the  greatest  possible  resonance. 
On  either  side  of  the  belly  are  the  sound  holes,  which,  from  their  shape, 
are  frequently  called  the  /-holes.  The  belly  and  back  are  joined  together 
by  a  number  of  narrow  side  pieces  called  ribs.  Within  the  body  of  the 
instrument,  between  the  sound  holes,  is  a  small  upright  piece,  known  as 
the  sound  post,  one  end  of  which  rests  on  the  bass  bar  glued  to  the  under 
side  of  the  belly,  and  the  other,  against  the  inner  side  of  the  back.  These 
two  pieces  serve  to  strengthen  the  instrument  by  offering  resistance  to  the 
tension  of  the  stretched  strings.  The  sound  post  also  conveys  the  vibration 
from  the  belly  directly  to  the  back  board. 

The  neck  of  the  instrument  carries  at  one  end  the  so-called  peg-box, 
in  which  turn  the  four  pegs,  carrying  one  end  of  each  of  the  strings.  The 
opposite  ends  of  the  strings  are  attached  to  the  tail-piece,  which  is  hung 
to  the  opposite  end  of  the  body.  Extending  over  the  neck,  from  the  upper 
end  of  the  body,  is  the  -finger-board,  which  is  separated  from  the  peg-box 
by  a  low  narrow  ridge  of  hard  wood  called  the  nut.  This  nut  serves  to 
raise  the  strings  somewhat  above  the  level  of  the  finger-board,  in  order 
that  their  vibrations  may  not  be  interfered  with.  Across  the  belly  of  the 
instrument,  between  the  sound  holes,  is  set  another  narrow  strip  of  hard 
wood,  called  the  bridge.  The  strings,  extending  from  the  tail-piece  to  the 
peg-box,  pass  over  the  bridge;  each  one  being  free  to  vibrate  in  its  entire 
length  from  that  point  to  the  nut.  Each  string  is  tuned  by  stretching  it  to 
a  sufficient  tension  by  twisting  the  peg  to  which  it  is  attached. 

PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  VIOLIN  STUDENT 


THE  strings  are  of  four  sizes,  or  diam- 
eters, the  first  or  highest,  placed  on  the 
right  side,  as  one  looks  toward  the  belly  of 
the  instrument,  being  of  the  smallest  diam- 
eter; the  fourth,  or  lowest,  at  the  left  of 
the  instrument,  being  the  largest  in  diam- 
eter. The  strings  are  made  of  catgut,  usu- 


ally formed  of  the  membranes  from  the 
intestines  of  sheep.  The  largest  string  is 
covered  with  spirally  wound  silver  wire, 
which  serves  to  deepen  the  quality  of  its 
note. 

THE  Bow. — Although,  as  constructed,  the 
violin  may  be  played  like  the  guitar  or  man- 

(309) 


310 


THE   VIOLIN   SELF-TAUGHT 


dolin,  by  picking  the  strings  with  the  fingers 
or  with  a  special  quill  or  plectrum,  its  char- 
acteristic music  is  evoked  by  the  use  of  an 
instrument  known  as  the  bow.  This  con- 
sists of  a  stick  of  hard,  close-grained  wood, 
having  a  projection  at  one  end  called  the 
head.  At  the  opposite  end  is  a  slot  in  which 
slides  the  nut;  a  thumbscrew  at  the  end  of 
the  stick  moving  the  nut  backward  or  for- 
ward as  desired.  Between  the  head  of  the 
stick  and  the  nut  is  hung  the  hair,  which 
may  be  stretched  to  the  required  tension  by 
turning  the  thumbscrew  and  sliding  the  nut 
toward  the  end  of  the  stick.  When  cov- 
ered with  a  small  quantity  of  resin,  the  bow, 
sliding  on  the  strings,  is  able  to  produce  the 
characteristic  sounds  of  the  violin  music. 
Indeed,  the  whole  Secret  of  playing  the  vio- 
lin properly,  and  producing  pleasing  sounds, 
rather  than  disturbing  scrapes  and  wheezes, 
lies  in  the  proper  manipulation  of  the  bow. 
Skill  in  this  particular  conies,  not  only  from 
practice,  but  also  from  correct  instruction 
at  the  start;  being  in  fact  precisely  what  a 
good  touch  is  in  piano-playing  and  correct 
breathing  in  the  production  of  vocal  music. 

THE  TONES  AND  TOUCHES. — The  four 
strings  of  the  violin  are  tuned  to  perfect 
fifths,  beginning  with  the  tone  correspond- 
ing to  G  next  below  middle  C  on  the  piano 
for  the  fourth  or  lowest  string.  The  next 
three  strings,  accordingly,  are:  for  the  third 
string,  the  D  above  middle  C;  for  the  sec- 
ond string  the  A  next  above,  and  for  the 
first  string  the  following  E.  As  is  well 
known,  the  intermediate  tones  between  the 
so-called  open  tones  of  each  string  are  pro- 
duced by  pressure  of  the  fingers  at  certain 
definite  points  in  the  length  of  the  string. 
Although  the  violin  has  no  frets  or  touches, 
like  the  mandolin,  guitar,  etc.,  the  point  on 
the  finger-board  at  which  pressure  will  pro- 
duce the  several  tones  and  semitones  are 
situated  precisely  as  in  these  instruments. 
Thus,  on  the  G  string,  the  G#  is  situated 
at  a  point  approximately  about  7-8  inch 
*>,  from  the  nut ;  the  A  about  1-2  inch ;  the  Bb 
at  about  2  3-16  inch;  the  B  at  2  5-8  inch; 
the  C  at  3  1-4  inch.  The  next  string  above, 
giving  D  as  its  open  tone,  has  the  DJ,  the 
E,  the  F,  the  FJf,  and  the  G  at  the  same  re- 
spective distances  from  the  nut.  Similarly 
also,  the  second,  or  A,  string  has  the  Bb,  B, 
C,  C#,  D,  and  Eb ;  while  the  first,  or  E, 
string  measures  off  the  F,  F#,  G,  Gtf,  A, 
Bb,  and  B. 

Although  the  notes  represented  by  suc- 
cessive open  strings  may  be  produced  by 
carrying  the  pressure  of  the  fingers  suffi- 
ciently far  down  in  its  length — the  intervals 


between  the  touches  becoming  constantly 
smaller  as  we  approach  the  end  of  the  fin- 
ger-board furthest  from  the  peg  box — al- 
together the  best  practice  is  to  play  each 
fifth  note  on  the  open  strings  in  order  to' 
avoid  too  much  shifting  of  the  hand  up  and 
down  the  neck,  and  consequently  also  cor- 
responding delay  and  irregularity  in  render- 
ing the  music.  It  is  frequently  customary, 
however,  to  give  the  notes  higher  than  the 
compass  of  the  first  position  by  running 
up  the  string,  thus  obtaining  an  available 
playing  compass  of  at  least  one-half  octave 
above  the  open  tone. 

HOLDING  THE  VIOLIN. — The  methods  of 
holding  the  bow  and  the  violin  are  indi- 
cated in  the  accompanying  illustrations.  It 
is  necessary  to  add  only  that  the  instrument 
should  be  so  held  as  to  be  at  right  angles 
to  the  body,  on  a  line  exactly  parallel  to  the 
position  of  the  left  foot,  upon  which  the 


weight  of  the  body  should  be  thrown  in 
standing.  The  body  of  the  instrument 
should  be  held  firmly  between  the  chin  and 
the  left  collar-bone;  the  left  hand  maintain- 
ing it  at  such  a  slant  that  the  bottom  of  the 
scroll  on  the  end  of  the  neck  is  on  a  level 
with  that  part  of  the  body  pressed  by  the 
chin. 

HOLDING  THE  Bow. — The  bow  should  be 
held  with  the  right  hand,  the  thumb  being 
against  the  lower  side  of  the  stick,  close  to 
the  slide  or  nut;  being  balanced  at  the  top 
by  the  first  and  fourth  fingers,  as  already 
explained.  The  second  and  third  fingers 
rest  only  gently  upon  the  stick,  serving  to 
steady  it  between  the  varying  pressures  of 
the  other  two  fingers.  Thus,  the  pressure  on 
the  strings  is  varied  according  to  position 
by  the  first  and  fourth  fingers,  as  already 
indicated.  The  movement,  up  or  down,  is 


THE   VIOLIN    SELF-TAUGHT 


311 


controlled,  as  far  as  possible,  by  motions 
of  the  hand  and  wrist,  and,  when  the  limit 
of  these  has  been  reached,  by  motions  of  the 
forearm,  working  from  the  elbow;  the 
upper  arm  being  held  close  against  the  body, 
until  the  movement  of  the  bow,  'Coming 
nearer  to  the  nut,  requires  that  it  move 
slightly  forward,  while  keeping  as  near 
the  body  as  possible.  Since  the  first  and 
fourth  fingers  of  the  right  hand  perform  the 


most  important  function  in  regulating  the 
pressure  of  the  bow,  hence  in  obtaining  the 
best  effects  of  bowing  constant  effort  should 
be  exercised  to  guide  their  actions  so  care- 
fully as  to  equalize  the  pressures  of  all 
strokes,  short  or  long,  in  either  direction. 

IN  FINGERING,  OR  STOPPING,  the  strings 
the  four  fingers  of  the  left  hand  are  used, 
the  joint  being  bent  double  in  each  case,  so 
as  to  bring  only  the  tips  of  the  fingers 
against  the  string.  In  the  act  of  stopping 
the  strings,  the  fingers  must  be  brought 
down  with  strength  and  firmness;  greater 
force  being  necessary  on  the  larger  strings. 
In  learning  fingering  it  is  necessary  to  prac- 
tice persistently,  in  order  to  secure  a  pure 
tone  at  every  stop  and  to  accustom  the 
fingers,  by  constant  exercise,  to  press  the 
strings  with  proper  force  and  effect.  The 
fourth  finger  requires  particular  exercise, 
because  its  pressure  on  the  strings  is  the 
weakest,  and  also  because,  at  the  beginning 
of  practice,  it  will  be  found  difficult  to  move 
it  freely,  independent  of  the  third  finger. 

In  fingering  the  notes  on  the  violin  it  is 
desirable  to  hold  the  fingers  against  the 
strings  as  long  as  possible,  not  making  short 
and  sharp  contacts  like  the  hammers  of  a 
piano.  In  playing  ascending  scales,  there- 
fore, the  fingers  are  brought  down,  one  after 
another,  and  held  firmly  against  the  strings, 


while,  in  playing  descending  scales,  they  are 
raised,  one  after  another,  each  successive 
tone  being  ready  made  as  required. 

PRACTICAL  POINTS  ON  PLAYING. — As  is 
evident  from  the  diagram  of  the  strings  and 
keyboard  already  shown,  the  tones  of  the 
open  strings  D,  E,  and  A  may  also  be  made 
with  the  fourth  finger  on  the  string  next 
above.  Whether  one  plays  on  the  open 
string,  or  produces  the  tone  on  the  string 
below,  is  largely  determined  by  the  particu- 
lar piece  he  is  playing.  As  a  rule,  however, 
it  is  considered  best  to  keep  on  one  string 
as  long  as  possible.  Thus,  unless  in  playing 
long  upward  runs,  when  it  is  desirable  to 
give  the  open  tone  on  the  succeeding  string, 
so  as  to  allow  the  hand  sufficient  time  to 
shift  its  position,  it  is  generally  customary 
to  make  the  D,  A,  or  E  on  the  Jring  above. 
One  more  rule  usually  followed,  on  account 
of  superior  convenience  to  the  player,  is 
that  when  a  succession  of  notes  is  to  be 
played  in  one  movement  of  the  bow,  it  is 
preferable  to  make  the  note  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  little  finger,  if  the  following 
tones  are  lower.  When,  however,  the  run 
or  succession  is  upward,  the  open  string 
is  used. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  BOWING. — The  most  essen- 
tial point  in  correctly  playing  the  violin  is 
good  bowing.  This  involves,  not  only  a 
light  and  careful  touch  on  the  string  and 
the  ability  to  produce  loud  or  soft  notes  as 
desired,  but  also  exact  knowledge  of  the 
.proper  movements  in  executing  different 
musical  effects.  Careful  study  and  observa- 
tion soon  reveal  the  fact  that  there  is  a 
very  great  difference  between  the  up-stroke 
and  down-stroke  of  the  bow,  and,  also,  that 
the  tones  produced  vary  greatly  in  effect,  as 
they  are  produced  by  short,  sharp  strokes, 
up  and  down,  or  in  the  course  of  a  long 
sweep  of  the  bow. 

THE  STROKES. — The  first  rule  for  good 
bowing  is  based  upon  the  observed  fact  that 
the  up-stroke,  from  the  head  to  the  nut,  is 
necessarily  weaker  than  the  down-stroke, 
in  the  opposite  direction.  This  follows  from 
the  pressure  naturally  brought  to  bear  by 
the  hand  in  making  each  of  these  move- 
ments. In  order,  therefore,  to  equalize  the 
force  of  contact  as  much  as  possible,  it  is 
desirable  to  use  pressure  with  the  first  and 
little  fingers  of  the  right  hand.  The  further 
down  the  bow  is  moved,  the  stronger  the 
pressure  to  be  made  with  the  first  finger; 
the  further  upward  it  is  moved,  the  stron- 
ger the  pressure  to  be  made  with  the  little 
finger. 

ON  CONTACT. — In  making  contact  between 


312 


THE   VIOLIN    SELF-TAUGHT 


the  bow  and  the  strings  it  is  necessary  that 

•—  • 

•i 

the  hair  rest  firmly  upon  the  string,  about 

one-half  inch  above  the  bridge.     The  stick 

a 

of  the  bow  is  slightly  inclined  toward  the 

p 

finger-board,  thus  giving  a  firmer  grip  on 

« 

f|_  _ 

f  ^ 

the  string,  and  also  enabling  the  performer 

=3 

.   • 

to  vary  the  tones  as  desired. 

1 

«? 

MOVING  THE  Bow.  —  In  moving  the  .bow  in 

4-* 

'B  4_ 

eo^ 

either    direction,    from    the    head    or    from 

CO 

the  nut,  it  is  necessary  to  describe  a  per- 

8 

W 

fectly   straight   line,   always   running  paral- 

0      ~ 

ca  o5 

lel  to  the  bridge.     In  order  to  accomplish 

8 

«4-l 

4> 

2  / 

this,  a  gradual  movement  is  given  to  the 

ft 
>, 

"*  V 

•a 

wrist  as  the  stroke  progresses.    Thus,  when 

x> 

*o 

H  V^ 

• 

the  contact  of  the  bow  is  nearer  the  nut,  the 

Z 

4) 

I**  CO 

wrist   is   bent    somewhat    upward;    sinking 

I-H 

i 

gradually  as  the  stroke  approaches  the  head 

0 

•§ 

i 

d 

in 

of  the  bow,  with  the  result  of  elevating  the 

P 

0, 

o 

hand.     The   movements    of   the   wrist   and 

Z 

•  • 

Wr 

hand  are  thus  of  importance  in  bowing,  al- 

5< 
™ 

1 

. 

though  it  is  not  correct  to  move  the  arm 

CD 
4) 

-i      % 

eo  O 

c 

vv  »-^ 

above  the  elbow,  except  so  far  as  it  neces- 

p> 

I 

55      * 

sarily  yields  to  the  movements  of  the  fore- 

O 

* 

§      2 

2 

arm.     Thus,    on    beginning    the    up-stroke, 

i__ 

g 
£  a 

E                   * 

C^  ^    Q 

3 

with  the  head  of  the  bow  nearest  to  the 

Z 

1—  1 

8 

si    > 

ft       °        ( 

point  of  contact  with  the  string,  the  upper 

ij 

2      a        * 

1 

arm   and   elbow   are   held   flat   against   the 

o 

"k    >> 

&        «              N< 

k         _          »H  W** 

body,  and  all  movements  are  made  with  the 
forearm,  until  nearly  one-half  of  the  stroke 
is  completed.     Then,  bringing  the  bow  nearer 

I-H 

w 

.  "° 
<n  "3 

Cfl     r.-) 

H        5 

c/3      H 
P^ 

I—I 

fi" 

to   the   nut,    the    upper   arm   is   necessarily 

JC    *"* 

••• 

O 

•• 

lifted,  in  obedience  to  the  movements  of  the 

f 

w    O 

H 

forearm. 

PH 

T3     2ii 

.  • 

%         «O  a 

It  is  necessary  that  these  rules,  in  regard 

O 

«  a 

r*       bo 

V 

to  the  use  of  the  forearm  only  in  working 

to 

a  <*- 

^   1 

I      1 

the  bow,  be  carefully  observed.    If  the  upper 

H 

1  5 

M        CO 

V 

1             :  •  —  yi 

arm  is  allowed  to  originate  the  impulse  that 

I-H 

*4-t 

D     O 

a     o 

moves  the  bow,  in  other  words,  if  the  whole 

3 

^      o 

arm   is   used,   it   will  be   found   difficult  to 

CO 

be 

o     "2 

~1|        ^3 

maintain  the  bow  in  a  straight  line  parallel 

•n 

CO        eo 

to  the  bridge,  thus  making  a  full  pure  tone 

O 

Mp 

4) 

M 

2 

. 

impossible. 

z 

I-H 

a 

a 

^ 

Tit      Ift 

SPEED  IN  BOWING.  —  Another  very  essen- 

p 

4> 

•^             M*1^ 

O 

tial  point  in  bowing  is  to  acquire  the  ability 

z 

a 
o 

•  • 

•• 

to  make  all  strokes,  upward  or  downward, 

w 

a 

A        W  O   g 

at   the    same    speed.      Since,    as    frequently 

CO 

4> 
J3 

^\ 

happens,    there    are    runs    of    considerable 

<! 

till 

1              1 

length  in  violin  music,  it  is  desirable  that 

1 

i 

f  -j|  '<M  «  J 

as  many  notes  as  possible  be  produced  in 

CO 

•1 

JB 

CO 

one  stroke  of  the  bow,  in  order  that,  in  as 

w 

few  cases  as  possible,  it  will  be  necessary 

1 

I 

.  . 

to  change  the  direction  of  the  bow  in  mak- 

J3 

u 

Tr  "^ 

ing  such  runs.    Of  course,  since  the  location 

•M 

O 

and   length  of  the   notes,   except   the   open 

0 

^1 

i  fl 

tones,    are   determined   by  the   pressure   of 

(0 
V 

S 

TNo.^ 

the  fingers,  as  already  explained,  the  move- 

1 

• 

°  JS 

ment  of  the  bow  may  be  slow  or  rapid  with 

a 

EH 

•     ss 

the  same  quality  of  tone  production.     It  is 

A 

^^ 

desirable,  therefore,  to  adopt  a  rate  of  bow- 

*" 

<{ 

r^        £  S 

ing  that  may  be  steadily  maintained  without 

_L 

K 

THE    VIOLIN   SELF-TAUGHT 


313 


wearying  the  arm,  or  without  hurrying  the 
time  of  the  longer  notes  and  runs.  The 
habit  of  beginning  with  rapid  strokes  has 
the  very  bad  effect  of  producing  jerky  notes, 
strong  in  quality  at  the  beginning  of  the 
stroke,  and  growing  weaker  toward  the  end 
DIFFERENT  QUALITIES  OF  TONE. — Although 
the  time-values  of  the  tones  are  not  effectec 
by  the  bowing,  except  in  staccato  move- 
ments, which  are  produced  by  short  sharp 
strokes,  all  shading  and  accenting  are  pro- 
duced by  properly  handling  the  bow.  In 
order  to  produce  a  louder  note,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  press  more  heavily  upon  the 
bow,  thus  making  a  scraping  effect:  the  re- 
sult may  be  far  better  attained  by  moving 
the  bow  nearer  to  the  bridge,  and,  while 
drawing  it  with  a  firmer  hand,  allowing  the 
stick  to  be  only  slightly  inclined.  Con- 
versely, a  soft  tone  is  produced  when  the 
bow  is  moved  further  from  the  bridge  and 
closer  to  the  finger-board;  the  movement 
being  performed  with  a  lighter  pressure  of 
the  hand.  It  is  necessary,  for  the  produc- 
tion of  correct  effects,  that  the  rules  regard- 
ing the  degree  of  pressure  to  be  used  in 
every  case  should  be  carefully  observed; 
since,  in  playing  on  either  side  of  the  usual 
line  in  which  the  stroke  of  the  bow  is  made, 
decided  variations  of  pitch  and  quality  are 
liable  to  result.  Thus,  when  playing  close 
to  the  bridge  with  only  a  slight  pressure 
on  the  bow,  shrill  tones  will  result.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  very  light  touch  nearer  to  the 
finger-board  produces  soft  and  flute-like 
tones,  which  are  particularly  effective  in 
certain  measures. 

TRANSITION  MOVEMENTS. — In  increasing 
or  diminishing  the  sound,  as  in  crescendo 
and  decrescendo  movements,  the  varying 
effects  required  may  be  produced  by  skilful 
handling  of  the  bow.  Thus,  for  the  decres- 
cendo, the  loudest  and  strongest  tone  is  be- 
gun near  the  bridge  with  a  firm  pressure,  as 
already  described.  As  the  tone  decreases 
in  loudness,  the  bow  is  moved  further  from 
the  bridge,  at  the  same  time  being  more 
and  more  inclined  toward  the  finger-board, 
with  a  constantly  decreasing  pressure  of  the 
hand.  On  reaching  the  limit  of  the  move- 
ment with  the  softest  tones,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  bow  is  so  far  inclined  toward  the 
finger-board  that  only  a  part  of  the  hair  is 
in  contact  with  the  string. 

UP- STROKES  AND  DOWN-STROKES. — An- 
other point  of  considerable  importance,  par- 
ticularly at  the  beginning  of  study,  illus- 
trates the  kind  of  stroke  to  be  used  for 
producing  desired  effects.  Thus,  the  up- 
stroke is  weaker  than  the  down-stroke,  with 


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314 


THE   VIOLIN    SELF-TAUGHT 


all  but  the  very  best  performers.     It  is  cus- 

•• 

IS                c 

» 

— 

•^IMi 

tomary,  therefore,  to  tell  the  beginner  that 

strongly  accented  passages  should  be  played 

to            W      " 

"HIP 

,. 

"  rv 

o 

with  a  down-stroke,  while  the  weaker  beats 

•c 

be             w 

a 

>0 

— 

are  taken  with  an  up-stroke.     In  actually 

J3 

*  z 

co              CO 

- 

- 

^ 

i 

cv 

rendering  advanced  passages  for  the  violin, 

9 

"%    " 

it  is  difficult  to  apply  these  rules  with  any 

*              ^" 

degree  of  rigidity.     Indeed,  nearly  the  first 

*     ** 

•H 

thing  that  the  student  of  the  violin  should 

hi 

bi 

i 

1. 

J 

.=o 

seek  to  attain  by  practice  is  the  development 

C*       ( 

LLi® 
eo 

% 

0 

of  equal  strength  in  both  upward  and  down- 

00 

•2          "     ' 

_M_2 

ward   strokes.     However,    it   is   customary, 

E 

•H            ** 

«n 

i 

i 

-H 

particularly  in  orchestral  work,  to  use  the 

*     <k. 

—  —   -*»i                                   ^-. 

A 

•*• 

down-stroke  on  syncopated  notes,  on  chords, 

~~ 

^ 

•H 

on  single  tones  that  are  to  be  gradually  de- 

be 

•^  *"                  -^ 

i 

00 

creased  in  volume,  and  on  all  tones  that  are 

T            W%.  _ 

A                g1 

to  be   rendered  particularly  prominent  :   on 

in 

e«% 

z< 

all    strong   beats,   also,   the    down-stroke   is 

1        W  %'- 

-     -         2       ~4j 

TJ 

regularly  employed.     When  it  is  desirable 

« 

e» 

,  — 

M 

to  give  particular  stress  to  notes  occurring 
at  close  intervals,  the  down-stroke  may  often 

1   Li 

&     "M--L- 

-"*          ^^tL 

- 

. 

be  made  several  times  in  succession,  in  or- 

O            j  i 

•%              -^LU-j 

L 

X 

der  to  produce  the  desired  effect. 

Cml 

~ 

®                e«d  1 

S 

SIGNS   FOR   STROKES.  —  This   succession   of 

*-l        p^ 

—  < 

the  proper  strokes  to.be  made  in  rendering 

&     be*0™-!  

-*   co     «4|  1  1 

" 

various   movements   can  not  be  finally  and 

(^   £  <*4|  j  -  - 

2       P     be        .  .   i 

CO 

definitely  settled  by  any  general  directions. 
In  default  of  an  experienced  master  to  give 

£  s«4U-t 

"^  «  ?^    iT1 

_ 

^ 

co 

him    adequate   instructions    in    this    matter, 

oo  w_J  L 

E-"     ^"^-4-M 

CH 

— 

-1 

the  student  must  depend  upon  the  written 

Q 

«444- 

2 

indications   for  bowing  usually  given  with 

&4     «4-|  

*                     r..  tJ  1 

= 

music    intended    for    beginners.      Thus,    in 

W_  ml 

W 

-H 

very  many  cases  we  find  the  down-stroke  in- 

~* ^  L 

M                ' 

•  **       ffl 

dicated  by  a  square  U-shaped  figure,  while 

« 

GO 

the  up-stroke  is  indicated  by  this  same  fig- 

*>     *^'~~ 

«* 

» 

ure    inverted    or    by    an    acute    angle    re- 

2 -|    »  i  ..  _ 

V*       .        "~ 

sembling  the  letter  V  inverted.    Other  com- 

M 

W    -a           '% 

«  S  1    «*- 

_ 

-H 

posers   use   a   vertical   line   to   indicate   the 
up-stroke,    and   a   slanting  line   to   indicate 

d    S 
<             ~«L 

-  -  cj;   «t 

.. 

c. 

the     down-stroke  ;     further    indicating    the 
points    at    which    the    stroke    is    to    start, 

O 

CO     c 

y 

•30 

CO 

whether  at  the  nut,  middle,  or  head,  pro- 

lA 

j 

1> 

vided  it  is  to  be  a   short  stroke  by  short 

.5           r 

*4 

% 

- 

J 

^H 

lines,  drawn  parallel  to  that  indicating  the 

in 

hi 

<N 

direction. 

•g 

^-%- 

< 

k. 

_ 

-H 

By  carefully  observing  all  the  rules  al- 

t-f 

|h  «•                        « 

Q 

0 

ready   laid    down    for   proper   bowing,    the 

m 

student  will  very  soon  learn  the  most  effec- 

"1 1     ^                                        »-* 

1 

00 

tive  and  convenient  methods  of  producing 

'     •* 

any  effects  indicated  in  written  music.    The 

bi        a  -~ 

"»-                                        """ 

- 

% 

* 

question    of    down-strokes    and    up-strokes 

*u 

"•                   bi 

e 

C) 

relates  largely  to  the  ease  of  handling  the 

CO 

ii             W 

J 

k 

bow  on   certain   movements.     If,   however, 

•5         « 
»    £ 

SSP 

the  rule  for  equalizing  the  pressure  through- 

i- 

•v 

0 

out  the  stroke,  by  the  use  of  the  first  and 

1          t 

j         •                                         Cl 

fourth    fingers,    is    rigidly    observed    in    all 

O                ^ 

v                             1 

. 

practice,  it  will  be  easier  to  render  the  de- 

5 i*i 

*          I 

m 

^ 

sired  effects  with  the  bow  at  any  part  cf  a 

_^E* 

8 

ijck 

^ 

stroke.     The  staccato  effects  and  transition 

-tJ                                       fc| 

jj 

S 

•>. 

movements,  crescendo,  etc.,  should  be  care- 

i  7 

£>                  < 

If 

^ 

4 

THE   VIOLIN    SELF-TAUGHT 


315 


fully  practiced   according  to   directions  al- 
ready   given. 

THE  NOTES. — In  producing  a  whole  note 
on  the  violin  the  bow  is  drawn  in  either  di- 
rection in  which  it  happens  to  be  travelling 
at  the  time,  so  as  to  form  a  crescendo  move- 
ment, succeeded  by  a  decrescendo,  each  for 


bowing  is  simple,  and,  in  order  to  acquire 
the  desired  effect  in  producing  fulness  and 
purity  of  tone,  it  is  necessary  only  to  re- 
member the  rules  already  given  for  ob- 
taining loud  or  soft  tones,  remembering 
that  it  is  very  seldom  necessary  to  increase 
the  pressure  o:r  the  bow  on  the  string,  and 


BOWING  OF  WHOLE   NOTES 


one-half  the  time  of  the  note.  Thus,  the 
greatest  volume  of  sound  occurs  as  nearly 
as  possible  at  the  middle  of  the  measure. 

Among  other  useful  rules  for  manipu- 
lating the  bow  it  may  be  stated  that  the 
best  practice  is  always  to  begin  a  full 
measure  with  a  down-stroke.  In  general, 
except  in  staccato  movements  and  grace 
notes,  the  time  and  sequence  of  the  tones 
are  produced  by  fingering,  the  bow  mov- 
ing from  end  to  end,  upward  or  down- 
ward, with  a  slow  or  rapid  motion,  as  is 
best  suited  to  the  time. 

In  playing  triplets  the  best  procedure 
is  to  use  a  greater  length  of  bow  for 
the  first  note  of  each  three,  giving  it  a 
light  start,  and  then  resuming  equality  of 
movement.  This  impulse,  given  to  the  first 
note,  adds  to  the  effect  in  passages  re- 
quiring energy  in  performance. 

In  order  to  acquire  the  flexibility  de- 
manded in  parts  of  detached  or  staccato 
passages,  it  is  well  to  practice  on  the  open 
strings,  being  particularly  careful  to  make 
the  motions  as  light  and  even  as  possible, 
thus  avoiding  jerking  motions,  pressing 
very  moderately  on  the  string,  and  ob- 
taining as  full  a  vibration  as  possible  in 
each  case. 

In  performing  the  movement  known  as 
glissando,  or  "gliding,"  the  finger  that  has 
just  stopped  the  string  slides  up  to  a  new 


that  a  light  and  gentle  touch  is  all  that  is 
required  in  practically  every  passage  that 
may  be  written.  The  student  should,  there- 
fore, aim  (i)  to  produce  a  full  and  cor- 
rect tone  by  proper  fingering,  and  (2)  a 
good  singing  musical  quality  by  moving  the 
bow  directly  across  the  string,  with  the 
gentlest  possible  contact  consistent  with 
the  production  of  sound. 

TUNING  THE  STRINGS. — As  the  violin 
is  tuned  to  perfect  fifths — the  respective 
open  tones  being  G,  D,  A,  E,  from  left  to 
right,  as  previously  stated — it  is  a  compar- 
atively simple  matter  to  tune  the  strings. 
As  it  is  also  an  act  that  is  very  fre- 
quently necessary,  the  student  should  thor- 
oughly understand  the  process  as  early  as 
possible  in  his  studies. 

The  method  most  often  followed  by  vio- 
linists is  to  tune  the  second  string  to  the 
tone  of  A,  found  by  using  an  A  tuning- 
fork,  or  by  getting  the  tone  from  the  piano 
or  other  instrument.  When  this  string  is 
once  perfectly  tuned,  the  tone  of  the  first, 
or  E,  string  may  be  readily  found  by  run- 
ning the  natural  scale  upward  to  the  fifth 
degree,  and  tuning  the  first  string  to  uni- 
son. The  tuning  may  be  verified  by  run- 
ning the  natural  scale,  so  as  to  place  the 
fifth  on  the  first  string. 

The  third  string  may  then  be  tuned  to 
the  fifth  below,  or  D,  being  drawn  up  until 


GLISSANDO 


The  small  notes  remain  unheard. 


Movement  reversed. 


position,  still  holding  it  down,  and  the  next 
finger  stops  at  the  required  touch.  This  is 
shown  in  an  accompanying  example. 

POINTS    FOR    PRACTICE. — The    matter    of 


the  sound  is  judged  to  be  correct  and  veri- 
fied by  running  the  scale  up  or  down,  so  as 
to  place  the  open  tones  on  fifths.  The  same 
process  is  repeated  in  tuning  the  fourth,  or 


316 


THE    VIOLIN    SELF-TAUGHT 


G,  string.  The  correctness  of  the  tuning 
may  be  proved,  either  by  running  the  nat- 
ural major  scale  from  G  to  E,  or  by  draw- 
ing the  bow  over  each  open  tone,  in  suc- 
cession, to  identify  the  perfect  fifths,  which 
may  soon  be  learned  by  ear. 

If  the  beginner   finds   it  easier  to  begin 
tuning    with    some    other    string — say    the 


fourth,  or  G,  string — he  may  obtain  the 
perfect  tone  on  that,  and  find  the  next 
higher  tone  on  the  fifth,  whose  touch 
is  approximately  4^  inches  from  the  nut 
with  every  string.  This  method,  however, 
is  far  less  simple  than  that  already  out- 
lined, and  is  never  followed  by  experienced 
violinists. 


Allegretto. 


SIMPLE   PRACTICE   PIECE   IN   C   MAJOR 

ON   THE   FIRST   AND   SECOND   STRINGS 


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SIMPLE   PRACTICE   PIECE   IN   G   MAJOR 

ON   THE   SECOND   AND   THIRD   STRINGS 


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THE    MANDOLIN 
SELF-TAUGHT 


IN  CONSTRUCTION,  and  in  the  general  theory  of  playing,  the  man- 
dolin closely  resembles  the  violin.     It  is  composed  of  two  parts: 
the  body  and  the  neck.     The  body  is  shaped  peculiarly,  having  a 
pear-shaped  back,  and  a  flat  top,  instead  of  the  rounded  back  and  belly 
of  the  violin.     It  has  also  one  large  round,  or  oval,  hole  between  the 
bridge  and  the  finger-board,   instead  of  the  two  S-holes  of  the  violin. 
In  both  instruments  the  strings  are  attached  at  the  base  to  a  suitable 
tail-piece,  and  are  stretched  between  the  bridge  and  the  nut  by  attach- 
ment to  pegs  arranged  on  a  board  at  the  further  end  of  the  neck. 

The  strings,  instead  of  being  of  catgut,  as  in  the  violin,  are  of 
metal,  generally  steel,  and,  although  tuned  to  precisely  the  same  fifths 
as  the  strings  of  the  violin,  are  double.  Thus  there  are  two  G  strings, 
two  D  strings,  two  A  strings,  and  two  E  strings.  The  method  of 
stringing  and  tuning  the  mandolin  is  practically  the  same  as  already 
described  in  connection  with  the  violin,  to  which  the  student  may  refer 
for  guidance  in  this  particular.  Each  separate  pair  of  strings  must 
be  tuned  in  perfect  unison,  but  this  matter  is  comparatively  simple  after 
a  little  practice. 


PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  MANDOLIN  STUDENT 


THE  FRETS  OR  TOUCHES.  — The 
mandolin  presents  the  primary  advan- 
tage to  the  student  of  having  the  various 
tones  and  semitones  indicated  by  proper 
frets  or  touches,  consisting  of  small  metal 
pieces  inserted  in,  and  running  across,  the 
finger-board  at  proper  intervals.  For  two 
instruments  of  the  same  size,  the  proper 
position  for  making  the  various  sounds  are 
the  same  in  both  violin  and  mandolin. 

HOLDING  THE  MANDOLIN. — In  playing,  the 
mandolin  is  held  so  that  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  may  produce  the  various  tones 
by  stopping  the  strings  at  the  frets,  as  in 


the  violin.  The  body  of  the  instrument, 
however,  is  held  upon  the  lap  or  against 
the  right  side  of  the  body,  so  that  the  play- 
ing may  be  done  with  the  right  hand. 

The  neck  of  the  instrument  should  lie 
in  the  middle  of  the  left  hand,  supported 
by  the  thumb  and  slightly  balanced  by 
the  forefinger,  in  order  to  admit  of  easily 
running  over  the  keyboard.  The  hand  should 
be  kept  somewhat  off  the  neck,  without 
strain  at  the  joint,  so  that,  in  the  act  of 
stopping  the  keys,  the  fingers  may  fall 
straight  downward  on  the  strings. 

THE  PLECTRUM.— The  mandolin  is  played 

(317)  21 


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(318) 


THE    MANDOLIN    SELF-TAUGHT 


319 


by  the  use  of  a  small  piece  of  horn  or 
quill,  known  as  the  plectrum,  pen,  or  pick. 
This  should  be  held  lightly  between  the 
thumb  and  the  first  joint  of  the  second 
finger  of  the  right  hand,  so  as  to  be  per- 
fectly perpendicular  to  the  string,  and  fol- 
low the  motion  of  the  hand,  which  should 
always  be  flexible  at  the  wrist.  .The  mo- 
tion of  the  plectrum  is  always  guided  by 
the  hand  and  wrist,  except  in  execution  of 
tremolos  and  successions  of  small  notes, 
when  the  forearm  is  brought  into  action. 


In  most  playing,  however,  the  right  hand 
should  rest  lightly  on  the  sounding-board 
(or  harmonic  board),  supported  by  the  lit- 
tle finger,  between  the  sound  hole  and  the 
bridge,  and  maintaining  this  position  ^as 
long  as  possible,  except  in  execution  of 
movements  requiring  that  the  hand  be  lifted 
from  the  board. 

THE  STROKES. — In  producing  each  indi- 
vidual sound  indicated  in  the  written 
music,  the  plectrum  is  brought  against  both 
strings  of  each  key ;  the  movement  being 
alternately  a  downward  and  an  upward 
stroke,  as  indicated  in  music  for  beginners 
on  the  instrument.  * 

As  already  noted  in  the  section  on  the 
violin,  the  performance  of  whole  notes  in- 
volves a  crescendo  and  decrescendo,  each 
during  one-half  the  time  indicated,  in  or- 
der to  complete  the  full  value  of  the  note. 
With  the  mandolin,  however,  while  the 
whole  note  is  performed  with  a  similar 
movement,  the  plectrum  necessarily  making 


a  number  of  detached  sounds,  no  matter 
how  rapidly  it  is  manipulated,  plays  the 
whole  note  at  a  series  of  thirty  seconds, 
with  an  alternating  crescendo  and  decres- 
cendo. This  is  indicated  in  the  accompany- 
ing diagram. 

CHORDS. — In  playing  chords  indicated  in 
music  for  the  mandolin,  it  is,  of  course, 
impossible  to  sound  all  the  tones  at  once, 
as  may  be  done  with  the  bow  of  a  violin. 
The  rule,  therefore,  is  to  make  the  neces- 
sary keys,  by  stopping  the  strings,  and  to 
strike  each  one  in  rapid  succession,  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest,  with  a  quick 
and  elastic  stroke.  This  must  be  done  so 
as  to  give,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  effect 
of  several  tones  sounded  at  once,  as  on  the 
piano. 

POINT  OF  STRIKING  THE  STRING. —  Al- 
though there  is  necessarily  considerable 
more  latitude  in  performance  than  on  the 
violin,  the  same  general  rules  hold  good 
for  both  instruments.  Thus,  while  in  most 
playing,  the  strings  are  struck  by  the  plec- 
trum near  the  lower  edge  of  the  sound 
hole,  greater  power  is  attained  when  the 
stroke  is  made  nearer  the  bridge,  and,  cor- 
respondingly, a  softer  and  sweeter  tone  re- 
sults by  striking  near  the  finger-board.  It 
is  necessary  to  carefully  consider  these 
facts,  since  it  is  very  seldom  advisable  to 
produce  greater  volume  of  sound  by  strik- 
ing the  strings  with  a  greater  strength. 
Such  an  action  is  liable  to  mar  the  effect 
of  the  playing,  and  is  not  artistic. 

ON  STOPPING. — In  stopping  the  strings, 
it  is  necessary  to  observe  the  rule  of  press- 
ing the  fingers  straight  down  between  the 
frets,  so  that  the  string  is  shortened  at  the 
fret  and  rests  between  it  and  the  bridge. 
By  this  means  a  superior  purity  of  tone  is  * 
produced,  and  it  only  remains  to  complete 
the  effect  by  the  even  and  flexible  applica- 
tion of  the  plectrum.  In  practicing  both 
fingering  and  playing,  it  is  desirable  to 
begin  slowly,  and  to  play  with  the  utmost 
deliberation,  strictly  observing  the  rules. 


WHOLE    NOTES    IN    THIRTY-SECONDS,    SIXTEENTHS    AND    EIGHTHS, 
GIVING    MOVEMENTS    OF    PLECTRUM 


DUDUDUDU 


D  U  D  U 


D    U 


320 


THE    MANDOLIN    SELF-TAUGHT 


IMPORTANT  MOVEMENTS.  —  Among  the 
most  important  movements  in  mandolin 
music  is  the  tremolo,  which  is  to  be 
played  by  a  rapid  series  of  alternating 
up-and-down  strokes  of  the  plectrum,  to 
the  full  value  of  the  note  as  written. 
These  alternating  strokes  must  be  per- 
fectly even,  both  in  time  and  in  the  force 
with  which  they  are  delivered.  Indeed, 
next  to  the  fingering  of  the  scales,  the 
movement  of  the  plectrum,  in  perform- 
ing tremolo  movements,  is  the  most  im- 
portant subject  for  practice  on  the  man- 
dolin. The  trill  is  produced  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  tremolo,  and  in  both  cases 
the  movements  of  the  fingers  of  the  left 
hand,  in  stopping  the  strings,  must  be 
completely  simultaneous  with  the  move- 
ments of  the  plectrum. 

SHIFTING  THE  STRINGS. — In  the  execu- 
tion of  music  covering  the  wide  range  of 
tones,  and  requiring  movements  from 
one  string  to  another,  practically  the 
same  rules  hold  for  the  mandolin  as  have 
already  been  given  for  the  violin.  These 
are,  that  the  left  hand  should  be  kept 
upon  one  string  as  long  as  possible — 
which  is  to  say,  as  long  as  no  very  great 
changes  of  position  are  required,  and  so 
long  as  the  transition  from  one  string  to 
another  is  not  rendered  inconvenient. 
In  general,  we  may  say  that,  with  both 
instruments,  the  music  is  executed  on 
one  string,  unless  a  succession  of  higher 
notes  is  to  follow,  which  will  render  it 
necessary  to  shift  the  hand.  While  gen- 
eral directions  for  playing  movements 
having  a  wide  range  of  tones  are  given 
in  most  instructions  for  the  mandolin, 
the  question  of  what  string  should  be 
used,  in  the  production  of  a  given  tone 
in  a  given  succession,  may  be  left  largely 
to  the  trained  intelligence  of  the  prac- 
ticed player.  In  order  to  enable  the 
player  to  readily  make  transitions  from 
note  to  note,  and  from  string  to  string, 
and  to  judge  correctly  whether  to  form 
a  tone  on  the  seventh  stop  of  one  string, 
or  with  the  next  one  open,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  he  be  thoroughly  trained  in  fin- 
gering and  in  executing  the  scales  and 
runs. 

SHIFTING  THE  POSITIONS. — The  playing 
of  the  scales  involves  another  necessary 
point  in  the  execution  of  music  on  the 
mandolin,  which  is  the  shifting  of  the 
position.  Briefly  described,  the  change 
of  position  means  the  shifting  of  the 
hand  up  the  string,  so  as  to  move  the 
first  finger  one  tone  or  semitone  higher 


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THE    MANDOLIN    SELF-TAUGHT 


321 


for  each  succeeding  position.  Thus,  for 
the  fourth,  or  G,  string,  the  first  position 
finds  the  first  finger  on  Ab ;  the  second,  on 
A ;  the  third,  on  Bb ;  the  fourth,  on  B.  On 
shifting  to  form  the  second  position,  the  first 
finger  falls  -on  Bb  or  B#;  in  the  third  posi- 
tion it  falls  on  C  or  Ctf ;  in  the  fourth  po- 
sition on  Db  or  Dtf,  etc.  These  successive 
changes  of  position,  of  course,  involve  cor- 
responding changes  in  the  key  of  the  scale 
beginning  on  the  note  made  by  the  first 
finger.  Thus,  the  second  position  on  the 
fourth  string  is  in  the  key  of  Bb;  the  third 
position  in  the  key  of  C;  the  fourth  posi- 
tion in  the  key  of  D;  the  fifth  position  in 
the  key  of  Eb ;  the  sixth  position  in  the 
key  of  F,  etc.,  provided  the  scale  be  run 
from  the  key  governed  by  the  first  finger. 
ORNAMENTAL  MOVEMENTS. — In  making 
the  movements,  known  as  glissando  or  por- 
tamento, the  motion  of  the  plectrum  is 


continuous,  while  the  finger  that  is  stop- 
ping the  string  slides  up  only  until  it 
reaches  the  semitone  above  that  which  is 
to  follow,  thus  giving  opportunity  for  the 
next  finger  to  fall  upon  and  stop  the  note 
required.  In  making  slurs,  only  the  first 
note  of  the  two  connected  by  the  brace  is 
to  be  struck  with  the  plectrum,  the  second 
one  being  sounded  only  accidentally  as  the 
finger  changes  position.  In  descending 
slurs,  the  first  note  is  struck  with  the  plec- 
trum, and  the  string  is  then  pushed  by  the 
finger  that  is  already  stopping  it. 

In  playing  staccato  and  legato  move- 
ments, the  fingering  is  quite  as  important 
an  element  as  the  manipulation  of  the  plec- 
trum. The  grace  note,  however,  is  struck 
by  a  short  and  sharp  movement,  which  is 
distinct  from  that  followed  in  the  produc- 
tion of  other  notes  of  the  same  indicated 
value. 


THE    GUITAR 
SELF-TAUGHT 


ACCORDING  to  an  easy  method  of  classification,  there  are  three 
ordinary  types  of  stringed  instruments.  The  first  includes 
instruments  of  the  violin  class,  such  as  the  violin,  violoncello, 
bass  viol,  viola,  etc.,  which  are  played  with  a  bow.  The  second  class 
is  represented  by  the  mandolin,  which  is  played  with  an  instrument 
called  the  plectrum  or  pick.  The  third  class  includes  the  guitar,  banjo, 
lute,  and  several  other  instruments,  mostly  obsolete,  which  are  played 
by  plucking  the  strings  with  the  fingers,  as  in  the  harp,  zither,  etc. 
The  modern  guitar  is  an  instrument  which,  in  its  general  form, 
suggests  the  violin.  Like  the  latter  instrument,  it  consists  of  two  parts: 
the  body  and  the  neck.  At  the  end  of  the  neck  is  the  peg-board,  holding 
the  pegs  for  attaching  and  stretching  the  strings.  The  body,  however, 
is  formed  flat  on  both  the  front  and  rear  faces,  and  has  a  single  sound 
hole,  or  "rosette,"  in  the  centre  of  the  sounding-board.  As  in  the  violin 
and  mandolin,  the  strings,  stretched  by  tension  at  the  pegs,  hang  free 
between  the  nut  and  the  bridge.  Unlike  these  instruments,  however,  the 
strings  are  attached  to  the  bridge,  instead  of  to  a  tail-piece.  The  various 
tones  are  produced  by  the  stopping"  of  the  strings  at  the  frets,  which  are 
metal  strips  fixed  across  the  finger-board  at  proper  intervals. 


PRACTICAL   INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE   GUITAR  STUDENT 


THE  STRINGS  AND  OPEN  TONES. 
— The  guitar  has  six  strings,  which,  as 
in  the  violin  and  mandolin,  are  arranged 
to  run  up  the  scale  from  left  to  right;  the 
finest  string  being  the  last  to  the  right  and 
the  coarsest,  the  last  string  to  the  left.  As 
shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  the 
sixth,  or  left-hand,  string  represents  the 
tone  corresponding  to  the  E  below  middle 
C,  and  the  first  string  at  the  right,  the  E 
above  middle  C.  From  left  to  right,  the 
strings  correspond  to  the  following  open 
tones:  E,  A,  D,  G,  B,  E.  Thus  the  inter- 
vals between  the  6th  and  5th;  5th  and  4th; 
4th  and  3d;  2d  and  ist  are  fourths,  and 
(322) 


that  between  the  3d  and  2d  is  a  third.  The 
guitar  is  always  tuned  to  these  tones  ex- 
cept for  the  playing  of  some  Spanish  pieces, 
fandangos,  etc.,  which  require  a  somewhat 
different  tuning,  as  will  be  explained  later. 

The  three  lower  strings  (4th,  5th,  and 
6th)  are  generally  made  of  brass  or  sil- 
ver wire,  or  occasionally  of  silk,  and  the 
three  upper  strings  (ist,  26,  and  3d)  of 
catgut. 

THE  CORRECT  POSITION  IN  PLAYING. — In 
playing  a  guitar,  the  correct  position  is  to 
sit  with  the  left  foot  slightly  elevated,  as 
on  a  footstool,  and  with  the  right  thrown 
somewhat  outward.  The  instrument  is  held 


THE   GUITAR   SELF-TAUGHT 


323 


in  the  left  hand,  pressed  slightly  against  the 
body,  being  balanced  by  the  right  arm  be- 
tween the  wrist  and  elbow.  The  neck  is 
held  between  the  upper  point  of  the  thumb 
and  the  lower  part  of  the  forefinger  of  the 
left  hand.  This  allows  the  four  fingers  to 
hang  over  the  first  four  frets  in  the  first 
position;  being  conveniently  disposed,  at 
the  same  time,  to  assume  the  other  posi- 
tions, as  will  be  presently  explained.  The 
various  tones  are  formed  precisely  as  in  the 
mandolin  and  violin,  although,  on  account 
of  the  peculiar  character  of  the  instrument, 
there  are  several  methods  of  stopping  and 
touching,  which  are  very  seldom,  if  ever, 
used  in  the  former  instruments. 

THE  USE  OF  THE  RIGHT  HAND. — The  play- 
ing is  done  by  the  right  hand,  which  rests 
at  the  middle  of  the  forearm  on  the  edge 
of  the  instrument,  so  as  to  enable  the  fin- 
gers to  touch  the  strings  midway  between 
the  sounding-board  and  rosette.  The  play- 


strings  with  the  left  hand,  and  in  shifting 
from  one  string  to  another,  the  same  gen- 
eral rule  holds  for  the  guitar  as  for  the 
violin  and  mandolin.  This  prescribes  that 
one  string  should  be  used  as  long  as  pos- 
sible— which  is  to  say,  as  long  as  no  very 
great  shifting  of  position  on  the  one  string 
is  required.  Generally,  however,  in  scales 
and  runs,  or  where  there  is  a  succession 
of  notes,  rising  in  one  direction  or  falling 
in  another,  it  is  preferable  to  use  the  open 
tone,  when  it  is  reached,  instead  of  stop- 
ping at  the  proper  fret  on  the  string  below. 
This  rule  is  formed  on  the  basis  of  experi- 
ence, and  indicates  the  method  found  most 
suitable  for  attaining  ease  of  playing  and 
good  effect. 

ON  THE  POSITIONS. — In  order  to  acquire 
a  facility  in  playing  the  guitar,  it  is  essen- 
tial to  practice,  not  only  the  scales  in  the 
various  keys,  as  in  other  instruments,  but 
also  to  acquire  a  facility  in  playing  on  the 


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LAYOUT  OF  THE  GUITAR:  RANGE  OF  TONES 


ing  is  done  with  the  thumb,  first,  second, 
and  third  fingers.  The  fourth  finger  is 
practically  never  used  in  ordinary  playing, 
but  should  not  be  placed  against  the  sound- 
ing-board, as  a  support  to  the  hand,  since 
this  practice  tends  to  interfere  with  the 
grace  and  ease  of  movement.  The  thumb 
always  strikes  the  lowest  note  of  a  chord, 
and  also  the  lowest  string  in  any  scale  or 
succession  of  tones.  This  rule  applies 
whether  the  lowest  string  be  of  wire  or  of 
gut.  In  picking  the  strings,  only  the  ends 
of  the  fingers  should  be  used. 

MARKS  FOR  DOUBLE  FINGERING. — In  mark- 
ing the  exercises  for  the  guitar  it  is  nec- 
essary to  indicate  fingering  for  both  hands. 
The  plan  generally  adopted,  therefore,  is  to 
designate  the  open  strings  by  zero  (o),  and 
the  first,  second,  and  third  fingers  by  I,  2, 
3,  respectively.  In  the  right  hand  the  thumb 
is  indicated  by  (X)  ;  the  first  finger  by  one 
dot  (.)  ;  the  second  by  two  dots  (. .)  ;  the 
third  by  three  dots  (...). 

STOPPING  AND  SHIFTING. — In  stopping  the 


different  positions,  and  in  shifting  from  one 
position  to  another.  Briefly  explained,  a 
position  is  called  first,  second,  third,  etc., 
according  as  the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand 
"governs"  or  is  in  position  to  stop  at  the 
first,  second,  or  third  fret,  etc.  In  chang- 
ing position  on  any  given  string,  the  hand 
is  simply  shifted  upward,  so  that  the  first 
finger  comes  over  the  fret  next  above  that 
which  is  previously  governed.  Thus,  on  the 
lowest,  or  sixth,  string,  the  first  position 
finds  the  first  finger  over  the  F  fret,  the  sec- 
ond over  Fit,  the  third  over  G ;  in  the  second 
position  the  first  finger  is  over  F#,  the  sec- 
ond over  G,  the  third  over  Gtf.  Thus,  in 
running  scales  on  the  several  positions  the 
key  is  changed.  This  is  an  important  point 
for  the  beginner  to  understand;  since  it 
shows  him  at  the  start  the  most  convenient 
positions  in  which  to  play  a  piece  written 
in  any  given  key. 

THE  BEST  KEYS  FOR  THE  GUITAR. — While 
the  range  of  the  guitar  is  sufficiently  ex- 
tensive to  allow  of  playing  music  in  any 


324 


THE   GUITAR    SELF-TAUGHT 


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THE   GUITAR   SELF-TAUGHT 


325 


key,  the  rules  governing  correct  perform- 
ance determine  that  certain  keys  may  be 
more  easily  rendered  than  others.  The 
most  suitable  are,  accordingly,  the  natural 
key  of  C  major,  and  its  relative,  A  minor; 
the  key  of  F  major,  and  its  relative,  D 
minor;  the  key  of  G  major,  and  its  rela- 
tive, E  minor;  also,  of  D  major,  A  major, 
and  E  major.  The  other  keys  are  more 
difficult  than  those  designated,  and  should 
be  avoided  when  possible.  As  may  be  seen 
from  the  accompanying  musical  diagram, 
the  five  positions  most  used — to  wit,  the 
second,  fourth,  fifth,  seventh,  and  ninth — 

CHORDS  IN  KEY  OF  C. 
IBarre. 


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CHORDS  IN  KEY  OF  G. 


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correspond,  respectively,  to  the  keys  of  D, 
E,  F,  G,  and  A,  as  already  indicated.  In 
playing  in  other  keys,  it  will  be  found  nec- 
essary to  use  the  barre  more  frequently  than 
is  convenient  for  the  average  player. 

ON  STOPPING  THE  STRINGS. — In  stopping 
the  strings,  the  finger  should  press  down 
firmly  on  the  nut-sjde  of  the  fret  until  an- 
other fret  is  to  be  stopped,  unless  the  follow- 
ing note  had  best  be  given  open  on  the  same 
string.  In  playing  scales,  or  a  long  suc- 
cession of  notes,  it  is  desirable  that  the  fin- 
gers be  not  raised  too  quickly.  Neglect  of 
this  rule  involves  that  the  open  string  may 
vibrate,  as  the  hand  shifts  from  one  to 


another  string,  thus  marring  the  effect  of 
the  performance.  In  stopping  the  strings 
the  same  rule  holds,  as  has  been  previ- 
ously given  for  the  mandolin,  that  the  fin- 
ger should  press  the  string  between  frets 
so  as  to  leave  it  free  to  vibrate  fully,  sup- 
ported between  the  fret  and  the  bridge.  If 
the  string  is  wrongly  fingered,  and  the  fin- 
ger presses  directly  on  the  fret,  the  result 
will  be  a  damping  of  the  vibration,  and  a 
marked  and  disagreeable  contrast  between 
the  open  and  stopped  tones.  On  this  ac- 
count, it  is  particularly  desirable  that  the 
student  take  regular  exercises  on  the  open 
tones,  as,  for  example,  in  running  the  dia- 
tonic or  chromatic  scales  on  the  first  posi- 
tion, or,  in  the  scale  of  C,  as  shown  in  the 
plan  of  the  positions  already  given. 

ON  PLAYING  CHORDS  AND  ARPEGGIOS. — 
Owing  to  the  manner  of  playing  the  guitar, 
it  is  possible  to  render  a  large  number  of 
ordinary  chords  of  from  three  to  six  notes. 
A  chord  composed  of  three  notes  is  to  be 
played  with  the  thumb  and  first  and  second 
fingers  of  the  right  hand,  which  may  be  used 
to  pluck  the  three  strings  simultaneously. 
With  a  chord  of  four  notes,  the  third  finger  is 
added  to  the  other  two,  and  the  four  strings 
are  plucked  simultaneously.  When  a  chord 
of  five  or  six  notes  occurs,  the  rule  is  that 
the  two  lowest  tones  are  to  be  produced  by 
the  thumb  sliding  rapidly  from  the  lower 
string  to  the  next;  after  which  the  remain- 
ing three  or  four  notes  are  struck  simul- 
taneously, in  the  manner  just  described. 
Very  frequently  a  chord  is  played  as  an 
arpeggio,  the  strings  stopped  by  the  fingers 
of  the  left  hand,  or  left  on  open  tones,  be- 
ing struck  one  after  another  in  rapid  suc- 
cession, so  as  to  produce,  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible, the  effect  of  being  a  simultaneous 
attack,  as  in  the  mandolin.  The  following 
example  illustrates  the  method  of  playing 
a  chord  as  an  arpeggio,  also  the  proper  fin- 
gering. Of  course,  in  playing  a  chord  as 
an  arpeggio,  the  strings  remain  stopped 
until  the  entire  sequence  has  been  rendered, 
or  as  many  of  them  as  possible  are  held 
down  to  the  end.  Thus,  all  of  them  con- 
tinue vibrating  at  once.  When  an  arpeggio 
occurs  in  a  piece  written  to  slow  time, '  it 
may  be  fingered  as  in  the  annexed  exam- 
ples ;  but,  when  the  movement  is  rapid,  the 
thumb  is  run  over  the  stopped  strings,  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest;  this  movement 
being  indicated  by  the  slur. 

THE  BARRE. — The  movement  known  as 
the  barre  consists  in  pressing  two  or  more 
strings  with  the  first  finger  on  some  given 
fret.  A  mechanical  device  known  as  capo- 


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THE   GUITAR   SELF-TAUGHT 


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THE   GUITAR   SELF-TAUGHT 


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dastro  is  also  used.    The  effect  produced  is 
to  shorten  the  vibrating  range  of  the  string 
so  that  by  stopping  it  lightly  sounds  may  be 
produced  somewhat  higher  than  those  natu- 
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Small  Barre.                       Great  Barre. 

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are  two  kinds  of  barre;  the  small,  when 
two  or  three   strings   only   are   stopped   in 
this   manner;   the  great,   when  all   six  are 
stopped.     Examples   of  both   occur   in  the 
above  diagram. 
TRIPLETS  AND  SEXTOLETS.  —  In  accompany- 
ing the  voice,  or  another  instrument,  trip- 
lets and  sextolets  are  frequently  introduced 
into  the  music,  in  order  to  improve  the  ef- 
fect.    Such  a  movement  should  be  carefully 
practiced,  as  well  as  the  chords,  with  the 
fingering,   since   they  are  among  the  most 
important  elements  of  the  guitar. 
ON  PLAYING  SLURS.  —  Another  point  nec- 
essary to  be  understood  is  the  manner  of 
playing  slurs.    As  is  well  known,  there  are 
two  kinds  of  slurs:    (i)   the  ascending,  in 
which  the  movement  is  from  a  lower  to  a 
higher   note;    and    (2)    the   descending,   in 
which  it  is  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  note. 
In  playing  an   ascending  slur,   the  correct 
procedure   is   to   pick   the   string,   properly 
stopped,   for  producing  the  first  note,  and 
immediately  to  place  the  finger  in  position 
for  making  the  second  note,  without  pick- 
ing the  string  to  produce  it.     To  play  the 
descending  slur,   strike  the  first  note  with 
the  right  hand,  and,  on  stopping  the  string 
to  form  the  second,  snap  it  with  the  finger 
of  the  left  hand,  thus  producing  the  second 
tone  at  about  the  value  required.     In  sim- 
ilar manner,  the  slide  or  glide  is  produced. 
A    series    of   notes   being   indicated   to   be 
played  glissando,  the  lowest  is  stopped  by 
the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand,  and,  after 
it  has  been  struck  by  the  right  hand,  the 
succeeding   notes    are    produced   by   sliding 
the  left  up  the  neck  of  the  instrument,  over 
all  the  frets,  until  the  proper  position  for 
making   the   last    note   is   reached.     Grace 
notes    are    also    played    with    the    slurred 
effect. 

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THE   GUITAR   SELF-TAUGHT 


used  in  guitar  music  is  the  production  of 
that  known  as  harmonics.  A  harmonic  is 
usually  an  octave  higher  than  the  tone  in- 
dicated in  the  written  music,  and  is  pro- 
duced by  touching  the  string  at  the  proper 
fret  with  only  sufficient  force  to  prevent  it 
from  vibrating  on  the  open  tone;  thus  pro- 
ducing a  pleasing  flute-like  note.  Har- 
monics may  be  produced  on  every  string 
of  the  guitar  on  the  twelfth,  seventh,  fifth, 
fourth,  and  third  frets.  They  are  gener- 
ally distinguished  from  the  note  indicated 
in  the  written  music  by  the  abbreviation 
har.,  or  a  small  circle  (°). 

The  explanation  given  by  physicists   for 
the   production  of  harmonics,   as   just   ex- 


occur  at  the  frets  designated  above;  pro- 
ducing tones  pitched  an  octavo  higher  than 
those  occurring  with  a  fully  stopped  string, 
although  sounding  clear  and  sharp.  These 
effects  may  not  be  produced  by  similar  fin- 
gering on  other  frets. 

TUNING  THE  GUITAR. — The  process  of 
tuning  a  guitar  is  comparatively  simple, 
being  very  similar  to  that  already  described 
in  connection  with  the  violin.  In  both  in- 
struments the  usual  custom  is  to  tune  the 
open  string  of  Atl  first  and  to  find  the 
tones  for  the  other  strings  on  the  proper 
intervals.  Thus,  the  fifth  string  is  tuned 
to  the  tone  of  A,  as  given  by  a  piano  or 
tuning-fork.  On  the  piano  the  tone  cor- 


TABLE  OF  TONES  GIVING  HARMONICS  AN  OCTAVE  HIGHER  OR  AT 

THE  FRETS  INDICATED 

FRETS  Sixth  String.        Fifth  String.      Fourth  String.      Third  String.      Second  String.      First  String 


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plained,  is  that  several  strings  of  the  same 
length,  whether  of  the  same  diameter  or 
not,  vibrate  with  the  same  "amplitudes" — 
which  is  to  say,  "belly  out"  to  about  the 
same  distance  on  every  side.  Each  string, 
however,  vibrates  in  a  succession  of  such 
"loops,"  as  has  been  proved  repeatedly  by 
experiment;  leaving  inactive  spaces,  or 
"nodes,"  between  the  several  loops.  If, 
therefore,  a  vibrating  string  be  touched  at 
any  point  on  a  loop,  its  sound  will  only 
be  muffled,  or  damped.  If  it  is  touched  on 
a  node,  the  vibration  may  continue,  and  a 
clear  tone  be  Droduced.  Thus,  in  sounding 
harmonics  on  the  guitar,  the  player  merely 
touches  the  string  r4-  --odal  points,  which 


responds  exactly  to  that  of  the  A  below 
middle  C.  Having  found  this  tone,  the 
fourth  string  may  be  tuned  to  a  fifth  above, 
or  in  unison  with  the  tone  given  by  the 
second  string  stopped  at  the  fifth  fret.  The 
third,  or  G,  string  should  give,  as  its  open 
tone,  a  unison  with  that  produced  by  stop- 
ping the  fourth  string  at  the  fifth  fret 
The  open  tone  of  the  second  string,  how- 
ever, being  only  a  third  above  G,  or  B, 
may  be  obtained  by  stopping  the  third  string 
at  the  fourth  fret.  In  tuning  the  first,  or 
E,  string  the  tone  may  be  found  by  stop- 
ping the  second  string  at  the  fifth  fret. 
Having  found  the  proper  open  tone  for  the 
first  string,  that  of  the  sixth  string  may 


THE    GUITAR   SELF-TAUGHT 


be  readily  obtained,  by  tuning  the  two  into 
unison;  the  tones  being  exactly  two  oc- 
taves apart. 

SPECIAL  TUNING  SCHEMES. — The  tuning, 
as  just  given,  is  the  one  adopted  in  playing 
most  music  for  the  guitar.  Certain  Span- 
ish pieces,  however,  require  different  tun- 
ings, in  order  to  simplify  the  manipulation 
of  the  instrument.  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, in  buying  sheet  music,  to  carefully 


m 


observe  the  special  tuning,  if  any,  that  is 
indicated  at  the  head  oi  the  first  page.  Two 
examples  of  peculiar  tuning  are  given  here- 
with. The  first  follows  the  tuning  most 
comr  only  adopted  in  playing  the  Spanish 
fandangos,  habaneras,  etc. 

As  may  be  seen,  the  sixth  string  is  tuned 
to  the  pitch  of  D  below  middle  C  on  the 
piano,  or  the  D  below  the  F  in  the  bass 
clef;  the  fifth  string  is  tuned  to  a  fourth 
above,  which  is  the  G  below  middle  C;  the 
fourth  string  is  the  fifth  above  that,  or  the 
D  below  the  line  of  the  treble  staff;  the 
third  string  is  tuned  to  a  fourth  above,  or 
to  G  of  the  treble  clef,  the  second  string, 
to  a  third  above,  or  B,  and  first  string,  also, 
to  a  third,  or  D. 

In  tuning  the  instrument  to  this  scheme, 


therefore,  it  is  first  necessary  to  lower  the 
open  tone  of  the  sixth  string  one  whole 
note,  making  it  D,  in  octave  with  the  open 
tone  of  the  fourth  string.  The  fifth  string 
is  then  lowered  a  whole  tone  to  G,  in  oc- 
tave with  the  open  tone  of  the  third  string, 
the  fourth,  third,  and  second  strings  re- 
maining precisely  as  in  ordinary  tuning, 
but  the  first  string  being  lowered  a  whole 
tone  so  as  to  give  D,  or  a  third  above  the 
second.  By  this  tuning  the  instrument  may 
be  played  as  under  ordinary  conditions,  the 
distance  between  each  pair  of  frets  being 
still  a  semitone. 

The  second  piece,  included  herewith,  il- 
lustrates still  another  method  of  tuning,  in 
which  the  sixth  string  has  the  tone  of  C 
next  below  middle  C  on  the  piano,  or  the 


C  of  the  bass  staff;  the  fifth  and  fourth 
have  each  the  tone  of  middle  C;  the  third 
and  second  strings  the  tones  of  G,  B,  and 
E,  as  ordinarily. 

While  these  exceptional  tunings  will  not 
be  met  by  the  student,  until  his  studies  are 
considerably  advanced,  it  is  desirable  to 
describe  them  in  this  place,  in  order  that 
he  may  understand  at  the  start  one  of  the 
commonest  experiences  of  the  finished  per- 
former. 


THE    VIOLONCELLO 
SELF-TAUGHT 


IN  POINT  of  construction  and  general  theory  of  playing,  the  violoncello 
is  a  larger  form  of  violin.     In  fact,  except  for  the  difference  in  size, 
the  same  general  description  holds  good  for  both  instruments.     As 
compared  with  the  music  for  the  piano  or  violin,  it  is  a  bass  instrument; 
its  tones  on  the  open  strings  ranging  through  nearly  two  octaves  from  the 
second  below  middle  C,  and  by  stopping  the  strings,  giving  more  than  two 
octaves  above.     As  compared  with  the  bass  viol,  however,  it  reminds  one 
of  the  relation  between  baritone  and  bass  voices — the  bass  in  both  cases 
being  characterized  by  the  greater  weight  and  body  of  tone. 

On  account  of  its  greater  size,  the  violoncello  must  be  held  and  played 
differently  from  the  violin.  It  also  requires  several  other  peculiarities  of 
management. 


PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT 


POSITION  OF  THE  PLAYER.— In 
playing  the  violoncello,  the  performer 
sits  rather  *orward  in  his  chair  and  sup- 
ports the  instrument  between  his  knees;  its 
principal  support  at  the  rear  being  against 
the  muscular  portion  of  his  legs.  It  is  es- 
sential, however,  that  the  belly  of  the  in- 
strument should  be  further  forward  than 
the  performer's  knees,  in  order  that  the 
movement  of  the  bow  may  not  be  inter- 
fered with. 

THE  POSITION  OF  THE  LEFT  HAND. — The 
manner  of  holding  the  neck  of  the  instru- 
ment with  the  left  hand  is,  in  general,  very 
much  the  same  as  that  already  described  for 
the  violin.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  left  hand  to  support  the  instrument 
at  the  neck,  at  the  same  time  allowing  the 
fingers  freedom  for  stopping  the  strings. 
To  be  more  precise,  the  thumb  of  the  left 
hand  must  grasp  the  back  of  the  neck,  at 
a  point  exactly  opposite  the  second  finger, 
as  it  touches  the  finger-board.  In  holding 
the  fingers  in  readiness  for  stopping,  they 
should  be  at  least  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
above  the  level  of  the  string;  all  of  them 
curved,  except  the  fourth,  which  is  more 
easily  held  straightened.  The  fingers  are 
(330) 


supported  by  the  third  joint  of  the  first  fin- 
ger, which  rests  against  the  side  of  the 
neck.  This  position  renders  it  an  easy  mat- 
ter to  stop  the  strings  strongly  and  quickly. 
In  making  some  of  the  higher  notes  in  the 
range  of  the  instrument,  particularly  on  the 
first  string,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the 
hand  entirely  from  the  neck,  and  to  sup- 
port the  instrument  wholly  at  the  knees, 
at  the  same  time  using  the  thumb,  by  lay- 
ing it  across  the  strings  at  a  convenient 
point,  in  order  to  support  the  hand,  and  as- 
sist the  fingers  in  making  stops. 

HOLDING  AND  WORKING  THE  Bow. — The 
rules  for  bowing  the  violoncello  are,  in  gen- 
eral, the  same  as  those  noted  in  connection 
with  the  violin,  so  far  as  applicable  in  play- 
ing, although  the  bow  is  differently  held  in 
the  two  instruments,  while  the  effects  to  be 
obtained  are  somewhat  different.  In  order 
to  produce  the  proper  effect  in  playing,  the 
bow  should  be  held  slightly  between  the 
thumb  and  the  two  middle  fingers.  It  is 
held,  hoWever,  from  the  top  of  the  stick, 
instead  of  from  the  side,  as  in  the  violin, 
the  two  middle  fingers  resting  against  the 
hair  to  give  the  hand  a  firm  hold.  The  first 
finger  of  the  right  hand  serves  to  regulate 


THE   VIOLONCELLO    SELF-TAUGHT 


331 


;he  pressure  of  the  bow  upon  the  strings, 
by  its  degree  of  pressure  on  the  stick,  and, 
in  so  doing,  performs  the  most  essential 
part  in  the  proper  production  of  tone  ef- 
fects. The  little  finger  of  the  right  hand  is 
placed  near  the  nut  of  the  bow,  although 


having  no  function  in  either  holding  or 
regulating  its  motions.  The  fingers  should  be 
about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  apart,  and  all, 
except  the  first,  be  kept  straight,  in  order 
that  the  knuckles  of  the  hand  may  remain 
parallel  with  the  stick  as  long  as  pos- 
sible. As  in  playing  the  violin,  the  bow 
must  touch  the  strings  exactly  at  right 
angles  to  their  length,  the  stick  being  in- 
clined toward  the  finger-board,  as  in  the 
violin,  care  always  being  taken  to  prevent 
it  from  touching  the  strings. 

Apart  from  the  rule  of  regulating  the 
pressure  of  the  bow  with  the  first  finger 
of  the  right  hand,  there  are  very  few  pe- 
culiar points  that  need  be  specified  for 
bowing  the  violoncello.  To  produce  a  fine 
tone,  the  bow  should  be  placed  lightly 
upon  the  strings,  particularly  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  note.  In  playing  whole  tones, 
the  bow  is  drawn  from  end  to  end,  but 

FIRST  STRING. 


for  short  notes  only  a  part  of  a  stroke  is 
used.  As  in  the  violin,  the  terms  "up- 
bow"  and  "down-bow"  are  used  to  desig- 
nate, respectively,  the  pushing  and  the 
drawing  stroke.  In  playing  scales  an£ 
runs,  the  length  of  bow  to  be  used  for 
each  note  may  be  determined  by  its  time- 
value;  also,  by  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  fingering  is  done  or  the  bow  is  moved. 

THE  STRINGS  AND  TUNING. — As  in  the 
violin  and  mandolin,  there  are  four  strings 
on  the  violoncello.  They  are  differently 
tuned,  however,  from  the  strings  of  other 
instruments,  the  tones  ranging  from  the 
C  of  the  second  octave  below  middle  C  to 
the  A  next  before  it.  The  four  strings, 
as  in  the  violin,  are  tuned  to  perfect  fifths, 
being  respectively  C,  G,  D,  and  A. 

STOPPING  THE  STRINGS. — Owing  to  the 
length  of  the  finger-board  and  the  greater 
diameter  of  the  strings  on  a  violoncello, 
the  touches  for  the  proper  tones  are  fur- 
ther apart  than  on  any  other  stringed  in- 
strument we  have  thus  far  described.  Thus, 
the  first  touch,  for  producing  the  semitone 
next  below  the  nut,  is  over  one  and  three- 
eighths  inches  up  the  string,  while  the  touch 
for  the  first  tone  above  the  nut  is  nearly 
three  inches  up  the  string.  In  order,  there- 
fore, to  hold  the  fingers  in  position  for 
stopping  four  consecutive  semitones,  a  con- 
siderable stretch  is  required,  and  the  hand 
must  be  firmly  held  against  the  neck  of 
the  instrument.  In  playing  upward  runs 
and  scales,  the  rule  is  to  hold  down  the 
fingers  already  stopping  the  strings,  even 
after  the  new  tone  is  reached.  Thus,  in  per- 
forming the  descending  scales,  the  fingers 
are  raised,  one  after  another,  from  the  po- 
sitions taken  in  performing  the  upward  run. 

THE  POSITIONS. — In  shifting  position, 
precisely  the  same  principles  hold  as  have 
already  been  described  in  connection  with 
other  stringed  instruments.  In  order, 


Second  Position. 

SECOND  STRING. 

*    f 

THIRD  STRING. 

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FOURTH  STRING. 

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Third  Position. 

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Fourth  Position. 

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332 


THE    VIOLONCELLO    SELF-TAUGHT 


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THE   VIOLONCELLO    SELF-TAUGHT 


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THE    VIOLONCELLO    SELF-TAUGHT 


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THE   VIOLONCELLO   SELF-TAUGHT 


335 


therefore,  to  stop  a  note  that  is  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  hand  held  in  the  first  posi- 
tion— which  is  to  say,  with  the  fingers  ready 
to  stop  the  strings  at  the  first  four  semi- 
tones above  the  nut — it  is  necessary  to 
shift  a  semitone,  a  tone,  or  even  further 
up  the  finger-board,  in  order  to  reach  and 
stop  it  In  playing  a  scale  or  succession 
of  notes  to  a  shift,  it  is  necessary  to 
change  the  fingering  somewhat  from  that 
which  would  usually  be  followed,  if  the 
first  position  only  were  in  use.  Thus,  in 
playing  and  rendering  the  scale  of  C, 
from  the  fourth  to  the  first  string,  avoid- 
ing open  tones,  the  fingering  will  be  as 
given  in  the  accompanying  example.  Here 
we  see  that  the  first  touch  above  the  nut 
is  made  by  the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand, 
and,  in  order  to  shift  a  whole  tone  and 
stop  three  notes  higher  up,  the  first  finger 
is  shifted  to  the  touch  a  tone  above,  and 
stops  that  tone;  the  second  finger  following 
to  the  semitone  above,  and  the  fourth  finger 
on  the  whole  tone  next  above  that.  The 
same  fingering  applies  to  the  playing  of 
the  remainder  of  the  run  through  the  other 
three  strings.  However,  in  taking  the  third 
position  on  each  string,  in  which  five  tones 
below  the  nut  are  to  be  stopped  in  each, 
the  fingering  is  changed,  so  that  the  first 
and  third  are  used  in  the  first  position,  and 
the  first,  second,  and  fourth,  in  the  second, 
on  making  the  whole  shift.  Similarly,  in 
making  the  runs  on  the  fourth  position,  so 
as  to  include  six  whole  stops  below  the 


nut,  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  fingers,  or 
the  first,  third,  and  fourth,  are  used  in 
stopping  on  the  first  position;  and  the  first, 
third,  and  fourth,  after  the  shift,  except  on 
the  first  string.  In  the  fifth  and  other  po- 
sitions, the  touches  are  so  much  closer  to- 
gether that  the  first,  second,  and  third  fin- 
gers may  be  used  throughout,  thus  greatly 
simplifying  the  production  of  long  runs, 
and  rendering  the  work  of  stopping  much 
simpler. 

STACCATO  AND  SPICCATO  MOVEMENTS. — 
In  the  production  of  staccato  movements, 
the  several  notes  are  sharply  detached  under 
a  single  stroke  of  the  bow.  The  proper 
motion  may  be  obtained  by  pressing  the 
bow  lightly  with  the  first  finger.  Consid- 
erable practice  is  required  to  enable  the 
performer  to  strike  the  staccato  notes  suf- 
ficiently short  and  distinct.  A  movement, 
somewhat  similar  in  effect,  is  that  known 
as  spiccato,  which  is  performed  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  bow,  held  against  the  strings 
with  an  elastic  contact,  but  receiving  a 
continual  jumping  movement,  by  quick  up- 
and-down  movements  of  the  wrist.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  staccato,  the  notes  must 
be  made  as  short  as  possible;  the  bow 
being  kept  moving  up  and  down,  as 
it  were,  by  the  movement  of  the  wrist, 
and  making  mere  touches  in  alternate  di- 
rections, in  order  to  produce  consecutive 
notes. 

HARMONICS.— Like  the  guitar,  music  for 
the  violoncello  regularly  uses  harmonics  to 


Played  thus: 


Real  sound. 


EASY  HARMONICS  ON  THE  FOUR   STRINGS 

FIRST  STRING.  SECOND  STRING. 

tf-f-       -*- 


mt 


THIRD  STRING. 


FOURTH  STRING. 


Played  thus : 


Real  sound. 


=3= 


THE   VIOLONCELLO    SELF-TAUGHT 


several  different  tones.  There  are  two  va- 
rieties of  harmonics  recognized  in  this  in- 
strument ;  to  wit,  natural  and  artificial.  Nat- 
ural harmonics  are  produced  by  touching 
the  string  lightly  on  certain  notes  with  a 
finger  of  the  left  hand,  and  striking  the 
string,  thus  stopped,  with  the  bow,  also 
held  lightly.  Artificial  harmonics  are  pro- 


duced on  the  higher  tones  by  setting  the 
thumb  firmly  on  the  string  and  touching 
the  fourth  degree  above  lightly  with  the 
third  finger  of  the  left  hand.  This  pro- 
duces the  sound  of  the  second  octave  above 
the  note  that  would  usually  result,  if  the 
string  were  regularly  stopped  at  the  point 
touched  by  the  thumb. 


ARTIFICIAL  HARMONICS  ON  THE  FIRST  AND  SECOND  STRINGS 
Upper  staffs  show  how  they  are  played;  lower  staffs  how  they  sound 

8       -a      4     <U 


-•£— T    r    f    r    r    i=- 

H » 1  I 1 1 C 


Second  string 

* 


THE  cornet  is  nearly  the  most  familiar  example  of  the  class  of  musi- 
cal instruments  included  under  the  general  head  of  brass  instru- 
ments, horns,  and  trumpets.  In  the  production  of  music  in  a  horn 
or  trumpet,  the  theory  is,  briefly,  to  lengthen  the  tube  to  produce  lower 
tones  and  to  shorten  it  to  produce  higher  tones,  which  is  in  accordance 
with  the  theory  followed  with  stringed  instruments,  as  we  have  already 
seen.  Bearing  this  fact  in  mind,  we  may  understand  that  the  slide  trom- 
bone is  the  type  of  the  brass  instruments,  since  its  varying  tones  are  pro- 
duced by  sliding  the  two  straight  ends  of  a  U-shaped  portion  of  the  tube 
inward  or  outward,  thus  shortening  or  lengthening  the  channel  through 
which  the  breath  is  forced  in  producing  the  sounds.  With  keyed  trum- 
pets, like  the  cornet  and  other  band  instruments,  the  lengthening  and 
shortening  of  the  tube  is  accomplished  by  opening  and  closing  keys,  or 
valves,  leading  through  coils  of  tube;  thus  giving  the  proper  length  for 
producing  the  desired  sound. 

In  addition  to  the  several  devices  employed  for  varying  the  length  of 
the  tube  of  a  brass  instrument,  we  must  also  have  such  variation  of  the 
force  with  which  the  breath  is  sent  through  the  mouthpiece,  and  such 
skilful  management  of  the  lips,  as  shall  secure  the  correct  tone  when  the 
proper  length  of  tube  has  been  provided.  In  fact,  these  latter  elements 
are  really  the  most  important  things  to  be  understood  and  mastered,  since, 
otherwise,  it  is  very  frequently  impossible  to  produce  all  the  tones  in  any 
key,  even  with  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  valves. 


PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  CORNET  STUDENT 


THE  VALVES  AND  TONES.— The  cor- 
net has  three  valves,  which  are  operated 
by  the  first,  second,  and  third  fingers  of  the 
right  hand ;  being  called  the  first,  second,  and 
third  valves,  respectively.  As  already  ex- 
plained, the  act  of  pressing  down  a  valve 
lengthens  the  tubing  and  lowers  the  pitch  be- 
low an  open  tone.  Thus,  by  manipulation  of 
the  first  valve,  the  pitch  is  lowered  a  whole 
tone;  by  the  second  valve,  a  half  tone;  and 
by  the  third  valve,  three  half  tones,  or  a 
tone  and  a  half.  It  is,  therefore,  a  simple 
matter  to  produce  the  consecutive  notes  in 
the  diatonic  scale,  if  the  performer  (i)  is 


thoroughly  familiar  with  the  intervals  of 
the  scale,  and  (2)  is  well  practiced  in  the 
proper  use  of  the  lips  and  breath.  It  is 
not  necessary,  however,  to  use  the  valves  in 
the  production  of  all  consecutive  tones, 
since  th-s  skilful  performer  can  produce  a 
number  of  different  tones,  both  open  and 
with  the  use  of  either  one  of  the  valves, 
any  two  of  them,  or  all  three  together. 
Furthermore,  as  is  shown  by  the  accom- 
panying examples,  there  are  several  tones 
in  the  available  compass  of  the  cornet  that 
may  be  produced  by  two  or  even  three  dif- 
ferent combinations  of  valves  or  open 

(337) 


338 


THE   CORNET    SELF-TAUGHT 


TONES  PRODUCED  BY  TWO  OR    MORE  COMBINATIONS 


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a  OR    30*    J  01    J  0    O*  '  J     «  f 


tones;  and  no  less  than  five  different  notes 
that  may  be  produced  in  four  distinct 
ways.  However,  the  combinations  given 
in  the  chromatic  scale  are  those  that  have 
been  found  altogether  the  most  convenient 
and  easiest  to  render. 

OPEN  AND  VALVE  TONES. — As  shown  in 
the  accompanying  chromatic  scale,  the  fol- 
lowing tones  may  be  produced  open :  The 
C  below  the  treble  staff;  the  G  on  the  sec- 
ond line;  the  C  next  above,  the  following 
E  and  G,  and  the  C  above  the  line.  The 
first  valve  controls  the  production  of  Bb 
below  the  line;  the  F  on  the  first  space; 
Bb  on  the  third  line;  the  D,  F,  and  the 
Fb  above.  Similarly,  also,  the  second 
valve  controls  the  production  of  six  dif- 
ferent tones.  The  third  valve  may  be 
used  in  the  production  of  seven  distinct 
notes,  but  is  seldom  used  alone,  except  for 
the  sake  of  convenience  in  fingering,  when 
producing  rapid  runs  and  difficult  pas- 
sages. 

THE  PITCH  OF  THE  CORNET. — There  are 
several  different  pitches  to  which  the  cor- 
net may  be  tuned.  The  pitch  of  Bb  is  the 
one  most  commonly  used  in  ordinary  con- 


cert work,  although  the  instrument  is  oc- 
casionally tuned  to  the  key  of  A.  Both 
keys  are  used  in  orchestral  work.  In  mili- 
tary bands  an  Eb  cornet,  which  is  tuned 
to  a  minor  third  above  actual  pitch,  is 
frequently  found,  on  account  of  its  ability 
of  enabling  the  performer  to  reach  a  higher 
pitch.  The  Bb  cornet  is,  of  course,  the 
easier  one  to  play,  and  is  therefore  the 
one  most  commonly  used  in  learning  the 
instrument. 

THE  LIPS  AND  INSTRUMENT  IN  PLAYING. 
— In  playing  the  cornet,  the  lips  must  be 
held  in  a  position  best  to  be  described  as 
flat  over  the  teeth.  This  enables  them  to 
act  as  a  form  of  reed,  for  the  variations 
of  the  tone  blown  into  the  mouthpiece  of 
the  instrument  The  upper  lip  should  prop- 
erly vibrate  more  than  the  lower,  and,  by 
learning  to  use  it  properly  at  the  start, 
a  purer  and  more  resonant  tone  may  be  se- 
cured. In  order  to  obtain  the  best  results, 
however,  using  as  little  of  the  upper  lip 
as  possible,  it  is  necessary  to  hold  the 
instrument  perfectly  horizontal.  The  hori- 
zontal position  is  adopted  in  order  that 
the  pressure  of  the  mouthpiece  against 


RELATIVE  PITCHES  OF  CORNET  AND  PIANO  OR  VIOLIN  IN  PLAYING 

ACCOMPANIMENTS 
Piano  ofViofin. 


Cornet  iniB-flaU 


THE   CORNET    SELF-TAUGHT 


339 


the  lips  may  be  regulated.  In  the  produc- 
tion of  the  higher  tones,  the  pressure  is 
sometimes  very  strong,  thus  rendering  it 
in  every  sense  desirable  that  it  be  evenly 
distributed.  The  necessity  of  using  the 
lips  in  the  production  of  tones  is  the  one 
element  that  renders  the  cornet  difficult 


to  play,  and,  also,  for  the  enthusiastic 
student  to  learn.  This  apparent  anomaly 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  too  incessant  prac- 
tice, particularly  in  the  higher  tones,  re- 
sults in  what  is  usually  described  as  "blow- 
ing-out." This  consists  simply  in  the  crush- 
ing of  the  lips,  so  that  they  become,  fof 


COMPLETE  CHROMATIC   SCALE  OF  A  B-FLAT  CORNET,  GIVING  VALVE 
FINGERING   AND    NAMES   OF  NOTES 


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840 


THE   CORNET    SELF-TAUGHT 


the  time  being,  incapable  of  performing 
their  functions.  On  this  account,  it  is  par- 
ticularly desirable  that  the  beginner  should 
apprehend  the  fact  that  the  greater  part 
of  his  primary  practice  should  consist  in 
production  of  the  lower  tones.  In  addi- 
tion to  saving  his  lips,  the  practice  of  these 
tones  gives  him  quite  as  great  a  facility 
in  the  management  of  the  instrument,  and 
also  in  the  reading  of  notes;  at  the  same 
time  rendering  him  proficient  in  perform- 
ing the  notes  most  often  neglected,  hence 
most  often  poorly  given  by  otherwise  good 
performers. 

RULES  FOR  BREATHING. — The  fundamen- 
tal rule  for  the  beginner  on  the  cornet  is 
that  the  breath  should  be  forced  into  the 
mouthpiece  of  the  instrument  without  in- 
flating the  cheeks  or  protruding  the  lips. 
Either  of  these  practices  will  injure,  if 
not  entirely  prevent,  the  proper  production 
of  tones — the  first,  because  it  subjects  the 
muscles  of  the  mouth  to  a  useless  and 

B-FLAT  CORNET  SHOWING  SLIDES 
AND    VALVE-KEYS,    I,   2,   3 

1     3     * 


painful  pressure;  the  second,  because  it 
prevents  the  lips  from  discharging  the 
proper  function  of  a  vibrating  reed.  Al- 
though a  considerable  pressure  of  breath 
is  required  in  the  production  of  the  higher 
tones  in  the  compass  of  the  instrument, 
the  student  must  learn,  among  the  first 
things,  if  not  as  the  very  first  thing,  that 
the  pressure  should  not  be  given  with  any 
unnecessary  strain  on  the  breathing  appa- 
ratus. After  a  few  weeks  of  practice,  he 
will  have  fully  grasped  the  idea  that  the 
required  force  is  an  effect  obtained  by 
the  proper  use  of  the  lips,  combined  with 
the  pressure  of  the  instrument  upon  them. 
In  fact,  the  higher  the  tone,  the  greater  is 
the  compression  of  the  lips,  and  the  more 
firmly  is  the  mouthpiece  of  the  instrument 
held  against  them.  By  this  means,  the 
opening  of  the  lips  into  the  mouthpiece 
is  constantly  reduced,  as  the  tones  rise 
higher,  and  is  constantly  increased,  as  the 
tones  become  lower.  In  the  latter  case 


the  mouthpiece  presses  less  firmly  against 
the  lips,  giving  them  more  opportunity  to 
vibrate,  and,  consequently,  forcing  the 
breath  through  a  larger  opening. 

In  adjusting  the  instrument,  it  should 
be  placed  at  the  exact  centre  of  the  lips, 
which  should  be  so  drawn  over  the  teeth 
as  to  produce  the  effect  of  smiling.  In 
playing,  it  is  necessary  frequently  to  breathe 
from  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  so  as  not 
to  interrupt  the  music  any  longer  than  pos- 
sible. After  same  little  experience  in  the 
practical  performance,  the  student  will 
have  learned  how,  and  at  what  points,  to 
take  a  new  breath.  It  is  well  to  exercise 
the  lungs  and  diaphragm,  according  to 
some  recognized  system,  in  order  to  enable 
the  holding  of  the  breath  through  as  long 
an  interval  as  possible.  Having  thus 
strengthened  the  breathing  apparatus,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  take  new  breaths  until  the 
completion  of  a  phrase,  however  extended 
it  may  be. 

One  vice  against  which  the  student  should 
be  carefully  warned  is  the  habit  of  "breath- 
ing from  the  stomach" ;  exerting  effort  from 
a  point  below  the  diaphragm.  This  spoils 
good  performance.  Its  cause  is  the  attempt 
to  blow  too  hard. 

ARTICULATION  OR  TONGUHNG. — After  the 
position  of  the  lips  and  the  manipulation 
of  the  instrument  have  been  thoroughly 
mastered,  it  is  in  order  for  the  student  to 
proceed  to  the  study  of  the  method  for 
separating  the  notes.  Were  the  cornet  an 
instrument  like  the  organ,  or  even  the  flute 
or  clarinet,  the  separation  of  the  notes 
would  be  a  matter  simply  of  manipulating 
a  key  or  valve,  alternately  opening  am 
closing  a  passage,  for  the  breath.  With 
all  brass  instruments,  however,  the  sepa- 
ration of  notes  must  be  otherwise  attained, 
since,  even  with  the  use  of  the  valves,  the 
tones  would  be  slurred  into  one  another, 
with  a  sustained  portamento  or  glissando 
effect.  Although  this  very  movement  is 
frequently  used  in  cornet  music,  and  is 
the  rule  in  playing  slurred  and  legato  pas- 
sages, the  separation  of  the  notes  for 
ordinary  music  is  achieved  by  what  is 
known  as  "articulation"  or  "tongueing." 

For  ordinary  performance  the  necessary 
effect  of  separating  the  notes  is  obtained 
by  moving  the  tongue,  as  though  to  pro- 
nounce the  syllable,  tu  (as  in  "tub"),  or, 
as  in  the  act  of  expelling  a  straw  from 
between  the  lips.  The  letter,  t,  gives  a 
short  and  sharp  division  to  the  sound 
produced  by  the  instrument,  while  the 
letter,  u,  has  the  effect  of  drawing  the 


THE   CORNET   SELF-TAUGHT 


341 


tongue  forward,  so  as  to  touch  the  lips 
lightly.  As  if  in  audibly  articulating  this 
syllable,  the  tongue  is  then  drawn  back 
quickly;  releasing  the  breath  confined  in 
the  mouth  by  this  valve-like  movement, 
and  allowing  it  to  pass  through  the  lips 
into  the  mouthpiece.  With  extra  rapid 
passages,  the  syllable,  du,  (as  in  "dug"), 
is  used  instead  of  tu,  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  it  can  be  more  speedily  given.  In 
learning  and  producing  correct  articula- 
tion, the  student  must  bear  in  mind  that 
it  is  very  nearly  the  most  important  ele- 
ment in  correct  performance  on  his  in- 
strument In  fact,  as  has  been  well  said 
by  several  authorities,  "correct,  tongueing 
is  as  important  to  the  cornet  as  correct 
bowing  is  to  the  violin." 

For  obtaining  certain  effects  of  accent, 
etc.,  cornet  authorities  discriminate  at 
least  three  kinds  of  tongueing.  These  are: 
(i)  the  mute  articulation  of  the  syllable, 


together,  without  separation  by  tongueing 
of  any  kind.  This  movement  produces  a 
pleasing  variation,  but  would  hardly  be 
acceptable  for  all  music.  The  same  re- 
mark applies  to  the  special  form  of  slur- 
ring, known  to  cornet  players  as  the  porta- 
mento, which  indicates  properly  such  a 
slurring  together  of  two  sounds,  as  is  de- 
fined as  "a  slurred  interval."  In  playing 
the  portamento,  a  crescendo  or  diminu- 
endo is  most  often  used,  or,  in  case  of 
long  notes,  an  alternating  rise  and  fall  in 
the  volume  of  the  sound.  Another  form 
of  portamento,  which  should  be  used  with 
particular  care,  by  beginners,  consists  sim- 
ply in  repeating  the  first  of  the  two  notes 
as  a  grace  note,  and  slurring  it  into  that 
following. 

DEMI-LEGATO  OR  PORTATO. — One  form  of 
embellishment  common  in  music  for  the 
cornet  is  the  so-called  demi-legato,  written 
as  a  series  of  staccato  notes  joined  by  a 


TWO   EXAMPLES   OF  PORTAMENTO 


EXAMPLE   OF  PORTATO    PASSAGE 


XE 


tu,  as  just  explained;  (2)  the  mute  articu- 
lation of  tu,  followed  by  ku — thus,  tu,  ku; 
(3)  by  combining  the  notes  into  groups  of 
three,  as  tu,  tu,  ku.  These  three  are 
called,  respectively,  single,  double,  and  triple 
tongueing;  or  the  two  latter  are  known 
as  double  and  triple  staccato.  Either  one 
of  the  three  may  oe  usea  in  rendering 
staccato  passages,  according  to  taste.  The 
first  and  second)  however,  are  gener- 
ally used  with  passages  in  even  measures, 
and  the  third,  with  triplets,  in  y%  time, 
etc. 

SLURRED  PASSAGES. — As  previously  stated, 
legato  passages  and  slurred  notes  are  run 


slur  or  ligature.  The  method  of  render- 
ing is  known  as  portato,  and  is  executed 
by  separating  the  sounds  by  very  soft 
strokes  of  the  tongue,  as  if  in  pronounc- 
ing the  syllable,  du.  The  effect  of  making 
soft  strokes  with  the  tongue  is  to  com- 
bine the  proper  separation,  belonging  to 
staccato  measures,  with  the  slurring  effect 
The  notes  are  somewhat  more  definite  ;han 
in  either  legato  or  portamento,  but  not 
so  clear  and  marked  as  in  ordinary  stac- 
cato. The  student  should  be  careful  to 
thoroughly  understand  the  ordinary  tongue- 
ing, particularly  of  the  staccato  passages, 
before  attempting  to  practice  portato,  or, 


342 


THE   CORNET    SELF-TAUGHT 


otherwise,    "tongueing-in."      Until    he    has 

•• 

•••                               •• 

f"n 

thoroughly    confirmed    the    habit    of    prop- 
erly articulating  ordinary  cornet  music,  the 
practicing  of  portato  is  very  liable  to  weak- 
en the  stroke  of  the  tongue. 
RULES     FOR     PRACTICING     In    order    to 

> 

If 

A 
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strengthen  the  lips,  and  to  give  them  the 
degree  of  stability  required  for  the  proper 
performance  on  the  cornet,  it  is  desirable 
to  practice  slurred  measures  on  the  lower 

S 

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notes.      The    lower    notes    are   to    be   par- 
ticularly   recommended    for    this    kind    of 
measure,    because,    as    already    stated,    the 
practice  obtained   is  valuable   in  every   re- 

IA 
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spect,    but    does    not    involve    the    uncom- 
fortable  blowing-out   that   is   always  liable 
to  follow  protracted  practice  of  the  higher 
notes.     Indeed,   it   is   one   of   the   greatest 

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sources  of  discouragement  to  the  ambitious 

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self    unable    to    continue    practice.      How- 
ever,   if    he    will    faithfully    bear    in    mind 
this    rule    regarding    the    necessary    saving 
of   his   lips,   he   will   find   that  his   mastery 

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of   the   instrument   proceeds   quite   as   rap- 
idly —  if   not   more   so  —  than   by   constantly 
attempting  the  highest  notes.    Another  use- 
ful thing  is  to  remember  that  practice  had 

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best  begin  slowly,  and  be  continued  slowly, 
in    order    to    obtain    full    and    well-defined 
tone  production.     It  may  seem  to  the  be- 
ginner   that    slow    practicing    is    altogether 

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ing  rapidly  should  be  attained  as  soon  as 
possible.      Let    him    understand,    however, 
that  it  is  far  more  difficult  to  play  slowly 
on    the   cornet   than    to   play   rapidly,    and 
that    the    man    who    can    render    passages 

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slowly    and    distinctly    is    certain    to    be    a 
more  effective  player  of  more  rapid  meas- 
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TUNING  THE  CORNET.  —  Each  valve  of  the 
cornet  has  a  tuning  slide  attached,  and  this 

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is  to  be  used  in  all  keys  except  Bb.  When 
the  A  slide  is  used  the  ist  and  3d  valves 
must  be  drawn  sufficiently  to  preserve  the 
proportionate  tubing  lengths  —  the  ist  being 

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drawn  ^  inch  and  the  3d  an  inch  at  least. 
To  test  the  tuning,   sound   E  as   an  open 
tone,  then  with  the  ist  and  2d  valves  down  ; 
moving   the    slide    until    perfect    unison    is 

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obtained.    The  3d  valve  is  tuned  by  sound- 
ing  G   open,   and   then   with   the    ist   and 
3d  valves;  moving  the  slide  until  unison  is 
obtained.     The   cornet   in    Bb   is   best    for 
keys  in  flats  and  the  cornet  in  A  for  keys 
in  sharps.      The  keynote  of  the  Bb  cornet 
is    one    tone    above    the    piano    or    violin 
kev. 

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THE    CORNET    SELF-TAUGHT 


343 


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THE     STUDY    OF 
VOCAL    MUSIC 


IN  the  work  of  learning  and  practicing  singing,  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider the  vocal  organs  as  a  musical  instrument,  to  be  played  upon 
and  to  be  tuned  and  cared  for  in  the  same  manner  as  any  other  in- 
strument. It  is  even  more  important,  with  the  voice,  to  observe  every 
law  of  use  and  care  than  with  any  of  the  others.  This  is  true  be- 
cause any  incorrect  handling  of  the  vocal  apparatus  involves,  not  only  a 
loss  of  the  ability  to  sing,  but  also  loss  of  health  and  numerous  other 
disasters.  Correctly  speaking,  it  is  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for 
a  person  to  master  the  art  of  singing  without  an  instructor.  He  may 
understand  all  the  laws  governing  the  production  of  tone,  and  carefully 
observe  all  the  rules  for  breathing  and  vocalization;  but,  except  in  very 
rare  cases,  or  with  what  is  called  a  "naturally  placed  voice,"  the  rule  to 
be  observed  is  that  the  services  of  a  competent  instructor  should  invari- 
ably be  sought,  after  the  first  rudiments  have  been  understood.  If  a 
person  takes  lessons  on  a  violin,  for  example,  and  can  not  master  the  in- 
strument sufficiently  well  to  become  a  finished  performer,  it  makes  com- 
paratively little  difference  after  he  has  once  come  under  the  instruction 
of  a  competent  teacher.  With  the  voice,  however,  any  incorrect  method 
taught  and  practiced,  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  frequently  does  irrep- 
arable harm,  and  renders  the  efforts  of  the  best  teachers  almost,  if  not 
altogether,  futile. 

The  very  first  thing  that  the  student  must  thoroughly  understand  is 
that  it  is  quite  as  natural  for  a  human  being  to  sing  correctly  and  effec- 
tively as  for  a  bird  to  sing,  or  for  other  animals  to  give  forth  their  pecul- 
iar sounds  and  cries.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  correct  method  of 
training  the  voice  is,  simply  and  logically,  that  method  which  develops 
nature  along  natural  lines.  Singing  is  not  an  art  that  is  to  be  acquired 
by  learning  to  use  the  organs  in  a  way  not  intended  by  nature:  it  is  in 
no  sense  analogous  to  the  performances  of  acrobats  and  contortionists. 

Some  people  might  suppose  that,  because  singing  is,  rationally  speak- 
ing, the  natural  use  of  natural  organs  in  a  natural  way,  therefore,  any 

/844) 


one  can  sing  without  need  of  instruction.  If,  however,  he  will  consider 
a  few  facts  of  life  outside  of  this  department,  he  will  speedily  recognize 
that  the  human  being  is  peculiar  in  nature,  in  the  fact  that  he  must  labo- 
riously learn  the  correct  use  of  nearly  every  organ  and  faculty  he  pos- 
sesses. He  utterly  lacks  the  instincts  of  the  lower  animals,  which,  while 
making  them  virtually  animated  machines,  lead  them  unerringly  to  the 
proper  use  of  all  their  faculties.  The  human  being  must  be  taught  to 
use  his  brain,  his  muscles,  and  his  senses,  and  this  education  is  necessary 
in  every  instance,  to  prevent  the  injuries  arising  from  both  misuse  and 
abuse.  In  some  departments  of  activity  he  soon  discovers  that,  with  the 
best  eyes  and  the  best  ears  in  the  world,  he  can  neither  see  readily  nor 
hear  rightly  until  he  has  been  accurately  instructed  in  the  proper  meth- 
ods of  use.  If,  without  proper  education,  he  attempts  to  use  his  brain 
in  any  but  ordinary  work,  it  soon  becomes  apparent  that  he  is  competing 
hopelessly  with  trained  minds,  and  is  able  to  accomplish  very  little  of 
what  he  laboriously  and  unsuccessfully  strives  after.  In  all  departments 
of  life,  however,  the  word  "education"  is  properly  to  be  understood  in 
its  original  Latin  signification  of  a  "leading-forth,"  which  is  to  say,  the 
development  of  natural  faculties  from  within,  outward. 


FROM  what  has  just  been  stated  the 
student  will  readily  understand  that 
the  correct  method  of  using  the  voice  in- 
volves, in  learning,  no  strain  or  unnatural 
effort  of  any  kind.  To  be  sure,  the  pro- 
tracted use  of  the  voice,  in  singing,  speak- 
ing or  reading  aloud,  will  produce  weari- 
ness of  the  muscles  of  articulation.  But, 
if  this  weariness  is  followed  by  soreness 
of  the  throat,  severe  hoarseness,  or  any 
other  distinctly  pathological  condition,  it 
is  the  best  evidence  in  the  world  that  the 
voice  has  been  incorrectly  used,  and  that 
it  is  time  to  seriously  consider  a  rational 
and  natural  method  of  training.  At  this 
point  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that  there 
are  certain  persons  professing  to  teach 
singing  and  the  use  of  the  voice,  who 
will  tell  the  student  that  a  sore  and  rasped 
throat  is  necessary  to  attaining  the  strength 
that  is  needed,  or  that  the  straining  of 
the  vocal  organs  is  only  a  step  in  the 
process  of  developing  their  powers.  Such 
persons  should  always  be  avoided.  Many 
good  voices  have  been  ruined  by  their  so- 
called  "methods." 

RUDIMENTS  OF  CORRECT  SINGING. — There 
are  three  things  to  be  considered  in  learn- 
ing and  practicing  singing:  they  are  breath- 


ing, articulation,  and  tone-production.  In 
studying  breathing  and  articulation,  we  are 
merely  tuning  the  musical  instrument  to 
produce  the  tones  that  should  naturally 
result  with  proper  use.  This  means  that 
correct  tone-production  is  simply  the  nat- 
ural consequence  of  correctly  using  prop- 
erly trained  and  tuned  vocal  organs.  We 
must  not  forget,  however,  that  the  student 
of  singing  is,  by  no  manner  of  means, 
able  to  judge  when  his  vocal  organs  are 
sufficiently  developed  to  produce  correct 
tones,  nor  whether,  in  the  production  of 
tones,  he  is  merely  following  a  vicious  habit 
or  actually  doing  his  best  While,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  possible  that,  with  a  cor- 
rect understanding  of  all  that  is  involved 
in  learning  singing,  one  can  progress  con- 
siderably toward  mastery  of  the  art,  at 
the  point  of  producing  correct  tones  and 
using  his  voice  for  actual  work,  he  re- 
quires the  services  of  a  competent  teacher, 
whose  trained  ear  can  detect  any  defi- 
ciencies and  indicate  precisely  what  is  re- 
quired. This  warning  should  convince  the 
student  that  he  must  proceed  with  the 
greatest  care,  and  with  constant  attention 
to  even  the  minutest  detail.  Tone-produc- 
tion is,  of  course,  the  most  important  ele- 


346 


THE    STUDY    OF    VOCAL    MUSIC 


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THE   STUDY   OF   VOCAL    MUSIC 


347 


ment  in  all  vocal  training.  It  is  the  first 
thing  to  be  considered,  and,  perhaps,  the 
last  thing  to  be  actually  mastered. 

According  to  the  Italian  method,  which 
consists  simply  in  training  natural  facul- 
ties naturally  and  normally,  the  interior  of 
the  head,  including  the  cavities  behind  the 
nose  and  mouth,  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
sounding-board.  This  does  not  mean  that 
tones  are  to  be  produced  by  forcing  the 
breath  through  the  nose  or  •  throat,  but 
that  these  cavities  act  like  the  boxes  of 
the  violin  and  guitar  in  supplying  the  ele- 
ment of  strength  and  power  to  the  sounds 
of  the  vibrating  strings.  With  a  stringed 
instrument,  the  sound — which  is  to  say  the 
point  of  excitation  of  the  string — is  always 
at  one  precise  place  on  the  instrument 
The  human  voice  differs,  however,  from 
every  instrument  in  the  fact  that  tones, 
resonating  more  or  less  through  nature's 
sounding-board,  can  be  produced  at  a  large 
number  of  points  in  the  throat,  head, 
chest,  etc.  This  is  the  very  particular 
in  which  singing,  or  correct  training  of 
the  vocal  instrument,  is  found  to  differ 
from  bungling  and  injurious  tone-produc- 
tion, in  precisely  the  same  manner  that 
the  strummings  and  scrapings  of  the  ama- 
teur differ  from  the  finished  performances 
of  the  trained  guitarist  or  violinist  The 
first  thing,  therefore,  that  the  student 
should  understand  is  that  the  tones  must 
be  focused — which  is  to  say,  directed,  de- 
liberately and  intelligently — upon  a  certain 
definite  point  That  point  is  the  centre  of 
the  dome  or  arch  formed  by  the  roof  of 
the  mouth,  or,  more  correctly,  the  palate. 

DIAPHRAGMATIC  BREATHING. — Knowing, 
now,  exactly  at  what  point  the  sound 
must  strike  the  resonant  sounding-board, 
we  may  proceed  to  the  second  point,  which 
is  to  the  art  of  singing  precisely  what  cor- 
rect bowing  is  to  violin  playing;  in  other 
words,  we  are  to  learn  now  whence  comes 
the  sound  that  is  focused  in  the  dome  of 
the  mouth.  A  distinguished  singer  has 
given  us  a  suggestive  sentence  for  guid- 
ance in  this  particular.  She  says:  "To 
sing  correctly  you  must  pick  up  your 
notes  from  the  floor."  This  means  that 
the  breath,  which  is  to  produce  the  sound, 
must  be  constantly  and  deliberately  ex- 
pelled from  the  lowest  portion  of  the 
breathing  apparatus — which  is  to  say,  from 
the  diaphragm.  This  muscle,  as  all  know, 
is  situated  in  the  chest  and,  in  certain 
senses,  serves  as  a  partition  to  separate 
the  lungs  from  the  other  organs  of  the 
body.  It  performs,  also,  a  very  important 


function  in  the  act  of  breathing;  since, 
to  express  it  briefly,  it  acts  upon  the 
lungs  in  about  the  same  fashion  as  the 
hand  acts  upon  the  rubber  bulb  of  an 
atomizer,  forcing  the  air  from  it  and,  on 
withdrawal  of  the  pressure,  permitting  the 
air  to  rush  into  it  again.  To  breathe  cor- 
rectly the  muscle  known  as  the  diaphragm 
must  be  deliberately  strengthened  by  proper 
exercise  and  constant  service  in  the  act 
of  expelling  the  breath,  until  its  correct 
use  becomes  a  habit. 

In  singing,  therefore,  while  it  is  emi- 
nently correct  to  say  that  the  "singer  has 
no  throat  or  chest" — which  is  to  say  that 
these  parts  have  nothing  to  do  with  tone- 


Diagram  showing  position  of  the  diaphragm 
?n  the  human  body:  the  lungs,  i;  the  heart,  2; 
the  diaphragm,  3;  the  stomach,  4. 

production — every  sound  produced  by  the 
vocal  cords  and  focused  against  the  palate 
must  be  formed  by  a  column  of  air,  ex- 
pelled by  a  deliberate  dynamic  action  of 
the  diaphragm.  In  the  earliest  efforts  to 
properly  direct  sounds  the  student  can 
do  no  better  than  place  his  hand  over 
the  diaphragm,  which  is  situated  just 
above  the  point  where  the  ribs  join  to 
the  breast-bone  at  the  front  of  the  chest. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  he  exercise  force 
with  his  hand,  as  though  he  were  a  bel- 
lows or  a  rubber  ball  filled  with  air — 
although  this  action  might  assist  in  en- 
forcing the  true  use  of  his  breathing  and 
vocalizing  apparatus — but,  in  the  early 
stages  of  his  study,  he  must  be  careful 


348 


THE    STUDY    OF   VOCAL   MUSIC 


that  every  impulse,  short  or  long,  proceed 
from  a  distinct  effort  of  the  diaphragmatic 
muscle. 

ELEMENTS  OF  TONE- PRODUCTION. — We 
have  learned  thus  far  that  each  sound  in 
singing  must  proceed  from  the  lowest  point 
of  the  breathing  apparatus  to  the  highest 
point  of  the  mouth.  In  singing,  therefore, 
the  student  must  direct  his  attention  to 
those  two  points,  with  a  view  to  guiding 
the  tone  pure,  straight,  and  full,  upon  the 
focal  point.  In  doing '  this  he  must  not 
allow  the  throat  to  act,  except  as  a  wind 
passage;  he  must  not  restrict  its  action 
consciously,  or  allow  it  to  be  restricted 
unconsciously.  The  sound-producing  breath 
is  like  an  arrow  shot  from  the  bowstring, 
which  is  the  diaphragm,  to  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  which  is  the  target.  Nothing  must 
act  midway,  either  to  deflect  or  check  the 
shaft. 

EXERCISES  IN  ARTICULATION.  —  Another 
element  of  weakness  lies  in  the  insuffi- 
cient development  of  the  organs  of  artic- 
ulation. A  large  number  of  persons  speak 
indistinctly — "chew  up  their  words"  as  the 
saying  is  —  simply  because,  in  articula- 
tion, they  use  their  lips  no  more  than  is 
necessary  to  producing  the  barest  rudi- 
ment of  a  sound.  In  order  to  produce 
clear,  distinct,  and  full  enunciation,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  lips  have  as  large  a 
part  as  possible  in  shaping  the  sounds. 
This  involves  that,  in  training  himself  for 
the  profession  of  a  singer,  the  student 
should  take  daily  exercises  in  the  use  of 
the  lips,  standing  before  a  looking-glass 
and  making  each  sound  as  clearly  as  pos- 
sible; using  the  lips  to  perform  as  large 
a  part  as  they  can  in  the  shaping  of  each 
sound.  Even  if  such  action  appear  to  be 
exaggerated,  causing  him  to  make  a  suc- 
cession of  ugly  faces  and  grimaces,  it  is 
better  so  than  that  the  lips  should  not  act 
to  the  fullest  possible  extent  in  the  pro- 
duction of  words. 

To  be  sure,  this  activity  of  the  lips  is 
hardly  required  in  ordinary  conversation, 
and  may  be  unnecessary  in  a  good  deal 
of  public  speaking,  but  in  singing  it  is  es- 
sential that  the  lips  be  so  strengthened 
by  constant  exercise;  so  completely  under 
the  control  of  the  will,  that  they  can  per- 
form the  largest  possible  part  in  articu- 
lation, thus  relieving  the  throat  of  much 
of  the  strain  which  some  people  throw 
upon  it  in  talking  and  very  many  in  sing- 
ing. Strengthening  the  lips  and  increasing 
their  activity  is  the  all  essential  element 
in  producing  a  clear  and  distinct  enuncia- 


tion. The  action  of  the  tongue  must  also  ' 
be  perfect  and  complete  in  every  instance, 
although  its  movements  need  not  be  exag- 
gerated, as  those  of  the  lips  must  often 
appear  to  be.  In  the  effort  to  strengthen 
the  lips,  and  secure  their  activity  to  as 
great  an  extent  as  possible  in  articulation, 
some  teachers  recommend  that  the  begin- 
ner in  practicing  lip  exercises  press  his 
hands  against  his  cheeks,  so  as  to  render 
the  muscular  effort  in  moving  the  lips  as 
strong  as  possible;  thus  helping  to  exer- 
cise them,  and,  at  the  same  time,  confirm- 
ing the  habit  of  activity  in  his  mind. 

It  is  customary,  also,  to  give  the  student 
exercises  in  running  through  the  vowels, 
which  are  pronounced,  however,  as  in  the 
continental  languages,  Italian,  French,  etc.; 
thus,  ah,  ay,  ee,  oh,  oo.  These  vowels 
sounds  are  most  effectively  practiced  when 
they  follow  the  labial  or  lingual  conso- 
nants, such  as  d,  t,  n,  m,  b,  p;  thus,  tah, 
toy,  tee,  toh,  too.  In  each  case  the  lips 
must  form  as  large  a  part  as  possible — 
even  an  exaggerated  part — in  the  produc- 
tion of  both  vowel  and  consonant  sounds. 
Thus,  as  we  have  already  stated,  the 
greater  part  of  articulation  is  performed 
by  the  lips  and  tongue,  leaving  the  throat 
free  to  serve  as  a  mere  conductor  of  the 
breath  and  the  chest  as  the  seat  of  the 
original  dynamic  impulse  of  the  voice. 

EXERCISES  FOR  THE  DIAPHRAGM. — For  the 
proper  strengthening  of  the  diaphragm  cer- 
tain exercises  are  given  by  instructors  in  cor- 
rect breathing  and  physical  culture.  Their 
object  in  every  case  is  to  increase  the  ac- 
tivity of  this  organ,  and  to  give  4t  greater 
strength.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  how- 
ever, that  in  the  exercise .  of  this  muscle, 
as  in  the  exercise  of  other  muscles  of 
the  body,  it  is  not  necessary  to  subject  it 
to  any  unnatural  strains,  or  to  compel  it 
to  perform  any  acts  that  are  outside  of 
the  function  ordained  by  nature.  Its  func- 
tion, as  we  have  already  seen,  is  most 
largely  to  relax  when  breath  is  taken  into 
the  lungs,  and  to  contract  to  expel  it 
again,  as  soon  as  the  natural  ends  have 
been  served.  To  strengthen  its  action, 
therefore,  one  of  the  most  beneficial  courses 
is  to  stand  upright  with  the  shoulders 
thrown  back;  to  take  a  deep,  long  breath 
through  the  nostrils;  to  hold  it  for  a  cer- 
tain period,  say  while  you  count  twenty, 
and  to  expel  it  again  through  the  nostrils 
by  the  conscious  effort  of  the  diaphragm. 
Conscious  action  of  the  diaphragm  may 
be  secured  and  increased  by  placing  the  , 
hands  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  thorax 


THE   STUDY    OF   VOCAL    MUSIC 


349 


on  either  side,  just  opposite  to  the  breast- 
bone. This  secures  the  focusing  of  the 
thought  at  the  correct  point.  Another  of 
the  exercises  that  is  sometimes  recom- 
mended is  what  is  known  as  "the  panting 
exercise."  This  consists  in  taking  short 
deep  breaths  through  the  nostrils  and  ex- 
pelling them  by  distinct  actions  of  the 
diaphragm. 

Perhaps  the  exercise  to  be  most  strongly 
recommended  to  the  student  of  singing  is 
as  follows :  Take  a  deep  breath  through 
the  nostrils,  and,  in  expelling  it,  under  di- 
aphragmatic impulse,  vocalize  some  vowel 
sound — such,  for  example,  as  oh  or  oo — 
prolonging  it  sufficiently  to  nearly  ex- 
haust the  air  in  the  lungs,  while  at  the 
same  time  keeping  the  tone  as  near  as 
possible  on  the  same  pitch  and  note.  As 
soon  as  it  becomes  impossible  to  maintain 
the  sound  at  a  given  pitch  let  it  die  away 
slowly,  and  stop  before  the  breath  is  en- 
tirely exhausted.  Apart  from  enabling  one 
to  learn  sustaining  the  note,  this  exercise 
is  of  the  greatest  benefit  in  strengthening 
the  diaphragm. 

FORMING  THE  TONES. — After  the  student 
has  thoroughly  identified  the  action  of  the 
diaphragm,  and  has  learned  to  breathe  cor- 
rectly, which  is  to  say  with  the  complete 
action  of  the  diaphragm  in  every  case,  he 
may  proceed  to  attempt  the  use  of  his 
voice,  always  remembering  that  sounds  are 
to  be  focused  in  the  dome  of  the  mouth, 
and  that  words  are  to  be  formed  with  as 
great  activity  as  possible  of  the  lips  in 
every  case.  We  have  previously  used  the 
simile  of  an  arrow  shot  from  a  bow  at  a 
target,  and  this  figure  may  further  be  car- 
ried out  by  saying  that,  in  both  cases 
it  is  necessary  to  deliberately  aim  at  the 
point  we  wish  to  strike.  Of  course,  the 
student  can  not  see  the  interior  of  his  own 
head,  but  he  can  direct  the  impulses  to  the 
point  of  resonance  by  fixing  his  attention 
upon  it.  In  order  to  thoroughly  identify 
the  focal  point,  it  is  desirable  that  he 
vocalize  certain  notes  with  closed  lips, 
thus  producing  sounds  resembling  m  or  n 
long  continued.  By  the  making  of  these 
sounds  with  diaphragmatic  impulses,  at 
the  same  time  fixing  the  thought  upon  the 
dome  of  the  mouth,  the  tone  may  be  prop- 
erly placed.  In  this  work,  however,  the 
assistance  of  a  teacher  is  most  desirable, 
if  not  entirely  necessary. 

In  the  production  of  tones  the  student 
will  discover  that  it  is  far  easier  to  vo- 
calize— which  is  to  say,  to  produce  the 
simple  sounds — than  it  is  to  sing,  or  to 


utter  articulate  words,  while  giving  forth 
musical  sounds.  This  is  precisely  where 
the  singer  requires  the  ability  to  control 
the  action  of  his  lips,  and  also  where  it 
is  positively  essential  that  the  lips  be  suffi- 
ciently strengthened  by  proper  exercise  to 
fully  and  perfectly  perform  their  functions. 
While  the  student  can  not  tell  whether 
he  is  producing  a  correct  tone  or  not, 
being  unable  to  hear  his  own  voice,  so  far 
as  the  tones  or  qualities  are  concerned, 


The  pharynx  laid  open,  showing  the  vocal 
cords.  These  are  membraneous  muscles  on 
either  side  of  the  air  passage;  their  function 
being  to  modify  the  tone  produced,  by  contract- 
ing or  relaxing,  thus  reducing  or  enlarging 
the  opening,  like  a  reed  in  wind  instruments 

he  can  very  readily  detect  any  poor  tone 
production  in  the  fact  that  the  inevitable 
result  is  tickling  and  rasping  in  the  throat, 
such  as  will  make  it  difficult  or  impossible 
to  continue.  It  is  not  necessary,  however, 
nor  is  it  in  any  sense  desirable,  to  con- 
tinue the  vocal  experiment  sufficiently  long 
to  find  out  whether  the  throat  or  other 
parts  show  signs  of  injury.  The  slightest 
sign  of  such  symptoms  should  convince 
the  student  that  he  is  on  the  wrong  track; 
either  his  breathing  is  not  sufficiently  strong ; 

2.3 


350 


THE   STUDY   OF   VOCAL   MUSIC 


his  enunciation  is  not  sufficiently  distinct, 
or,  most  probable  of  all,  his  sound-focusing 
is  faulty.  He  must  carefully  pick  his  way, 
paying  attention  to  all  these  points;  giving 
each  note  with  a  strong  impulse  of  the 
diaphragm ;  carefully  keeping  his  mind  up- 
on the  diaphragm  and  -the  highest  point 
of  his  palate,  and  using  his  lips  in  every 
case  for  shaping  articulate  sound.  At  the 
slightest  sound  of  weariness  in  the  throat 
or  mouth  he  should  carefully  reconsider 
the  sound,  as  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
it  is  wrongly  produced. 

RESULTS  OF  PROPER  TRAINING. — If  a 
voice  is  properly  trained  according  to  the 
natural  method  of  tone-production,  and 
the  student  continues  to  practice  properly, 
so  as  to  strengthen  all  organs  which  re- 
quire strength,  he  may  continue  singing 
indefinitely  without  weariness,  or  produc- 
ing tickling  or  irritation  in  his  throat  or 
mouth,  and  feeling  no  more  than  such  gen- 
eral lassitude  as  follows  any  continued 
physical  exertion.  Furthermore,  a  voice 
properly  trained  should  last  for  years,  even 
to  old  age,  and  with  no  other  impairment 
of  strength  and  quality  than  comes  from 
the  inevitable  general  debility  of  advancing 
years. 

THE  NEED  OF  GOOD  INSTRUCTION. — While 
it  is  very  probable  that  few,  if  any,  students 
can  train  themselves  to  sing  properly,  with- 
out the  assistance  of  a  competent  teacher, 
it  is  considerably  better  for  them  to  try  to 
learn  singing  by  themselves,  rigidly  observ- 
ing every  direction  set  forth  in  this  article 
— not  attempting  the  second  thing  until  the 
first  thing  is  thoroughly  mastered — than  to 
trust  themselves  in  the  hands  of  any  of 
that  very  large,  ignorant,  and  vicious  ele- 
ment that  thrives  by  charging  exorbitant 
fees  to  ruin  voices  by  teaching  unnatural 
methods. 

COMPASS  OF  HUMAN  VOICES. — As  shown 
by  the  annexed  diagrams,  the  ordinary  com- 
pass of  the  human  voice  is  between  the  F 
sharp  below  the  bass  clef  and  the  E  above 
the  treble ;  the  lowest  note  being  in  the  bass 
compass  and  the  highest  in  an  exceptionally 
good  soprano.  The  compass  of  the  various 
voices,  as  indicated  in  these  diagrams,  is, 
of  course,  only  approximate,  since  individual 
voices  differ  immensely  in  both  range  and 
power — no  two  having  exactly  the  same  com- 
pass, even  though  falling  under  the  same 
general  category.  One  of  the  most  neces- 
sary things,  therefore,  for  the  singer  to 
learn  is  exactly  the  range  of  his  own 
voice,  which  will  enable  him  to  judge  the 
key  in  which  a  piece  can  best  be  rendered. 


This  means  that  it  is  not  possible  to  take 
a  piece  of  music  written  for  a  bass  voice, 
for  example,  and  raise  it  an  octave,  in  or- 
der that  it  may  be  sung  as  a  soprano  solo. 
On  account  of  limited  range  and  other 
special  properties  of  voices,  it  is  generally 
necessary  that  the  key  be  transposed,  as 
Well  as  the  clef.  It  is  particularly  desir- 
able, especially  for  beginners  and  students, 
that,  except  in  carefully  selected  practice 
pieces,  they  should  not  attempt  to  sing  in 
a  key  containing  tones  difficult  of  production. 

BASIS  OF  CLASSIFICATION. — The  classifi- 
cation of  voices  is  based,  not  only  upon 
their  compass  or  range  of  effective  tones, 
but  upon  the  amount  of  weight  and  body 
with  which  these  tones  are  produced. 
Thus,  the  bass  has,  characteristically,  a 
greater  volume  of  sound  than  the  baritone: 
it,  in  turn,  is  less  light  and  fine  than  the 
tenor.  The  same  distinctions  hold,  also,  for 
female  voices. 

POSITION  IN  PRACTICE. — In  practicing 
singing  and  the  essential  breathing  exer- 
cises, it  will  be  found  that  the  standing 
position  is  calculated  to  produce  the  most 
satisfactory  results.  In  this  position,  the 
action  of  the  lungs  and  diaphragm  is  free 
and  unconfined  for  the  production  of  per- 
fect tones. 

PRACTICE  ON  TONES. — When  the  student 
has  once  arrived  at  a  definite  knowledge  of 
the  proper  compass  of  his  voice,  the  best 
exercise  in  tone-production  is  running  the 
scales,  although,  at  the  beginning,  he  should 
carefully  avoid  attempting  any  tone  that 
seems  difficult  to  produce,  whether  it  be 
too  high  or  too  low.  By  rigidly  observing 
this  rule,  he  may  readily  sing  the  scales 
and  exercises  after  a  few  weeks'  proper 
practice.  Where  the  organs  have  been  suffi- 
ciently strengthened  by  exercise,  and  the 
production  of  the  easy  tones  is  perfected,  it 
will  be  time  to  consider  whether  the  tones, 
hitherto  found  difficult,  may  be  acquired  by 
practice.  As  a  general  rule,  nature  decides 
this  question.  For,  with  the  proper  devel- 
opment of  the  vocal  apparatus,  some  tones, 
difficult  at  first,  will  be  readily  produced  or 
easy  to  attain.  Others,  however,  must  al- 
ways continue  to  be  outside  the  register 
even  of  a  cultivated  voice,  which  can  not 
produce  a  semitone  above  or  below. 

In  practicing  singing  such  simple  exer- 
cises as  are  shown  herewith  are  usually 
given  to  the  student.  He  must  sing  each 
tone  with  the  word  "too,"  and  must  be 
careful  to  pronounce  it  fully  and  properly; 
at  the  same  time  sending  the  voice  to  the 
highest  point  in  the  head,  as  already  de- 


STUDY    OF   VOCAL   MUSIC 


351 


scribed — the  test  of  correctness  being  that 
he. can  feel  vibration  at  that  point  in  every 
separate  case.  In  the  earliest  exercises  given 
to  the  vocal  student,  the  end  of  correct 

EXERCISE   IN   ARTICULATION 


too,  too,  too,  too,  too,  too,  too,  too,  too. 


breathing  is  assured  by  taking  a  fresh 
breath  at  the  end  of  every  note.  The 
place  for  taking  the  breath  is  indicated  in 
primary  exercises  by  a  mark  "resembling  a 
comma  (,)  written  immediately  above  the 
staff. 

RULES  FOR  USING  THE  BREATH. — The  act 
of  breathing  at  the  end  of  each  note,  as 
in  the  subjoined  exercises,  not  only  involves 
correct  action  of  the  diaphragm,  but  also 
attains  another  desirable  object — the  ability 
to  properly  sustain  the  note  for  its  full 
value  in  time.  Such  exercises  should  be 
sounded  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest 
tone  of  the  scale  which  the  student  finds 
in  his  available  compass,  and  must  be  per- 
sistently practiced  until  the  ability  to  sus- 
tain notes  to  their  full  value  is  fully 
acquired. 

The  next  step  in  the  practicing  of  sing- 
ing is  to  master  the  slur,  which  must  be 
carefully  studied.  In  general,  the  produc- 
tion of  slurred  or  legato  movements  in 
singing  consists  in  running  through  the  en- 
tire range  of  notes  indicated  in  the  written 
scale  on  a  single  inspiration.  If  the  lungs 
are  properly  filled  with  air,  the  first  tone 
should  be  attacked  boldly  and  sounded  with 
clear  precision;  the  breath  being  held, 
meantime,  and  sent  higher  in  the  head  for 
each  succeeding  note,  until  the  movement 
is  finished.  This  rule  applies,  not  only  in 
the  production  of  two  tones  immediately 
following  in  the  scale,  or  seconds,  but  in 

ARTICULATION    WITH    THE    SLUR 


too,  too,  too,  too,  too,  too,    too 


singing  runs  of  thirds,  fourths,  fifths,  etc., 
until  the  entire  gamut  may  be  given  at  a 
single  breath.  In  order  to  attain  the  most 
satisfactory  results  in  this  particular,  it  is 


desirable  to  practice  scales  of  whole  or 
half  notes,  instead  of  notes  of  smaller 
value,  since  by  this  means  the  important 
ends  of  strengthening  the  diaphragm  and 
enabling  the  better  sustaining  of  notes  are 
alike  attained.  It  is,  therefore,  essential 
that  exercises  in  thirds,  fourths,  fifths,  etc., 
should  not  be  attempted  until  the  student 
has  mastered  the  exercises  on  seconds,  as 
given  above.  He  should  first  practice  to 
acquire  the  ability  to  sustain  several  notes 
on  one  tone,  without  fresh  inspiration; 
then,  to  produce  two  tones  on  one  breath, 

EXERCISE   IN   THIRDS 


EXERCISE   IN   FOURTHS 


-&-  -SI- 

EXERCISE  IN  FIFTHS 


EXERCISE   IN    SIXTHS 


EXERCISE    IN   THE    SCALE 


and,  finally,  to  connect  any  possible  num- 
ber, as  already  explained. 

ARTICULATION.— After  thoroughly  mas- 
tering these  exercises  in  tone-production 
and  the  sustaining  of  notes,  the  important 
matter  of  articulation  is  introduced.  In- 
stead of  practicing  the  successive  tones 
with  the  syllable  "too,"  the  syllable  "toe" 
is  to  be  used.  This  syllable  is  the  open 
tone,  and  is  pronounced  so  that  the  o  is 
prominent,  being  given  with  a  quick  drop-, 
ping  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  student  must 
practice  all  the  first  exercises  with  this 
syllable  before  advancing. 

In  practicing  the  scales,  the  student  must 


852 


THE   STUDY   OF   VOCAL   MUSIC 


work  patiently  and  persistently,  without 
straining  or  undue  effort,  so  as  to  run  the 
gamut  once,  and  then  twice,  according  to 
his  breathing  power,  on  a  single  breath. 

SHADING  AND  DRAWING-OUT. — When  he 
has  succeeded  in  singing  the  scales  two  or 
three  times  with  a  single  breath,  he  will 
have  obtained  excellent  results.  After  hav- 
ing practiced  the  scales,  so  as  to  obtain 
perfect  uniformity  in  the  notes,  the  next 
step  is  to  practice  shading  or  the  singing 
of  notes  loud  or  soft,  and  dropping  from 
loud  to  soft,  and  rising  from  soft  to 
loud,  on  the  same  note.  This  is  called 
"drawing-out"  tones,  and  is  one  of  the 
points  in  vocal  music  that  should  be  prac- 
ticed with  the  greatest  care.  As  in  the 
violin  and  other  musical  instruments,  the 

EXERCISE  IN   DRAWING-OUT 

A  breath  for  each  note. 
Very  slow. 


drawing-out  of  a  note,  or  the  alternate 
crescendo  and  decrescendo,  are  indicated 
by  two  angles  with  their  points  in  opposite 
directions. 

Only  when  the  student  is  sufficiently 
master  of  his  voice  to  sing  through  the 
scale  on  a  single  breath  is  he  in  position 
to  attempt  drawing-out.  In  studying  shad- 
ing, it  is  desirable  to  begin  the  exercises 
with  the  whole  note,  taking  a  breath  for 
each  one,  and  carefully  practicing  the  al- 
ternate increase  and  decrease  as  indicated 
in  the  following  example. 

PRACTICING  OCTAVES. — Exercises  in  oc- 
taves, or  in  transitions  from  any  one  note 
to  its  counterpart  eight  tones  above,  may 
be  attempted  after  the  tones  are  clearly 


discriminated  in  the  student's  mind,  and 
their  production,  as  degrees  of  the  scale, 
has  beca  perfected.  In  singing  octaves, 
especial  care  should  be  exercised,  since  the 
tones  are  very  liable  to  be  run  together, 
and  sung  as  a  unison,  instead  of  as  eighths. 

EXERCISE   IN   OCTAVES 


While  they  must  be  connected,  they  must 
not  be  dragged  together.  It  is  not  alto- 
gether the  most  advantageous  habit  to  run 
the  scale  mentally  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest  tone,  in  the  production  of  eighths, 
but  this  may  be  done  at  the  start  in  order 
to  ensure  accuracy.  Altogether  the  best 
method  of  practicing  octaves  is  to  return 
to  the  lower  tone,  after  sounding  the 
eighth,  and  taking  particular  care,  mean- 
time, to  keep  both  tones  high  in  the  head. 
OBSERVATIONS  ON  PRACTICE. — The  neces- 
sary practice  involved  in  rendering  singing, 
or  any  other  form  of  music,  may  seem 
laborious,  and,  at  times,  somewhat  more 
than  is  positively  necessary.  But  the  be- 
ginner must  understand  that  all  these  mat- 
ters have  been  carefully  calculated,  with  a 
view  of  giving  him  facility  in  the  very 
points  that  are  most  essential  to  good  exe- 
cution. As  has  already  been  explained,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  breathing  apparatus 
be  properly  strengthened,  and  that  the 
production  of  tones  be  clear,  pure,  and  ac- 
curate. If  this  is  not  carefully  remem- 
bered, and  the  directions  given  by  the 
teacher  are  not  conscientiously  observed,  it 
will  inevitably  follow,  not  only  that  one 
can  not  learn  to  sing  properly,  but  also, 
that  in  attempting  to  sing  at  all,  he  may 
do  himself  serious  injury. 


INSTRUMENTAL  SIGHT- 
READING  SELF-TAUGHT 


THE   term,   "sight-reading,"   may   mean   either  of  two   things:    (i) 
the  ability  to  render  any  piece  on  a  musical  instrument  from  printed 
or  written  notes,  without  previous  practice;  (2)  the  ability  to  read 
written  notes,  with  such  complete  appreciation  of  the  tones  indicated  on 
the  staff  in  each  case,  as  to  enable  the  voice  to  reproduce  them  apart 
from  instrumental  guidance  or  accompaniment.     As  may  be  understood, 
therefore,  the  two  arts  are  really  distinct;  the  latter  requiring  by  far 
the  greater  training  in  musical  technicalities.      Nevertheless,  both  require 
patient   and   careful   study,   and   considerable   exercise   of   memory   and 
discrimination. 


SIGHT-READING   FOR   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC 


IN  order  to  acquire  the  desirable  ability 
to  read  at  sight  music  for  any  instru- 
ment, three  things  are  essential.  The  first 
is  that  the  student  should  be  so  far  mas- 
ter of  his  instrument  that  he  can  turn, 
with  the  least  possible  hesitation,  to  the 
key,  fret,  touch  or  valve  that  represents 
any  desired  tone,  or  semitone;  the  second, 
that,  by  virtue  of  constant  practice,  he  is 
perfectly  familiar  with  the  notation  of  writ- 
ten musical  scores,  and  can  readily  name 
;my  line  or  space  in  either  clef;  the 
third,  that,  by  virtue  of  the  constant  use 
of  written  notes  in  practicing,  his  mind 
readily  co-ordinates  the  tone  indicated 
by  a  note  on  a  line  or  space  with 
the  fret  or  key  producing  it  on  his  in- 
strument. 

In  the  fewest  words,  the  whole  matter 
of  instrumental  sight-reading  consists  in 
constant,  careful,  and  thoughtful  practice 
at  playing  from  written  notes — using  the 
ear  and  the  memory  for  melody  or  tone- 
sequence  as  seldom  as  possible,  if  at  all. 
By  this  means  one  is  enabled  not  merely 
to  learn  single  pieces  or  selections,  but 
also  to  train  the  eye  to  rapidly  co-ordinate 
the  written  note  with  the  key  producing 


its  tone,  and  to  enable  the  fingers  to  take 
the  proper  position  for  striking  at  the 
moment  the  mind  forms  its  concept.  As 
with  all  other  mental  processes,  the  es- 
sential act  of  learning  to  read  by  note  is 
unconscious;  following  simply  as  the  sense 
and  facility  at  understanding  and  acting 
increase  by  constant  practice. 

In  practicing,  however,  it  is  imperative 
that,  no  matter  how  well  a  piece  may  be 
known  and  mastered,  it  be  always  played 
from  notes — the  eye  being  compelled  to 
observe  each  separate  element  written  upon 
the  staff,  and  the  fingers  being  restrained 
from  acting  until  the  mind  has  followed 
the  eye.  Thus,  the  habit  of  closely  ob- 
serving notes  and  of  compelling  the  fin- 
gers to  perform  the  acts  they  indicate  is 
confirmed;  making  the  concrete  act  more 
and  more  automatic  and  precise,  until  fa- 
miliarity with  both  notes  and  instrument 
is  complete.  The  process  is  undoubtedly 
tedious  at  first,  and  the  performance  slow, 
but  the  student  will  find  that  his  progress 
into  rapid  reading  and  playing  is  amaz- 
ingly easy. 

At  this  point  it  seems  desirable  to  again 
emphasize  the  fact  that  study  of  music,  or 

(353) 


354 


INSTRUMENTAL   SIGHT-READING    SELF-TAUGHT 


any  other  subject,  should  never  be  a  tiring 
or  agonizing  process.  The  brain,  like  the 
digestive  organs,  the  heart,  lungs,  etc.,  is 
a  machine  that  works,  automatically,  un- 
consciously, and  regularly,  according  to 
natural  laws.  There  is  no  need  or  use, 
therefore,  to  "cudgel"  it  We  have  only 
to  feed  ideas  to  it,  just  as  we  feed  nour- 
ishing substances  to  the  stomach,  allowing 
it  to  act  upon  them  in  its  own  way  and 
in  its  own  time.  By  thus  following  the 
rules  for  study  and  the  presentation  of 
ideas  to  the  senses,  without  worrying  or 
striving,  the  understanding  and  familiarity 
come  all  of  a  sudden,  when  we  are  not 
expecting  it:  the  brain  has  worked  upon 
and  assimilated  the  idea.  Therefore,  we 
can  only  say  to  the  student;  "Practice, 
practice,  practice,  according  to  the  simple 
rules  given  you,  and  some  morning  you 
will  wake  up  and  find  yourself  perfect — 
in  your  art" 

The  following  list  of  directions  is  given 
in  several  works  of  instruction  in  instru- 
mental music,  and  is  included  here  for 
the  sake  of  giving  greater  clearness  to 
what  has  already  been  said : 

(1)  "The  student  can  not  turn  his  at- 
tention  to   playing   at   sight,   until   he   has 
gone    entirely   beyond    the    rudiments,    and 
has  attained  a  certain  degree  of  mechanical 
skill. 

(2)  "Then,  let  him  choose,  in  beginning, 
such    works   as   he   can   fully   master,   and 


which,    in  special   reference  to   mechanism, 
offer  but   few  difficulties. 

(3)  "The  main  rule  in  practicing  read- 
ing  is   to   play   one   portion    of   the  piece 
through    from    beginning   to    end,    without 
allowing  one's   self  to  be  stopped   by  any 
difficulty.   Although  many  imperfect  chords 
and  indistinct  passages  may  occur,  and  al- 
though he  may  leave  out  many  notes,  yet 
the  player  must  not  be  misguided  by  them 
and   stop  to  correct   himself,   but   play  on 
uninterruptedly  and  endeavor  to  give  such 
a    rendering   as    may   be,    in    the    main,    a 
faithful  picture  of  the  whole  work. 

(4)  "He  must  choose  a  tempo,  or  rate 
of  playing,   that   will   make   the  execution 
somewhat   easy,   and   yet  one   not  too   far 
removed   from  that  marked  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  piece. 

(5)  "He  should  play  a  piece  through  in 
this  way  a  few  times  only  at  the  utmost, 
and  then  change  it  for  another. 

(6)  "He  will,  then,  by  degrees,  acquire 
facility   at   quickly   conceiving   a   composi- 
tion,  and   learning   to    read    quite   readily, 
even    intricate    chords    and    passages.      To 
this  end,  however,  some  knowledge  of  har- 
mony is  in  a  high  degree  desirable,  if  not 
altogether    indispensable. 

(7)  "Playing  with  others  in  duets,  trios, 
quartets,  arranged  for  your  instrument,  as 
well    as    with    the    accompaniment   of   one 
or   more   other   instruments,   lends   a   con- 
siderable  zest   to  practice." 


VOCAL  SIGHT-READING 


IN  ORDER  to  master  any  instrument,  or  to  obtain  even  a  moderate 
facility  in  singing,  easily  the  most  important  thing  is  to  acquire 
familiarity  with  the  scale  or  gamut  in  every  key.  Taking  the 
natural  scale  of  C  major,  and  running  the  succession  of  natural  tones, 
either  one  or  two  octaves,  can  train  the  ear  to  detect  the  same  proper 
sequence  of  tones  and  semitones  in  all  other  major  scales.  It  is  far  better, 
however,  to  thoroughly  master  the  theory  of  the  scale,  or  gamut;  remem- 
bering that  every  other  key  follows  the  natural,  or  C,  scale,  in  having  a 
semitone  between  the  third  and  fourth  and  between  the  seventh  and  eighth 
degrees  in  the  major,  and  between  the  second  and  third  and  between  the 
seventh  and  eighth  in  the  minor.  The  scales  thoroughly  discriminated 
and  mastered,  the  other  intricacies  of  either  instrumental  or  vocal  music 
are  naturally  and  easily  understood. 

When  the  student  of  vocal  music  has  reached  the  stage  at  which 
correct  tone-production  is  natural  and  easy,  he  will  find  himself  greatly 
assisted  by  sounding  the  tones  on  the  piano,  or  some  other  carefully 
tuned  instrument,  and  reproducing  them  with  his  voice.  In  this  work, 
as  in  all  other  steps  in  the  process  of  learning  music,  it  is  in  every 
sense  desirable  to  closely  follow  a.  written  score;  thus  gradually  fixing 
in  the  mind  the  correspondences  between  the  lines  and  spaces  of  the 
staff,  in  either  clef,  and  the  tones  to  be  produced  by  an  instrument 
or  by  the  voice. 

In  the  following  pages  only  the  general  principles  have  been  explained, 
in  order  to  give  the  student  the  benefit  of  experience,  apart  from  the  tech- 
nical expressions  used  by  various  teachers. 


SIGHT-READING    FOR    VOCAL    MUSIC 


IN  mastering  the  intricacies  of  vocal  sight- 
reading,  the  first  step  is  to  obtain  per- 
fect familiarity  with  the  so-called  natural 
scale  of  C  major.  Upon  this  scale  are 
based  all  the  generalizations  to  be  followed 
later  with  other  keys.  In  learning  to  read 
vocal  music,  the  student  is  taught  to 
give  the  degrees  as  Do,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol, 
La,  Si,  Do,  instead  of  singing,  as  might 
be  more  logical  in  some  ways:  C,  D,  E,  F, 
G,  A,  B,  C.  These  syllables,  furthermore, 
are  pronounced,  not  as  in  English,  but  as 
in  other  European  languages.  Thus :  Do 
(doh),  RE  (ray),  Mi  (mee),  FA  (fah), 
SOL  (sole),  LA  (lah),  Si  (see) — the  syl- 


lable, ah,  being  always'  pronounced  broad; 
as  in  the  English  interjection,  "Ah!";  and 
the  syllable,  oh,  like  the  interjection,  "Oh!" 
The  origin  of  the  syllables  denoting  the 
several  degrees  of  the  scale  is  a  matter  of 
interest.  They  represent  the  first  syllables 
of  the  seven  lines  of  an  ancient  Latin  hymn, 
which  is  as  follows :  • 

Ut  queant  laxis. 

Resonare  fibris, 

Mira  gestorum. 

Famuli  tuorum. 

Solve  polluti. 

Labu  reatum, 

Sancte  Joannes.      • 

(855) 


356 


VOCAL   SIGHT-READING    SELF-TAUGHT 


This  hymn,  according  to  the  crude  ideas 
of  mediaeval  musicians,  was  sung  so  that 
each  successive  line  was  rendered  on  one 
degree  of  the  scale,  from  the  first  to  the 
sixth — which  is  to  say,  all  the  words  in 
the  first  line  were  given  in  the  tone  of 
C;  all  in  the  second,  in  the  tone  of  D,  etc. 
On  account  of  being  sung  to  this  "tune," 
it  furnished  a  ready  model  of  the  gamut 
in  six  degrees  for  students  of  music. 
Thus,  the  lines  of  the  hymn,  afterward 
only  the  first  syllables,  came  to  be  used 
as  synonyms  for  the  pitches  of  the  suc- 


Do  may  represent  the  keynote,  or  first  de- 
gree, of  any  scale,  while  RE  is  the  second, 
Mi  the  third,  etc. 

Any  one  attempting  to  teach  himself  to 
sing  by  note  must  begin  with  constant  prac- 
tice in  the  scale  of  C  major,  running  it  up 
and  down  the  gamut  by  seconds  and  thirds. 
Having  accustomed  himself  to  readily  rec- 
ognize the  degree  of  the  scale  indicated 
in  written  music,  it  may  be  possible  for 
him  to  more  readily  begin  scales  in  any 
key  with  the  syllable  indicating  its  tone  on 
the  natural  scale.  Thus,  while  the  scale 


GAMUT    OF    C    MAJOR 


cessive  degrees.  Later,  when  the  seventh 
degree  was  recognized  in  music,  the  first 
syllable,  sa,  of  the  seventh  line,  was  added 
to  the  other  six;  but,  for  the  sake  of 
euphony,  was  changed  to  si.  Similarly,  ut 
came  to  be  rendered  do  by  a  large  ma- 
jority of  authorities.  To  the  present  time, 
however,  the  seven  degrees  of  the  natural 
scale  are  designated  by  French  musicians 
as  Ut,  Re,  Mi,  etc.,  instead  of  by  the  let- 
ters, C,  D,  E,  etc.,  as  with  us. 

The  syllables,  therefore,  correspond  pri- 
marily to  the  degrees  of  the  scale  of  C 
major  and  this  system  is  rigidly  followed 
by  many  masters  of  vocal  music.  Others 
again,  for  the  sake  of  rendering  the  study 
simpler  in  some  particulars,  consider  that 


of  C  major  begins  oh  Do,  that  of  its  rela- 
tive A  minor,  begins  on  LA.  After  a  little 
practice,  it  is  quite  as  simple  to  begin  the 
scale  in  any  key  with  the  name  of  the  de- 
gree on  the  scale  of  C,  as  to  begin  it  with 
the  syllable  Do.  In  every  case,  however, 
a  variation  occurs  when  sharps  or  flats 
are  to  be  indicated.  Whatever  may  be  the 
vowel  used  for  the  natural  tone,  its  sharp 
is  represented  by  the  letter  f  (pronounced 
as  e  in  "me"),  and  its  flat,  by  the  letter  w 
(pronounced  as  in  "bud").  Thus  RE  S 
is  Ri  and  RE  b  is  Ru. 

Thus,  in  running  the  scale  of  C  by  sharps, 
we  have:  Di,  Ri,  FA,  Fi,  SIL,  Li,  Do,  Di. 

In  running  it  by  flats,  we  have:  Si,  Ru, 
Mu,  Mi,  SUL,  Lu,  Su,  Si. 


TWO    BEATS 


sr 


cro 


I 


MODE   OF   BEATING  TIME 


TRIPLE    TIME 


§ 

ora. 


COMMON   TIME 


3d  beat 


strong. 


VOCAL   SIGHT-READING   SELF-TAUGHT 


357 


In  these  sequences  it  will  be  noticed  that 
FA,  being  the  sharp  of  Mi,  which  already 
has  the  »,  is  substituted  for  it;  and,  that 
Do,  being  the  sharp  of  Si,  also  having  the 
i,  is  also  retained.  In  the  scale  by  flats, 
Si,  being  the  flat  of  Do  is  used  instead  of 
"Du,"  and  Mi,  being  the  flat  of  FA,  is 
used  instead  of  "Fu."  Such  terminology 
serves  two  good  ends :  ( i )  it  provides  that 
the  names  of  the  natural  tones  shall  never 
be  varied;  (2)  it  gives  the  student  both 
visible  and  audible  reminders  of  the  proper 
intervals  of  the  scale — the  semitones  being 
indicated  by  the  sequences,  FA-Fi,  Do-Di, 
Mu-Mi,  and  Su-Si. 


In  beginning  the  study  of  the  scale,  the 
student  will  find  it  best  to  accompany  his 
voice  on  the  piano,  or  some  other  instru- 
ment with  which  he  is  thoroughly  familiar; 
always  reading  the  notes  from  a  written 
or  printed  staff,  and  trusting  to  memory 
for  nothing  except  the  sounds  indicated  on 
the  lines  and  spaces,  when  the  instrument 
is  not  used.  It  is  most  essential  from  the 
start  to  observe  the  time  indicated  at  the 
signature;  and,  even  in  singing  scales,  this 
rule  must  be  followed  strictly,  in  order  to 
give  each  note  an  exactly  even  value.  This 
means  that  the  student  must  study  sight- 
reading  with  the  assistance  of  a  metro- 


TIMES   OF  TWO   BEATS. 


J       j       j 


At     -i             i 

1 

H  

IMES  O 

F  T* 

[RE 

1  

E   BEATS. 

—  r1  —  i  1  1  f  —  i  — 

m  —  4  
n 

-4  0  

—  0  •  0  0  0  0  

V        (l              B 

1          j 

j{                V                         ™ 

i                iii 

CIS          Q 

a    J 

J,             0 

• 

j    j   j  j   j   j  j    j   j 

.    .   I  ;   ;   J 


TIMES  OF   FOUR   BEATS. 


l\jf     7-S           * 

—  i  —  ;  —  i  — 

1 

yep  <*  °'  i 

Lf     12 

i  —  ^  — 

—  « 
—  i  —  • 

»  •- 

—  1  —  1  —  1  —  T~!  —  T 

« 
-1— 

•    \ 

W   » 

^>  0  

0      J 

000000 

-0-0—4 

^—0— 

VOCAL   SIGHT-READING   SELF-TAUGHT 


nome,  or  preferably  by  beating  the  time 
with  a  baton  or  ruler,  according  to  the 
diagram  on  page  356.  The  proper  num- 
ber and  directions  of  the  beats  are  indi- 
cated in  connection  with  several  exercises 
following. 

After  careful  practice  has  made  the  stu- 
dent proficient  in  reading  and  rendering  the 
natural  scale  by  consecutive  degrees,  the 
next  important  step  is  to  acquire  the  in- 
tervals. This  means  that  he  is  to  sing  the 
scales  on  thirds  from  notes,  omitting  each 
alternate  degree,  and  producing  sounds  in- 


third  indicates  the  third,  fifth,  and  the  minor 
seventh.  Of  course,  the  voice  can  not 
produce  a  chord,  such  as  may  be  sounded 
on  the  piano  and  several  other  instru- 
ments, but  the  object  of  writing  them  is 
that  they  may  be  rendered  as  arpeggios, 
running  quickly  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest  indicated  tone  in  the  given  time. 

In  starting  to  sing  a  selection  in  any  given 
key,  the  proper  tones  may  be  obtained  by 
sounding  the  chord  of  the  fifth,  or  dominant, 
according  to  the  scheme  given  later. 

The  matter  of  beating  time  must  now  be 


I.    EXERCISES    IN    THIRDS    ON    C   MAJOR 


do      mi      sol      si       re       fa       la       do       la       fa       re       si       sol      mi      do. 


— 

—  z?  — 

1    °    \ 

_2  — 

—  z?  — 

m  „ 

^ 

— 

—  —  — 

\—s>     \ 

re 


fa 


la        do       mi      sol 


s 


sol 


mi 


do        la 


fa 


re. 


dicated  on  the  staff  with  as  little  hesita- 
tion as  possible.  At  first,  unless  he  has 
been  unusually  industrious  in  learning  the 
scale  with  consecutive  degrees,  he  will  find 
that  his  mind  will  run  over  the  intervening 
tones,  producing  audibly  only  those  indi- 
cated. It  is  well  to  state,  however,  that 
one  can  not  make  himself  proficient,  until 
this  practice  is  rendered  altogether  un- 
necessary. Therefore,  when  the  student 
finds  himself  expert  in  the  scale  with  con- 
secutive degrees,  he  may  take  up  the  scales 
with  thirds;  practicing  them  first  in  con- 
nection with  consecutive  scale,  then  by 
themselves,  until  he  is  able  to  render  any 
degrees  on  the  scale  at  sight. 

While  it  is  essential  that  he  should  so 
practice  the  scales  and  intervals  that  he 
can  readily  produce  any  tone  indicated  in 
the  key  of  C,  which  is  the  model  for  others, 
there  are  certain  intervals  that  are  most 
important  in  singing.  These  are  indicated 
in  the  following  example  of  chords  and 
should  be  carefully  practiced  at  this  point. 

IMPORTANT  CHORDS  IN  C  MAJOR 
/L  *  a  » 


The  first  indicates  intervals  of  the  third, 
the  fifth,  and  the  octave;  the  second,  of 
the  fourth,  the  sixth,  and  the  octave;  the 


briefly  discussed,  in  order  to  prepare  the 
student  for  the  subsequent  exercises.  As 
has  already  been  stated,  it  is  positively  es- 
sential that  the  singing  of  all  notes  of 
equal  length  occupy  precisely  the  same  in- 
terval of  time  in  each  case,  as  indicated 
by  the  beats.  Of  course,  at  the  start  the 
rate  of  beating  time  will  be  necessarily 
slower  than  in  the  more  advanced  stages: 
it  must,  however,  be  perfectly  even  from 
the  first,  even  though  each  beat  occupy  a 
large  fraction  of  a  minute.  Carelessness 
in  this  particular  will  cause  the  time  of  a 
piece  to  vary,  hence  confirming  nearly  the 
worst  of  all  habits  in  singing.  Another 
thing  of -great  importance  is  that  the  hand, 
in  beating  time,  should  be  moved  as  nearly 
as  possible  at  an  even  rate  of  speed ;  pre- 
cisely like  the  vibrating  tongue  of  the  met- 
ronome. This  is  essential  for  the  reason 
that  the  singing  should  follow  the  time  in- 
dicated by  the  hand,  and  at  no  time  should 
the  hand  follow  the  time  of  the  singing. 
For  the  guidance  of  the  student  several 
specimens  of  common  measures  are  in- 
cluded, the  number  of  beats  being  indicated. 
Such  an  exercise  as  No.  II  will  illustrate 
at  once  the  time  value  of  measures  in 
beats.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to  render 
either  seconds  or  thirds  in  the  diatonic 
scale,  but  the  exercise  in  sounding  the 
tones,  indicated  in  such  a  piece  as  this,  is 
p  valuable  step  in  practical  note-reading. 


VOCAL   SIGHT-READING   SELF-TAUGHT 


359 


As  soon  as  the  student  has  arrived  at 
the  point  where  he  can  readily  and  ac- 
curately produce  any  tone  indicated  on  the 
staff — which  fact  he  may  readily  prove  by 
sounding  the  indicated  note  on  the  in- 
strument, after  giving  it,  or  attempting  it, 
with  his  voice — he  may  proceed  to  the 
study  of  the  chromatic  scale.  In  studying 
this  scale,  which  proceeds  by  semitones,  the 
student  will  find  himself  faced  by  a  real 
difficulty;  since  it  requires  long  and  ear- 


fork,  witnout  so  rendering  the  other  con- 
secutive tones.  This  enables  the  student  to 
obtain  the  habit  of  self-confidence  and  in- 
dependence of  instrumental  assistance,  which 
is  the  very  thing  he  is  studying  to  obtain. 
It  is  always  well,  however,  to  start  by 
sounding  the  keynote  or  the  chord  of  the 
fifth.  Proficiency  in  giving  accidental  semi- 
tones may  be  discovered  by  the  success  in 
rendering  such  an  exercise  as  No.  Ill,  in 
which  the  time  is  indicated,  but  not  the  tonic 


II.    EXERCISE     ON     INTERVALS     IN     C     MAJOR 


Not  too  fast. 


q — I        |    | 
"g=g=| 


do      re        do         re      mi        re         mi     fa        mi        fa     sol        fa         sol     la 


st 


sol        fa       sol        fa          mi     fa        mi         re      mi        re          do      re          do. 


nest  practice  to  fully  and  finally  identify 
the  sharp  or  flat  occurring  between  two 
natural  tones.  It  is  a  matter,  however, 
that  must  be  studied  with  the  same  per- 
sistence and  thoroughness  as  has  been  ex- 
pended on  the  diatonic  scale,  since  the 
sounds,  indicated  by  accidental  semitones 
in  the  key  of  C,  form  the  degrees  in  all 
other  keys.  It  is,  therefore,  more  desir- 
able in  running  the  chromatic  scale,  both 


syllables.  It  is  well  to  associate  these 
syllables  so  thoroughly  in  the  mind  with 
the  tones  to  which  they  correspond  that 
their  proper  names,  as  well  as  their  tones, 
may  be  recognized  and  rendered  whenever 
they  are  indicated  on  the  staff. 

After  the  scale  of  C  major  is  so  thor- 
oughly learned  that  the  student  can  sing 
it  at  sight,  or  correctly  render  any  of  its 
degrees  in  any  order  on  the  staff;  and 


CHROMATIC   SCALES    IN    C    MAJOR 


do         di        re         ri        mi        fa          fi        sol        sil        la          li        si         do. 


Elfo  

—  i  — 

—  =•—  — 

-to5— 

-&•&  — 

-^&— 

—&•  —  I 

do        ru        re         mu       mi        fa        sul        sol        lu         li         su         si        do. 


upward  and  downward,  to  sing  them  both 
by  sharps  and  flats;  the  difference  being 
always  indicated  by  the  syllables  used,  as 
already  explained.  This  is  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  the  required  training  in  producing 
each  incidental  correctly,  whether  it  be 
written  as  a  sharp  or  as  a  flat. 

In  practicing  the  scale,  particularly  the 
chromatic,  it  is  desirable  to  start  by  sound- 
ing the  keynote  on  the  piano  or  a  tuning- 


after  the  chromatic  scale  is  mastered  in 
the  same  way,  and  with  the  same  result, 
it  is  possible  to  begin  systematic  study  on 
the  other  keys,  both  major  and  minor. 
This  is  true,  because,  after  proficiency  in 
the  key  of  C  has  been  attained,  the  student 
has  the  materials  at  hand  to  render  him 
a  thoroughly  equipped  sight-reader.  The 
other  keys  are,  therefore,  mere  variations 
on  the  chromatic  scale  of  C;  beginning 


360 


VOCAL   SIGHT-READING    SELF-TAUGHT 


III.    EXERCISE     IN     CHROMATICS     AND     INTERVALS 

Note  well  the  beats  throughout  thts  piece. 
Moderately  slow. 


Ut,,  fl  —  »-—•?>  —  j 

—  1  1  

-T—  i  r—r-f—r^ 

Efti-r  r  •  ii-gu 

Count.  123      4,       1234, 

bdH-H  jd3=^f 

•       W 
1234, 

-J—  J  —  h  -r—  f—  3-  -f- 

1      2      S5^,      123       4,        1234, 

,'    I  ul      III  ;  h 

Ep==t^t^  

1       2      3      4,        1234, 

1234,      1 

._*  J_ 
1  1—  «  f  ^  1 

234,       1234,         1        2       34, 
h^  y    \r*  Hi*  h      1 

[•&  —  J  —  s^—  -  —  •  r  j  —  »- 

--J  *  —  i— 

~^—   J~  —  F—    ~*-f 

1234,       1234, 

1234, 

°*      •                   r 

1234,        1234,        1234, 

9                                                                                                               9 

^fe  —  r  —  f— 
-t-  —  '  —  i  —  • 

**        '*            '            ^            '"^J. 

1234,      1      234,       1234,       1234,        1       2      3       4,       1234 


at  any  desired  tone  as  keynote,  and  ob- 
serving the  proper  intervals  of  the  scale, 
major  or  minor,  as  already  indicated. 

Since  the  signs  following  the  clef  are 
not  sufficient  of  themselves  to  show  whether 
the  piece  is  in  the  major  or  minor  mode, 


The  perfect  chords  of  the  various  keys, 
both  major  and  minor,  are  given  in  the 
following  examples.  The  mode  in  which 
a  piece  is  written  in  any  given  key  may 
be  readily  recognized  in  playing  or  singing 
it.  The  minor  chord  is  usually  described 


SOL   MAJOR. 

bJj?,  {» 

0 

—&— 

a 

0 

<9 

-&. 

& 

gy 

r=\ 

sol      la       si      do      re      mi       fi       sol,     sol      fi      mi      re      do      si       la    sol. 
FA  MAJOR. 

A                                                                                                                                                                       -^           '    ^n 



—&— 

—gy- 

—  ^  — 

_TIJ 

—O.— 

—  ^  — 

—?5- 

—&— 

—  fy  — 

bffcB1  *  '   s> 

& 

—  i  —  i 

—  &  — 

-,  \ 

fa       sol     la     su      do     re      mi     fa,      fa     mi     re     do     su      la     sol     fa. 


it  is  necessary  to  look  through  the  music 
in  order  to  find  the  notes  forming  the 
perfect  chord — which  is  to  say,  the  chord 
of  the  tonic  or  keynote  as  the  fundamental, 
with  the  third  and  fifth  above  it.  The 
melody  or  the  accompaniment  should  indi- 
cate one  or  the  other  of  these. 


as  having  a  "more  sad  and  melancholy 
effect"  than  that  of  its  corresponding  ma- 
jor, or,  in  more  descriptive  words,  seems 
to  indicate  a  movement  that  is  restrained 
or  held  back. 

Although,  as  already  stated,  all  keys  pro- 
ceed   easily    after    the    key    of    C    is    thor- 


GAMUT  OF  LA  MINOR,  THE  RELATIVE  OF  DO  MAJOR. 


^^p^ 


la      si      do      re      mi       fi       si)       la.      la       sol      fa      mi     re      do      si      la. 


VOCAL   SIGHT-READING   SELF-TAUGHT 


361 


oughly  mastered  by  notes,  the  student  must 
constantly  and  carefully  observe  the  sig- 
natures in  practicing  the  other  keys.  This 
is  true,  because,  except  in  the  minor  mode, 
the  sharps  and  flats  are  not  marked  in  the 
measures,  but  are  always  sounded  through- 
out, as  written  at  the  signature. 

As  can  not  be  too  ^trongly  emphasized, 
each  key  must  be  taken  up  in  order,  pref- 
erably in  the  order  of  its  derivation — 
thus,  C  and  its  relative,  A  minor;  G,  one 
sharp,  and  its  relative,  E  minor,  etc.,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  examples. 
Furthermore,  the  student  must  continue 


to  practice  scales  and  exercises  in  each 
successive  key,  until  he  can  read  readily 
any  piece  written  in  that  key.  As  already 
stated,  the  keynote  and  the  third  and  fifth 
degrees  are  the  tones  by  which  the  student 
can  most  easily  learn  all  the  rest  of  the 
scale. 

Bearing  in  mind  that  he  has  to  learn 
two  distinct  things  in  studying  sight-read- 
ing— the  tones  corresponding  to  the  notes 
on  the  staff  in  each  case,  and  the  habit  of 
retaining  the  time  correctly  by  beats — it 
is  necessary  at  this  point  to  mention  a  few 
things,  regarding  which  the  student  must 


MAJOR 


MINOR. 


PERFECT    CHORDS    IN    THE    MAJOR   AND    MINOR    KEYS 

Do.  Sol.  Rr.  La. 

IT 


Mu. 


Lu. 


362 


VOCAL   SIGHT-READING    SELF-TAUGHT 


$:  Andante. 


IV.    EXERCISE     IN     LA     MINOR 


* 


Fine., 


J 


3=3 


al  Segno. 


1 

\  1  1 

'  1 

—  H— 

ipH^ 

L3 

• 

LMd 

0 

hj.  ^ 

zs 

1  1 

be  particularly  careful.  Foremost  among 
these  may  be  mentioned  syncopation,  which 
furnishes  a  difficulty  that  must  be  thor- 
oughly mastered  in  beating  time.  Since 
syncopation  indicates  a  variation  from  the 
proper  accent  of  the  measure,  the  synco- 
pated note  must  be  strongly  accented,  thus 
necessitating  a  corresponding  variation  from 
the  order  of  beats  already  given. 

Like  all  other  subjects  worth  learning, 
the  study  of  vocal  sight-reading  involves 
hard  work,  which  the  student  must  per- 
form for  himself.  In  attempting  to  master 
this  subject,  without  the  assistance  of  a 
teacher,  one  must  be  even  more  conscien- 
tious and  careful  than  if  under  constant 
personal  direction.  He  must  thoroughly 
read  and  digest  all  the  directions  given  in 
this  article,  and  must  follow  them  to  the 
best  of  his  ability.  When  he  has  thoroughly 
mastered  all  the  exercises  here  given,  he 
should  proceed  to  the  study  of  any  simple 


hymn  tunes  or  popular  airs  of  which  he 
has  notes.  Since  his  success  depends  en- 
tirely upon  himself,  he  should  carefully 
observe  two  things:  (i)  Never  leave  a 
thing,  no  matter  how  hard  it  may  be,  until 
it  is  thoroughly  mastered,  as  may  be  proved 
by  comparing  the  accuracy  of  your  note- 
reading  by  a  musical  instrument,  as  al- 
ready explained;  (2)  since  you  are  study- 
ing to  read  from  notes,  avoid  trusting  to 
your  ear  or  memory,  as  far  as  possible. 
In  taking  simple  pieces  for  practice,  choose 
those  rather  with  which  you  are  not  fa- 
miliar. In  short,  in  learning  to  read  notes, 
proceed  precisely  as  you  did  when  you 
were  learning  to  read  words;  always  en- 
deavoring to  derive  your  ideas  of  tone 
from  the  note  you  see  written  on  the  staff, 
until  you  are  so  familiar  with  the  staff 
that  it  represents  to  your  mind  tones  and 
semitones,  instead  of  merely  lines,  spaces, 
and  measures. 


V    EXERCISE  IN   FA   MAJOR   WITH    SYNCOPATION 
A llegretlo  grazioso.    SYNCOPATION. 


PHOTOGRAPH? 


A/IATEUR  PHOTOGRAPHY  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  and 
permanently  interesting  forms  of  amusement.  Its  practice  in- 
cludes everything  from  the  simplest  of  mechanical  operations  to 
the  intricacies  of  modern  chemistry.  Some  definite  technical  instruc- 
tion, therefore,  becomes  necessary  in  order  to  introduce  the  beginner  to 
the  subjects  he  must  study  in  connection  with  making  pictures. 

In  the  selection  of  an  instrument,  it  is  desirable  to  consider  whether 
to  buy  a  simple  affair,  which  will  require  only  the  touching  of  a  button, 
or  an  apparatus  more  difficult  to  operate.  The  matter  is  one  worth  care- 
ful consideration,  because  a  good,  serviceable  camera  will  prove  a  life- 
long companion,  while  a  toy  will  never  furnish  opportunity  for  an  extended 
study  of  photography. 

An  instrument  that  can  be  used  either  with  films  or  dry  plates  is  one 
of  the  most  recent  innovations,  and  permits  of  a  wide  range  of  work 
with  great  convenience  for  the  operator. 

In  selecting  the  camera,  bear  in  mind  the  importance  of  having  the 
size  such  as  will  be  useful  for  your  requirements.  Should  it  be  intended 
to  print  direct  from  negatives,  a  camera  with  plate  about  five  by  seven 
inches  would  be  the  most  desirable  size,  while  for  lantern  slides  and  en- 
largements a  smaller  plate,  yielding  pictures  about  three  and  one-quarter 
bv  four  and  one-quarter  inches,  would  be  desirable. 


AS  specified  by  several  authorities  on 
photography,  the  following  articles 
are  positively  essential  to  a  well-regulated 
outfit,  and  should  be  provided: 

(i.)  Trays  of  the  various   sizes   required. 

(2.)  Scale  for  weighing  grains  and  ounces; 
apothecaries'  weights. 

(3.)  A  thermometer  to  measure  the  tem- 
perature of  solutions. 

(4.)  A  hydrometer  to  test  the  strength  of 
the  solutions.  (This  instrument  should  be 
tested  for  its  correctness  by  measuring  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  40  grains  oer 


fluid  ounce,  which  should  indicate  40.  In 
case  of  a  material  difference,  use  the  figure 
the  instrument  shows  instead  of  40,  or  pro- 
cure a  hydrometer  which  is  correct.) 

(5.)  A  one    (i)   ounce  graduate. 

(6.)  A  pint  or  quart  graduate. 

(7.)  A  glass  stirring  rod. 

(8.)  Bottles  for  solutions,  labelled  and 
provided  with  good  corks. 

(9.)  A  camel's-hair  brush  for  dusting 
plates. 

Especial  care  must  be  taken  to  thoroughly 
wash  and  cleanse  the  trays  after  each  using. 

(863) 


364 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


On  frequent  occasions,  also,  they  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  with  sulphuric  or  muri- 
atic acid,  washed  and  scrubbed  with  a 
brush. 

In  case  it  is  possible  to  have  more  than 
one  lens,  better  results  can  be  obtained  by 
having  one  specially  adapted  for  short  and 
the  other  for  long  distances,  a  wide-angle 
lens  being  preferable  for  interiors.  The 
tripod  should  always  be  as  light  as  possible, 
and  a  mackintosh  focusing  cloth  is  the  most 
useful  for  all  weathers. 

The  work  of  focusing  the  object  to  be 
taken  will  be  found  by  the  amateur  the  most 
difficult  thing  when  first  starting  out.  Of 
course,  where  a  snap-shot  camera  is  used, 
there  is  what  we  designate  a  finder  attached, 
and  one  has  only  to  look  at  this  to  see 
mirrored  in  it  a  picture  of  the  scene  or  ob- 
ject to  be  taken.  By  exercising  the  judg- 
ment for  a  moment,  the  best  distance  and 
elevation  at  which  to  snap  the  button  will 
be  easily  seen.  When  using  an  ordinary 
camera  and  tripod  it  is  entirely  different, 
and  mathematical  accuracy  is  necessary  in 
order  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  picture.  The 
first  point  is  to  ascertain  the  focus  of  the 
lens  with  which  the  camera  is  fitted.  The 
focus  means  that  point  at  which  the  re- 
flected rays  of  light  meet,  or,  more  plainly 
speaking,  the  central  point  of  vision  to  the 
camera. 

It  will  be  apparent  to  the  novice  that, 
owing  to  the  divergency  of  the  rays  of  light 
entering  the  camera,  some  system  of  regu- 
lating their  action  on  the  plate  or  film  must 
be  adopted.  By  obtaining  what  is  known 
as  the  equivalent  focus,  the  operator  will 
learn  in  what  position  to  place  the  camera 
before  interposing  the  shutter.  Several  ex- 
act mathematical  formulae  have  been  used 
for  finding  this,  but  the  following  simple 
and  practical  rule  is  given  by  Cramer : 

"The  equivalent  focus  of  a  lens  may  be 
ascertained  by  focusing  an  object  so  that 
it  will  show  on  the  ground  glass  in  exactly 
its  original  size,  then  measuring  the  distance 
Vom  object  to  ground  glass  and  dividing 
ame  by  4.  Another  way  is  to  focus  on  the 
sun  and  to  measure  the  distance  from  the 
optical  centre  of  the  combination  (where 
diaphragm  is  placed),  to  the  ground  glass, 
the  sun  focus  and  equivalent  focus  being 
approximately  the  same." 

With  the  modern  rapid  plates  and  ad- 
justable lens  shutters,  it  is  possible  to  take 
photographs  in  a  very  small  fraction  of  a 
second.  The  time  of  exposure  is  adjusted 
with  regard  to  two  things:  (i)  the  number 
of  the  diaphragm,  and  (2)  the  nature,  etc., 


of    the    object    and    its    distance    from   the 
camera. 

Diaphragms  are  interchangeable,  and  each 
is  numbered,  according  to  the  ratio  be- 
tween its  diameter  and  the  focal  length  of 
the  lens.  Thus,  with  a  focal  length  of  6 
inches  and  a  diaphragm  diameter  of  l/i  inch, 
we  have  6-^.5=12,  or  as  usually  expressed, 
F  12.  For  the  same  lens  and  focal  length, 
the  relative  time  exposure  with  two  different 
diaphragms  is  found  by  dividing  the  smaller 
of  their  two  numbers  (found  as  above),  and 
squaring  the  quotient.  Thus,  if  we  have 
F  4  and  F  16,  the  operation  is  as  follows: 

i6-=-4=4 

4  squared  (4X4)=i6. 

These  figures  indicate,  therefore,  that  the 
diaphragm  numbered  16  requires  16  times 
as  long  an  exposure,  under  given  condi- 
tions, as  that  numbered  4. 

English-made  camera  diaphragms  are 
numbered  by  a  somewhat  different  system 
— the  numbers  used  indicating  at  a  glance 
the  relative  length  of  exposure  required. 
This  is  seen  in  the  following  comparative 
table. 

i  equals  F'4 

4  "  F'8 

8  "  F/n 

16  "  F/i6 

32  "  F/22 

64  "  F/32 

128  "  F/45 

256  "  F/64 

Modern  cameras  for  instantaneous  work 
have  attachments  for  varying  the  size  of 
the  diaphragm  opening,  also  for  timing  the 
exposure. 

In  taking  instantaneous  photographs  of 
moving  objects,  it  is  necessary  to  time  the 
exposure  so  as  to  prevent  the  picture  from 
being  blurred,  as  must  certainly  result  from 
over-exposure  under  such  conditions.  Va- 
rious mathematical  rules  have  been  given 
for  determining  this  matter,  but  none  of 
them  is  wholly  practical,  except  where  the 
photographer  has  plenty  of  time  before- 
hand to  arrange  all  details.  The  best  prac- 
tice is  to  focus  on  the  object,  or  on  the  spot 
where  it  will  appear — as  in  the  case  of  a 
railroad  train  on  a  track,  or  of  horses  and 
wagons  on  a  road — and  adjust  for  an  ex- 
posure according  to  the  following  table. 
As  may  be  readily  understood,  an  object 
moving  toward  the  camera  may  be  taken 
with  an  exposure  generally  about  3  times 
longer  than  an  object  moving  at  right 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


365 


MOVING 

AT    RIGHT 

TOWARD 

ANGLES   TO 

CAMERA. 

CAMERA 

i-i5thsec. 

i-45th  sec. 

i-iS 
i  -20 

i-45 
1-60 

1-40 

I-I2O 

-IOO 

1-300 

-100 

1-300 

-150 

-200 

I-4SO 

1-600 

-2OO 

1-600 

If  distance 

and  double 

angles  to  it,  or  across  the  line  drawn  from 
the   lens   tube   outward. 

OBJECT 

Man  walking  slowly 
Cattle  grazing    .    . 

Boating 1-20 

Man  walking,  children 

playing 1-40 

Pony  and  cart, trotting 
Ordinary  cycling  .  . 
Man  running  and 

jumping 

Cycle  racing  .... 
Horses  galloping  .  . 

Halve  exposure  for  1 
for  twice  distance  from  object. 

Some  little  experience  is  necessary  to 
enable  one  to  judge  correctly  in  this  matter, 
as  the  only  really  reliable  rules  are  ex- 
perimental. In  determining  such  points,  the 
photographer  should  keep  careful  notes  of 
all  plates  exposed  and  of  the  results  ob- 
tained in  developing  them.  Thus,  in  cases 
of  uncertainty,  a  good  practice  is  to  ex- 
pose three  plates;  one  for  about  the  time 
prescribed,  one  for  a  somewhat  shorter 
period,  one  for  a  somewhat  longer  period, 
and  compare  the  results  obtained. 

Where  glass  plates  are  used  the  holders 
should  be  numbered,  and  records  kept,  on 
each  occasion,  of  the  time  of  exposure  of 
the  plates,  etc.  With  a  film,  the  records 
may  be  kept  by  the  numbers  appearing  as 
it  is  turned  forward. 

THE    DARK    ROOM 

The  dark  room  is  a  necessary  adjunct 
to  the  camera,  but  it  need  not  be  a  matter 
of  heavy  cost  to  the  amateur.  A  large 
closet  or  pantry  with  a  fair-sized  window 
in  it  will  answer  better  than  anything  else; 
otherwise  a  portion  of  a  room  can  be 
used  with  a  corner  which  may  be  screened 
off  for  the  purpose.  Total  darkness,  of 
course,  is  not  what  is  required  of  this 
chamber,  the  purpose  being  only  to  exclude 
all  actinic,  or  white,  rays  of  light.  Run- 
ning water  will  be  a  great  convenience,  if 
available.  The  exclusion  of  all  undesirable 
light  must  be  very  complete.  Thick  baize 
curtains  falling  very  full  upon  the  floor, 
must  be  arranged  at  the  doorway.  The 
window  should  be  glazed  with  ruby  glass, 
of  two  thicknesses,  on  the  inside  of  which 
there  should  be  a  curtain  or  blind  of  me- 
dium-weight yellow  material.  A  developing 
sink  will  be  the  next  thing  necessary,  and 
for  this  purpose  cheap  apparatus  can  be 
bought  or  some  simple  substitute  arranged. 
The^  all-important  point  about  the  dark 
room  is  to  have  every  ray  of  white,  or 


ordinary,  light  positively  excluded.  In  or- 
der to  test  the  room,  and  provide  that  not 
even  the  tiniest  ray  is  admitted,  even  as 
small  as  would  come  through  a  keyhole, 
darken  the  window  thoroughly,  and  then, 
having  adjusted  the  curtains,  watch  for 
some  time  in  the  total  darkness  to  see  if 
any  streak  of  light  becomes  visible. 

Some  writers  recommend  that  a  screen 
be  placed  before  the  entrance  wherever  pos- 
sible, making  a  "zigzag"  passage  into  the 
dark  room  and  avoiding  the  necessity  of 
more  elaborate  precautions  for  excluding 
rays  of  daylight.  This  is  not  always  pos- 
sible, however,  owing  to  lack  of  room,  and 
by  the  use  of  properly  arranged  screens  or 
curtains  the  end  may  be  quite  as  fully 
attained. 

Where  it  is  not  convenient  to  have  a 
window  in  the  dark  room  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  use  a  lamp,  fitted  with  a  red  or 
yellow  chimney.  A  swinging  screen  made 
on  the  principle  of  a  looking-glass  can  be 
interposed  between  the  lamp  and  the  de- 
veloping bath,  so  as  to  allow  of  minimizing 
the  light  while  manipulating  the  pictures. 
This  because  it  is  not  desirable  to  expose 
the  plate  to  a  strong  light  until  it  is  thor- 
oughly developed. 

A  great  convenience  in  the  dark  room 
is  a  fan  driven  by  electrical  or  water  power, 
not  only  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
temperature  from  rising  too  high  in  hot 
weather,  but  also  as  an  assistance  in  dry- 
ing the  negatives.  If  the  negatives  are 
dried  in  a  hot  and  sultry  atmosphere,  they 
are  liable  to  become  too  intense.  The  fan 
is  also  useful  in  keeping  the  solutions  cool, 
when  the  bottles  are  wrapped  in  wet  flan- 
nel and  set  in  a  shallow  dish  containing 
water.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  main- 
tain a  comfortable  heat  in  the  dark  room 
during  cold  weather. 

In  developing  a  plate  or  film,  pour  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  the  developing  solu- 
tion to  cover  the  plate  into  a  shallow  tray. 
The  plate  should  either  be  slid  into  the 
tray,  which  is  slightly  tilted  in  the  process, 
to  ensure  an  even  flow  of  the  liquid  over 
its  surface,  or  it  is  laid,  face  upward,  in 
the  tray  and  the  developer  is  poured  over 
it  with  one  sweep  of  the  arm.  Air  bubbles 
may  be  removed  with  a  piece  of  filtering 
cotton  kept  in  clean  water.  During  the 
process  of  development,  the  tray  should  be 
gently  rocked  every  now  and  then,  care 
being  taken  to  keep  the  solution  always  over 
its  surface,  in  order  to  prevent  the  staining 
liable  to  result  from  exposure  to  the  air. 

In  order  to  discover  if  the  plate  is  suffi- 

24 


366 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


ciently  developed  and  the  figures  possess 
the  required  density,  it  may  be  removed 
quickly  from  the  tray  and  held  up  to  the 
light.  This  process,  however,  should  be 
repeated  no  oftener  than  necessity  requires. 

A  plate  that  has  been  properly  exposed 
will  speedily  develop;  the  high  lights  ap- 
pearing first  and  the  half-tones  and  shad- 
ows in  rapid  succession  thereafter.  If  it 
has  been  overexposed,  the  whole  image, 
with  lights  and  shadows,  appears  simul- 
taneously, but  the  effect  is  flat  and  the  de- 
tails are  imperfect.  The  condition  may  be 
remedied  by  the  use  of  bromide  of  potas- 
sium, as  will  be  presently  explained.  An 
underexposed  plate  will  develop  slowly,  and 
with  imperfect  effect  on  the  shadows.  This 
may  be  remedied  by  soaking  the  plate  after 
cleansing  in  pure  water,  and  then  returning 
it  to  a  fresh  developer,  or  else  by  using  a 
diluted  solution.  In  either  case  the  process 
of  developing  is  greatly  prolonged,  but  the 
result  will  be  a  strengthening  in  the  shad- 
ows, and,  with  good  care,  a  satisfactory 
printing  plate.  All  light  should  be  ex- 
cluded from  an  underexposed  plate  in  proc- 
ess of  prolonged  development. 

Some  developers  have  been  condemned 
for  their  unpleasant  effects  on  the  hands, 
but  the  objection  to  those  containing  strong 
alkalies  and  acids  can  scarcely  be  over- 
come, as  such  ingredients  are  necessary  to 
proper  work.  A  comparatively  new  chemi- 
cal compound  known  as  metol  is  being  ad- 
vocated by  one  school  of  photographers, 
while  pyrogallic  acid,  or  "pyro,"  hydro- 
quinone,  ettconogen,  amidol,  and  half  a 
dozen  others  are  still  used  extensively.  Me- 
tol has,  perhaps,  received  more  favor  re- 
cently than  any  other  developer,  and  many 
advantages  are  claimed  on  account  of  the 
rapidity  of  its  action. 

A  method  of  development,  known  as  the 
"Universal,"  is  used  by  many  as  combining 
the  quick  effects  of  metol  and  the  slow 
work  of  glycin.  It  is  said  to  be  produc- 
tive of  the  finest  possible  results  irrespec- 
tive of  the  time  of  exposure.  By  using 
this  solution  as  many  as  two  dozen  plates 
can  be  developed  at  a  time.  The  outcome 
is  certain  and  eminently  satisfactory ;  good, 
quick-printing  negatives,  full  of  tone  and 
style,  being  produced.  In  this  method  a 
large  fixing-box  with  a  tight  cover  to  it 
will  be  necessary,  and  a  normal  plate  will 
develop  in  about  thirty  minutes.  The  for- 
mulas are  as  follows : 

No.  i .  Metol    20  grains 

Sulphite  soda  crystal 3-4  ounce 

Water    ao  ounces 


No.  2.  Glycin  ao  grains 

Sulphite  soda  crystal 50 

Carbonate  potass 100       " 

Hot  water a  ounces 

Add  18  ounces  water  when  all  the  ingredi- 
ents are  dissolved. 

These  two  formulas  can  be  combined  for 
neutral  results,  care  being  taken  not  to 
place  the  negatives  in  a  bath  which  has 
been  used  for  fixing  purposes.  The  plates 
should  be  so  arranged  in  the  bath  that 
the  developer  can  reach  them  readily,  and 
the  liquid  must  be  kept  moving  while  the 
plates  are  immersed. 

The  so-called  "pyrogallic"  developer  pre- 
sents many  advantages  over  most  others. 
Like  the  "Universal,"  it  is  a  combination 
of  two  different  solutions,  as  follows: 

No.  i.  Sulphuric  acid 10  drops 

Cold  boiled  water 6  ounces 

Pyrogal  1  ic  acid i  ounce 

No.  2.  Sulphite  of  soda  (crystals) 6  ounces 

Carbonate  of  soda  (crystals) 4  ounces 

Hot  water 15  ounces 

Cool  and  filter 

For  normal  exposures,  mix  i  drachm  of 
No.  i  and  y*  ounce  of  No.  2  in  3  ounces 
of  pure  water. 

For  an  overexposed  plate,  add  to  this  3 
or  4  drops  of  a  10  per  cent  solution  of 
sal  bromide  of  potash  in  water. 

For  underexposure,  add  only  water. 

After  the  plate  has  been  sufficiently  de- 
veloped, it  should  be  carefully  rinsed  and 
placed  in  a  grooved  tank  containing  the 
fixing  solution.  An  essential  part  of  this 
stage  of  the  process  is  dissolving  off  the 
bromide  of  silver,  which  has  been  affected 
by  both  the  light  and  the  developing  so- 
lution. The  fixing  bath  should  be  pro- 
longed some  five  minutes  or  so  after  the 
silver  appears  to  have  been  dissolved  away, 
in  order  to  ensure  permanency,  perfect 
hardening  and  freedom  from  stains. 

If  properly  exposed  and  developed,  a 
plate  will  not  require  intensifying  or  re- 
ducing, but,  if  necessary,  may  be  immersed 
in  these  solutions : 

No.  i.  Bichloride  of  mercury i    ounce 

Water    20  ounces 

The  negative  is  kept  immersed  in  this 
solution  until  the  film  is  evenly  whitened. 
It  should  then  be  immersed  in  this  solu- 
tion : 

No.  2.  Sulphide  of  soda i    ounce 

Water   20  ounces 

which  will  cause  it  to  assume  a  dark  brown- 
ish  color.     The   process   may   be   repeated 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


367 


until  the  desired  density  is  obtained,  after 
which  the  plate  should  be  thoroughly 
washed. 

Plates  that  have  been  overexposed  and 
overdeveloped  may  be  reduced  by  the  fol- 
lowing solutions : 

No.  i.  Soda  hyposulphite i  ounce 

Water 16  ounces 

No.2.  Red  prussiate  of  potash i  ounce 

Water  16  ounces 

Take  8  ounces  of  No.  i  and  i  ounce  of 
No.  2  as  a  bath  for  a  plate  already  fixed. 
If  the  plate  is  dry  it  may  be  soaked  for 
half  an  hour.  In  order  to  avoid  streaks, 
rinse  the  negative  before  holding  it  up  for 
examination,  and  when  sufficiently  reduced 
wash  thoroughly. 

Since  these  reducing  solutions  may  be 
affected  by  light,  they  should  be  kept  care- 
fully in  a  dark  place. 

The  best  fixing  solution  for  general  pur- 
poses is  as  follows : 

Soda  hyposulphite i    part 

Water    4  parts 

giving  a  hydrometer  test  of  about  80. 
This  bath  may  be  used  only  until  it  be- 
gins to  show  discoloration,  when  it  should 
be  thrown  away. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  superior  harden- 
ing of  the  negative  that  will  permit  of 
washing  in  warm  water  and  drying  by  ar- 
tificial heat,  a  mixture  of  the  following  two 
solutions  may  be  used : 

No.  i.  Soda  hyposulphite 32  ounces 

Water  (7  pints) 112  ounces 

No.2.  Sulphuric  acid  (C.  P.) 1-2  ounce 

Soda  sulphite  (dry) 3  ounces 

Chrome  alum  (powdered) 2  ounces 

Water  32  ounces 

In  mixing  No.  2  it  is  important  to  meas- 
ure the  ingredients  accurately,  and  pour 
them  into  the  water  in  the  order  named. 
No.  2  should  then  be  poured  into  No.  i, 
never  the  reverse,  the.  pouring  being  ac- 
companied by  constant  stirring,  in  order  to 
prevent  precipitation  and  consequent  in- 
effectiveness of  the  combined  solution.  In 
cold  weather,  half  the  quantity  of  No.  2 
is  usually  sufficient  to  secure  good  results. 

This  bath  may  be  used  repeatedly  with- 
out becoming  discolored,  but  should  be 
replaced  by  a  new  one  as  soon  as  it  ap- 
pears to  have  become  exhausted.  The 
negative  should  be  left  in  solution  for 
from  5  to  10  minutes  after  the  silver  has 
been  dissolved. 

Spots  on  the  negative,  or  pinholes,  as 
they  are  termed,  should  be  looked  after 


before  the  printing  is  attempted.  The  best 
method  is  to  touch  them  with  carmine, 
using  a  very  fine  brush  for  the  purpose. 
Other  defects  in  the  negative  are  remedied 
by  what  is  known  as  retouching.  Dark 
marks  are  either  painted  over  on  the  nega- 
tive or  in  the  print,  and  lighter  ones  may 
be  fixed  by  using  a  soft  lead-pencil. 

PRINTING 

It  is  probable  that  the  amateur  will  find 
it  more  convenient  to  buy  paper  ready  cut 
for  printing  his  pictures  on  from  the  nega- 
tives. There  are  numerous  kinds  upon  the 
market,  each  having  its  advocates,  and  in 
some  instances  being  befter  suited  to  cer- 
tain purposes. 

In  order  to  spare  time  and  consider- 
able- trouble  the  amateur  will  be  wise  to 
use  paper  which  is  ready  prepared  and  sen- 
sitized, rendering  the  amateur's  work  com- 
paratively easy  from  this  stage  on.  Carbon 
papers  are  used  much  less  than  formerly, 
the  albumenized  and  the  gelatino-citro- 
chloride  papers  now  having  the  preference. 
It  is  claimed  for  the  latter  that  they  pro- 
duce prints  of  greater  richness  and  bril- 
liancy than  any  others. 

A  very  essential  point  in  the  amateur's 
outfit  is  to  get  a  few  good  printing  frames, 
as  it  will  spare  many  troubles  and  annoy- 
ances in  the  course  of  the  work.  See  that 
the  back  of  the  frame  is  made  of  hard 
wood,  so  as  to  prevent  warping  or  shrink- 
ing, as  the  spring  must  always  work  easily 
yet  firmly.  Otherwise  the  prints  will  shift 
about,  causing  any  amount  of  inconvenience 
and  disappointment.  It  is  well  to  have  the 
inner  side  of  the  back  of  the  frame  lined 
with  velvet.  A  small  cloth  pad,  cut  rather 
smaller  than  the  size  of  the  negative,  will 
also  be  required.  When  films  are  used 
place  a  piece  of  glass  in  the  printing  frame, 
with  the  back  of  the  negative  toward  the 
glass,  to  prevent  the  film  from  curling. 

Before  placing  the  paper  in  the  frame 
in  contact  with  the  negative,  dust  both 
thoroughly  with  either  a  velvet  or  a 
camel's-hair  brush.  In  order  to  get  the 
negative  and  paper  arranged  in  correct  po- 
sition in  the  frame,  so  that  the  printing 
will  be  straight,  hold  the  frame  up  to  the 
light  so  as  to  be  sure  that  both  are  exactly 
in  place.  Always  be  careful  to  print  from 
the  film  side  of  the  negative,  or  disas- 
trous results  will  ensue.  The  printing 
frame  and  accessories  should  be  kept  well 
ai  'ed  and  free  from  damp,  in  order  that 
Murring  may  be  avoided. 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


Exposure  to  the  sun  is  not  necessary  for 
printing,  but  when  the  paper  and  film  are 
firmly  fixed  in  the  frame,  a  spot  should  be 
selected  where  the  light  is  steady.  The 
frame  should  then  be  placed  at  an  angle  of 
30  degrees  toward  the  point  from  which  the 
light  comes.  The  shadow  of  a  building 
often  affords  a  suitable  place  for  the  frame, 
and  window-sills  are  commonly  used  to 
stand  the  frame  upon.  The  face  of  the 
frame  should  be  placed  opposite  to  the  sky 
at  the  angle  stated,  and  care  taken  that  the 
sun  does  not  strike  the  frame,  as  it  will 
ruin  the  proofs  by  casting  shadows  on 
them. 

When  the  frame  is  placed  in  sunlight 
the  glass  should  be  covered  with  tissue- 
paper,  and  particular  notice  taken  that 
there  are  no  pinholes  in  the  film,  because 
they  will  undoubtedly  cause  markings  on 
the  print. 

Skill  in  printing  can  only  be  acquired 
with  practice  and  familiarity  with  materials 
used,  as  there  are  some  papers  which  print 
much  more  rapidly  than  others.  Allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  the  subsequent  ton- 
ing and  fixing,  which  will  have  the  effect  of 
further  lightening  the  print.  A  good  rule 
is  to  first  print  to  the  finished  shade  and 
then  allow  a  little  for  toning  out.  Where 
there  is  an  unequal  amount  of  light  and 
shade  in  a  negative,  it  should  be  printed 
darker.  This  rule  also  holds  with  a  thin, 
dense  negative.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
open  the  frame  to  see  how  far  the  printing 
has  proceeded.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
shield  the  prints  from  a  direct  light  when 
this  is  done. 

When  all  the  detail  in  the  more  obscure 
portions  of  the  negative  is  visible  on  the 
proof,  the  printing  may,  as  a  rule,  be  con- 
sidered dark  enough,  and  the  proofs  should 
be  placed  in  a  light-proof  box  which  is  en- 
tirely free  from  dust.  When,  through  ac- 
cident, a  good  negative  has  not  been  ob- 
tained, and  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  one, 
it  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  use  the 
best  taken.  In  this  case,  there  are  many 
ways  of  improving  the  negative  so  that  a 
fairly  satisfactory  result  can  be  obtained. 
When  a  negative  is  weak,  the  gelatino- 
citro-chloride  paper  is  the  best  to  print 
upon. 

In  order  to  strengthen  a  weak  negative 
place  two  sheets  of  thin  white  tissue-paper 
at  its  back,  so  as  to  prevent  the  light  from 
striking  it  too  strongly.  This  will  secure 
a  better  result  than  could  come  from  too 
rapid  printing. 

Negatives  can  sometimes  be  colored  for 


the  purpose  of  equalizing  the  lights  and 
shadows,  but  in  that  case  must  never  be 
exposed  to  direct  sunlight.  Where  there 
is  too  dense  a  shadow  on  certain  parts  of 
a  portrait,  they  may  be  lightened  with 
yellow  paint  or  Prussian  blue 

Errors  in  focusing  may  often  be  palliated 
by  careful  trimming.  It  will  generally  be 
found  necessary  to  trim  the  print  in  order 
to  get  it  in  proper  shape  for  mounting. 
There  will  either  be .  too  much  fore  or 
back  ground,  odd  spacing  at  the  sides  and 
other  irregularities  which  the  judicious 
use  of  the  trimming- knife  will  overcome. 

TONING   AND    FIXING 

Fortunately  there  are  ready-toned  papers 
now  and  the  amateur  is  not  compelled  to 
master  the  rather  difficult  process  of  ton- 
ing, unless  from  a  desire  to  thoroughly 
understand  all  details. 

Toning  is  a  very,  delicate  operation,  and 
undoubtedly  a  few  unfortunate  experiments 
will  precede  the  accomplishment  of  expert 
results.  For  the  ready  sensitized  paper, 
which  it  is  probable  the  amateur  will  use, 
the  borax  bath  is  recommended.  This  is 
made  from  the  following  formula:  Gold 
chloride,  I  grain ;  borax,  100  grains ;  water, 
10  ounces.  It  should  be  made  about  an 
hour  before  using.  Purple  tints  can  be  ob- 
tained from  this  toning,  but  not  blue  or 
cold  tones.  The  prints  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  the  solution  too  long, 
as  otherwise  the  action  of  the  chemicals 
will  produce  the  opposite  results  to  those 
desired.  The  best  rule  to  follow  is  to 
watch  the  whites  in  the  print,  and  as  soon 
as  bleaching  or  a  bluish  tinge  commences 
to  show,  to  take  them  out,  as  the  shadows 
will  be  already  sufficiently  toned. 

The  process  of  toning  can  be  stopped 
in  gelatine  prints  when  they  are  taken  from 
the  bath  by  putting  a  handful  of  salt  into 
the  toning  bath  and  redipping  them.  The 
toning  bath  for  gelatine  papers  is  made  as 
follows :  Gold  chloride,  2  grains ;  sulpho- 
cyanide  of  ammonium,  30  grains;  water, 
16  ounces.  Toning  by  gaslight  is  often 
preferred  by  those  who  use  papers  which 
have  been  sensitized  by  themselves. 

Toning  after  fixing  is  resorted  to  by 
some  photographers.  The  process  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Take  three  ounces  of  hypo  and  dis- 
solve in  twenty  ounces  of  water  to  make 
the  fixing  bath.  In  this  immerse  the  prints 
for  ten  minutes.  Then  wash  them  for  two 
hours.  Take  a  grain  of  gold  chloride  and 
increase  it  with  water  to  one  ounce.  For 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


369 


one  minute  immerse  the  prints  in  this  and 
then  remove  to  the  ordinary  toning  bath. 
Be  careful  to  watch  the  toning  by  reflected 
light,  and,  when  perfect,  wash  the  prints 
for  another  hour  and  they  will  be  ready  for 
enamelling  or  burnishing. 

Among  the  many  kinds  of  paper  made 
for  direct  printing  from  negatives,  we  find 
two  distinct  classes:  (a)  the  printing-out, 
and  (&)  the  developing.  In  the 'first  class 
are  such  papers  as  Solio,  Maximo,  Plati- 
num, and  blue-print,  each  of  which  is  to 
be  treated  in  accordance  with  the  written 
directions  accompanying  the  package  con- 
taining it. 

In  the  second  class  are  the  devel- 
oping papers,  which  show  no  effect  of 
the  contact  with  light,  until  placed  in  the 
developing  solution.  Then  the  image  ap- 
pears at  once,  constantly  increasing  until 
the  required  density  is  attained.  Progress 
may  be  checked  at  any  point  by  placing  the 
print  in  water  made  slightly  acid  by  using 
Yz  ounce  of  acetic  acid  in  i  quart  of 
water.  The  print  is  then  placed  in  the 
fixing  bath  for  about  ten  minutes,  after 
which  it  is  washed  in  running  water  for 
about  one  hour. 

Among  such  papers  are  the  Velox,  Cyko, 
Argo,  etc.,  each  of  which  is  treated  in 
accordance  with  the  printed  directions  ac- 
;ompanying  the  package.  All  of  them  may 
be  used  to  print  by  artificial  light. 

A  good  general  formula  for  use  with 
any  of  these  papers  may  be  made  as  fol- 
lows : 

Metol    8    grains 

Soda    sulphite    (crystals) 240    grains 

Hydroquinone    31    grains 

Carbonate   of  soda   (crystals)..  .400    grains 
Water   10  ounces 

To  this  may  be  added  about  6  drops  of 
a  10  per  cent  solution  of  bromide  of  potash. 
Should  prints  become  stained  or  show 
black  lines,  the  effect  may  be  renewed  by 
the  use  of 

Oronol    1-2    ounce 

Water    I  1-2  ounces 

An  overexposed  print  may  also  be  cleared 
by  the  use  of  this  same  solution.     It  should 
be  applied  to  the  face  of  the  print  with  a 
piece  of  cotton  or  a  camel's-hair  brush. 
For  a  fixing  bath  use 

Soda   hyposulphite i    ounce 

Water 4  ounces 

ENAMELLING 

The  prints  can  be  taken  direct  from  the 
bath.  See  that  the  enamelling  plate  is  clean, 


free  from  scratches,  and  has  a  brilliant 
surface.  Warm  the  plate  slightly  and  rub 
roughly  over  it  a  piece  of  pure  beeswax. 
With  a  dry,  soft  flannel  rag  warm  the  plate 
until  the  wax  melts.  With  the  rag  rub 
it  all  over  the  plate  until  every  particle 
of  the  glass  is  covered.  Being  sure  of 
this,  commence  rubbing  the  wax  off  again 
on  the  flannel.  Rub  lightly,  in  a  circular 
direction,  and  evenly  distribute  all  over 
the  plate. 

When  the  wax  has  almost  disappeared 
from  the  glass,  take  a  clean  flannel  and 
give  it  a  final  polishing.  Stop  as  soon  as 
the  wax  has  become  invisible  over  the 
entire  surface  of  the  glass,  which  will  then 
really  be  covered  by  a  thin  film  of  wax. 
The  glass  is  now  in  perfect  condition, 
and  the  prints,  after  being  allowed  to  drip 
for  a  few  minutes,  should  be  laid,  face 
downward,  one  at  a  time,  on  the  plate  glass. 
Press  them  firmly  into  contact  with  it  and 
use  a  squegee  to  remove  any  air-bells. 
Then  stand  the  glass  on  end  in  a  dry, 
warm  place,  and  as  the  prints  dry  they  will 
gradually  drop  off,  each  one  being  beauti- 
fully polished.  If  any  of  the  prints  stick, 
they  can  be  removed  by  loosening  the  edges 
with  a  knife. 

MOUNTING 

The  final  process  of  mounting  is  one 
requiring  only  care  and  cleanliness.  There 
are  any  number  of  good  mountants  in 
the  market,  although  it  may  be  well  to 
give  a  formula  in  case  one  may  desire  to 
make  his  own.  Dissolve  one  ounce  of 
gum  arabic  in  three  ounces  of  water  and 
mix  in  a  mortar  with  one  ounce  of  starch. 
Heat  in  a  dish  until  clear. 

When  the  mountant  is  ready  for  use,  lay 
the  prints  face  downward  upon  some  oiled 
paper  and  carefully  apply  the  liquid  to  the 
back.  Then  place  it  on  the  mount  or  card- 
board and  squegee  it  so  as  to  make  sure  of 
its  adhering  firmly.  Laid  on  top  of  each 
other  with  glass  plates  and  small  blocks 
of  wood  between,  the  cards  soon  dry  and 
are  sure  to  be  perfectly  flat  when  un- 
packed. We  now  have  our  photograph 
ready  for  any  purpose,  having  gone  through 
all  the  various  processes  necessary  to  per- 
fect it. 

OUTDOOR    PORTRAITURE 

In  taking  a  portrait  out  of  doors,  the 
sitter  should  be  placed  so  as  to  face  the 
north,  out  of  the  direct  sunshine.  Em- 
ploy a  friend  to  hold  a  large  umbrella  at 


870 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


such  an  angle  as  will  shade  one  side  of 
the  sitter's  face  and  the  top  of  head.  The 
exact  position  for  the  umbrella  can  be  as- 
certained by  finding  at  what  angle  a  good 
modelling  of  the  features  is  obtainable. 
For  a  background  an  old  yellow  blanket, 
kept  moving  while  the  exposure  is  made, 
will  serve  very  well,  and  a  good  picture 
can  be  obtained  with  little  trouble. 

In  landscape  photography,  the  easiest 
method  to  pursue,  until  one  desires  to 
attempt  more  ambitious  things,  is  what 
photographers  term  "natural  focusing." 
The  main  point  of  this  is  to  focus  the 
principal  object  in  the  view,  allowing  all 
others  to  be  subordinate  to  it.  The  result 
is  a  picture  exactly  representing  the  scene 
as  it  appears  to  the  naked  eye.  The  rules 
given  concerning  exposures,  according  to 
the  laws  regulating  the  foci,  will  prove 
safe  for  general  work. 

Objects  in  motion  can  be  photographed 
successfully  by  observing  the  position  which 
may  be  denned  as  essentially  character- 
istic. It  is  to  seize  this  that  the  opera- 
tor must  watch,  making  an  exposure  just 
at  the  moment.  When  the  position  of  the 
object  is  oblique,  either  from  or  toward 
the  camera,  results  may  be  obtained  more 
easily  and  satisfactorily.  This  rule  should 
always  be  remembered  in  photographing 
animals,  vehicles,  or  vessels  in  motion.  The 
shorter  the  exposure  the  better  the  results. 

In  marine  negatives,  the  composition 
should  be  the  reverse  of  that  for  a  land- 


scape, because  the  more  spirited  it  is  the 
more  pleasing  the  result  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  overexpose  the  plate  or  blur- 
ring will  result,  because  the  reflected  light 
on  the  water  is  so  much  stronger  than  that 
found  in  landscapes.  In  this  class  of  pic- 
tures, the  shorter  the  exposure  the  better. 

The  way  that  fancy  pictures  are  made 
and  tricks  performed  with  the  camera  may 
be  worth  mentioning.  A  square  piece  of 
black  paper  is  placed  in  front  of  the  lens 
at  a  distance  equal  to  three-eighths  of  the 
back  focus,  so  as  to  hide  half  the  range  of 
the  lens.  One  exposure  is  made,  and  the 
piece  of  paper  is  then  turned  over  so  as 
to  cover  the  other  half  of  the  range.  Then 
another  exposure  is  taken,  any  objects  in 
the  exposed  part  of  the  range  having  been 
meanwhile  transferred  to  the  other  half  be- 
fore the  lens  was  uncapped.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  move  the  instrument  while 
the  exposures  are  being"  made.  This  is  the 
way  in  which  spirit  photographs  are  ob- 
tained. 

The  beginner  will  do  well  to  bear  in 
mind  the  different  conditions  in  regard 
to  photographing  m  summer  and  winter. 
Quicker  plates,  as  a  rule,  will  be  found 
more  advantageous  in  the  winter  and  a 
larger  stop  can  be  used  on  the  camera. 
In  developing  plates  or  films  it  will  be 
found  advisable  to  warm  up  the  developer 
slightly  in  very  cold  weather,  so  that  it  will 
work  on  the  negatives  more  quickly  and 
effectively. 


ARCH!   EC  PURE 


ARCHITECTURE,  or  the  art  of  planning  and  raising  edifices,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  among  the  earliest  inventions.  The  first 
habitations  of  men  were  such  as  nature  afforded,  with  but  little 
labor  on  the  part  of  the  occupant,  and  sufficient  to  supply  his  simple  wants 
— grottos,  huts,  and  tents.  In  early  times,  the  country  of  Judea,  which 
is  mountainous  and  rocky,  offered  cavernous  retreats  to  the  inhabitants, 
who  accordingly  used  them  instead  of  artificial  places  of  shelter.  From 
various  passages  in  Scripture,  it  appears  that  these  caves  were  often  of 
great  extent,  for,  in  the  sides  of  the  mountain  of  Engedi,  David  and  six 
hundred  men  concealed  themselves.  In  the  course  of  time,  art  was  em- 
ployed to  fashion  the  rude  cavernous  retreats,  and  to  excavate  blocks  by 
which  rude  buildings  were  compiled  in  more  convenient  situations.  The 
progress  of  architecture,  however,  from  its  first  dawn,  differed  in  almost 
every  different  locality.  Whatever  rude  structure  the  climate  and  materials 
of  any  country  obliged  its  early  inhabitants  to  adopt  for  their  temporary 
shelter,  the  same  structure,  with  all  its  prominent  features,  was  afterward 
kept  up  by  their  refined  and  opulent  posterity. 

From  the  cause  now  mentioned  the  Egyptian  style  of  building  had  its 
origin  in  the  cavern  and  mound ;  the  Chinese  architecture,  with  its  pavilion 
roofs  and  pointed  minaret,  is  molded  from  the  Tartar  tent;  the  Grecian  is 
derived  from  the  wooden  cabin;  and  the  Gothic  from  the  bower  of  trees. 
It  is  evident  that  necessity  as  much  as  choice  or  chance  led  to  the  adoption 
of  the  different  kinds  of  edifices. 

After  mankind  had  learned  to  build  houses,  they  commenced  the  erec- 
tion of  temples  to  their  gods,  and  these  they  made  still  more  splendid  than 
private  dwellings.  Thus  architecture  became  a  fine  art,  which  was  first 
displayed  on  the  temples,  afterward  on  the  habitations  of  princes  and 
public  buildings,  and  at  last  became  a  universal  want  in  society. 

Traces  of  these  eras  of  advancement  in  the  art  of  erecting  buildings 
are  found  in  various  quarters  of  the  globe,  especially  in  Eastern  countries, 
where  the  remains  of  edifices  are  discovered  of  which  fable  and  poetry  can 
alone  give  any  account.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  vestiges  of  a  primi- 
tive architecture  are  certain  pieces  of  masonry  in  the  island  of  Sicily 
as  well  as  in  some  other  places,  called  the  works  of  the  Cyclops,  an  ancient 

(3713 


372 


ARCHITECTURE 


and  fabulous  race  of  giants,  mentioned  by  Homer  in  his  Odyssey.     By 
whom  these  walls  were  actually  erected  is  unknown. 

Of  the  progressive  steps  from  comparative  rudeness  to  elegance  of 
design,  history  affords  no  certain  account,  and  we  are  often  left  to  gather 
facts  from  merely  casual  notices.  The  most  ancient  nations  known  to  us, 
among  whom  architecture  had  made  some  progress,  were  the  Babylonians, 
whose  most  celebrated  buildings  were  the  temple  of  Belus,  the  palace  and 
hanging  gardens  of  Semiramis;  the  Assyrians,  whose  capital,  Nineveh, 
was  rich  in  splendid  buildings;  the  Phoenicians,  whose  cities,  Sidon,  Tyre, 
Aradus,  and  Sarepta,  were  adorned  with  equal  magnificence;  the  Israelites, 
whose  temple  was  considered  as  a  wonder  of  architecture;  the  Syrians 
and  the  Philistines.  No  architectural  monument  of  these  nations  has, 
however,  been  transmitted  to  us;  but  we  find  subterraneous  temples  of  the 
Hindoos,  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  upon  the  islands  Elephanta  and  Sal- 
sette,  and  the  mountains  of  Ellora.  These  temples  may  be  reckoned  among 
the  most  stupendous  ever  executed  by  man.  The  circuit  of  the  excavations 
is  about  six  miles.  The  temples  are  100  feet  high,  145  feet  long,  and  62  feet 
wide.  They  contain  thousands  of  figures,  appearing,  from  the  style  of 
their  sculpture,  to  be  of  ancient  Hindoo  origin.  Everything  about  them, 
in  fact,  indicates  the  most  persevering  industry  in  executing  one  of  the 
boldest  plans. 


VARIOUS     STYLES     OF     ARCHITECTURE 


EGYPTIAN    STYLE    OF   ARCHI- 
TECTURE 

ALL  the  architectural  remains  of  an- 
cient times  sink  into  insignificance 
when  compared  with  those  of  Egypt.  The 
obelisks,  pyramids,  temples,  palaces,  and 
other  structures  of  this  country,  are  on  the 
grandest  scale,  and  such  as  could  only  have 
been  perfected  by  a  people  considerably  ad- 
vanced in  refinement.  The  elementary  fea- 
tures of  Egyptian  architecture  were  chiefly 
as  follows:  i.  Their  walls  were  of  great 
thickness,  and  sloping  on  the  outside.  This 
feature  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  mud  walls,  mounds,  and  caverns 
of  their  ancestors.  2.  The  roofs  and  cov- 
ered ways  were  flat,  or  without  pediments, 
and  composed  of  blocks  of  stone,  reaching 
from  one  wall  or  column  to  another.  The 
principle  of  the  arch,  although  known  to 
the  Egyptians,  was  seldom  if  ever  employed. 
3.  Their  columns  were  numerous,  close, 
short,  and  very  large,  being  sometimes  ten 
or  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  They  were 
generally  without  bases,  and  had  a  great  va- 
riety of  capitals,  from  a  simple  square  block, 


ornamented  with  hieroglyphics  or  faces,  to 
an  elaborate  composition  of  palm-leaves, 
not  unlike  the  Corinthian  capital.  4.  They 
used  a  sort  of  concave  entablature  or  cor- 
nice, composed  of  vertical  flutings  or  leaves, 
and  a  winged  globe  in  the  centre.  5.  Pyr- 
amids, well  known  for  their  prodigious 
size,  and  obelisks,  composed  of  a  single 
stone,  often  exceeding  70  feet  in  height, 
are  structures  peculiarly  Egyptian.  6. 
Statues  of  enormous  size,  sphinxes  carved 
in  stone,  and  sculptures  in  outline  of  fabu- 
lous deities  and  animals,  with  innumerable 
hieroglyphics,  are  the  decorative  objects 
which  belong  to  this  style  of  architecture. 

The  main  character  of  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture is  that  of  great  strength  with  ir- 
regularity of  taste.  This  is  observable  in 
the  pillars  of  the  temples,  the  parts  on 
which  the  greatest  share  of  skill  has  been 
lavished.  Figures  i — 4  are  examples. 

In  these  columns  we  may  notice  that 
sturdiness  is  the  prevailing  characteristic. 
The  design  has  been  the  support  of  a  great 
weight,  and  that  without  any  particular  re- 
gard to  proportion  or  elegance,  either  as  a 
whole  or  in  parts.  When  assembled  in  rows 


ARCHITECTURE 


373 


or  groups,  the  columns  had  an  imposing 
effect,  because,  from  their  height  and  thick- 
ness, they  filled  the  eye  and  induced  the 
idea  of  placid  and  easy  endurance.  In 


FIG.  i.          FIG.  2.  FIG.  3.  FIG.  4. 

Examples  of  Egyptian  Columns. 


FIG.  5.— The  Facade  of  an  Egyptian  Temple. 

Figure  5,  which  represents  the  exterior  of 
a  temple,  this  simple  and  imposing  character 
is  conspicuous. 

GREEK   STYLE   OF   ARCHITECTURE 

From  Egypt,  the  architectural  art  spread 
to  Greece,  where  it  passed  from  the  gigan- 
tic to  the  chaste  and  elegant.  The  period 
in  which  it  flourished  in  the  greatest  per- 
fection was  that  of  Pericles,  about  44  be- 
fore Christ,  when  some  of  the  finest  temples 
at  Athens  were  erected.  After  this,  it  de- 
clined with  other  arts,  and  was  carried  to 
Rome,  where,  however,  it  never  attained 
the  same  high  character.  Before  describing 
the  various  orders  of  Grecian  and  Roman 
architecture,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  ex- 
plain the  terms  ordinarily  employed  in  ref- 
erence to  the  component  parts  of  buildings. 

EXPLANATION    OF   TERMS 

The  front  or  faqade  of  a  building,  made 
after  the  ancient  models,  or  any  portion  of 
it,  may  represent  three  parts,  occupying  dif- 
ferent heights :  The  pedestal  is  the  lower 
part,  usually  supporting  a  column ;  the  single 
pedestal  is  wanting  in  most  antique  struc- 
tures, and  its  place  is  supplied  by  a  stylo- 


bate  ;  the  stylobate  is  either  a  platform  with 
steps,  or  a  continuous  pedestal,  supporting 
a  row  of  columns.  The  lower  part  of  a 
finished  pedestal  is  called  the  plinth;  the 
middle  part  is  the  die,  and  the  upper  part 
the  cornice  of  the  pedestal,  or  surbase.  The 
column  is  the  middle  part,  situated  upon 
the  pedestal  or  stylobate.  It  is  commonly 
detached  from  the  wall,  but  is  sometimes 
buried  in  it  for  half  its  diameter,  and  is 
then  said  to  be  engaged.  Pilasters  are 
square  or  flat  columns  attached  to  walls. 
The  lower  part  of  a  column,  when  distinct, 
is  called  the  base;  the  middle,  or  longest 
part,  is  the  shaft;  and  the  upper  or  orna- 
mented part,  is  the  capital.  The  swell  of 
the  column  is  called  the  entasis.  The 
height  of  columns  is  measured  in  diameters 
of  the  column  itself,  taken  always  at  the 
base.  The  entablature  is  the  horizontal  con- 
tinuous portion  which  rests  upon  the  top 
of  a  row  of  columns.  The  lower  part  of 
the  entablature  is  called  the  architrave  or 
epistylium.  The  middle  part  is  the  frieze, 
which,  from  its  usually  containing  sculp- 
ture, was  called  zophorus  by  the  ancients. 
The  upper  or  projecting  part  is  the  cornice. 
A  pediment  is  the  triangular  face  produced 
by  the  extremity  of  a  roof.  The  middle 
or  flat  portion  inclosed  by  the  cornice  of 
the  pediment  is  called  the  tympanum.  Ped- 
estals for  statues,  erected  on  the  summit 
and  extremities  of  a  pediment,  are  called 
acroteria.  An  attic  is  an  upper  part  of  a 
building,  terminated  at  top  by  a  horizontal 
line  instead  of  a  pediment.  The  different 
moldings  in  architecture  are  described  from 
their  sections,  or  from  the  profile  which 
they  present  when  cut  across.  Of  these, 
the  torus  is  a  convex  molding,  the  section 
of  which  is  a  semicircle,  or  nearly  so;  the 
astragal  is  like  the  torus,  but  smaller;  the 
ovalo  is  convex,  but  its  outline  is  only  the 
quarter  of  a  circle;  the  echinus  resembles 
the  ovalo,  but  its  outline  is  spiral,  not  cir- 
cular; the  scotia  is  a  deep  concave  molding; 
the  cavetto  is  also  a  concave,  and  occupy- 
ing but  a  quarter  of  a  circle;  the  cymatium 
is  an  undulated  molding,  of  which  the  upper 
part  is  concave  and  the  lower  convex;  the 
ogee  or  talon  is  an  inverted  cymatium;  the 
fillet  is  a  small  square  or  flat  molding.  In 
architectural  measurement,  a  diameter  means 
the  width  of  a  column  at  the  base.  A 
module  is  half  a  diameter.  A  minute  is  a 
sixtieth  part  of  a  diameter. 

In  representing  edifices  by  drawings,  ar- 
chitects make  use  of  the  plan,  elevation, 
section,  and  perspective.  The  plan  is  a 
map  or  design  of  a  horizontal  surface, 


374 


ARCHITECTURE 


showing  the  ichnographic  projection,  or 
groundwork,  with  the  relative  position  of 
walls,  columns,  doors,  etc.  The  elevation 
is  the  orthographic  projection  of  a  front 
or  vertical  surface;  this  being  represented, 
not  as  it  is  actually  seen  in  perspective,  but 
as  it  would  appear  if  seen  from  an  infinite 
distance.  The  section  shows  the  interior 
of  a  building,  supposing  the  part  in  front  of 
an  intersecting  plane  to  be  removed.  The 
perspective  shows  the  building  as  it  ac- 
tually appears  to  the  eye,  subject  to  the 
laws  of  scenographic  perspective.  The  three 
former  are  used  by  architects  for  purposes 
of  admeasurement;  the  latter  is  used  also 
by  painters,  and  is  capable  of  bringing  more 
than  one  side  into  the  same'view,  as  the  eye 
actually  perceives  them.  As  the  most  ap- 
proved features  in  modern  architecture  are 
derived  from  buildings  which  are  more  or 
less  ancient,  and  as  many  of  these  buildings 
are  now  in  too  dilapidated  a  state  to  be  easily 
copied,  recourse  is  had  to  such  initiative  res- 
tc  rations,  in  drawings  and  models,  as  can  be 
made  out  from  the  fragments  and  ruins  which 
remain.  In  consequence  of  the  known  sim- 
plicity and  regularity  of  most  antique  edi- 
fices, the  task  of  restoration  is  less  difficult 
than  might  be  supposed.  The  groundwork, 
which  is  commonly  extant,  shows  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  building,  with  the  posi- 
tion of  its  walls,  doors,  and  columns.  A 
single  column,  whether  standing  or  fallen, 
and  a  fragment  of  the  entablature,  furnish 
data  from  which  the  remainder  of  the  colon- 
nade, and  the  height  of  the  main  body,  can 
be  made  out. 

Grecian  temples  are  well  known  to  have 
been  constructed  in  the  form  of  an  oblong 
square  or  parallelogram,  having  a  colon- 
nade or  row  of  columns  without,  and  a 
walled  cell  within.  The  part  of  the  col- 
onnade which  formed  the  front  portico  was 
called  the  pronaos,  and  that  which  formed 
the  back  part  the  posticus.  There  were, 
however,  various  kinds  of  temples,  the 
styles  of  which  differed;  thus,  the  prostyle 
had  a  row  of  columns  at  one  end  only;  the 
amphiprostyle  had  a  row  at  each  end;  the 
peripteral  had  a  row  all  round,  with  two 
inner  ones  at  each  end ;  and  the  dipteral  had 
a  double  row  all  round,  with  two  inner  ones 
at  each  end,  making  the  front  three  columns 
deep. 

The  theatre  of  the  Greeks,  which  was 
afterward  copied  by  the  Romans,  was  built 
in  the  form  of  a  horseshoe,  being  semicir- 
cular on  one  side  and  square  on  the  other. 
The  semicircular  part,  which  contained  the 
audience,  WJM,  filled  with  concentric  seats, 


ascending  from  the  centre  to  the  outside.  In 
the  middle  or  bottom  was  a  semicircular 
floor,  called  the  orchestra.  The  opposite, 
or  square  part,  contained  the  actors.  With- 
in this  was  erected,  in  front  of  the  audience, 
a  wall,  ornamented  with  columns  and  sculp- 
ture, called  the  scena.  The  stage  or  floor 
between  this  part  and  the  orchestra  was 
called  the  proscenium.  Upon  this  floor  was 
often  erected  a  movable  wooden  stage, 
called  by  the  Romans  pulpitum.  The  an- 
cient theatre  was  open  to  the  sky,  but  a 
temporary  awning  was  erected  to  shelter 
the  audience  from  the  sun  and  rain. 

ORDERS  OF  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 

Aided,  doubtless,  by  the  examples  of 
Egyptian  art,  the  Greeks  gradually  im- 
proved the  style  of  architecture,  and  origi- 
nated those  distinctions  which  are  now 
called  the  "Orders  of  Architecture."  By 
this  phrase  is  understood  certain  modes  of 
proportioning  and  decorating  the  column 
and  its  entablature.  They  were  in  use  dur- 
ing the  best  days  of  Greece  and  Rome,  for 
a  period  of  six  or  seven  centuries.  They 
were  lost  sight  of  in  the  dark  ages,  and 
again  revived  by  the  Italians  at  the  time 
of  the  restoration  of  letters.  The  Greeks 
had  three  orders,  called  the  Doric,  Ionic, 
and  Corinthian.  These  were  adopted  and 
modified  by  the  Romans,  who  also  added 
two  others  called  the  Tuscan  and  Compo- 
site. 

THE  DORIC  ORDER. — This  is  the  earliest  of 
the  Greek  orders,  and  we  see  in  it  a  noble 
simplicity  on  which  subsequent  orders  were 
founded.  One  of  the  most  correct  examples 
is  that  given  in  Figure  6.  The  shaft  of 
the  Doric  column  had  no  base,  ornamental 
or  otherwise,  but  rose  directly  from  the 
smooth  pavement  or  stylobate.  It  had 
twenty  flutings,  which  were  superficial,  and 
separated  by  angular  edges.  The  perpen- 
dicular outline  was  nearly  straight.  The 
Doric  capital  was  plain,  being  formed  of 
a  few  annulets  or  rings,  a  large  echinus,  and 
a  flat  stone  at  top  called  the  abacus.  The 
architrave  was  plain;  the  frieze  was  inter- 
sected by  oblong  projections  called  tri- 
glyphs,  divided  into  three  parts  by  vertical 
furrows,  and  ornamented  beneath  by  guttx, 
or  drops.  The  spaces  between  the  triglyphs 
were  called  metopes,  and  commonly  con- 
tained sculptures.  To  have  a  just  idea  of 
the  Doric,  therefore,  we  must  go  back  to 
the  pure  Grecian  era.  The  finest  examples 
are  those  of  the  temple  of  Theseus  and  the 
Parthenon  (Figure  7)  at  Athens.  The  Par- 


ARCHITECTURE 


375 


thenon,  which  is  now  a  complete  ruin,  has 
formed  a  model  in  modern  architecture.  It 
was  built  by  the  architect  Ictinus,  during 
the  administration  of  Pericles,  and  its  dec- 
orative sculptures  are  supposed  to  have  been 
executed  under  direction  of  Phidias.  The 
platform  or  stylobate  consists  of  three  steps, 
the  uppermost  of  which  is  227  feet  in  length 


FIG.  6.  FIG.  8.  FIG.  9. 

Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Columns. 

and  101  in  breadth.  The  number  of  col- 
umns is  eight  in  the  portico  of  each  front, 
and  seventeen  in  each  flank,  besides  which 
there  is  an  inner  row  of  six  columns,  at 
each  end  of  the  cell. 

THE  IONIC  ORDER. — In  this  order  the  shaft 
begins  to  lengthen,  and  to  possess  a  degree 
of  ornament,  but  still  preserving  a  great 
degree  of  simplicity  of  outline.  In  the  best 
examples,  as  represented  in  Figure  8,  the 


FIG.  7.— Facade  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens. 

column  was  eight  or  nine  diameters  in 
height.  It  had  a  base  often  composed  of 
torus,  a  scotia,  and  a  second  torus,  with  in- 
tervening fillets.  This  is  called  the  Attic 
base.  Others  were  used  in  different  parts 
of  Greece.  The  capital  of  this  order  con- 
sisted of  two  parallel  double  scrolls,  called 
volutes,  occupying  opposite  sides,  and  sup- 


porting an  abacus,  which  was  nearly  square, 
but  molded  at  its  edges.  These  volutes  have 
been  considered  as  copied  from  ringlets  of 
hair,  or  perhaps  from  the  horns  of  Jupi- 
ter Ammon.  The  Ionic  entablature  con- 
sisted of  an  architrave  and  frieze,  which 
were  continuous  or  unbroken,  and  a  cornice 
of  various  successive  moldings,  at  the  lower 
part  of  which  was  often  a  row  of  dentels, 
or  square  teeth.  The  examples  at  Athens 
of  the  Ionic  order  were  the  temple  of  Erec- 
theus,  and  the  temple  on  the  Ilissus,  both 
now  destroyed.  Modern  imitations  are 
common  in  public  edifices. 

THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER. — This  was  the 
lightest  and  most  highly  decorated  of  the 
Grecian  orders.  The  base  of  the  column 
resembled  that  of  the  Ionic,  but  was  more 
complicated.  The  shaft  was  often  ten  di- 
ameters in  height,  and  was  fluted  like  the 
Ionic.  The  capital  was  shaped  like  an  in- 
verted bell,  and  covered  on  the  outside  with 
two  rows  of  leaves  of  the  plant  acanthus, 
above  which  were  eight  pairs  of  small  vo- 
lutes. Its  abacus  was  molded  and  concave 
on  its  sides,  and  truncated  at  the  corners, 
with  a  flower  on  the  centre  of  each  side. 
The  entablature  of  the  Corinthian  order  re- 
sembled that  of  the  Ionic,  but  was  more 
complicated  and  ornamented,  and  had,  un- 
der the  cornice,  a  row  of  large  oblong  pro- 
jections, bearing  a  leaf  or  scroll  on  their 
under  side,  and  called  modillions.  No  ves- 
tiges of  this  order  are  now  found  in  the 
remains  of  Corinth,  and  the  most  legitimate 
example  at  Athens  is  in  the  choragic  monu- 
ment of  Lysicrates.  The  Corinthian  order 
was  much  employed  in  the  subsequent  struc- 
tures of  Rome  and  its  colonies.  The  finest 
Roman  example  of  this  order  is  that  of 
three  columns  in  the  Campo  Vaccina,  at 
Rome,  which  are  commonly  considered  as 
the  remains  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator. 

CARYATIDES. — The  Greeks  sometimes  de- 
parted so  far  from  the  strict  use  of  the 
orders  as  to  introduce  statues,  in  the  place 
of  columns,  to  support  the  entablature. 
Statues  of  slaves,  heroes,  and  gods  appear 
to  have  been  employed  occasionally  for  this 
purpose.  The  principal  specimen  of  this 
kind  of  architecture  which  remains  is  in  a 
portico  called  Pandroseum,  attached  to  the 
temple  of  Erectheus  at  Athens,  in  which 
statues  of  Carian  females,  called  Caryat- 
ides, are  substituted  for  columns. 

ROMAN    STYLE  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Roman  architecture  possessed  no  origi- 
nality of  any  value;  it  was  founded  on 


376 


ARCHITECTURE 


copies  of  the  Greek  models,  and  these  were 
modified  to  suit  circumstances  and  tastes. 
The  number  of  orders  was  augmented  by 
the  addition  of  the  Tuscan  and  Composite. 

TUSCAN  ORDER. — This  order  is  not  unlike 
the  Doric,  and  is  chaste  and  elegant.  As 
represented  in  Figure  10,  the  shaft  had  a 
simple  base,  ornamented  with  one  torus, 
and  an  astragal  below  the  capital.  The 
proportions  were  seven  diameters  in  height. 
Its  entablature,  somewhat  like  the  Ionic, 
consisted  of  plain  running  surfaces. 

THE  COMPOSITE  ORDER. — Of  this  there  were 
various  kinds,  differing  less  or  more  either 
in  the  ornaments  of  the  column  or  in  the 
entablature.  The  simplest  of  this  hybrid  or- 
der was  that  which  we  represent  in  Figure 
ii,  which  may  be  observed  to  combine  parts 
and  proportions  of  the  Doric,  the  Ionic,  and 
the  Tuscan. 

The  temples  of  the  Romans  sometimes 
resembled  those  of  the  Greeks,  but  often 


FIG.  ii.  FIG.  12.  FIG.  10. 

Types  of  Roman  Columns. 

.differed  from  them.  The  Pantheon,  which 
is  the  most  perfectly  preserved  temple  of 
the  Augustan  age,  is  a  circular  building, 
lighted  only  from  an  aperture  in  the  dome, 
and  having  a  Corinthian  portico  in  front. 
The  amphitheatre  differed  from  the  theatre, 
in  being  a  completely  circular  or  rather 
elliptical  building,  filled  on  all  sides  with 
ascending  seats  for  spectators,  and  leaving 
only  the  central  space,  called  the  arena,  for 
the  combatants  and  public  shows.  The 
Coliseum  is  a  stupendous  structure  of  this 
kind.  The  aqueducts  were  stone  canals, 
supported  on  massive  arcades,  and  convey- 
ing large  streams  of  water 'for  the  supply 
of  cities.  The  triumphal  arches  were  com- 


monly solid  oblong  structures  ornamented 
with  sculptures,  and  open  with  lofty  arches 
for  passengers  below.  The  edifice  of  this 
kind  most  entire  in  the  present  day  is  the 


PIG.  13.— The  Arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome. 

triumphal    arch    of    Constantine,   at   Rome, 
represented  in  Figure   13. 

The  basilica  of  the  Romans  was  a  hall 
of  justice,  used  also  as  an  exchange  or  place 
of  meeting  for  merchants.  It  was  lined  on 
the  inside  with  colonnades  of  two  stories, 
or  with  two  tiers  of  columns,  one  over  the 
other.  The  earliest  Christian  churches  at 


FIG.  14. — Roman  Arches. 

Rome  were  sometimes  called  basilicae,  from 
their  possessing  an  internal  colonnade. 
The  monumental  pillars  were  towers  in  the 
shape  of  the  column  on  a  pedestal,  bearing 
a  statue  on  the  summit,  which  was  ap- 
proached by  a  spiral  staircase  within. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  column  was  solid. 
The  thermae,  or  baths,  were  vest  struc- 
tures, in  which  multitudes  of  people  could 
bathe  at  once.  They  were  supplied  with 
warm  and  cold  water  and "  fitted  up  with 
numerous  rooms  for  purposes  of  exercise 
and  recreation. 

ITALIAN  STYLE  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

After  the  dismemberment  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  the  arts  degenerated  so  far  lhat  a 
custom  became  prevalent  of  erecting  new 
buildings  with  the  fragments  of  old  ones, 
which  were  dilapidated  and  torn  down  for 


ARCHITECTURE 


377 


the  purpose.  This  gave  rise  to  an  irregular 
style  of  building,  which  continued  to  be 
imitated,  especially  in  Italy,  during  the 
dark  ages.  It  consisted  of  Grecian  and  Ro- 
man details,  combined  under  new  forms, 
and  piled  up  into  structures  wholly  unlike 
the  unique  originals.  Hence  the  names 
Graeco-Gothic  and  Romanesque  architec- 
ture have  been  given  to  it.  After  this  came 
the  Italian  style,  which  was  professedly  a 
revival  of  the  classic  styles  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  but  adapted  to  new  manners  and 
wants — a  kind  of  transition  from  ancient  to 
modern  times.  Its  great  master  was  An- 
drea Palladio,  a  Venetian  (born  1518 — 
died  1580). 

There  is  considerable  variety  and  beauty 
in  the  foliate  and  other  enrichments  of  an 
architectural  character  in  many  structures 
in  Italy,  but  very  little  ornament  enters 
into  the  columnar  composition  of  Italian 
architecture.  Friezes,  instead  of  being  sculp- 
tured, are  swollen ;  the  shafts  of  columns 
are  very  seldom  fluted,  and  their  capitals 
are  generally  poor  in  the  extreme;  mold- 
ings are  indeed  sometimes  carved,  but  not 
often;  rustic  masonry,  ill- formed  festoons, 
and  gouty  balustrades  for  the  most  part 
supply  the  place  of  chaste  and  classic  orna- 
ments. 


The  ancient  Tartars  and  wandering  shep- 
herds of  Asia  appear  to  have  lived  from 
time  immemorial  in  tents,  a  kind  of  habi- 
tation adapted  to  their  erratic  life.  The 
Chinese  have  made  the  tent  the  elemen- 
tary feature  of  their  architecture;  and  of 


FIG.  15.— Type  of  Chinese  Pagoda. 

their  style  any  one  may  form  an  idea  by 
inspecting  the  figures  which  are  depicted 
upon  common  China  ware.  Chinese  roofs 
are  concave  on  the  upper  side,  as  if  made 
of  canvas  instead  of  wood.  A  Chinese  por- 
tico is  not  unlike  the  awnings  spread  over 
shop-windows  in  summer  time.  The  veran- 


da, sometimes  copied  in  dwelling-houses,  is 
a  structure  of  this  sort.  The  Chinese  towers 
and  pagodas  have  concave  roofs,  like  awn- 
ings, projecting  over  their  several  stories. 
A  representation  of  this  barbaric  style  of 
erection  is  given  in  Figure  15.  Such  struc- 
tures are  built  with  wood  or  brick;  stone 
is  seldom  employed. 

SARACENIC,  MOORISH,  AND  BYZAN- 
TINE 

The  Arabs,  or  Saracens,  as  they  are  more 
usually  called,  and  the  Moors,  introduced 
into  Spain  certain  forms  of  architecture 


FIG.  16. — Example  of  Saracenic  Arch. 

which  differed  considerably  from  the  Gre- 
cian in  appearance,  though  founded  on  its 
remains  in  Asia  and  Africa.  The  chief  pe- 
culiarity of  this  architecture  was  the  form 
of  the  arch ;  the  Saracens  are  understood 
to  have  made  it  of  greater  depth  than 
width,  thus  constituting  more  than  half  a 
circle  or  ellipse,  and  therefore  unphilosoph- 
ical  and  comparatively  insecure  (Figure  16)  ; 
while  the  Moorish  style  was  principally  dis- 
tinguished by  arches  in  the  form  of  a  horse- 
shoe or  a  crescent. 

We  associate  with  these  styles  another, 
which  arose  at  Constantinople,  called  the 
Byzantine,  likewise  formed  on  the  remains 
of  Grecian  art,  and  partaking  of  a  slightly 
Eastern  character.  It  became  known  in 
western  Europe  along  with  the  Lombard, 
another  degenerate  Grecian  style,  about  the 
ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 

GOTHIC   OR    POINTED    STYLE 

The  term  Gothic  is  a  modern  error, 
which,  being  now  impossible  to  correct,  is 
suffered  to  remain  as  the  generally  distin- 


378 


ARCHITECTURE 


guishing  appellation  of  the  kind  of  archi- 
tecture possessing  pointed  arches.  This 
style  originated  in  Germany  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  was  zeal- 
ously pursued  as  the  leading  fashion  for 
ecclesiastical  structures  all  over  Europe. 
Executed  by  a  class  of  skilled  artisans,  who 
wandered  from  country  to  country,  the 
finest  specimens  of  the  pointed  style  are  the 
cathedrals  of  Strasburg,  Cologne,  and  Ant- 
werp, and  the  splendid  abbeys  of  Melrose 
and  Westminster. 

In  this  fanciful  and  picturesque  style  of 
architecture,  the  slender  columns,  always 
united  in  groups,  rise  to  a  lofty  height,  re- 
sembling the  giants  of  the  grove,  in  whose 
dark  shade  the  ancient  Teuton  used  to  build 
his  altar.  In  the  obscure  depth  of  the  dome, 


PIG.  17.— Interior  of  a  Gothic  building,  showing  groin- 
ing in  the  roof  and  Gothic  Arches. 

the  mind  is  awakened  to  solemn  devotional 
feelings. 

When  the  circular  arch  totally  disap- 
peared in  1220,  the  Early  English  style  com- 
menced. The  windows  of  this  style  were 
at  first  very  narrow  in  comparison  with 
their  height;  they  were  called  lancet- 
shaped,  and  were  considered  very  elegant; 
two  or  three  were  frequently  seen  together, 
connected  by  dripstones.  In  a  short  time, 
however,  the  windows  became  wider,  and 
divisions  and  ornaments  were  introduced. 
Sometimes  the  same  window  was  divided 
into  several  lights,  and  frequently  finished 
at  the  top  by  a  light  in  the  form  of  a  loz- 
enge, circle,  trefoil,  or  other  ornament. 

About  the  year  1300,  the  architecture  be- 
came more  ornamental,  and  from  this  cir- 
'cumstance  received  the  name  of  the  Deco- 
rated English  style,  which  is  considered  the 


most  beautiful  for  ecclesiastical  buildings. 
The  transition  from  the  Decorated  to  the 
Florid  or  Perpendicular  style  was  very  grad- 
ual. Ornament  after  ornament  was  added, 
till  simplicity  disappeared  beneath  the  ex- 
travagant additions;  and  about  the  year 
1380,  the  architecture  became  so  overloaded 
and  profuse,  that  it  obtained  the  title  of 
Florid,  which  by  some  persons  is  called  the 
Perpendicular,  because  the  lines  of  division 
run  in  upright  or  perpendicular  lines  from 
top  to  bottom,  which  is  not  the  case  in  any 
other  style. 

DEFINITIONS    OF    PARTS 

Gothic  architecture  being  for  the  most 
part  displayed  in  ecclesiastical  edifices,  it 
may  be  of  service  to  explain  the  usual  plan 
of  construction  of  these  buildings.  A 
church  or  cathedral  is  commonly  built  in 
the  form  of  a  cross,  having  a  tower,  lan- 
tern, or  spire  erected  over  the  place  of 
intersection.  The  part  of  the  cross  situ- 
ated toward  the  west  is  called  the  nave. 
The  opposite  or  eastward  part  is  called  the 
choir,  and  within  this  is  the  chancel.  The 
transverse  portion,  forming  the  arms  of 
the  cross,  is  called  the  transept,  one  limb 
being  called  the  northern  and  the  other 
the  southern  transept. 

Generally,  the  nave  is  larger  than  the 
choir.  If  the  nave,  choir,  and  transepts  be 
all  of  the  same  dimensions,  the  form  is  that 
of  a  Greek  cross.  When  the  nave  is  longer 
than  the  other  parts,  forming  a  cross  of  an 
ordinary  shape,  the  edifice  is  said  to  be  in 
the  form  of  a  Latin  cross.  The  different 
open  parts  usually  receive  the  name  of 
ailes  or  aisles  from  a  word  signifying  a 
wing;  the  nave  or  largest  open  space  is 
called  the  main  aisle.  Originally,  the  floors 
of  all  such  edifices  were  open  and  unen- 
cumbered with  fixed  pews  or  seats,  and,  as 
the  floors  were  ordinarily  of  mosaic  or  tes- 
selated  pavement,  the  effect  was  exceedingly 
grand. 

The  roofing  of  Gothic  churches  is  of 
stone,  in  the  form  of  groins,  in  which  the 
arches  are  poised  with  intersecting  points, 
and  the  whole  skilfully  adjusted  so  as  to 
bear  on  the  side  rows  of  pillars.  Any 
high  building  erected  above  the  roof  is 
called  a  steeple;  if  square-topped,  it  is  a 
tower;  if  long  and  acute,  a  spire;  and  if 
short  and  light,  a  lantern.  Towers  of  great 
height  in  proportion  to  their  diameter  are 
called  turrets. 

The  walls  of  Gothic  churches,  on  which 
the  outer  strain  of  the  roof  arches  ulti- 
mately rests,  require  to  be  of  great  strength ; 


ARCHITECTURE 


379 


and  the  imparting  of  this  necessary  degree  of 
resistance  without  clumsiness  is  the  glory 
of  this  style  of  architecture.  The  plan 
adopted  is  to  erect  exterior  buttresses  (Fig- 
ure 18).  These  rise  by  gradations  from  a 
broad  basis  to  narrow  pointed  pinnacles,  and, 
placed  opposite  the  points  of  pressure,  se- 


FIG.  18.— Exterior  Buttress  of  a  Gothic  edifice. 

cure,  without  the  slightest  appearance  of 
clumsiness,  the  general  stability  of  the 
building.  Slanting  braces,  which  spring 
from  the  buttresses  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  roof,  are  called  flying  buttresses ;  such, 
however,  are  not  always  required  in  those 
modern  edifices  in  which  the  roof  is  of 
wood  and  lead. 

The  summit  or  upper  edge  of  the  wall, 
if  straight,  is  called  a  parapet;  if  indented, 
a  battlement.  Gothic  windows  were  corn- 


North 

Traaespi. 


Choir. 


South 
Transept. 


FIG.  19.— Plan  of  a  Gothic  Church. 

monly  crowned  with  an  acute  arch;  they 
were  long  and  narrow,  or,  if  wide,  were  di- 
vided into  perpendicular  lights  by  mullions. 
The  lateral  spaces  on  the  upper  and  outer 
side  of  the  arch  are  spandrelles;  and  the 
ornaments  in  the  top,  collectively  taken,  are 
the  tracery.  An  oriel,  or  bay  window,  is 


a  window  which  projects  from  the  general 
surface  of  the  wall.  A  wheel,  or  rose  win- 
dow, is  large  and  circular.  A  corbel  is  a 
bracket  or  short  projection  from  a  wall, 
serving  to  sustain  a  statue  or  the  spring- 
ing of  an  arch.  The  Gothic  term  gable 
indicates  the  erect  end  of  a  roof,  and  an- 
swers to  the  Grecian  pediment,  but  is  more 
acute. 

NORMAN,  TUDOR,  AND  MODERN 
GOTHIC 

Throughout  England  may  be  seen  many 
aged  castles,  some  still  in  a  state  of  good 
preservation,  but  the  greater  number  in 
ruins,  and  occupying,  with  their  picturesque 
remains,  the  summit  of  a  rising  ground  or 
rocky  precipice.  These  castles  are  of  a 
style  which  prevailed  during  the  feudal 
ages  in  Europe,  and  was  taken  to  that 
country  by  the  Normans,  who  erected  them 
as  fastnesses,  into  which  they  might  retire 
and  oppress  the  country  at  pleasure. 

The  feudal  castles  in  England,  like  those 
on  the  Rhine,  consisted  for  the  most  part 
of  a  single  strong  tower  or  keep,  the  walls 
of  which  were  from  six  to  ten  feet  thick, 
and  the  windows  only  holes  of  one  or  two 
feet  square,  placed  at  irregular  intervals. 
The  several  floors  were  built  on  arches,  and 
the  roof  was  flat  or  battlemented,  with 
notches  in  the  parapet,  from  which  the  in- 
habitants or  retainers  of  the  chieftain  might 
defend  themselves  with  instruments  of  war. 
The  accommodations  for  living  were  gen- 
erally mean,  and  what  would  now  be  called 
uncomfortable.  Around  or  in  front  of  the 
main  tower  there  was  usually  a  courtyard, 
protected  by  a  high  wall,  and  the  arched 
entrance  was  carefully  secured  by  a  falling 
gate  or  portcullis.  Outside,  there  was  in 
many  cases  a  regular  wet  ditch  or  fosse. 
Castles  of  greater  magnitude  consisted  of 
two  or  more  towers  and  inner  buildings,  in- 
cluding a  chapel  and  offices  for  domestics, 
and  stables  for  horses  and  other  animals. 
Some  of  them  were  on  a  great  scale,  and 
possessed  considerable  grandeur  of  design. 

As  society  advanced  and  civil  tranquillity 
was  established,  these  military  strengths 
gradually  assumed  a  character  of  greater 
elegance  and  less  the  appearance  of  de- 
fence. The  wet  ditch  disappeared,  and  was 
superseded  by  a  lawn  or  shrubbery.  In- 
stead of  the  drawbridge  and  portcullis,  there 
was  a  regular  approach  and  a  gate  of  or- 
dinary construction.  The  windows  became 
larger,  and  were  fitted  with  glass  frames, 
and  stone  was  abandoned  for  the  greater 
comfort  of  wooden  floors.  Instead,  also,  of 


380 


ARCHITECTURE 


a  bare  region  around,  in  which  no  foe  might 
lurk,  gardens  were  established,  and  a  long 
avenue  of  trees  led  to  the  front  of  the 
modernized  mansion.  In  some  instances, 
the  pepper-box  turrets  at  the  upper  cor- 
ners of  the  building  remained.  Of  the 
class  of  structures  that  sprung  up  in  this 
period  of  transition,  which  in  England  we 
may  refer  to  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth, 
and  in  Scotland  to  the  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, there  are  several  highly  interesting 
remains.  These  edifices  of  the  nobility  and 
gentry  were  no  longer  called  castles;  they 
took  the  name  of  halls,  and  as  such  had  at- 
tained so  great  a  pitch  of  magnificence  in 
the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII  and  Elizabeth  as 
to  have  subsequently  given  a  name  to  a 
new  style — the  Tudor  or  Elizabethan.  Lat- 
terly, and  with  no  very  distinct,  reference 
to  any  particular  period,  this  remarkable 
fashion  of  building  has  been  pretty  gen- 
erally called  the  old  English  style  of  archi- 
tecture. One  of  the  best  existing  specimens 
of  the  Tudor  era  of  architecture  is  Haddon 
Hall  in  Derbyshire,  the  property  of  the 
Duke  of  Rutland. 

MODERN    BRITISH  ARCHITECTURE 

During  the  sixteenth  century,  an  extraor- 
dinary effort  was  made  in  Italy  to  restore 
the  purity  of  Grecian  architecture ;  and 
in  this  attempt  Palladio  was  followed  by 
the  not  less  eminent  Michelangelo  Buo- 
narotti,  who,  at  an  advanced  age,  in  1546, 
undertook  the  continuation  of  the  building 
of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  a  work  on  which 
the  greatest  splendors  of  the  Italian  style 
are  lavished.  Into  England,  this  revived 
taste  for  the  Grecian  was  introduced  at  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  by 
Tnigo  Jones,  to  whose  contemptuous  ob- 
servations on  the  German  or  Pointed  Style 
th£  term  Gothic  has  been  traced;  and  after 


his  decease,  the  Grecian,  or  more  properly 
the  Italianized  Grecian,  was  perpetuated  on 
a  scale  still  more  extensive  by  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren.  The  edifices  erected  by  this 
great  master  are  characterized  by  the  finest 
taste,  and  his  spires  in  particular  are  models 
of  elegance.  The  greatest  work  of  Wren 
was  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  London,  in 
which  the  Italian  is  seen  in  all  its  glory. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  an  era  of  de- 
cline in  architectural  taste.  Every  other  style 
merged  in  that  of  a  spiritless  and  often  mean 
Grasco-Italian,  out  of  which  the  architects 
of  the  nineteenth  century  have  apparently 
had  a  difficulty  to  emerge.  Latterly,  there 
has  been  a  revival  in  England  of  a  purer 
kind  of  Grecian,  and  also,  as  we  have  al- 
ready said,  of  old  English,  and  the  Gothic 
or  Pointed  Style,  and  in  most  instances  with 
good  effect.  It  is  only  to  be  lamented  that, 
by  the  manner  in  which  state  patronage  is 
distributed  in  this  branch  of  the  fine  arts, 
some  of  the  largest  and  most  expensive 
structures — Buckingham  Palace  and  the 
National  Gallery,  for  example — have  been 
erected  on  the  poorest  conceptions  of  the 
Grecian  style,  and  with  a  general  effect  far 
from  pleasing.  In  Paris,  there  now  exist 
some  modern  structures  after  correct  Gre- 
cian models,  which  can  not  be  too  highly 
praised ;  we  would,  in  particular,  instance 
the  building  called  the  Madeleine,  the 
Bourse,  and  the  interior  of  the  church  of 
Ste.  Genevieve,  which  are  exceedingly  wor- 
thy of  being  visited  by  young  and  aspiring 
architects. 

Of  the  superb  buildings  springing  up  on 
all  sides  of  this  vast  continent,  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  speak.  Those  already  in  existence, 
notably  in  Washington,  are  admirable  copies 
of  the  great  Greek  and  Roman  periods.  The 
so-called  Queen  Anne  style,  which  became 
popular  about  1876,  soon  died  out. 


STEAM-ENGINES 


PROBABLY  the  most  important  as  well  as  one  of  the  earliest  achieve- 
ments of  modern  science  was  the  invention  and  perfection  of  the 
practical  steam-engine.  This  machine  operates  upon  the  principle 
that  has  been  familiar  from  the  ancient  times,  namely,  that  gases  subjected 
to  heat  tend  to  expand,  and,  in  so  doing,  to  develop  a  certain  force  or 
energy,  which,  under  certain  circumstances,  can  have  destructive  effects, 
but,  when  properly  confined  and  used,  become  a  most  efficient  prime  mover 
for  machinery  of  all  descriptions.  Indeed,  the  fundamental  fact  demon- 
strated in  all  forms  of  heat  engine  is  that  the  molecules  composing  gases, 
liquids,  and  solids  are  so  influenced  by  heat  as  to  be  violently  forced  apart, 
thus  producing  expansion  or  increase  in  actual  bulk,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
generating  a  force  or  pressure  proportionate  to  the  amount  of  heat  actually 
at  work. 

Among  the  earliest  attempts  to  utilize  the  energy  thus  developed  is 
found  in  the  primitive  contrivance  known  as  the  eolipyle,  which  was  in- 
vented by  a  certain  philosopher  named  Hero,  a  citizen  of  Alexandria,  Egypt, 
about  300  B.C.  It  consists  of  a  hollow  metal  ball  mounted  on  trunnions, 
so  as  to  revolve  freely  on  one  diameter,  and  having  on  another  diameter, 
at  right  angles  to  the  first,  two  tubulures,  or  bent  nozzles,  which  allow  the 
vapor  to  escape  in  opposite  directions.  When  the  hollow  ball  is  partially 
filled  with  water  and  subjected  to  a  flame,  steam  is  generated,  and,  by  its 
escape  in  two  opposite  directions  through  the  tubulures,  causes  the  ball 
to  revolve  on  its  axis  by  reaction  of  the  steam  pressure  against  the  air.  Such 
a  device  as  this  is,  of  course,  worthless  from  the  point  of  view  of  modern 
mechanics,  and  it  seems  strange  indeed  at  the  present  day  that  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  a  certain  Verbrest,  a  learned  Jesuit  priest  and  philosopher, 
attempted  to  use  an  eolipyle  to  propel  a  horseless  carriage.  It  is  needless 
to  say  he  was  unsuccessful. 

The  first  step  toward  the  steam-engine,  as  we  have  it  to-day,  was  made 
about  1710-11,  when  Thomas  Newcomen  of  Devonshire,  England,  invented 
a  steam-actuated  mechanism  for  pumping  water  from  mines,  and  called  it 
a  "fire-engine."  It  consists  of  a  disk-shaped  piston  arranged  to  slide  in 
a  hollow  cylinder,  and  transmit  its  motions  under  power  impulse  through 

(381)  25 


382 


STEAM-ENGINES 


a  piston-rod  and  chain  to  a  walking-beam.  His  contribution  is  the  cylinder 
and  piston,  although,  owing  to  an  imperfect  understanding  of  the  properties 
of  steam,  he  arranged  to  have  the  real  power  stroke  from  the  atmospheric 
pressure,  leaving  for  the  steam  no  more  important  function  than  a  creation 
of  a  vacuum  by  its  condensation.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  result,  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder  was  connected  to  the  boiler  by  a  small  tube  closed 
by  a  cock.  On  opening  the  cock  steam  rushed  into  the  cylinder  and  so 
far  disturbed  the  balance  between  the  piston  and  the  counterpoise  on  the 
piston,  side  of  the  walking-beam,  that  the  piston  was  raised  and  travelled 
the  entire  distance  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder;  the  counterpoise,  meantime, 


FIG.  I. — Diagram  of  the  Newcomen  pumping 
engine.  The  cylinder  K  has  the  sliding  piston 
L,  which  is  forced  upward  by  steam  admitted  from 
boiler  Q  by  cock  M.  By  opening  cock  O,  water 
is  admitted  from  the  tank  F  through  the  pipe  N, 
and  the  steam  being  condensed,  producing  a  vacu- 
um, the  resulting  water  escapes  through  pipe  P 
into  the  cistern  R.  The  piston  L  is  then  forced 
downward  by  atmospheric  pressure.  The  piston  is 


connected  by  rod  J  and  chain  H  to  the  walking 
beam  D  at  G.  On  the  opposite  end  of  the  walk- 
ing beam  is  the  chain  A,  attached  to  the  counter- 
poise B  on  the  pump  rod  C  C.  The  counterpoise 
acts  to  make  the  downetroke  of  the  pump  rod  when 
the  steam  beneath  the  piston  disturbs  the  equilib- 
rium of  the  engine,  but  is  raised  again  when  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  acting  against  the  vacu- 
um forces  the  piston  down  into  the  cylinder. 


pulling'  down  the  pump-rod  attached  to  the  walking-beam.  This  operation 
was  called  the  "out-door**  stroke  and  furnished  the  sole  condition  in 
which  the  steam  seemed  to  be  used  for  any  dynamic  effort.  Its  power 
efficiency  was  limited,  however,  since  it  had  a  pressure  of  never  more  than 
between  2  and  4  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  The  real  power  stroke  was 
made  by  taking-  advantage  of  the  full  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
is  approximately  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch  above  a  vacuum.  This  was 
done  as  follows:  The  steam  inlet  valve  was  closed  by  hand  and  another 
small  cock  was  opened,  admitting  water  t<?  the  clearance  space  behind  the 
piston  and  condensing  the  steam.  The  effect  of  condensation  was  the 


STEAM-ENGINES  383 


creation  of  a  partial  vacuum  below  the  piston,  which  was  then  forced  down- 
ward by  atmospheric  pressure;  the  condensed  water  being  taken  off  into 
a  cistern  below  the  level  of  the  furnace.  This  was  called  the  "in-door" 
stroke. 

For  over  seventy  years  from  the  date  of  its  invention  the  Newcomen 
engine  enjoyed  an  undisputed  monopoly  of  its  field.  Meantime,  it  was  im- 
proved in  several  small  particulars,  and  in  1769  James  Watt  completed  his 
famous  single-acting  engine,  which  marked  the  limit  of  its  possibilities.  In 
this  device  Watt  retained  the  counterpoise  weight  on  the  pump-rod  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  the  upward  stroke  of  the  engine  piston,  but,  instead  of 
atmospheric  air,  he  used  steam  to  produce  the  down-stroke,  and,  most 
radical  departure  of  all,  employed  a  separate  condenser  to  produce  the 
vacuum  instead  of  injecting  water  directly  into  the  cylinder  space.  The 
use  of  the  separate  condenser  marked  the  first  recognition  of  the  fact,  now 
a  commonplace  of  steam-engineering,  that  the  cylinder  should  constantly 
be  maintained  at  the  temperature  of  the  injected  steam.  In  order  to 
achieve  this  result,  while  still  adhering  to  Newcomen's  principles,  he  made 
his  cylinder  double — one  within  another — the  outer  one  serving  as  a  steam 
jacket  to  maintain  the  required  temperature,  although  at  the  same  time 
in  communication  with  the  inner  cylinder  at  its  top,  in  order  to  furnish  the 
necessary  pressure  for  the  down-stroke  of  the  piston.  Later  on,  however, 
he  dispensed  with  the  open  communication  between  the  steam  jacket  and 
the  piston  sweep,  and  controlled  the  inlet  of  steam  by  a  positively  operated 
valve  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder.  The  valve  motion  in  both  these  engines 
was  ingenious  and  efficient,  but,  from  the  fact  that  extremely  low  pressures 
were  employed,  neither  one  was  what  would  be  called  practical  at  the 
present  day. 

Although  the  Watt  single-acting  engines  were  an  immense  advance  on 
any  previous  Newcomen  models,  they  shared  the  primary  defect  of  their 
predecessors  in  using  only  the 'full  volume  and  pressure  of  the  steam,  mak- 
ing no  account  whatever  of  the  great  expansile  energy  to  be  obtained  and 
utilized  by  cutting  off  the  inlet  supply  before  the  completion  of  the  power 
stroke.  In  the  course  of  elaborate  experiments  during  thirteen  years,  Watt 
eventually  hit  upon  this  principle,  and  in  1782  secured  a  patent  covering 
substantially  all  the  important  points  of  construction  and  operation  that  are 
still  included  in  steam-engines.  In  his  patent  specifications  he  claims  as 
his  fundamental  improvement  the  principle  of  "admitting  steam  into  the 
cylinder  or  steam  vessel  of  the  engine  only  during  some  part  or  portion 
of  the  descent  or  ascent  of  the  piston,  and  using  the  elastic  force,  where- 
with the  said  steam  expands  itself  ...  as  the  acting  power  on  the  piston 
through  the  other  parts  or  portions  of  the  length  of  the  stroke  of  the  said 
piston." 

So  far  as  its  essential  construction  is  concerned,  the  Watt  double-acting 
engine  was  simply  an  extension  of  his  first  improvement  of  a  separate  con- 


384 


STEAM-ENGINES 


denser,  with  the  further  variation  that  steam  was  admitted  to  both  ends 
of  the  cylinder,  to  act  on  both  faces  of  the  piston,  and  to  exert  mechanical 
energy,  by  virtue  of  its  inherent  quality  of  expansion.  However,  in  spite 
of  these  improvements,  the  Watt  engine  still  continued  to  operate  on  the 
low-pressure  principle,  the  efficient  energy  being  in  all  cases  several  pounds 
per  square  inch  below  atmosphere.  This  result  was  accomplished,  of 
course,  by  the  use  of  the  condenser  producing  a  vacuum  in  front  of  the 
moving  piston,  as  in  the  multiple  expansion  engines  of  the  present  day. 
The  valve  mechanism  was  still  positively  operated  from  the  walking-beam 
as  in  his  previous  models.  It  was  not  until  early  in  the  nineteenth  century 
that  the  link  motion  and  eccentric  gear,  originally  invented  by  a  certain 
Williams  of  Newcastle,  were  used  for  the  first  time  by  the  Stephensons  on 
one  of  their  locomotives.  For  this  reason  the  device  is  commonly  credited 
to  Robert  Stephenson  and  is  still  known  as  the  "Stephenson  link  motion." 


THE  THEORY  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  MODERN 

STEAM-ENGINES 


THE   GENERATION    OF   STEAM 

THE  first  and  most  important  considera- 
tion in  the  construction  of  modern 
steam-engines  is  the  generation  of  steam. 
In  order  to  operate  an  engine  of  given 
size  and  power  capacity  at  such  a  speed  as 
to  develop  its  best  efficiency,  we  must  have 
two  things:  (i)  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
steam,  which  means  a  boiler  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  constantly  generate  enough  steam 
at  a  given  pressure,  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, to  supply  the  requirements  of  the  en- 
gines; (2)  sufficient  heat  to  continually 
change  into  steam  the  water  contained  in 
the  boiler.  Various  rules  have  been  adopted 
to  measure  the  steam  generating  capacity  of 
boilers  in  terms  of  horsepower — such,  for 
example,  as  giving  15  square  feet  of  heat- 
ing surface  per  horsepower  hour.  Such 
rules,  however,  are  largely  misleading,  since 
the  generative  capacity  of  a  boiler,  measured 
in  square  feet  per  horsepower,  depends  very 
largely  upon  several  considerations  :  (i)  upon 
the  ratio  of  the  heating  surface  to  the  out- 
side surface  of  the  boiler,  hence  to  its  cu- 
bical capacity;  (2)  upon  the  shape  of  the 
boiler,  a  horizontal  boiler  of  the  "locomo- 
tive" type  affording  a  larger  exposed  sur- 
face to  the  furnace  fire  than  a  vertical 
boiler  of  ordinary  pattern ;  (3)  upon  the 
construction  and  surface  capacity  of  the 
furnace,  and  upon  the  nature  of  the  fuel 
used,  in  respect  to  ability  to  develop  the 
requisite  number  of  heat  units  for  vaporiz- 


ing the  water  contained  in  the  boiler.  The 
fundamental  problem,  therefore,  in  the  prac- 
tical work  of  designing  and  constructing 
steam  boilers,  is  as  to  what  methods  and 
devices  are  best  adapted  to  the  end  of  in- 
creasing the  heating  surface. 

The  boilers  used  with  most  of  the  i8th 
century  steam-engines  were  mere  kettles, 
the  water  being  contained  in  a  large  cham- 
ber, with  an  outlet  at  the  top  for  the  steam; 
the  heat  being  applied  only  to  the  exposed 
bottom  and  sides  of  the  vessel.  The  first 
step  in  obtaining  efficient  boilers  was  made 
by  introducing  flues,  or  tubes  carried  di- 
rectly through  the  water  space  and  allow- 
ing so  many  channels  for  the  escape  of 
burning  gases  from  the  furnace  into  the  air 
above.  At  first  only  two  or  three  large 
flues  were  used,  but  later  the  number  was 
immensely  increased,  thus  correspondingly 
'augmenting  the  heating  surface  and  the 
steaming  capacity.  Another  device  adopted 
quite  as  early  as  the  use  of  smoke  flues  was 
the  use  of  trains  or  coils  of  tubes  containing 
water  and  intended  to  be  directly  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  fire.  Both  types  of  boilers 
are  in  use  to  the  present  day  and  both  have 
their  advocates,  who  argue  the  superiority 
of  the  one  type  or  the  other  in  point  of 
greater  heating  surface  obtained,  and  conse- 
quently of  greater  steaming  capacity.  The 
water-tube  boiler  is  made  in  a  great  va- 
riety of  shapes  and  patterns;  each  succes- 
sive design  being  intended  to  serve  the 


STEAM-ENGINES 


385 


desired  end  of  increasing  the  heating  sur- 
face and  also  of  attaining  another  very  de- 
jirable  object,  viz.,  directing  the  circulation  of 
the  heated  water.  As  is  well  known,  or 
can  be  readily  verified  by  ordinary  house- 
hold observation,  water  when  subjected  to 
heat  becomes  agitated,  and  small  fountains 
appear  upon  the  surface  resembling  noth- 
ing more  perfectly  than  a  spring,  where  the 
water  gushes  out  of  the  ground.  The  cause 
of  this  is  that  the  lower  part  of  the  water 
being  heated  by  the  fire  beneath  tends  to 
rise  upward,  allowing  the  cooler  layers  of 
water  nearer  the  surface  to  sink  to  the  bot- 
tom, thus  producing  a  regular  system  of 
circulation,  one  stream  rising  to  the  surface 
and  others  constantly  sinking  to  the  bottom. 
According  to  the  theory  of  designers  of 
steam  boilers,  efficiency  is  very  greatly  in- 
creased by  directing  the  circulation  on  the 
lines  assumed  by  nature,  as  seen  in  water 
boiling  in  an  ordinary  kitchen  kettle,  while, 
at  the  same  time,  preventing  the  ascending 
and  descending  streams  from  interfering. 
Thus,  in  water-tube  boilers  are  always  found 
ascending  and  descending  tubes  so  arranged 
with  relation  to  the  furnace  that  the  heated 
water  always  rises  through  one  side  and 
always  descends  through  the  other. 

BOILER-HEATING    SURFACE 

The  object  of  increasing  the  heating  sur- 
face of  a  boiler  is,  of  course,  to  bring  the 
heat  into  direct  contact  with  the  water  at 
as  many  points  as  possible.  This  naturally 
facilitates  the  process  of  steam  generation 
and  renders  the  boiler  more  efficient.  If 
we  have  an  ordinary  kettle  or  water  heater 
in  contact  with  the  flame  of  a  stove,  it  is 
evident  that  the  water  contained  in  it  may 
be  brought  to  a  boil  in  a  period  propor- 
tionate to  the  amount  of  water  and  to  the 
heat  of  the  flame — for  it  is  a  familiar  fact 
that  some  substances,  liquid,  solid  and  gase- 
ous alike,  produce  greater  heat  in  burning 
than  others.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that, 
if  we  wish  to  make  the  steam  generation 
more  rapid,  there  are  two  courses  open  to 
us.  The  first  is  to  increase  the  heating 
power  of  the  fire  by  using  some  other  fuel 
with  a  larger  heat  equivalent.  The  second 
is  to  increase  the  heating  surface  so  that  the 
heat  can  come  in  contact  with  the  water  at 
as  many  points  as  possible.  We  may  illus- 
trate this  fact  as  follows:  If  in  a  boiler  or 
kettle  with  a  base  of  i  square  foot  area, 
we  introduce  a  tube  running  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  kettle  to  the  top,  the  heating 
surface  will  be  increased  by  as  many  square 
inches  as  the  tube  contains  in  its  length.  If, 


for  example,  the  tube  has  an  inside  diameter 
of  2  inches  and  is  12  inches  long  the  num- 
ber of  square  inches  contained  in  it  may 
be  found  as.  follows:  Multiply  2  inches  by 
3.14159,  which  represents  the  ratio  between 
the  diameter  and  circumference  of  a  circle, 
and  being  multiplied  by  the  diameter  gives 
the  circumference.  The  result  of  multiply- 
in,  in  this  case  is  6.28318,  which  represents 
the  inside  circumference  of  the  tube.  Mul- 
tiplying this  figure  by  12,  representing  the 
length  of  the  tube  in  inches,  we  obtain  the 
figure  7S-398i6,  representing  the  number  of 
square  inches  in  the  tube.  In  order  to  re- 
duce the  term  to  square  feet  we  divide  by 
144,  obtaining  the  result  .52359,  or  approxi- 
mately one-half  of  a  square  foot  of  heating 
surface  actually  added  to  the  vessel  in  ques- 
tion. It  takes  very  little  reflection  to  see 
that  by  thus  permitting  the  heat  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  water,  through  an 
additional  surface  approximately  one-third 
greater  than  that  originally  afforded,  the 
steam-generating  capacity  and  the  rapidity 
of  generation  are  both  increased  theoreti- 
cally one-third. 

FUELS:    HEAT    EFFICIENCY 

Just  as  some  substances  burn  more  rapidly 
and  generate  a  greater  amount  of  heat  than 
others,  so  some  require  either  more  heat  or 
longer  exposure  to  a  flame  to  raise  their 
temperature  as  measured  in  degrees.  This 
question  is  largely  determined  by  the  heat- 
conducting  capacity  of  the  substances  in 
question.  Thus,  the  majority  of  substances, 
liquid  or  solid,  require  less  heat  to  raise 
their  temperature  through  a  given  number 
of  degrees  than  does  water.  For  this  reason 
water  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  measure- 
ment in  estimating  heat-efficiency.  It  is  evi- 
dent to  any  one  that  it  will  take,  a  greater 
quantity  of  heat — which  is  to  say  a  larger 
fire — to  raise  a  teakettle  of  water  to  the 
boiling  point  than  to  heat  a  teacupful  to 
the  same  temperature,  although  the  fire  in 
both  cases  may  register  precisely  the  same 
number  of  degrees  on  the  thermometer  or 
pyrometer.  This  brings  us  to  the  consid- 
eration of  the  practical  quantity  of  heat 
required  for  raising  a  given  amount  of 
water  to  the  point  at  which  steam  is 
generated,  and  hence  for  exerting  a  given 
amount  of  mechanical  power  in  the  engine 
operated  by  the  steam.  The  practical  unit 
of  heat-quantity  recognized  by  engineers  is 
the  so-called  British  Thermal  C/mV(B.T.U.), 
which  indicates  the  amount  of  heat  required 
to  raise  one  pound  of  pure  distilled  water 
through  one  degree  Fahrenheit,  from  39.1 


386 


STEAM-ENGINES 


degrees,  which  is  the  temperature  of  the 
maximum  density  of  water.  The  method 
of  calculating  the  number  of  heat  units, 
actually  consumed  in  the  process  of  heat- 
ing water  and  generating  steam,  is,  briefly, 
to  estimate  the  heating  efficiency  of  the 
fuel  per  pound,  and  to  determine  how  much 
has  been  used  in  volatilizing  a  given  amount 
of  water.  If,  for  example,  i  ounce  of  a 
given  fuel  must  be  burnt  in  order  to  raise 
I  pound  of  water  through  I  degree  Fahren- 
heit, its  heating  efficiency  is  to  be  estimated 
at  I  heat  unit  to  the  ounce.  Therefore,  if 
a  certain  amount  of  water  requires  10  ounces 
to  raise  its  entire  volume  through  i  degree 
Fahrenheit,  it  is  evident  that  10  heat  units 
have  been  consumed.  This  heating  capacity 
is,  of  course,  very  much  lower  than  that 
represented  by  most  commercial  fuels,  which 
frequently  show  from  several  hundred  to 
several  thousand  heat  units  to  the  pound. 

HEAT    REQUIRED    FOR    STEAMING 

hi  -practically  estimating  the  amount  of 
heat  required  to  volatilize  a  given  quantity 
of  water,  it  is  not  correct  to  assume  that 
only  i  heat  unit  is  required  to  raise  each 
pound  through  each  degree  Tahrenheit  from 
39.1  to  212.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  far 
greater  expenditure  of  heat  is  actually  de- 
manded by  the  physical  properties  of  water. 
It  is  a  well-ascertained  fact  in  science  that 
to  accomplish  the  work  of  changing  the 
physical  condition  of  a  substance — as,  for 
example,  from  the  solid  into  the  liquid 
state  or  from  the  liquid  into  the  gaseous 
— a  large  amount  of  heat  is  absorbed  in 
doing  "interior  work,"  which  does  not  be- 
come sensible  or  perceptible,  and  is  not 
registered  By  the  thermometer,  pyrometer, 
or  other  instruments.  Thus,  several  hun- 
dred heat  units  are  consumed  in  changing 
one  pound  of  ice  into  liquid  water,  and 
one-half  as  many  again  are  absorbed  in 
transforming  the  water  into  steam  after  the 
sensible  temperature  of  212  degrees  has  been 
obtained.  Thus,  to  convert  one  pound  of 
water  at  32  degrees  Fahrenheit  into  one 
pound  of  steam,  the  following  number  of 
heat  units  would  be  required:  (i)  to  raise 
the  temperature  from  the  32  degrees  to  212, 
there  are  consumed  180.9  heat  units ;  (2) 
for  "interior  work"  in  transforming  the 
liquid  into  a  gaseous  state,  894  heat  units; 
(3)  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  at- 
mospheric pressure,  71.7  heat  units — the 
total  being  1146.6  heat  units,  with  a  sen- 
sible temperature  of  only  212  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  When  we  ( onsider  that  the 
so-called  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  is 


theoretically  supposed  to  be  778  foot-pounds 
per  heat  unit — which  is  to  say,  such  a  power 
as  can  move  one  pound  weight  through  778 
feet  or  778  pounds  through  one  fool  in 
each  second  of  time — we  may  understand 
the  immense  amount  of  energy  expended  in 
generating  steam.  According  to  this  for- 
mula, 892,054.8  foot-pounds  equivalent  in 
heat  units  is  consumed  in  changing  one 
pound  of  water  at  32  degrees  into  steam. 

All  these  matters  need  to  be  mentioned 
only  in  order  to  show  the  exactness  of 
modern  engineering  measurements.  Of 
course,  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  the 
heat  actually,  expended  may  be  calculated 
only  after  the  steam  is  generated,  and,  even 
then,  the  full  amount  of  power  is  never 
realized  in  any  commercial  engine,  owing 
to  the  numerous  causes  of  loss  from  radia- 
tion, etc.,  and  in  maintaining  the  necessary 
high  temperature  in  the  cylinders.  The 
figures  already  given  illustrate  forcibly  an- 
other point  frequently  commented  on,  which 
is  that,  even  with  the  best  and  most  eco- 
nomical steam-engines,  no  more  than  15  per 
cent  of  the  heat  actually  expended  can  be 
used  in  mechanical  work.  The  remainder 
is  absorbed  in  doing  "interior  work"  or 
passes  off  into  the  atmosphere.  Nor  can 
these  causes  of  waste  be  overcome;  for, 
since  it  is  necessary  that  the  fire  be  main- 
tained by  a  draft,  a  large  amount  of  heat 
will  inevitably  pass  up  the  chimney  and  be 
lost  for  all  mechanical  effect. 

PRESSURE    AND    EXPANSION 

Other  conditions  involved  in  the  process 
of  generating  steam  may  be  briefly  ex- 
pressed as  follows :  ( i )  the  greater  the 
pressure  exerted  on  the  liquid  the  higher 
the  temperature  required  to  evaporate  it; 
(2)  the  greater  the  expansion  allowed  the 
steam  the  smaller  the  heat  required  to  evap- 
orate h — hence,  theoretically,  the  greater  the 
economy. 

To  illustrate  what  is  meant  by  pressure 
on  the  water  we  may  state  that  in  a  vacuum 
where  most  of  the  air  has  been  exhausted, 
water  may  be  boiled  and  evaporated  at  a 
temperature  as  low  as  that  of  the  human 
hand,  which  is  96  degrees  Fahrenheit.  In- 
versely, therefore,  as  we  increase  the  pres- 
sure a  greater  amount  of  heat  is  wasted  in 
producing  the  boiling  and  steaming  of  the 
water.  The  consequence  of  this  is  that  to 
use  excessively  high  pressures  is  more 
wasteful  in  fuel  than  efficient  in  power. 

The  meaning  of  pressure  in  connection 
with  steam  is  briefly  as  follows :  in  the  proc- 
ess of  evaporation  the  particles  of  water 


STEAM-ENGINES 


387 


are  forced  apart,  not  gently  and  gradu- 
ally but  violently  and  with  great  force.  To 
illustrate  this  we  may  state  that  the  steam 
from  I  cubic  foot  of  water  would  so  expand 
in  evaporation  as  to  occupy  1,646  cubic  feet 
of  space  before  its  latent  heat  is  exhausted 
and  condensation  begins.  The  whole  theory 
of  the  practical  steam-engine  depends  upon 
confining  the  steam  that  should  naturally 
occupy  several  hundred  cubic  feet  into  a 
space,  oftentimes  less  than  i-ioo  of  that 
volume,  Thus,  the  pressure  of  the  confined 
vapor  increases  as  the  heat  that  is  acting 
upon  the  water,  and  if  the  walls  of  the 
boiler  are  not  sufficiently  strong  they  will 
be  forcibly  sundered  and  an  explosion  will 
occur.  After  the  pressure  of  the  confined 
steam  has  risen  beyond  a  certain  point,  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  pounds  per  square  foot, 
the  generation  of  steam  proceeds  much  more 
slowly,  and  the  steam  already  generated  be- 
comes charged  with  small  particles  of  un- 
vaporized  water.  This  is  what  is  known  as 
"saturated  steam,"  or  wet  steam.  It  has  this 
peculiarity,  that,  if  subjected  to  additional 
pressure  either  from  an  outside  source,  or 
in  the  cylinder,  or  simply  under  the  condi- 
tions found  within  the  boiler,  it  tends  to 
condense  into  the  liquid  form  again. 

SEPARATED    STEAM 

When  steam  is  let  out  of  the  boiler  into 
a  chamber  known  as  a  "separator,"  it  may 
be  subjected  to  additional  heat,  becoming 
what  is  known  as  dry,  superheated,  or  sep- 
1  arated  steam.  Steam,  thus  separated  from 
the  water  generating  it  and  subjected  to 
heat,  assumes  several  properties  of  perma- 
nent gases,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
the  fact  that  it  will  not  condense  into  the 
liquid  state  under  pressure  so  long  as  the 
temperature  is  not  lowered.  Another  pe- 
culiar difference  between  the  two  forms  of 
steam  is  that,  while  ordinary  wet  or  boiler 
steam  will  painfully  scald  the  body  coming 
in  contact  with  it,  the  heated  or  dry  steam 
will  not  produce  painful  effects. 

KINETIC    PROPERTY    OF    STEAM 

The  principle  upon  which  steam  exerts 
power  and  moves  machinery  depends  in 
modern  steam-engines  entirely  upon  the  ex- 
pansive pressure  exerted  as  its  molecules 
are  forced  further  apart  in  the  attempt  to 
assume  the  natural  volume.  This  may  be 
illustrated  briefly  as  follows :  If  we  place 
a  certain  amount  of  water  in  a  closed  ves- 
sel— say  a  hollow  cylinder — having  an  air- 
tight disk,  or  piston,  arranged  to  slide  from 


end  to  end  in  its  length,  we  shall  find  that 
as  the  generation  of  steam  proceeds  this 
disk  or  cover  will  be  continually  forced  up- 
ward and  will  be  finally  thrown  off  at  the 
top  unless  an  effectual  check  is  provided 
against  its  further  movement.  If. '  now,  a 
cock  be  opened  at  the  side  of  the  vessel,  so 
as  to  allow  the  steam  to  escape,  the  movable 
disk  will  tend  to  sink  again  under  the  force 
of  gravity  and  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere. This  is  practically  the  scheme  adopt- 
ed in  Newcomen's  engine,  as  we  have  al- 
ready seen.  In  order  to  utilize  the  natural 
pressure  of  the  expanding  steam  to  the  best 
advantage,  its  generation  takes  place  in  one 
closed  vessel,  the  boiler,  and  its  mechanical 
energy  is  exerted  in  another  closed  vessel, 
the  cylinder.  In  both  cases,  however,  the 
expansive  energy  of  the  steam  is  exerted  to 
push  out  the  movable  disk,  or  piston,  until 
the  pressure  within  the  closed  vessel  is  equal 
to  that  outside  it,  or  to  what  is  acting  on 
the  opposite  face  of  the.  piston. 

THE   CYLINDER   AND    PISTON 

As  we  have  already  learned  in  the  discus- 
sion of  the  Watt  engine,  the  modern  steam 
cylinder  is  double-acting.  That  is  to  say, 
by  the  movement  of  properly  arranged 
valves,  the  steam  pressure  is  caused  to  act 
alternately  on  both  faces  of  the  piston.  In 
practical  operation,  as  the  valve  lets  in  the 
steam  to  act  upon  one  face  of  the  piston, 
another  valve  allows  it  to  escape  from  the 
space  in  front  of  the  opposite  face  in  the 
piston;  thus,  as  the  pressure  is  exerted 
against  the  piston  on  the  one  side,  it  is 
constantly  reduced  on  the  other. 

In  acting  upon  the  face  of  the  sliding 
piston  the  steam  follows  the  law  that  its 
pressure  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  its  volume. 
Thus  it  is  that  the  steam  escaping  from  one 
side  of  the  cylinder  constantly  decreases  in 
pressure  as  it  increases  in  volume,  whereas 
the  steam  entering  the  cylinder  at  the  op- 
posite side  retains  its  pressure  and  volume 
so  long  as  there  is  uninterrupted  communi- 
cation between  the  boiler  and  the  cylinder. 

It  is  unnecessarily  wasteful,  however,  to 
maintain  the  full  pressure  throughout  the 
entire  stroke  of  the  piston,  since  modern 
boilers  and  engines  use  steam  having  a 
pressure  at  almost  any  point  between  100 
and  250  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  which 
is  to  say  approximately  between  7  and  17 
times  an  atmosphere.  Therefore,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  cut  off  the  supply  from  the  boiler 
at  certain  definite  points,  and  allow  the  re- 
mainder of  the  stroke  to  be  made  with  the 
exnandin?  energy  of  the  confined  steam. 


STEAM-ENGINES 


Thus,  if  steam  at  a  pressure  of  150  pounds 
be  cut  off  at  one-half  the  stroke,  the  press- 
ure at  the  end  will  be  75  pounds  because 
the  confined  steam  has  expanded  once  or 
doubled  its  volume;  if,  with  the  same  initial 
pressure,  the  supply  be  cut  off  at  i-io 
stroke,  the  pressure  at  the  end  will  be  15 
pounds,  because  the  steam  has  expanded  10 
times,  reducing  its  pressure  one-half  at  each 
successive  expansion.  If,  in  both  of  these 


we  have  already  seen,  the  pressure  upon  the 
face  of  the  piston  is  not  the  same  through- 
out the  entire  length  of  the  stroke,  nor  can 
it  be  properly  calculated  except  by  very  elab- 
orate mathematical  processes.  It  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  use  the  steam-engine's 
indicator,  which  contains  a  small  piston  of 
definite  area  in  constant  communication  with 
the  interior  of  the  engine  cylinders,  so  a» 
to  be  affected  by  the  varying  pressure  a* 


FIG.  z. — Tie  cylinder  and  valves  of  a  steam-en- 
gine. The  piston  slides  in  the  cylinder  A  A,  which 
is  closed  at  either  end  by  the  heads  C  C.  The 
piston  rod  c  slides  through  the  stuffing-box  D, 
which  is  dosed  by  the  gland  e  e;  the  space  a  a 
being  packed  with  soft  packing  material.  Steam  is 
admitted  from  the  steam  chest  B  B  through  the 


ports  5"  5,  when  the  valve  V  is  in  proper  position 
and  is  exhausted  through  S  into  £,  when  the  D- 
valve  opens  communication  between  E  and  either 
of  the  ports  5.  The  D-valve  V  slides  from  left 
to  right  and  back,  alternately  opening  each  of  the 
ports  5°  into  the  steam  chest  B,  and  allowing  steam 
to  enter  one  end  of  the  cylinder  clearance. 


cases,  the  piston  has  a  surface  equal  to  144 
square  inches,  or  one  square  foot,  and  the 
stroke  is  24  inches,  or  two  linear  feet,  the 
amount  of  steam  used  in  each  case  may  be 
found  by  multiplying  the  area  of  the  piston 
by  that  portion  of  the  stroke  length  during 
which  steam  was  being  admitted.  Thus  in 
the  first  case  we  have  144X12=1728  cubic 
inches;  in  the  second  case,  144X2.4=345.6 
cubic  inches. 

THE    INDICATOR    AND    DIAGRAMS 

In  calculating  the  actual  work  done  in 
moving  the  piston  of  the  steam-engine — 
which  is  to  say,  in  order  to  secure  a  state- 
ment of  the  power  or  energy  expended  in 
terms  of  foot-pounds  or  horsepower — it  is 
necessary  only  to  multiply  the  pressure,  in 
terms  of  pounds  per  square  inch,  by  the  area 
of  the  piston  in  square  inches  and  by  the 
length  of  the  stroke  in  linear  inches.  Since, 
however,  the  boiler  pressure  is  cut  off  at 
some  certain  point  in  the  stroke  length,  as 


all  points  of  the  stroke.  This  small  piston 
is  attached  to  a  rod  working  a  gear  carry- 
ing a  pencil  at  its  opposite  end.  This  pencil 
bears  against  a  card  held  on  a  tablet  or  roll, 
which  moves  as  the  engine  piston,  thus  trac- 
ing what  is  known  as  the  indicator  diagram 
or  card.  This  card  may  be  read  by  knowing 
the  pressure,  as  indicated  by  the  gauge,  and 
the  point  of  cut-off. 

In  the  specimen  indicator  card  shown  in 
the  accompanying  diagram  the  point  of  cut- 
off, and  the  other  parts  of  the  engine  cycle, 
are  indicated  by  lettering.  As  the  reader 
will  understand,  all  the  various  lines  and 
curves  are  made  as  the  result  of  the  vary- 
inp  pressure  within  the  engine  cylinder  dur- 
ing the  stroke,  acting  upon  the  small  piston 
of  the  indicator  as  already  explained.  In 
reading  the  diagram  the  usual  method  is  to 
rule  ten  vertical  equidistant  straight  lines, 
beginning  at  the  tallest  end  of  the  shoe- 
shaped  figure.  Between  these  vertical  lines 
are  ruled  ordinates,  separating  each  space 


STEAM-ENGINES 


389 


into  two  equal  parts.  Then,  knowing  the 
admission  pressure  of  the  steam,  as  indicated 
by  the  gauge,  the  proportionate  value  of  each 
ordinate  in  pounds  per  square  inch  may  be 
readily  found  by  measuring  each  of  them. 
The  ten  figures  thus  found  are  added  to- 
gether and  divided  by  10,  the  result  being 
what  is  known  as  the  mean  effective  pressure 
(M.E.P.),  which  is  to  say,  the  average  of 
all  pressures  at  the  different  stages  of  the 
<  ycle. 

Another  familiar  method  of  calculating 
the  indicator  diagram  is  to  use  an  instru- 
ment called  the  planimeter.  This  consists 
of  two  arms  pivoted  together,  one  being  se- 
cured to  the  board  or  table,  the  other  carry- 
ing a  tracing  point  on  its  free  end,  a  gradu- 
ated wheel  arranged  to  indicate  square 


FIG.  3. — The  steam-engine  indicator.  Here  D  is 
a  drum,  which  is  rotated  in  one  direction  by  the 
cord  T  wound  about  it  and  actuated  by  lever  re- 
ducing attachment  through  hook  H  from  the  cross- 
bead  of  the  engine.  Upon  this  drum  a  sheet  of 
paper  is  wrapped,  being  held  in  place  by  the  clips 
shown.  A  pencil  point  at  W  is  moved  over  the 
face  of  the  paper  as  the  drum  rotates,  its  motion 
being  imparted  by  arm  B  from  point  N.  The  steam 
from  the  cylinder  of  the  engine  enters  through  tube 
M  and  acts  upon  piston  P  in  the  small  cylinder  C, 
causing  the  spring  S  to  be  depressed,  thus,  accord- 
ing to  the  varying  pressure,  enabling  pencil  W  to 
trace  a  definite  figure  on  the  paper  on  drum  IX 
This  is  the  indicator  diagram. 

inches  and  tenths  of  an  inch,  and  a  vernier, 
to  indicate  hundredths  of  an  inch.  After 
securing  the  instrument  to  the  table,  the 
tracing  point  is  moved  around  the  entire 
outline  of  the  indicator  card,  and  in  doing 
so  registers  the  area  in  square  inches  and 
fractions  of  an  inch  contained  within  the 


line.  For  example,  we  may  have  the  figure 
4  on  the  graduated  wheel,  with  6  gradua- 
tions after  zero  on  the  vernier,  and  the 
figure  5  on  the  vernier  opposite  to  4;  thus 
giving  the  area  of  the  indicated  diagram  as 
4.65  square  inches.  This  figure  is  then  di- 
vided by  another  figure  indicating*  the  ex- 


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FIG.  4. — An  ideal  indicator  diagram  showing  tht 
cycle  of  operations  in  the  steam  cylinder.  On  the 
admission  of  steam  the  pressure  rises  from  point  A, 
which  is  here  60  pounds  (-compression  pressure)  to 
1 80  pounds  at  the  top  of  the  right  liae,  thence  con- 
tinuing throughout  the  admission  with  but  slight 
decrease  in  pressure — owing  to  the  closure  of  the 
steam  ports — to  point  C.  Expansion  then  begins, 
and  continues  to  point  R,  when  the  exhaust  valve 
is  opened,  allowing  the  pressure  to  fall  rapidly  to 
one  atmosphere  (14.7  pounds),  so  continuing  to  B 
•when  the  exhaust  port  is  closed.  The  stage  of 
compression  then  begins;  the  residual  steam  in 
the  cylinder  being  compressed  to  about  40  pounds 
per  square  inch  by  the  advancing  piston,  until  the 
opening  of  the  steam  port,  when  the  same  cycle  of 
operations  for  that  end  of  the  cylinder  is  again 
begun.  In  a  card  taken  for  both  ends  of  the  cylin- 
der the  diagram  shows  two  stich  shoe-shaped  figures 
facing  in  opposite  directions,  and  indicating  the 
same  conditions  on  each  side  of  the  piston. 

treme  length  of  the  diagram  in  inches.  If, 
for  example,  this  length  be  taken  as  3.5 
inches,  the  result  of  the  division  will  be 
!-33.  which,  multiplied  by  the  figure  on  the 
spring  of  the  indicator  indicating  its  rela- 
tive strength  or  tension,  gives  the  mean  ef- 
fective pressure  in  the  cylinder  on  which 
the  card  was  made.  If  in  this  case  the 
spring  be  marked  30,  the  multiplication  will 
give  39.00  pounds  per  square  inch  as  the 
mean  effective  pressure. 

THE    PARTS    OF   A    STEAM-ENGINE 

We  have  thus  far  learned  the  theoretical 
conditions  under  which  steam  is  used  in  the 
modern  steam-engine,  and  may  now  proceed 
to  a  practical  discussion  of  the  mechanism 
used  to  transform  the  heat  and  the  expan- 
sive pressure  into  power  and  motion.  The 
cylinder  is  closed  at  both  ends  by  suitable 
air-tight  heads. 

Within  the  length  of  the  bore  slides  the 
pi.«+on,  which  is  a  thick  disk  of  metal;  the 


390 


STEAM-ENGINES 


contact  between  its  outside  circumference 
and  the  wall  of  the  cylinder  being  rendered 
tight  by  the  use  of  metal  packing  rings  which 
can  expand  with  the  heat  and  slide  smoothly 
against  the  lubricating  oil  on  the  inside  of 
the  bore.  Secured  to  the  piston,  and  ex- 
tending through  the  stuffing  box  in  one  of 
the  heads  of  the  cylinder,  is  the  piston  rod, 
by  which  the  movements  of  the  piston  under 
the  impulse  of  the  steam  are  transmitted  to 
the  machinery  to  be  operated  by  the  engine. 
Steam  is  admitted  alternately  to  both 
ends  of  the  cylinder  through  suitably  ar- 
ranged ports,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  and 
exerts  its  pressure  upon  first  one  face  and 
then  the  other,  as  the  ports  are  alternately 
opened  and  closed  by  suitably  arranged 
valves.  The  steam  valve,  while  in  position 
to  open  the  port  admitting  steam  into  one 
end  of  the  cylinder,  also  opens  the  exhaust 
through  the  port  at  the  opposite  end  of  the 
cylinder,  thus  allowing  the  steam  there  con- 
tained to  escape  by  its  own  tendency  to 
expand,  and  by  the  pressure  of  the  incoming 
steam  against  the  opposite  face  of  the  piston. 

THE    SLIDE   VALVES    AND    GEAR 

The  form  of  valves  used  on  the  typical 
steam-engine  are  of  the  variety  known  as 
slide  valves.  This  term  indicates  that  the 
valve  is  so  arranged  as  to  slide  on  a  suit- 
able bed  in  the  length  of  the  cylinder,  so  as 
to  alternately  open  the  inlet  ports,  in  order 
to  admit  steam  from  the  steam  chest  into 
either  end  of  the  cylinder.  At  the  same 
time,  the  valve  always  keeps  the  exhaust 
port  closed  to  the  steam  in  the  steam  chest, 
only  opening  communication  with  it  to  the 
interior  as  previously  explained.  It  is  not 
necessary  in  the  present  treatise  to  consider 
any  other  form  of  valves  than  those  de- 
scribed and  illustrated,  although  we  may 
mention  that  other  varieties  are  used  on 
special  type  and  models  of  steam-engines. 
For  example,  a  peculiar  form  of  rotary  valve 
is  used  on  the  Corliss  engine,  and  mush- 
room-shaped "poppet,"  or  lifting,  valves  are 
usually  employed  on  the  engines  built  for 
river  and  ferry  steamboats. 

The  valve  gear  of  the  steam-engine  is 
nearly  the  most  important  part  of  its  con- 
struction, and,  in  order  to  permit  of  chang- 
ing the  point  of  cut-off  and  of  reversing 
the  movement  of  the  piston,  it  must  be 
carefully  arranged  and  adjusted.  The  D- 
shaped  valve  sliding  in  the  length  of  the 
cylinder  is  secured  to  a  rod  parallel  to  the 
piston  rod  of  the  engine,  and  is  thus  moved 
always  in  relation  to  it  by  suitable  apparatus 
to  be  presently  described.  On  the  end  of 


the  cylinder  piston  rod  is  a  square  metal 
block  known  as  the  cross-head,  which  is  ar- 
ranged to  slide  between  guides  forming  a 
smooth  metal  trackway  to  keep  its  motion 
perfectly  straight  and  regular.  To  the  cross- 
head  is  pivoted  the  connecting  rod,  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  swing,  and  thus  to  transform 
the  straight  backward-and-forward  move- 
ment of  the  piston  rod  and  cross-head  into 
a  rotary  or  circular  motion  by  attachment 
to  the  crank  on  the  main  shaft.  The  crank 
is  a  piece  of  machinery  that  is  familiar  by 
its  many  applications  in  every-day  life.  It 
corresponds  to  the  "handle"  by  which  one 
turns  a  coffee  mill  or  grindstone,  or  by 
which  the  up-and-down  movement  of  a  sew- 
ing-machine pedal  is  changed  into  a  rotary 
movement  by  connection  to  the  large  wheel. 
In  many  large  steam-engines  the  crank  is 
formed  by  two  parallel  metal  pieces  set  at 
right  angles  to  the  shaft  and  connected  to- 
gether at  their  further  ends  by  the  so-called 
crank-pin,  to  which  the  connecting  rod  of 
the  engine  is  pivoted.  In  the  locomotive, 
however,  the  crank  is  attached  to  one  of 
the  spokes  of  the  driving  wheel,  or  more 
correctly,  one  of  the  spokes  is  used  as  a 
crank. 

THE    ECCENTRICS    AND    LINK 
MOTION 

On  the  main  shaft  of  the  engine,  near  the 
crank  and  at  a  point  opposite  to  the  cylin- 
der, are  set  the  eccentrics.  These  consist  of 
circular  pieces  of  metal — wheels,  except  for 
the  fact  that,  instead  of  turning  on  their 
centres,  each  turns  on  a  point  midway  be- 
tween its  centre  and  circumference  or  on  a 
radius.  The  motion  of  the  eccentrics  is, 
therefore,  irregular,  forming  in  fact  a 
"throw,"  like  the  crank,  so  as  to  transform 
rotary  motion  back  again  into  a  straight 
backward-and-forward,  or  reciprocating,  mo- 
tion. On  account  of  this,  the  eccentric  af- 
fords the  readiest  possible  means  of  moving 
the  steam  slide  valve.  Although  some  en- 
gines operate  with  a  single  eccentric,  the 
most  usual  plan  is  to  use  two  eccentrics, 
each  transmitting  its  motion  through  a  cir- 
cular piece  around  its  circumference  called 
the  "strap,"  and  through  eccentric  rods  to 
either  end  of  an  arc-shaped  bar,  called  the 
"link."  The  link  is  arranged  so  as  to  be 
slid  in  its  length  over  a  metal  piece  known 
as  the  link  block,  which  is  set  upon  the  end 
of  the  sliding  valve  rod,  already  mentioned. 
By  sliding  the  link  to  various  positions 
with  relation  to  the  link  block,  the  travel 
of  the  valve  may  be  regulated  according  to 
desire.  Since  the  two  eccentrics,  rigid  and 


STEAM-ENGINES 


391 


turning  with  the  main  shaft,  as  already  ex- 
plained, are  set  at  a  relative  angle  of  some- 
what over  180  degrees — which  means  that 
the  longest  distance  between  the  pivot  and 
the  periphery  of  one  eccentric  is  almost  but 
not  quite  opposite  to  the  longest  radius  of 
the  other  eccentric — the  movement  trans- 
mitted to  the  link  through  the  eccentric  rods 
attached  to  its  two  ends  describes  the  out- 
line of  a  cassinian  or  flattened  figure  8. 
When,  therefore,  the  link  block  is  at  the 
centre  of  the  link  or  at  the  mid-gear,  this 
movement  is  greatest;  the  two  eccentrics 
acting  about  equally  upon  the  travel  of  the 
valve,  making  its  backward  and  forward 
movements  so  short  that  the  steam  and  ex- 


when  it  is  at  the  centre  of  the  link.  The 
effect  of  shifting  the  link  block  from  end 
to  end  is  to  reverse  the  motion,  as  just  ex- 
plained; the  effect  of  setting  the  block  at 
mid-gear  is  to  virtually  stop  the  engine.  It 
is  possible,  however,  to  vary  the  travel  of  a 
valve  very  considerably  between  full  gear 
and  the  dead  point,  so  as  to  change  the 
"lead"  of  the  valve  and  the  point  of  cut-off, 
as  desired.  Thus,  when  the  valve  is  at  full 
gear  the  point  of  cut-off  is  determined  solely 
by  the  lap  of  the  valve,  which  will  be  pres- 
ently explained.  When,  however,  the  link 
block  and  link  are  set  in  any  relative  posi- 
tion midway  between  full  gear  and  about 
two-thirds  of  the  distance  to  mid-gear  the 


FIG.  5. — Details  of  the  Stephenson  link  motion 
as  used  on  types  of  steam-engine.  The  eccentrics 
A  and  B,  keyed  to  the  main  shaft  of  the  engine, 
are  connected  through  the  rods  C  and  D  to  either 
end  of  the  link  E.  The  link  block  J  attached  to 


the  valve  rod  K  is  arranged  to  slide  in  the  slot  of 
the  link,  whenever  the  link-hanger  F,  actuated  by 
rod  L  through  bell-crank  G,  raises  the  link.  The 
effect  of  the  eccentric  motions  may  thus  be  varied, 
and  the  travel  of  the  valve  rod  changed,  as  desired. 


haust  ports  are  not  opened.  When  the  link 
block  is  at  one  end  of  the  link,  the  valve 
receives  its  motion  from  the  eccentric  whose 
rod  is  attached  to  that  end;  the  movement 
of  the  other  eccentric  having  practically  no 
effect  upon  it.  When,  however,  the  link 
block  is  slid  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  link, 
the  motion  of  the  valve  is  similarly  con- 
trolled by  the  other  eccentric;  and  because 
this  other  eccentric  is  set  at  over  180  de- 
grees from  the  first,  the  motion  of  the  valve, 
so  far  as  respects  the  opening  of  the  steam 
ports,  is  changed,  and,  consequently,  the 
motion  of  the  engine  is  reversed.  From 
this  explanation  we  may  see  that  the  valve 
is  either  at  full  gear  when  the  link  block  is 
at  either  end  of  the  link,  or  at  mid-gear, 


travel  of  the  valve  is  shortened,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  the  cut-off  occurs  much  sooner 
in  the  stroke  with  the  consequent  results  (i) 
of  economizing  steam,  and  (2)  of  reducing 
the  speed  of  the  engine.  After  passing  mid- 
gear,  the  short  travel  of  the  valve  is  in  a 
reversed  direction,  the  point  of  cut-off  being 
gradually  delayed,  and  the  power  and  speed 
of  the  engine  tending  to  increase  corre- 
spondingly. 

"LAP"    AND    "LEAD"   OF    SLIDE 
VALVES 

In  order  to  complete  a  general  knowledge 
of  the  method  of  controlling  the  travel  of 
a  valve  by  use  of  the  eccentric  gear,  it 


392 


STEAM-ENGINES 


will  be  necessary  to  explain  a  few  terms. 
The  first  and  most  important  considerations 
in  the  movement  of  the  valve,  and  conse- 
quently in  the  determination  of  the  point  of 
cut-off,  are  the  so-called  "lap"  and  "lead." 
The  lap  of  a  valve  may  be  briefly  defined  as 


FIG.  6. — Diagram  showing  the  lap  and  lead  of  a 
steam-engine  slide  valve.  The  ports  B  B  are  for 
admission  of  steam;  A  for  the  exhaust  from  the 
cylinder.  The  port  B  at  the  left  is  opened  by  the 
slide  valve  so  as  to  allow  steam  to  enter  that  end 
of  the  cylinder  from  the  steam  chest.  The  port  B 
at  the  right  is  opened  into  the  exhaust  A  by  the 
valve.  The  space  between  the  lines  c  and  d  shows 
the  lead  of  the  valve;  between  e  and  f,  the  inside 
lap,  and  between  f  and  g,  the  outside  lap. 

any  portion  added  to  its  length  so  as  to  in- 
crease that  part  of  the  stroke  during  which 
the  ports  are  closed  to  the  inlet  of  steam; 
the  lap  being  always  estimated  as  an  addi- 
tional length  beyond  that  actually  necessary 
to  close  all  the  ports  when  it  is  in  mid- 
position.  Thus,  if  on  a  certain  cylinder  the 
valve  must  be  exactly  six  inches  long  in 
order  to  completely  close  the  two  inlet 
ports,  and  one-quarter  of  an  inch  is  added 
to  each  end,  making  the  total  length  6l/2 
inches,  the  additional  one-quarter  inch  con- 
stitutes the  lap.  The  same  term  is  applied 
to  any  extension  of  the  valve  over  and 
above  what  is  actually  necessary  to  close 
the  exhaust  port  from  the  interior  of  the 
cylinder.  Thus,  when  a  valve  is  made  longer 
than  need  be,  either  inside  or  outside,  to 
cover  either  the  inlet  or  exhaust  ports,  the 
extra  length  is  also  called  lap. 

The  "lead"  of  the  valve  indicates  the  rel- 
ative amount  of  opening  of  the  steam  port 
at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke.  According 
as  this  is  greater  or  less,  the  inlet  of  steam 

.  may  be  varied  and  the  point  of  cut-off  also 
determined.  There  are  two  ways  of  alter- 
ing the  lead  of  the  valve:  (i)  either  the  lap 
May  be  cut  down  or  lengthened,  or  (2)  the 

1  stroke-length  of  the  valve  may  be  changed 
by  adjusting  the  link  with  relation  to  the 
link  block,  as  already  explained. 

This  is  perfectly  evident  on  reflection ;  be- 
cause if,  as  previously  stated,  thg.  lap  or  ad- 
ditional length  given  to  the  slide  valve  is 
about  J4  °f  an  inch,  it  follows  that,  without 
such  lap  the  lead  will  be  ^-inch  greater  at 
full  gear  than  when  it  is  used. 


ANGULAR    ADVANCE    OF    THE 
ECCENTRIC 

Another  consideration  of  importance  in 
the  construction  and  operation  of  the  valve 
gear  is  what  is  known  as  the  "angular  ad- 
vance of  the  eccentric,"  which  is  to  say,  the 
angle  through  which  the  eccentric  is  turned 
ahead  of  a  position  90  degrees  in  advance 
to  the  crank.  Thus,  as  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying diagram  of  the  main  shaft  and 
eccentrics,  the  throw  or  longest  radius  of 
both  eccentrics  is  set  at  an  angle  larger  than 
a  right  angle  with  relation  to  the  throw  of 
the  crank.  The  object  of  this  arrangement 
is  to  provide  for  some  opening  of  the  inlet 
ports  when  the  piston  is  in  end  position  at 
either  end  of  the  cylinder.  As  a  result  the 
dead  centre  is  avoided  and  one  inlet  port  is 
opened  for  the  admission  of  steam  from  the 
steam  chest,  while  at  the  opposite  end  ex- 
haust is  still  fully  opened,  to  allow  for  the 
escape  of  any  residual  steam,  and  also  to 
prevent  all  back-pressure  above  one  atmos- 
phere due  to  the  compression  of  the  air. 
A  larger  angular  advance  of  the  eccentric 


Fie.  7. — Diagram  illustrating  the  angular  advance 
of  the  eccentrics  of  a  steam-engine.  The  crank 
pin  is  shown  at  C,  the  main  shaft  at  S ;  the  back- 
ward eccentric  at  B  and  the  forward  eccentric  at 
F.  The  line  m  n  is  drawn  through  the  centre  of 
the  main  shaft  and  crank;  the  line  p  q  is  at  right 
angles  to  it,  and  the  lines  x  y  and  x  z  show  the 
advance  of  the  eccentric  throw  from  90  degrees 
ahead  of  the  crank  on  the  line  m  n. 

has  the  effect 'of  increasing  the  lead,  short- 
ening the  admission,  lengthening  the  ex- 
pansion, and  making  the  exhaust  earlier 
from  the  exhaust  end  of  the  cylinder. 

THE    COMPRESSION    STAGE 

While  the  inlet  valve  having  a  certain 
lead  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  must 
necessarily  be  opened  before  the  piston  has 
reached  its  end  of  the  cylinder,  in  com- 
pleting the  stroke  under  the  expansion  of 
the  contained  steam,  the  practical  construe- 


STEAM-ENGINES 


398 


tion  of  the  steam-engine  also  involves  that 
the  exhaust  valve  is  closed  at  a  point  some- 
what prior  to  the  completion  of  the  exhaust. 
A  certain  amount  of  steam,  therefore,  re- 
mains in  the  cylinder  clearance  and  is  com- 
pressed by  the  advancing  piston.  Several 
good  results  follow  from  this  arrangement, 
among  which  we  may  mention  that  the  com- 
pression of  the  steam  by  the  advancing  pis- 
ton produces  a  correspondingly  high  tem- 
perature, thus  contributing  toward  the  end 
of  heat-economy.  It  also  provides  a  cushion 
for  the  advancing  piston,  which  is  useful  in 
avoiding  all  unnecessary  wear  and  tear  on 
the  moving  parts,  a  consideration  of  very 
great  importance  in  all  engines.  Thus,  al- 
though the  admission  of  steam  really  begins 
somewhat  before  the  piston  reaches  the  end 
of  the  stroke,  at  which  the  crank  comes  to 
centre  position,  the  piston,  under  the  im- 
pulse of  the  expanding  steam  against  its 
opposite  face,  is  able  to  complete  the  stroke 
before  one  is  started  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion under  the  impulse  of  steam  at  boiler 
pressure.  There  are  four  stages  in  the  cycle 
of  a  steam-engine,  which  is  to  say  the 
series  of  effects  following  on  the  opening 
of  the  inlet  at  one  end  of  the  cylinder.  The 
first  is  the  admission,  which  begins  at  a 
point  previous  to  the  mid-position  of  the 
crank,  determined  as  already  seen  (a)  by 
the  amount  of  lap  on  the  slide  valve,  (&)  by 
the  position  of  the  link  determining  the 
length  of  all  valve  strokes,  consequently  also 
the  lead,  (c)  by  the  angular  advance  of 
the  eccentric.  The  second  stage  is  the  point 
of  cut-off,  also  determined  by  the  construc- 
tion and  adjustment  of  the  valve  gears.  The 
third  is  the  release  or  opening  of  the  ex- 
haust. The  fourth  is  the  compression  of 
the  residual  steam  in  the  cylinder  that  did 
not  escape  before  the  exhaust  was  closed. 
These  four  stages  are  shown  in  the  indicator 
diagram  already  explained.  Taking  such  a 
figure,  which  has  the  approximate  shape  of 
a  shoe,  we  find  that  the  admission  begins 
at  the  base  of  the  perpendicular  line  repre- 
senting the  heel  of  the  figure  and  extends 
upward  until  the  po'^t  of  highest  boiler 
pressure  is  reached.  It  then  moves  in  a 
horizontal  direction  like  the  opening  of  the 
shoe  to  the  point  of  cut-off;  after  which  the 
line,  gradually  falling  toward  the  toe,  repre- 
sents the  expansion  of  the  contained  steam. 
The  rapid  fall  of  the  line  at  the  point  of 
the  toe  indicates  the  opening  of  the  exhaust 
port  which  continued  along  the  sole  of  the 
shoe — this  line  indicates  the  level  of  at- 
mospheric pressure  on  all  high-pressure  en- 
gines—until the  base  line  begins  to  curve 


upward  at  the  heel.  This  upward  curve  is 
the  compression  line,  and  the  point  where  it 
merges  into  the  admission  line  is  the  point 
where  the  curve  becomes  a  straight  line. 

METHODS   OF   INCREASING   EFFI- 
CIENCY 

In  the  practical  work  of  designing  and 
building  steam-engines  the  principal  object 
in  view  is  to  attain  the  greatest  mechanical 
efficiency  per  pound  of  steam,  and  to  reduce 
the  percentage  of  loss  as  much  as  possible. 
Of  course,  as  a  general  proposition,  the 
readiest  means  for  securing  economy  would 
seem  to  be  by  increasing  the  initial  pressure 
of  the  steam ;  or,  in  other  words,  by  increas- 
ing the  heating  surface  of  the  boiler.  This 
course,  however,  involves  considerable  waste, 
on  account  of  the  great  danger  of  losing 
energy  through  lowering  the  temperature; 
for,  since,  as  we  have  seen,  the  pressure  of 
the  steam  increases  directly  with  its  tem- 
perature, lowering  the  temperature  naturally 
tends  to  condense  it,  thus  interfering  with 
the  proper  operation  of  the  engine. 

The  second  and  far  more  practical  means 
of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  an  engine  is 
by  lengthening  the  expansion,  rather  than  by 
increasing  the  initial  pressure.  A  moment's 
reflection  will  show  that  the  same  theoreti- 
cal result  is  attained  in  both  cases ;  for,  if 
we  begin  with  a  very  high  pressure  and  re- 
duce to  atmosphere,  we  can  attain  no  better 
result  under  the  usual  conditions  than  by 
beginning  with  a  moderate  pressure — say  200 
pounds,  corresponding  to  the  temperature 
of  about  400  degrees  Fahrenheit — and  re- 
duce the  pressure  through  several  stages  of 
expansion  to  a  point  below  atmosphere. 
This  result  may  be  accomplished  by  the  use 
of  a  condenser  for  creating  a  vacuum  be- 
fore the  advancing  piston,  and,  hence,  al- 
lowing the  steam  full  opportunity  to  ex- 
pand to  the  limit  of  its  mechanical  efficiency, 
which  is  its  absolute  pressure  or  the  pressure 
indicated  by  the  gauge  plus  the  pressure  of 
one  atmosphere,  which  is  approximately  15 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

In  order  to  accomplish  this  result  with 
the  use  of  a  single  cylinder  would  involve 
a  large  cubic  capacity  and  consequently  con- 
tinual loss  of  effective  power  during  the 
last  half  of  the  stroke.  It  is  best,  therefore, 
to  arrange  the  expansion  of  the  steam  in 
several  cylinders,  as  in  the  triple  and  quad- 
ruple expansion  engines  used  on  large  steam- 
ships and  in  some  stationary  plants.  Ac- 
cording to  this  arrangement  the  first,  or 
high-pressure,  cylinder  is  built  of  compara- 


394 


STEAM-ENGINES 


lively  small  dimensions,  with  a  late  cut-off, 
so  that  the  steam  has  as  great  a  pressure 
as  possible  at  the  completion  of  the  stroke. 
It  is  then  exhausted  into  a  second  cylinder, 
whose  cubic  capacity  is  considerably  greater, 
and  allowed  to  expand  through  the  larger 
part  of  the  stroke.  Being  exhausted  the 
second  time  from  this  intermediate  cylinder, 
it  is  admitted  into  the  low-pressure  cylinder, 
where  its  pressure  is  utilized  to  several 
pounds  below  atmosphere  by  the  use  of  a 
condenser,  which  produces  a  vacuum  before 
the  onward-moving  face  of  the  piston.  The 
proportionate  cubical  contents  used  in  prac- 
tical triple  expansion  engines  differ  with 
designers  within  certain  definite  limits. 
Thus,  the  intermediate  cylinder  is  generally 
about  l/3  greater  in  contents  than  the  low- 
p/essure,  and  that,  in  turn,  is  about  ]/$ 
smaller  than  the  high-pressure.  A  typical 
example,  taken  from  the  dimensions  of  the 
engine  on  one  of  the  well-known  ships  of 
the  American  navy  gives  a  cubic  capacity 
of  1,843  cubic  inches  for  the  first;  of  2,742 
for  the  second,  and  of  4,440  for  the  third. 
In  calculating  the  horsepower  of  a  steam- 
engine  the  first  step  is  to  discover  the  initial 
pressure  of  the  steam  which  is  shown  by 
the  steam  gauge.  Since  this  is  estimated  in 


terms  of  pounds  per  square  inch  it  follows 
that  the  active  efficient  power  operating 
upon  the  face  of  the  piston  is  to  be  ex- 
pressed by  the  product  oi  the  gauge  pressure 
and  the  number  of  square  inches  contained 
on  the  surface  of  the  piston  face.  The  area 
of  the  piston  may  be  found  by  multiplying 
the  diameter  in  inches  by  the  constant 
3.14159,  which  represents  the  ratio  between 
the  diameter  and  circumference  of  a  circle. 
The  third  factor  in  estimating  the  power  of 
an  engine  is  the  length  of  the  piston  stroke 
in  feet.  If  we  know  the  length  of  the  stroke 
and  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  fly- 
wheel or  shaft  in  one  minute  at  the  highest 
speed,  we  may  find  the  number  of  strokes 
per  minute  by  multiplying  the  figure  for 
revolutions  by  2.  This  figure,  multiplied 
by  the  length  of  stroke  in  feet,  gives  the 
distance  actually  traveled  by  the  piston  in 
each  minute.  The  number  of  foot-pounds 
available  during  this  same  period  of  time 
may  be  found  by  multiplying  this  figure  by 
the  one  expressing  the  gauge  pressure  in 
pounds.  The  indicated  horsepower  of  the 
engine  may,  therefore,  be  discovered  by  di- 
viding the  figure  expressing  foot-pounds  by 
33,000,  which  indicates  the  number  of  foot- 
pounds per  minute  in  one  horsepower. 


ALTHOUGH  the  development  of  the  steam-engine  has  been,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  one  of  the  most  notable  and  most  useful 
achievements  of  modern  civilization,  there  are  numerous  disad- 
vantages attached  to  even  the  most  perfect  models  of  this  type  of  heat 
engine.  The  necessity  of  using  a  boiler  and  the  need  of  constant  watch- 
fulness to  maintain  it,  the  vast  consumption  of  fuel  in  comparison  with  the 
power  actually  realized,  and  the  necessary  complication  of  its  various  parts 
render  it  extremely  desirable  that  a  simpler  and  more  compact  form  of 
motor  should  be  devised.  The  requirements  are  partially  realized  in  the 
modern  gas-engine,  which  is  also  known  as  the  internal  combustion  or 
explosion  motor.  All  three  designations  for  this  type  of  engine  are  cor- 
rect and  descriptive,  although  the  term  explosion  motor  is  usually  regarded 
as  somewhat  less  appropriate  than  the  other  two. 


THE  THEORY  AND  OPERATION  OF  GAS-ENGINES 


BRIEFLY  described,  the  theory  and  prac- 
tical details  of  a  gas-engine  include  (i) 
a  closed  cylinder  as  in  the  steam-engine; 
(2)  a  piston,  single  acting,  or  operated  by  an 
impulse  upon  one  face  only;  (3)  a  combus- 
tion chamber  or  clearance  at  the  rear  end  of 
the  cylinder  into  which  a  mixture  of  gas  and 
air  is  admitted,  its  explosion  at  the  proper 
point  in  the  travel  of  the  piston  furnishing 
the  power  impulse  for  driving  the  motor. 
The  gas-engine,  therefore,  operates  some- 
what on  the  principle  of  a  gun,  in  which  the 
explosion  of  gunpowder,  or  some  other  suit- 
able substance,  expels  a  projectile  or  bullet 
from  the  cylindrical  barrel.  We  may  also 
see  the  reason  for  the  term  internal  combus- 
tion engine,  since  the  heat  necessary  to  pro- 
pel the  motor  is  generated  within  the  cylinder 
itself,  instead  of  involving  the  use  of  a  fur- 
nace, as  in  the  steam-engine.  That  quite  as 
great  a  percentage  of  power  may  be  realized 


in  this  manner  as  with  a  steam-engine  will 
be  shown  later.  Furthermore,  among  other 
sources  of  economy,  we  may  mention  the 
fact  that  a  gas-engine  requires  no  greater 
diameter  of  cylinder  or  length  of  stroke  to 
develop  a  given  effective  horsepower.  The 
mixture  of  hydrocarbon  gas  and  air  is 
fired  or  exploded  by  an  intermittent  source 
of  heat,  thus  doing  away  entirely  with  the 
use  of  a  furnace  for  burning  fuel  separate 
from  the  cylinder.  In  fact^  if  we  should  take 
the  cylinder  and  driving  gear  of  a  steam-en- 
gine and  find  some  means  for  causing  it  to 
generate  steam  and  operate,  apart  from  a 
boiler,  we  would  have  a  motor  as  compact 
and  economical  as  is  found  in  the  ordinary 
gas-engine. 

GAS-ENGINES  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

According  to  the  variety  of  fuel  used  in 
making  the  explosive  mixture,  internal  conv 

(395) 


GAS-ENGINES 


bustion  motors  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes — gas-engines  and  oil-engines.  A  gas- 
engine  properly  so  called  is  a  motor  whose 
fuel  is  ordinary  illuminating  gas,  natural  gas, 
blast-furnace  gas,  or  a  carburetted  spirit, 
such  as  gasolene  or  alcohol.  A  hydrocarbon 
spirit  is  said  to  be  carburetted  when  a  charge 
of  air  is  passed  through  it,  or  over  it,  so  as 
to  become  saturated  with  the  vapor  that  is 
given  off  from  it.  In  oil-engines,  properly 
so  called,  the  fuel  is  not  carburetted  or  va- 
porized, but  is  sprayed  directly  into  the  com- 
bustion chamber  of  the  motor  through  an 
atomizing  nozzle,  being  there  mixed  with  a 
suitable  quantity  of  air  and  exploded  by 
some  one  of  the  devices  to  be  subsequently 
explained. 

In  discussing  the  use  of  liquid  fuels  for 
internal  combustion  motors,  we  may  state 
that  all  oils  and  spirits  are  capable  of  being 
volatilized,  or  transformed  into  gas  at  some 
given  temperature,  all  being  ignited  and 
burned  at  a  somewhat  higher  temperature. 
This  fact  holds  good  for  both  mineral  and 
organic — which  is  to  say  animal  or  vege- 
table— oils,  as  is  too  well  known  to  require 
proof.  Some  oils  are  more  readily  vola- 
tilized and  burned  than  others.  This  means 
that,  according  to  density  and  other  physical 
and  chemical  qualities,  the  various  oils  have 
their  flash  points,  at  which  inflammable  gas 
is  given  off,  and  their  firing  points,  at  which 
they  may  be  ignited  and  burned,  at  different 
temperatures.  Thus,  although  any  oil  or 
volatile  spirit  may  be  used  to  propel  a  gas- 
engine,  some  are  more  suitable  than  others, 
from  the  fact  that  they  may  be  ignited  at 
lower  temperatures  and  possess  a  higher 
heat  efficiency. 

FUELS:    HEAT-EFFICIENCY 

The  heat  efficiency  of  a  fuel,  as  has  been 
explained  in  the  section  on  steam-engines, 
is  estimated  in  terms  of  thermal  units,  each 
one  of  which  represents  the  amount  of  heat 
required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water  through 
one  degree  Fahrenheit  from  a  temperature 
of  39.1  degrees.  Thus,  as  given  by  several 
authorities,  ordinary  coal  gas  develops  be- 
tween 600  and  950  thermal  units  to  the  cu- 
bit foot;  water  gas,  about  700;  acetylene 
(C,HS),  1,6/0.  Benzine  develops  very 
nearly  18,450  thermal  units  to  the  pound. 

PARTS    OF   A    GAS-ENGINE 

Understanding  these  properties  of  fuels, 
we  may  proceed  to  a  practical  discussion  of 
the   construction    and    operation    of   a 
engine.      As    shown    in   the    accompanying 


diagrams,  the  cylinder  of  such  an  engine  is 
opened  at  the  end  toward  the  .crank  shaft, 
and  is  closed  at  the  opposite  end,  except 
for  inlet  ports,  which  are  closed  by  suitable 
valves.  The  piston  is  of  the  co-called 
"trunk"  type,  consisting  of  a  hollow  cylin- 
drical box  arranged  to  slide  in  the  cylinder 
bore,  the  spaces  between  the  outside  of  the 
piston  and  the  inside  of  the  bore  being 
filled  by  the  use  of  packing  rings  as  in  the 
steam-engine.  Instead  of  the  piston  rod  and 
cross-head  used  in  the  steam-engine,  the 
connecting  rod  is  pivoted  inside  of  the  pis- 
ton, at  the  one  end,  and  to  the  crank  on 
the  main  shaft  at  the  other.  The  fly-wheel 
in  a  gas-engine  is  always  heavier  than 
would  be  used  with  a  stationary  steam-en- 
gine of  the  same  power  rating.  This  is  for 
the  purpose  of  balancing  the  movement  of 
the  motor  and  compensating  for  the  use  of 
only  one  power  stroke  in  each  two  complete 
revolutions. 

TWO-CYCLE  AND  FOUR-CYCLE 
ENGINES 

While  this  general  description  applies  to 
every  form  of  internal  combustion  motor, 
there  are  certain  special  features  rendered 
necessary  by  the  particular  theory  of  opera- 
tion to  be  followed  in  any  case.  According 
to  the  different  theories  of  operation,  there 
are  two  varieties  of  gas-engines — the  four- 
cycle and  the  two-cycle.  The  four-cycle  en- 
gine is  the  most  familiar  of  the  two.  Ac- 
cording to  the  theory  on  which  it  operates, 
each  cycle,  or  complete  period  of  operation, 
is  divided  into  four  parts,  each  represented 
by  a  complete  stroke  of  the  piston,  either  in- 
ward or  outward.  The  first  stroke  is  out- 
ward, being  called  the  charging  stroke,  since, 
by  the  outward  movement  of  the  piston,  the 
inlet  valves  are  opened  by  suction,  admitting 
the  fuel  charge  into  the  combustion  space. 
The  second  stroke  is  inward,  and  is  called 
the  compression  stroke,  from  the  fact  that 
the  fuel  charge,  already  admitted  into  the 
interior  of  the  cylinder,  is  compressed  be- 
fore the  onward  moving  piston;  its  density 
being  increased  and  its  temperature  raised 
accordingly.  The  third  stroke  is  called  the 
firing  stroke,  because  at  its  beginning,  or 
shortly  before  the  completion  of  the  com- 
pression stroke,  an  electric  spark  is  pro- 
duced, or  some  other  source  of  ignition 
brought  into  action,  thus  firing  and  explod- 
ing the  compressed  fuel  charge,  and  caus- 
ing the  piston  to  be  again  driven  outward, 
transmitting  its  power  impulse  to  the  crank 
and  attached  machinery.  The  fourth  stroke 
is  another  inward  stroke,  whose  use  is  to 


GAS-ENGINES 


expel  the  burned  gas  from  the  combustion 
chamber  through  the  exhaust  valve,  which 
is  opened  by  geared  connections  to  a  cam 
shaft,  or  other  positively  operated  mechan- 


ct"if"»v 
</*'\^^ 

I*/       '       S       ^ 


^., 


FIG.  i. — Diagrams  showing  the  general  con- 
struction of  a  typical  gas-engine  cylinder,  also  il- 
lustrating the  series  of  operations  in  a  four-stroke 
cycle.  The  first  figure  shows  the  charging  stroke, 
in  which  the  out-stroke  of  the  piston  opens  the 
gas  and  air  valves  by  suction.  The  second  shows 
the  compression  stroke,  in  which  the  charge  con- 
tained within  the  cylinder  is  compressed.  The 
third  shows  the  firing  stroke,  in  which  the  charge 
is  ignited  by  electric  spark  or  other  suitable  means, 
and  generates  pressure  sufficient  to  drive  the  pis- 
ton outward.  The  fourth  is  the  exhaust  stroke,  in 
which  the  exhaust  valves,  opened  by  suitable  gear- 
ing, allow  the  burned  gases  to  be  forced  out  by 
the  in-stroke  of  the  piston. 


ism.  The  burned  gas  having  been  expelled, 
the  motor  is  in  condition  to  begin  a  new 
cycle  of  operations,  giving  a  power  stroke 
for  every  two  revolutions  of  the  main  shaft 
and  fly-wheel. 

The  two-cycle  type  of  gas-engine  operates 
by  virtue  of  certain  special  constructions; 
the  entire  series  of  operations  described  in 
connection  with  the  four-cycle  engines  being 
performed  in  two  strokes  of  the  piston,  or  a 
single  revolution  of  the  fly-wheel.  For  this 
purpose,  it  has  the  following  essential  fea- 


tures: (i)  An  inclosed  crank  case,  as  shown 
in  the  accompanying  diagram,  into  which 
the  fuel  charge  is  admitted,  so  as  to  be 
compressed  by  the  outward  stroke  of  the 
piston,  instead  of  by  the  inward  stroke,  as 
with  the  four-cycle  type;  (2)  inlet  and  ex- 
haust ports  located  about  midway  in  the 
stroke  sweep  of  the  piston,  so  as  to  be 
opened  when  about  one-half  of  the  stroke 
is  completed.  Thus  the  gas,  compressed  in 
the  crank  case  by  the  outward  stroke  of  the 
piston,  is  forced  through  a  tube  opening  to 
the  upper  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  assists  in 


FIG.  2. — Diagrammatic  section  of  the  cylinder 
and  crank  case  of  a  type  of  two-cycle  gas  or  gaso- 
line engine.  The  fuel  charge  is  admitted  into  the 
crank  or  fly-wheel  case  under  suction  of  the  in- 
stroke  of  the  piston.  The  stages  of  the  cycle  oc- 
curring in  the  cylinder  are  indicated  by  the  outer 
circle  in  the  crank  case;  those  taking  place  in  the 
crank  case,  by  the  inner  .circle.  The  poppet  sup- 
ply valve  is  shown  in  the  wall  of  the  crank  case; 
also  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  of  the  cylinder, 
as  explained  in  the  text. 

the  expulsion  of  the  burned  gases,  which  by 
virtue  of  their  higher  temperature  expand 
far  more  rapidly.  The  fuel  charge  is  pre- 
vented from  escaping  through  the  exhaust 

26 


GAS-ENGINES 


port  by  a  longitudinal  flange  or  screen  at 
the  rear  end  of  the  piston,  which  serves  to 
deflect  the  new  gas  upward  toward  the  com- 
bustion space,  so  that  the  exhaust  products 
are  always  nearer  to  the  exhaust  port.  When 
the  piston  starts  on  the  inward  stroke  the 
remainder  of  the  burned  gases  is  expelled 
through  the  exhaust  port,  which  is  closed 
later  than  the  inlet  port  It  also  completes 
the  compression  of  the  fuel  gases,  which  is 
fired  at  a  point  approximately  on  the  begin- 
ning of  the  next  outward  stroke.  The  econ- 
omy of  the  two-cycle  engine  is  thus  mani- 
fest, since  two  strokes  are  able  to  perform 
all  the  functions  for  which  four  strokes 
are  required  in  the  other  type.  Hence,  ac- 
cording to  theory,  it  should  be  able  to  de- 
velop at  least  twice  the  power  efficiency  of 
the  four-cycle  type.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  according  to  many  authorities,  the 
two-cycle  engine  can  develop  only  about  60 
per  cent  more  power  than  the  four-cycle  type, 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  it  can  not  de- 
velop as  high  a  speed.  This  defect  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  in  the  majority  of  models  of 
this  type  of  engine  the  combustion  space  is 
liable  to  be  choked  with  a  considerable  re- 
siduum of  burned  gases,  which  can  not  be 
ignited  again  and  only  interfere  with  the 
proper  operation  of  the  motor.  In  some 
of  the  more  improved  models  of  two-cycle 
engines  it  is  claimed  that  this  defect  has 
been  largely  overcome.  It  still  holds  good, 
however,  as  a  general  objection. 

IGNITING    THE    FUEL    CHARGE 

The  means  employed  for  igniting  the  fuel 
charge  in  the  combustion  space  of  the  gas- 
engine  cylinder  are  various.  Since  the  end 
of  firing  and  exploding  the  gas  requires 
only  a  very  small  quantity  of  fire,  the  elec- 
tric spark  is  most  commonly  used  for  this 
purpose.  With  the  early  Otto  engines  ig- 
nition was  accomplished  by  exposing  the 
charge  to  the  flame  of  a  gas  burner,  the 
combustion  space  being  opened  at  the 
proper  point  in  the  cycle  by  means  of  a 
slide  valve.  With  such  a  device  as  this 
gas-engines  could  be  made  with  only  a  very 
moderate  range  of  speed  and  power:  (i) 
because  the  constant  opening  of  the  com- 
bustion chamber  precluded  the  use  of  very 
high  compression,  hence  also,  as  we  shall 
see  later,  involving  a*  proportional  loss  of 
power  effect  (2)  with  high  temperature  or 
unusually  good  speed,  the  slide  valve  would 
become  jammed,  and  work  so  imperfectly 
that  ignition  was  frequently  prevented.  Al- 
though the  naked  flame  ignition  was  used 
on  all  gas-engines  from  1881  to  1885,  the 
improvement  which  really  rendered  them 


practical  primary  sources  of  power  lay  in 
the  hot  tube  ignition,  probably  first  devised 
by  Gottlieb  Daimler.  Briefly  described,  this 
device  consists  in  a  cylindrical  tube,  one 
end  of  which  opens  into  the  combustion 
space  of  the  cylinder,  the  other  being 
closed.  In  order  to  obtain  heat  essential 
to  firing  the  charge  in  cylinder,  this  tube 
is  heated  to  incandescence  by  the  flame  of 
a  gas  burner  playing  against  it  on  the  out- 
side of  the  cylinder  wall.  When  heated  to 
incandescence,  the  fuel  charge  may  be  ig- 
nited simultaneously  with  the  completion  of 
the  compression  stroke  of  the  piston ;  a  por- 
tion of  the  gas  being  forced  into  the  hot 
tube,  where  it  is  set  on  fire  and  ignites  the 
remainder  of  the  charge. 

A  similar  device  used  on  several  types  of 
engine  operates  after  the  engine  has  taken 
up  its  cycle  entirely  without  any  external 
source  of  heat.  Briefly  described,  this  con- 
sists of  a  bottle-shaped  chamber  connected 
by  a  narrow  neck  with  the  interior  of  the 
cylinder.  The  oil,  or  other  fuel,  is  sprayed 
through  an  atomizing  nozzle  into  this  cham- 
ber, which  on  the  first  starting  of  the  engine 
is  heated  by  a  torch  or  gas  burner.  The  ex- 
plosion of  the  fuel  is  produced  when  atmos- 
pheric air,  admitted  by  a  separate  valve  into 
the  combustion  space  of  the  cylinder,  is 
forced  by  the  compression  stroke  into  the 
ignition  chamber,  thus  producing  a  mixture 
of  gas  and  air  that  may  be  ignited  explo- 
sively. After  the  engine  has  been  in  opera- 
tion for  a  short  time  the  ignition  chamber 
is  raised  to  a  high  temperature  solely  by  the 
heat  of  previous  explosions,  and  the  exter- 
nal source  of  heat  is  no  longer  required. 
This  form  of  ignition,  which  is  known  as 
the  hot  head  system,  would  be  equally  effi- 
cient for  gas  or  gasolene-engines,  although 
its  most  general  use  has  heretofore  been 
with  oil  motors.  Another  system  of  igni- 
tion making  use  of  the  temperature  gen- 
erated by  explosion  of  the  gas  is  found  in 
the  famous  Diesel  motor.  Briefly  explained, 
the  system  employed  is  as  follows:  By  the 
suction  stroke  of  the  piston  pure  atmos- 
pheric air  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder.  On 
the  return  stroke  this  is  compressed  into 
the  space  of  a  fraction  of  an  inch,  the  com- 
pression usually  amounting  to  about  550 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Such  a  pressure, 
of  course,  raises  the  temperature  to  very 
nearly  the  point  required  to  ignite  an  ex- 
plosive mixture  of  air  and  gas.  Conse- 
quently, when  at  the  moment  of  beginning 
the  next  outward  stroke  of  the  piston,  a 
charge  of  inflammable  gas,  already  com- 
pressed in  a  separate  cylinder  to  a  consid- 
erably higher  pressure,  is  forced  into  the 


GAS-ENGINES 


399 


combustion  space,  there  mixing  with  the 
compressed  air;  ignition  immediately  takes 
place,  and  the  resulting  explosion  forces  the 
piston  outward. 

ELECTRIC    SPARK    IGNITION 

In.  many  respects  ignition  by  electric  spark 
is  the  most  convenient  and  manageable  sys- 
tem of  gas-engine  ignition.  Briefly  de- 
scribed, there  are  two  systems  in  use,  the 
principal  variation  being  found  in  the  fact 
that  a  primary  spark  is  employed  in  the 
one,  and  a  secondary  spark  in  the  other.  A 
primary  spark  is  one  derived  from  some 
kind  of  make-and-break  device  in  a  circuit 
between  the  terminals  of  a  battery,  mag- 
neto-generator or  dynamo.  A  secondary 
spark  is  one  occurring  in  a  high-tension  cir- 
cuit— which  is  to  say,  after  an  interrupted 
primary  current  has  passed  through  one 
winding  of  an  induction  coil  and  has  induced 
a  high-tension  current  in  the  secondary 
winding.  The  secondary  current,  having  a 
much  higher  voltage  or  pressure  than  the 
primary,  is  able  to  jump  across  a  small  gap 
in  its  circuit,  thus  producing  a  very  hot  and 
luminous  spark.  Various  devices  are  em- 
ployed for  breaking  the  primary  circuit  at 
timed  intervals,  the  most  usual  being  a 
magnetic  trembler  on  the  induction  coil. 
The  two  sides  of  the  secondary  circuit  are 
led  to  the  terminals  of  an  insulated  plug, 
each  of  which  ends  in  a  fine  point  of  metal 
with  a  minute  gap  between  the  two. 

One  trouble  hitherto  found  with  the  use 
of  high-tension  spark  for  igniting  a  gas- 
engine  has  been  that  a  deposit  of  carbonized 
particles  will  collect  between  the  terminals 
of  the  spark  plug,  thus  preventing  the  spark 
from  occurring  by  allowing  the  current  a 
path  of  moderately  low  resistance  between 
the  points.  A  recent  device,  which  entirely 
overcomes  this  difficulty,  and  secures  an 
even  stronger  spark  with  a  sooted  plug,  as 
it  is  called,  consists  in  what  is  known  as  an 
"outside  spark  gap,"  which  is  only  another 
break  in  the  secondary  circuit,  the  terminal 
on  either  side  of  the  gap  carrying  a  metal 
point  or  ball,  such  as  is  used  in  producing 
sparks  on  the  Ruhmkorff  coils  used  in  lab- 
oratory apparatus,  etc.  In  short,  the  gap 
acts  as  a  condenser,  the  electric  energy 
being  piled  up  on  one  side  or  the  other  al- 
ternately, and  accumulating  such  a  vastly 
increased  pressure  that  it  is  able  to  leap 
across  the  intervening  air  space,  rushing  to 
the  terminals  of  the  spark  plug  with  such 
force  and  rapidity  as  to  avoid  the  path 
through  the  intervening  deposits  of  soot 
and  giving  a  spark  of  great  heat  and  bril- 
liancy. 


CYLINDER-COOLING   DEVICES 

Before  proceeding  to  the  theoretical  dis- 
cussion of  conditions  of  gas-engine  opera- 
tion, it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  one 
other  essential  element  of  construction. 
This  is  the  means  employed  for  cooling  the 
cylinder.  While  in  the  steam-engine  it  is 
desirable  to  maintain  the  temperature  of 
the  cylinder  at  a  point  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  same  as  that  of  the  steam,  the  immense- 
ly higher  temperature  generated  in  gas-en- 
gine operation  necessitates  the  employment 
of  some  means  for  reducing  the  heat  gen- 
erated by  explosion  of  the  charge.  When 
we  consider  that  the  heat  generated  by  ex- 
plosion is  very  generally  greater  than  that 
of  melted  iron  or  steel — always  over  2,500 
to  3,000  degrees — we  can  readily  see  that 
the  metal  of  the  cylinder  must  speedily  be- 
come overheated,  and  that  the  oil  used  for 
lubricating  the  sweep  of  the  piston  must  be 
burned  and  carbonized,  either  event  effec- 
tually checking  the  operation  of  the  engine. 
To  prevent  these  results,  therefore,  the 
cylinder  is  usually  water-jacketed,  or  in- 
closed within  another  cylinder,  through 
which  water  is  allowed  to  circulate,  thus 
carrying  off  much  of  the  surplus  heat.  Ex- 
perience has  proved,  however,  that  water 
maintained  at  very  nearly  the  boiling  point 
is  in  the  most  suitable  condition  for  "cool- 
ing" the  cylinder.  Some  gas-engine  cylin- 
ders, particularly  such  as  are  used  on  light 
gasolene  automobiles,  are  cooled  by  means 
of  ribs  or  flanges  cast  in  the  metal  on  the 
outside  of  the  cylinder.  Such  a  system  of 
cooling  is,  of  course,  far  less  effective  than 
may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  water — since 
air  absorbs  heat  far  less  rapidly  than  water 
— and  is,  therefore,  quite  impracticable  for 
stationary  engines. 

ABSOLUTE   TEMPERATURE   AND 

PRESSURE 

In  calculating  the  operative  conditions  in 
a  steam-engine,  gas-engine,  or  other  form  of 
heat  motor,  it  is  customary  to  use  figures 
expressing  the  so-called  "absolute"  pressure 
and  temperature;  this  means,  in  both  cases, 
that  the  recorded  figures  are  increased  by 
constants,  which  are  derived  as  follows :  To 
the  actual  pressure  as  recorded,  by  the  pres- 
sure gauge,  or  steam  gauge,  it  is  customary 
to  add  14.7,  which  expresses  the  number  of 
pounds  per  square  inch  above  vacuum  ex- 
erted by  the  atmosphere  at  the  level  of  the 
sea.  To  the  sensible  temperature,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  thermometer,  it  is  customary  to 
add  460.66,  or  more  usually  461,  as  express- 
ing the  temperature  in  degrees  above  abso- 


400 


GAS-ENGINES 


lute  zero.  The  reason  for  using  these  abso- 
lute figures  must  be  obvious  on  explanation : 
since  it  is  necessary  to  discover  the  condi- 
tions of  operation  existing  within  a  cylinder 
of  a  heat  engine  we  must  consider  it  as  ex- 
isting apart  from  the  conditions  obtaining 
in  the  outside  world.  Thus  the  pressure 
as  recorded  by  the  gauge  is  always  to  be  un- 
derstood as  having  a  pressure  per  square 
inch  above  vacuum  equal  to  the  figures  given 
by  the  gauge  plus  14.7.  This  is  true  because 
the  pressure  exerted  by  the  gases  in  the 
cylinder  against  the  diaphragm  of  the 
gauge  must  always  operate  against  atmos- 
pheric pressure  on  its  opposite  face;  hence, 
its  absolute  pressure  is  the  gauge  pressure 
plus  14.7.  In  regard  to  the  figures  for  ab- 
solute temperature,  we  may  say  they  are 
based  upon  the  demonstrated  laws  regard- 
ing the  expansion  of  gases.  Experiment  has 
proved  that  a  gas  expands  at  a  ratio  of 
1-273  part  of  its  volume  for  each  degree 
Centigrade  of  temperature  increase,  which 
is  equivalent  to  1-461  per  degree  Fahren- 
heit. Thus,  the  expression  for  absolute 
temperature  is  to  be  taken  as  the  sum  of 
461,  and  the  thermometric  temperature,  or 
the  theoretical  total  temperature,  above  ab- 
solute zero.  This  may  be  readily  under- 
stood thus:  if  a  gas  expands  by  1-461 
of  its  volume  for  each  degree  of  increase 
in  temperature  as  will  explosively  ignite 
461  below  32  degrees  on  the  Fahrenheit 
scale.  By  assuming  this  temperature  we  ob- 
tain a  figure  which  also  indicates  the  ratio 
of  increase  in  volume  of  the  gas. 

RULES  FOR  GAS-ENGINE  OPERA- 
TION 

Since  a  gas-engine  operates,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  by  virtue  of  such  an  increase 
in  temperature  as  will  explosively  ignite 
the  fuel  charge  within  the  cylinder,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  conditions  of  operation  are 
determined  by  the  increase  in  pressure  and 
temperature,  which  is  to  say,  the  difference 
between  the  initial  pressure  and  the  tem- 
perature, as  found  at  the  start,  and  the  fig- 
ures for  final  pressure  and  temperature,  as 
found  on  the  completion  of  the  cycle.  On 
the  basis  of  precise  relation  between  the 
temperature  and  volume  of  a  gas  and  be- 
tween its  volume  and  pressure  the  follow- 
ing rules  may  be  deduced: 

1 i )  The  final  pressure  of  the  gas  is  equal 
to  the  quotient  found  by  dividing  the  final 
volume  into  the  product  of  the  initial  pres- 
sure by  the  initial  volume. 

(2)  The  final  temperature  is  equal  to  the 
quotient  found  by  dividing  the  initial  pres- 


sure into  the  product  of  the  initial  tempera- 
ture by  the  final  pressure. 

(3)  The  final  volume  is  equal  to  the  quo- 
tient found  by  dividing  the  final  pressure 
into  the  product  of  the  initial  pressure  by 
the  initial  volume. 

Since  the  initial  pressure  and  the  final 
pressure  are  shown  by  the  gauge,  and  the 
temperature  may  be  discovered  by  the  use  of 


Flfl.  3. — Valves  and  valve  gear  of  a  type  ot 
gas  or  gasoline  engine.  The  inlet  valve  A  is 
opened  by  the  suction  of  the  outward-moving  pia- 
ton.  The  exhaust  valve  is  opened  by  the  rod  C 
working  against  the  spring,  being  lifted  by  the 
cam  £  on  the  shaft  of  the  gear-wheel  D.  The 
gear  D  is  turned  by  the  gear  F,  which  is  on  the 
shaft  of  the  fly-wheel  and  crank.  Gears  D  and 
F  are  here  shown  in  position  at  right  angles  to 
their  shafts  for  sake  of  clearness.  The  jump 
spark  plug  B  shows  the  two  sparking  points, 
one  on  the  insulated  core,  the  other  in  connection 
with  the  metal  of  the  cylinder. 

a  thermometer  or  pyrometer,  the  conditions 
of  operation  in  a  gas-engine  cylinder  may 
be  accurately  calculated  from  an  indicator 
diagram  precisely  as  in  the  steam-engine. 


GAS-ENGINES 


401 


THE    INITIAL    PRESSURE 

Since  the  fuel  charge  is  admitted  into  the 
cylinder  through  a  valve  normally  closed  by 
a  spring,  it  follows  that  the  suction  force  of 
the  piston  is  largely  expended  in  overcom- 
ing the  tension  of  this  spring.     Therefore, 
the  fuel  mixture  admitted  to  the  cylinder  at 
the  end  of  the  suction  stroke  has  a  pressure 
somewhat  lower  than  atmosphere — it  is  gen- 
erally  between    13.2   and    13.5    pounds   per 
square  inch.     This  fact  is  indicated  in  the 
diagram  by  the  position  of  the  suction  line. 
On  the  compression  stroke  of  the  piston,  the 
inlet   valves   being  closed,   the    fuel    within 
the  cylinder  is  compressed  to  a  point  pro- 
portionate to  the  ratio  between  the  length 
of  the  combustion   space,  or  clearance  be- 
hind the  piston  at  in-stroke,  and  the  length 
of  the  piston  sweep.     By  either  increasing 
the  stroke-sweep  of  the  piston  or  by  decreas- 
ing the  clearance,  the  ratio  of  compression  is 
proportionately  enlarged.     The  rule  usually 
followed    for    calculating    the    compression 
pressure,  as  obtained  in  a  given  cylinder,  is 
to  divide  the  sum  of  the  proportionate  fig- 
ures for  clearance  and  stroke  by  the  figure 
for  clearance.     Thus,  if  the  clearance  is  to 
the  stroke  as  2  is  to  4,  we  divide  their  sum, 
which  is  6  by  2,  obtaining  3  as  the  expres- 
sion for  the  compression  ratio.     Therefore, 
multiplying  the  internal  pressure  by  3,  we 
obtain  the  compression  pressure  of  this  en- 
gine.    This  may  also  be  shown  on  the  indi- 
cator diagram,  in  which,  as  with  the  steam- 
engine,  the  varying  pressures  are  relative  to 
the  tension  of  the  spring  used  in  the  indi- 
cator.    Thus,  if  the  initial  pressure  is  13.2, 
the  compression  pressure  in  an  engine  with 
a  ratio  of  3  will  be  39.6.     It  has  been  as- 
certained that,  within  certain  limits  at  least, 
an    increase    in    compression    pressure,    at- 
tained by  the  means  already  indicated,  in- 
volves correspondingly  good  economy  in  the 
use    of    fuel    by   proportionately    increasing 
the  pressure  generated  by  explosion.     The 
explosion  of  the  fuel  charge,  at  about  the 
completion     of     the      compression     stroke, 
raises  a  temperature  to  a  point  between  3 
and  4  times  that  of  the  compression  tem- 
perature, increasing  the  pressure  about  the 
same  figures.     This  fact  is  indicated  in  the 
diagram  by  a  vertical  line,  showing  the  sud- 
den increase  of  pressure  against  the  spring 


of  the  indicator.  From  the  highest  point  of 
the  explosion  line,  the  pressure  is  seen  to 
drop  rapidly  at  first,  more  gradually  after- 
ward, until  the  point  at  which  the  exhaust 
valve  is  opened  by  the  operation  of  the  cam 
shaft  and  gears.  The  pressure  then  drops 
suddenly  to  a  point  below  atmosphere,  on 
account  of  the  high  temperature  and  great 
active  pressure  of  the  escaping  exhaust  gas. 

THE   INDICATOR    DIAGRAM 

The  gas-engine  indicator  diagram  may  be 
calculated  in  the  same  manner  as  that  al- 
ready explained  for  the  steam-engine  dia- 
gram— either  by  the"  use  of  a  planimeter  or 
by  ruled  ordinates.  This  process  enables 
the  finding  of  figures  expressing  the  mean 
effective  pressure,  or  the  average  of  all  the 
pressures  exerted  throughout  the  stroke. 


FIG.  4. — Typical  gas-engine  indicator  card.  This 
is  drawn  in  the  same  manner  as  the  steam-engine 
diagram.  The  inlet  and  exhaust  curve  is  shown 
at  the  bottom  of  the  figure;  the  compression  line, 
from  the  toe  to  the  heel;  the  explosion  line  at 
the  left  side  straight  upward;  the  expansion  line, 
from  the  point  of  highest  temperature  and  pres- 
sure to  the  toe  of  the  diagram.  The  exhaust  is 
opened  just  before  the  toe  is  reached,  and  the 
rapid  fall  of  pressure  resulting  begins  before  the 
exhausting  in-stroke. 

Having  found  the  mean  effective  pressure, 
it  is  possible  to  calculate  the  horsepower  of 
the  engine.  This  may  be  expressed  as  the 
quotient  found  by  dividing  33,000 — which 
indicates  the  number  of  foot-pounds  per 
minute  per  horsepower — into  the  product 
found  by  multiplying  the  figure  for  mean 
effective  pressure  by  the  piston  area  in 
square  inches,  by  the  length  of  the  stroke 
in  feet,  and  by  the  number  of  explosions 
per  minute. 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES 
OF    ELECTRICITY 


THE  word  electricity  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  elektron,  mean- 
ing amber;  the  reason  being  that  the  first  manifestations  of  this 
form  of  energy  observed  by  the  ancients  consisted  simply  in  the 
familiar  experiment  with  what  we  now  call  electrophorus.  The  apparatus 
consists  of  a  plate  of  rosin  or  other  hard  gum,  which  may  be  "electrified" 
by  rubbing  with  a  silk  cloth  so  that  the  energy  produced  will  cause  small 
fragments  of  paper,  etc.,  to  be  attracted  to  the  gum  or  amber  disk,  like  iron 
filings  to  a  magnet.  The  same  phenomenon  having  been  originally  observed 
with  the  use  of  amber — which  is  fossilized  gum — gave  the  first  clew  to  the 
existence  of  the  mighty  force  which  now  is  harnessed  to  drive  our  railroad 
cars  or  light  our  streets  and  to  perform  a  multitude  of  other  useful  services. 

Nearly  the  most  important  phase  of  electric  manifestation  is  that  known 
as  magnetism,  and  here  also  we  have  an  interesting  example  of  a  force 
imperfectly  understood  and  named  by  the  ancients.  The  word  magnet 
is  derived  from  the  name  Magnesia,  a  place  in  Asia  Minor,  where  there 
were  deposits  of  the  so-called  magnetite  iron  ore  which  has  the  pecu- 
liar property  of  attracting  iron  particles  just  as  the  electrified  iron  bar. 
Fragments  of  this  ore  were  therefore  called  magnets  or  magnesian  stones. 
The  exceedingly  rudimentary  knowledge  of  electricity  and  magnetism  as 
understood  by  the  ancients  continued  with  extremely  small  additions — 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  invention  of  such  devices  as  the  Ley- 
den  jar  or  condenser  and  the  Von  Guericke  electric  machine — until  within 
less  than  one  hundred  years.  The  first  of  the  great  electric  achievements 
of  the  nineteenth  century  was  the  discovery  of  the  electro-magnet  by 
Professor  Joseph  Henry  in  1830.  Upon  this  device  was  based  the  electric 
telegraph  of  Morse,  and  later  nearly  every  other  great  achievement  in 
this  branch  of  physics  and  industry.  Only  within  the  last  thirty  years  has 
the  mechanical  production  of  electrical  energy  by  the  use  of  the  dynamo 
electrical  generator  made  possible  the  generation  of  currents  sufficiently 
strong  to  move  heavy  machinery  and  perform  the  manifold  functions  for 
which  electrical  energy  is  now  employed. 

The  first  experimental  dynamo  was  invented  by  Faraday  in  1831.  He 
discovered  that,  if  a  copper  disk  be  rotated  between  the  poles  of  a  magnet, 
a  current  will  move  between  its  spindle  and  periphery,  and  over  a  wire 
circuit  between  brushes  at  these  two  points. 

(402) 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


403 


THE   THEORY   AND   APPLICATION    OF   ELECTRICITY 


ACCORDING  to  the  accepted  theory  of 
physicists,  the  word  electricity  desig- 
nates a  state  or  condition  of  material  sub- 
stance just  as  does  the  word  heat.  In  fact, 
there  are  many  points  of  analogy  between 
these  two  forms  of  physical  condition. 
Heat,  as  we  have  seen  in  connection  with 
the  discussion  of  steam  and  gas  engines, 
can  be  transformed  into  mechanical  energy. 
It  can  also  be  manifested  as  light  in  the 
forms  of  fire  and  incandescence.  Similar 
manifestations  with  both  heat  and  elec- 
tricity actually  give  birth  to  forms  of  en- 
ergy, which,  according  to  the  modern  doc- 
trine of  the  correlation  of  forces,  may  be 
transformed  into  any  and  every  other  form. 
Thus,  as  physicists  tell  us,  all  energy  is 
molecular  vibration,  which  within  the  lim- 
its of  certain  frequencies  is  manifested  as 
sound,  and  in  higher  frequencies  as  light. 
Thus,  audible  sounds  are  said  to  range  be- 
tween about  32  vibrations  per  second  and 
about  32,000  vibrations  per  second,  or  15 
octaves.  Between  the  highest  audible  sound 
and  the  faintest  visible  light,  which  is  on 
the  edge  of  the  red  color  of  the  solar  spec- 
trum, there  are,  according  to  the  best  rec- 
ognized calculations,  at  least  35  octaves  of 
vibration,  which  represent  forms  of  the  fun- 
damental force  of  nature  that  may  be  per- 
ceived by  no  sense  possessed  by  man. 

GENERATION    OF   ELECTRICITY 

Just  as  heat  results  when  certain  physical 
conditions  are  complied  with,  so  electricity 
follows  with  certain  others.  The  condi- 
tions for  the  generation  of  heat  are  per- 
fectly familiar  to  every  one — they  are  com- 
bustion, or  oxidation,  friction,  and  several 
forms  of  chemical  activity.  Practically  the 
same  general  conditions  result  in  the  gen- 
eration of  electricity,  which  may  be  dis- 
criminated according  to  the  nature  of 
sources  producing  it,  as  chemical,  fric- 
tional,  and  magnetic — the  latter  being  due 
to  certain  forms  of  molecular  change.  Ac- 
cording to  the  form  of  manifestation  there 
are  three  kinds  of  electrical  energy :  static, 
current,  and  induced,  or  electro-magnetic. 
Current  electricity  may  be  either  direct,  when 
the  current  moves  constantly  in  one  direc- 
tion, like  a  stream  of  water ;  alternating, 
when  the  current  moves,  first  in  one  direc- 
tion and  then  in  the  other;  polyphase,  when 
several  distinct  currents  on  one  circuit  arise 
and  alternate,  each  at  its  own  intervals. 


The  distinctions  made  between  all  these 
various  forms  of  electrical  manifestation  are 
rather  accidental  than  real;  since  there  is 
no  actual  difference  between  the  electrical 
energy  derived  from  a  chemical  battery  or 
from  a  dynamo  generator;  neither  are  the 
various  forms  of  manifestation  we  have 
noted  so  distinct  but  what  the  one  may, 
under  proper  circumstances,  be  transformed 
into  the  other.  Thus  the  chemical  cell  gives 
forth  a  direct  current,  which  by  the  use  of 
a  commutator  may  be  rendered  alternating 
or  polyphase.  Also,  a  dynamo  may  be  wound 
and  otherwise  adjusted  to  give  forth  any 
form  of  current  that  may  be  desired. 

STATIC    AND    CURRENT    ELEC- 
TRICITY 

While  static  electricity  is  of  very  small 
importance  in  modern  electrical  science — 
although  it  was  until  the  beginning  of  the 
i  gth  century  about  the  only  form  of  electrical 
energy  really  understood — the  conditions  of 
its  manifestations  illustrate  several  of  the 
most  important  laws  of  electrical  energy. 
To  express  it  briefly,  any  substance  in  a 
negative  or  non-electrical  condition  may  be 
charged  or  electrified  by  being  brought  in 
contact  with  a  primary  source  of  electrical 
energy.  Thus,  as  is  perfectly  familiar, 
amber,  glass,  or  resin  may  be  rubbed  with 
a  silk  rag  so  as  to  give  off  a  distinct  shock 
or  discharge  to  the  human  body,  a  piece  of 
metal  or  other  suitable  substance.  The 
fact  of  the  shock  or  discharge  illustrates  a 
fundamental  principle,  which  is  that  elec- 
trical energy  always  flows  from  a  point  of 
high  potential,  as  it  is  called,  to  one  of 
low,  or  relatively  negative,  potential;  just 
as  water  always  flows  from  a  higher  point 
to  a  lower  under  the  impulse  of  gravity. 
When  the  drop  or  discharge  takes  place 
suddenly,  and  then  ceases  altogether,  it  is  a 
manifestation  of  static  electrifaction  due  to 
the  fact  that  there  is  a  tendency  between 
electrified  substances  to  come  to  the  same 
degree  of  potential,  just  as  a  hot  substance 
brought  in  contact  with  a  cold  substance 
gives  off  enough  of  its  heat  to  equalize  the 
temperatures  between  the  two.  When,  how- 
ever, the  flow  of  electrical  energy  is  con- 
stant, we  have  the  manifestation  known  as 
current — the  fundamental  difference  being 
that  the  supply  of  electrical  energy  is  con- 
stant, instead  of  being  temporary  and  static. 
An  electrical  currert  is,  therefore,  a  con- ' 


904 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES   OF   ELECTRICITY 


tinual  flow  of  energy  from  a  point  of  high 
or  positive  potential  to  one  of  low  or  nega- 
tive potential. 

BATTERIES    AND    CIRCUITS 

Having  understood  the  facts  mentioned 
in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  we  can  readily 
understand  the  series  of  operations  taking 
place  in  the  ordinary  galvanic  or  chemical 
cell.  The  typical  and  original  form  of  this 
apparatus  consists  of  a  jar  or  dish,  within 
which  are  a  plate  of  copper  and  a  plate  of 
zinc.  When  the  jar  is  filled  with  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  in  water,  and  the 
two  metal  plates  are  connected  outside  the 
solution  by  a  wire,  an  electric  current  will 
immediately  begin  to  flow  through  this  wire. 
If  the  wire  is  cut  or  broken  the  current 
immediately  ceases.  The  operations  taking 
place  when  the  current  is  flowing  on  the 
wire  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows: 
The  sulphuric  acid  attacks  the  zinc  plate, 
causing  it  to  waste  precisely  as  combustion 
or  burning  wastes  wood,  paper,  etc.,  chang- 
ing its  chemical  constitution.  In  the  gal- 
vanic cell  electricity  is  produced  by  this 
chemical  process,  just  as  heat  is  produced 
by  the  other  chemical  process  of  combus- 
tion. Again,  just  as  a  heated  body  will 
give  off  its  heat  to  one  of  lower  tempera- 
ture, so  the  zinc  plate,  in  process  of  con- 
sumption, gives  off  its  electricity  to  the 
copper  plate,  which  is  therefore,  continu- 
ally being  charged  through  the  solution  in 
the  cell,  so  long  as  the  zinc  plate  lasts. 
The  copper  plate  having  a  higher  natural 
potential  than  the  zinc,  constantly  discharges 
over  the  outside  wire  circuit  in  its  effort 
to  electrify  that  part  of  the  zinc  plate  that 
is  not  attacked  by  the  chemical  solution. 
Thus,  there  are  two  distinct  paths  for  the 
electrical  energy ;  the  first  from  the  zinc, 
through  the  solution  of  acid  to  the  copper, 
the  second  from  the  copper  through  the  out- 
side wire  back  to  the  zinc.  This  shows  that 
electrical  energy  always  moves  in  a  closed 
path,  which  is  known  as  a  circuit,  and  if 
any  body  or  machine  is  to  be  affected  by 
the  current  generated  in  the  cell  it  must 
be  included  in  the  circuit  of  the  outside 
wire,  so  that  the  current  may  pass  in  at 
one  side  and  out  at  the  other  back  to  the 
cell.  This  principle  of  the  circuit  is  funda- 
mental in  electrical  science. 

ELECTROMOTIVE   FORCE  (E.M.F.) 

Although  popular  habit  persists  in  de- 
scribing the  activity  on  the  wire  of  a  cir- 
cuit as  electricity — speaking  of  a  "current 
of  electricity,"  ef. — this  term  is  not  strictly 


correct.  The  fact  of  the  matter  is  that  the 
current  is  rather  the  effect  of  the  electrical 
condition  at  the  source,  just  as  heat  in  a 
flame  gives  rise  to  certain  definite  effects. 
As  we  have  already  learned  in  connection 
with  the  steam-engine,  the  effects  of  heat— 
the  number  of  heat  units  generated,  and 
the  power  of  raising  given  amounts  of  water 
to  the  boiling  point — depend  not  so  much 
upon  the  sensible  temperature  as  upon  the 
bulk  of  the  matter  in  combustion.  Thus 
the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp  and  the  fire 
of  a  furnace  may  register  the  same  tempera- 
ture on  the  thermometer  or  pyrometer,  yet 
the  latter  can  in  a  short  time  raise  the 
water  in  a  great  boiler  to  the  steaming 
point;  while  the  former  can  do  no  more 
than  heat  the  water  in  a  small  kettle.  The 
difference  between  the  two  sources  of  heat 
is  in  their  mechanical  equivalences,  which 
is  estimated  in  terms  of  thermal  units,  as 
already  explained.  Similarly,  two  electrical 
sources  differ  in  the  amount  of  activity — 
and  all  other  effects — that  they  can  set  up 
upon  a  given  circuit.  The  mechanical 
equivalents  of  their  electrical  conditions 
vary  as  their  electromotive  force  (E.M.F.), 
which  is  estimated  in  terms  of  electrical 
pressure,  or  voltage.  Furthermore,  just  as 
the  mechanical  equivalence  of  a  given  source 
of  heat  depends  upon  the  amount  of  fuel  in 
the  state  of  combustion,  so  the  E.M.F.  of 
two  chemical  batteries  or  electrical  sources 
differ  as  the  area  of  the  positive  element, 
or  zinc  electrode.  Thus,  as  we  shall  see 
later,  if  several  chemical  cells  be  properly 
connected  up  into  a  battery,  the  pressure 
of  the  combination  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  individual  cell  pressures.  The  same 
rule  regarding  the  connecting-up  of  several 
generating  units  applies  also  to  the  opera- 
tion of  dynamo  electric  machines  on  cir- 
cuits ;  although  the  voltage  of  a  dynamo 
depends,  of  course,  upon  other  and  different 
considerations. 

THE    ELECTRIC   CURRENT 

The  pressure,  voltage,  or  potential  of  an 
electrical  source — for  all  three  terms  prop- 
erly describe  the  same  quantity — is  the  mov- 
ing cause  for  setting  up  the  form  of  ac- 
tivity on  a  circuit,  known  as  "current." 
The  strength  or  intensity  of  the  current 
depends  upon  two  things:  (a)  the  pressure 
of  the  source,  (b)  the  resistance  of  the 
conductor,  which  is  to  say  the  wire  of  the 
circuit.  The  matter  of  resistance  is  nearly 
the  most  important  consideration  in  the 
practical  operation  of  electrical  apparatus 
of  all  descriptions.  Briefly  jdescribed,  it 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


405 


is  the  property  possessed  by  conductors  of 
resisting  the  flow  of  electrical  current,  or 
of  reducing  its  activity  or  intensity.  In 
this  respect,  electrical  circuit  resistance  has 
frequently  been  compared  with  the  resistance 
of  pipes  and  conduits  to  the  flow  of  water. 
Take  a  tank  of  water  at  a  certain  height 
above  the  ground — for  the  pressure  of  water 
per  unit  of  area  depends  upon  the  height 
from  which  it  is  drawn — and  lead  from  it 
two  pipes,  one  of  them  half  the  diameter 
of  the  other.  It  will  be  evident  that  the 
column  of  water  in  the  larger  pipe  will  have 
twice  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  that  in 
the  smaller.  Again,  take  two  pipes  con- 
nected to  the  head  and  foot  of  a  pump  bar- 
rel ;  both  so  proportioned  as  to  contain 
precisely  the  same  amount  of  water.  If, 
now,  we  arrange  the  two  so  as  to  be  closed 
at  the  ends  by  stopcocks,  and  pump  water 
through  the  one,  and  then  through  the 
other,  we  shall  find  that  a  greater  expendi- 
ture of  strength  is  required  to  force  the 
water  through  the  long,  narrow  tube  than 


Electrical    and    Hydraulic    Resistance. 

to  force  it  though  the  short,  wide  tube. 
In  precisely  similar  fashion  a  small,  long 
wire  of  copper  or  other  metal  offers  a 
greater  resistance  to  the  passage  of  current 
than  a  thick  and  short  one  of  the  same 
metal,  although  both  wires  may  contain 
precisely  the  same  amount  of  matter  by 
actual  weight.  The  precise  degree  of  re- 
sistance differs  for  the  various  metals,  how- 
ever, as  will  be  presently  explained. 

Another  analogy  may  be  found  for  the 
resistance  of  electrical  conductors.  Just 
as  we  have  seen  in  the  article  on  steam- 
engines,  that  the  power  of  a  source  of  heat 
to  evaporate  the  water  in  a  boiler  depends 
upon  the  heating  surface  of  the  boiler;  so 
the  power  of  an  electrical  source  to  pro- 
duce electrical  effects  on  a  circuit  depends 
upon  what,  for  want  of  a  better  term,  we 
may  call  the  "charging  surface"  of  the 
conductor  per  unit  of  length.  The  two 
conditions  are  even  more  analogous  than 
might  at  first  appear;  for,  since  the  effect 
of  heat,  on  the  one  hand,  is  to  produce 
certain  molecular  activities  in  the  water, 


so  the  effect  of  electrical  pressure,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  to  produce  activity  in  the 
substance  known  to  physicists  as  "ether." 
In  reality,  according  to  some  theories,  the 
electrical  current  is  due  to  etheric  activity. 
Consequently,  when  the  conductor,  on  ac- 
count of  its  larger  diameter,  presents  a 
greater  surface  per  unit  of  length  for  the 
electrical  excitation  of  the  ether,  a  greater 
intensity  of  current  is  the  result. 

ELECTRICAL    RESISTANCE 

The  laws  of  electrical  resistance  are  very 
definite,  and  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few 
brief  principles.  Thus,  for  wires  of  the 
same  metal,  the  following  rules  hold  good, 
provided  the  metal  is  in  no  case  alloyed  or 
adulterated  with  other  substances : 

(1)  The  resistance  is  in  inverse  ratio  to 
the  cross  sectional  area  and  in  direct  ratio 
to  the  length  of  the  wire. 

(2)  It    follows,    therefore,    that   halving 
the   cross-section   of   the   wire  doubles   the 
resistance,  and  that  doubling  the  cross-sec- 
tion halves  the  resistance. 

(3)  Also,  halving  the  length  of  the  wire 
halves  the   resistance;   doubling  the  length 
of  the  wire  doubles  the  resistance. 

OHM'S    LAW    OF    THE   CIRCUIT 

Having  explained  the  matter  of  resistance) 
it  is  in  place  to  state  the  laws  of  electrical 
manifestation  on  a  circuit.  As  we  have 
seen  in  the  article  on  steam-engines,  the 
evaporation  of  a  given  quantity  of  water 
may  be  hastened,  either  (i)  by  increasing 
the  actual  heat  to  which  it  is  exposed,  or 
(2)  by  increasing  the  area  of  the  surface 
exposed  to  the  fire.  In  electrical  circuits 
in  precisely  similar  fashion  the  fundamental 
principle  holds  good  that : 

The  current  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
electromotive  force  (E.M.F.),  and  in  in- 
verse proportion  to  the  resistance. 

This  statement,  which  is  known  to  elec- 
trical science  as  "Ohm's  Law,"  involves 
two  very  evident  corollaries : 

(1)  The    resistance   varies    directly   with 
the  electromotive  force,  and  inversely  with 
the  current. 

(2)  The    electromotive    force    (E.M.F.) 
varies   directly   with   both   the  current  and 
the  resistance. 

THE    C.G.S.  UNITS 

In  order  to  make  the  application  of  this 
law  perfectly  clear,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
digress  briefly  to  define  the  several  units 
of  electrical  measurement.  Since  current 


406 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES   OF   ELECTRICITY 


on  a  conductor  is  in  motion,  and  since  it 
varies  in  activity  or  intensity,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  it  follows  that  its  power  to 
produce  given  dynamic  effects  in  given 
periods  of  time  varies  directly  with  this 
intensity.  There  are  three  elements  to  be 
considered,  therefore:  space,  time,  and 
•weight.  This  means  that  current  is  meas- 
ured according  to  its  power  to  move — by  any 
electrical  means — a  given  weight,  through  a 
given  space  in  a  given  time.  We  take  as 
the  unit  of  space  the  centimetre;  as  the 
unit  of  weight  the  gramme;  as  the  unit  of 
time  the  second.  This  gives  us  as  the  fun- 
damental unit  of  electrical  activity  the  so- 
called  dyne,  or  C.G.S.  (Centimetre-Gramme- 
Second)  unit,  which  represents  such  a 
power  as  can  move  one  gramme  weight 
through  one  centimetre  of  length  in  one 
second  of  time.  All  the  practical  units  of 
electrical  measurement  are  stated  in  terms 
of  this  minute  quantity. 

ELECTRICAL    UNITS 

The  practical  units  of  electrical  science 
are  (i)  the  ohm,  the  unit  of  resistance ; 

(2)  the  volt,  the  unit  of  electromotive  force ; 

(3)  the  ampere,  the  unit  of  current. 

As  at  present  universally  accepted,  the 
ohm  is  equal  to  the  amount  of  resistance 
offered  to  the  electric  current  by  a  column 
of  liquid  mercury  106.3  centimetres  (about 
41.3  inches)  in  length,  and  one  square  mil- 
limetre (.00155  square  inch)  cross-sectional 
area  at  the  temperature  of  melting  ice 
(39.1°  Fahrenheit).  The  item  of  tempera- 
ture is  important,  since  the  resistance  of 
conductors  increases  and  decreases  with  the 
temperature,  and,  as  a  consequence,  may  be 
greater  or  less  as  the  atmosphere  is  warmer 
or  colder.  To  be  more  precise,  the  ohm 
is  approximately  equivalent  to  the  resistance 
of  one  foot  of  No.  40  B.  &  S.  gauge  wire, 
which  is  about  3-i,oooths  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter. Stated  in  dynamic  terms,  it  is 
equivalent  to  such  a  power  as  would  op- 
pose the  electrical  current  with  the  force 
of  io»  or  1,000,000,000  C.G.S.  units. 

The  unit  of  current  intensity  is  called  the 
ampere,  which  is  denned  as  such  a  strength 
of  current  as  can  deposit  33-io,oooths 
(-0033)  of  a  gramme  of  copper,  or  1118- 
ioo,oooths  of  a  gramme  of  silver  per  second 
by  the  process  of  electroplating,  when  the 
solution  or  electrolyte  in  the  plating  tank 
is  mixed  according  to  the  standard  recipe. 
Stated  in  dynamic  terms,  it  is  equivalent 
to  one-tenth  (to-1  or  o.i)  C.G.S.  unit 

The  volt,  the  unit  of  electrical  pressure, 
is  approximately  equivalent  to  the  E.M.F. 


of  several  common  chemical  cells.  Thus, 
the  Daniell  "blue-stone"  cell  of  ordinary 
size  has  a  voltage  of  about  1.08  volts,  while 
the  Leclanche  cell  registers  il/2  (1.5)  volts, 
and  the  standard  Clark  cell,  about  1.43  volts 
at  15°  Centigrade  (59°  Fahrenheit)  of  tem- 
perature. Stated  in  dynamic  terms,  the  volt 
is  equivalent  to  100,000,000  (or  108)  C.G.S. 
units. 

PRACTICAL    CALCULATIONS 

In  ^ractical  electrical  work  the  theoretical 
descriptions  of  the  several  units  of  measure- 
ment are  of  small  importance:  (i)  because 
the  voltage  of  most  commercial  cells  is 
specified,  the  resistance  of  the  several  sizes 
of  wire  of  various  metals  is  given  in  wiring 
tables,  and  the  current  intensity  may  be 
measured  by  efficient  instruments.  Suffice 
it  to  say  that  one  -volt  of  E.M.F.  will  give 
one  ampere  of  current  on  a  circuit  of  one 
ohm  resistance.  Since,  therefore,  two  of 
the  three  quantities  are  always  known  in 
every  electrical  circuit,  the  other  may  be 
readily  determined  by  the  following  rules, 
which  make  practical  applications  of  Ohm's 
Law: 

(1)  The  current  is  equal  to  the  electro- 
motive force  divided  by  the  resistance. 

(2)  The  resistance  is  equal  to  the  electro- 
motive force  divided  by  the  current. 

(3)  The  electromotive  force  is  equal  to 
the  current  multiplied  by  the  resistance. 

In  mathematical  terms,  these  rules  are 
applied  as  follows : 

E  M  F  Volt 

(1)  Current:^— r—    -or  Ampere^-— - 

Resistance  Ohm. 

E.M.F.  Volt 

(2)  Resistance  —-=. or  Ohm  =  r— 

Current  Ampere 

(3)  E.M.F.=CurrentX Resistance,  or  Volt= 
Ampere  X  Ohm. 

Stated   in    terms   of    C.G.S.    units,   these 
processes  are  verified  thus : 
100.000,000 


(i)  0.1  = 


1,000,000,000 

100,000,000 


(2)  1,000,000,000=: 

•  i 

(3)  100,000,000=: . i  X  1,600,000,000. 

Thus,  if  we  have  a  circuit  in  which  the 
E.M.F.  is  10  volts  and  the  resistance  5 
volts,  the  current  will  be  found  as  follows: 

10  volts 

; =z  amperes. 

5  ohms 

If,  in  another  circuit,  we  know  the  E.M.F. 


FIRST   PRINCIPLES   OF   ELECTRICITY 


407 


to  be  50  volts  and  the  current  10  amperes, 
we  may  find  the  resistance  thus: 

50  volts 

; —  =  5  ohms. 

10  amperes 

If,  in  a  third  circuit,  we  know  that  the 
Current  is  10  amperes  and  the  resistance 
6  ohms,  we  may  find  the  voltage  of  the 
battery  thus: 

10  amperes  X  6  ohms  =  60  volts. 

These  rules  and  processes  are  fundamental 
in  all  calculations  for  direct  (or  uni-direc- 
tional)  current  circuits,  and,  by  observing 
all  specified  conditions,  very  exact  results 
may  be  obtained. 

UNITS   OF   WORK   AND   POWER 

Regarding  the  further  units  of  electrical 
measurement,  we  may  state  that  they  are : 
the  coulomb,  the  unit  of  quantity;  the  watt, 
the  unit  of  power,  and  the  joule,  the  unit 
of  work. 

Since  the  ampere  expresses  the  continuous 
strength  or  intensity  of  the  current,  it  re- 
mains steadily  the  same,  so  long  as  the 
conditions  of  the  circuit  are  maintained. 
It  is  not  possible,  then,  to  state  electrical 
quantity  in  terms  of  amperes  per  hour, 
since  10  amperes  in  a  second  are  10  amperes 
in  an  hour,  or  a  lo-ampere-hour  current, 
if  such  be  the  capacity  of  the  battery.  We 
have,  therefore,  the  ampere-second,  under 
the  name  of  the  coulomb,  as  the  unit  of  elec- 
trical quantity.  This  is  the  product  of  the 
current  in  amperes  by  the  number  of  seconds 
in  which  it  has  been  flowing.  Thus,  with 
a  current  of  10  amperes,  we  have  600  cou- 
lombs per  minute  and  3,600  per  hour.  The 
coulomb  indicates,  therefore,  the  amount  of 
current-producing  element  consumed — since 
this  is  so  much  per  ampere  per  second — and 
is  a  good  analogue  of  the  thermal  unit, 
by  which  the  consumption  of  fuel  may  be 

!,  estimated   by   the   performance  of  a  given 

^  engine. 

POWER   ESTIMATES 
In  estimating  the  power  expended  on  a 

/given  electrical  circuit,  we  must  have  re- 
course to  another  unit,  the  watt.  This  is 
really  the  volt-ampere,  or  the  product  of 
the  figures  expressing  E.M.F.  and  current. 
Power  is  necessarily  expressed  in  these 
terms,  since,  although  a  given  intensity  of 
current  may  produce  a  given  effect  with 
one  voltage  on  one  circuit,  we  have  no 
clew  to  the  reason  why  the  same  amperage 
can  perform  a  greater  amount  of  work  on 
another  circuit,  unless  it  is  by  reason  of  a 
greater  volume  or  pressure  at  the  source. 
The  analogy  of  thr  ^team-engine  again  ap- 


plies; for  a  given  small  engine  may  be  run 
at  say  100  pounds  pressure  to  the  square 
inch  of  piston  area,  by  a  boiler  that  could 
not  possibly  generate  steam  enough  to  run 
another  larger  engine  at  i-iooth  of  that 
pressure.  Thus,  although  a  certain  railroad 
locomotive  and  a  certain  steam  automobile 
may  be  run  at  precisely  the  same  pressure 
in  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  automobile 
boiler  could  not  possibly  generate  sufficient 
steam  to  even  move  the  wheels  of  the  loco- 
motive. In  brief,  it  is  just  another  ex- 
ample of  our  former  figure  of  the  alcohol 
lamp  and  the  engine  furnace:  the  differ- 
ence in  effectiveness  between  two  engines, 
or  other  prime  movers,  is  in  the  amount  of 
power  exerted  per  second — the  amount  of 
steam  or  current  generated  at  the  source. 
Thus,  in  calculating  the  power  of  an  elec- 
trical circuit,  we  take  into  consideration 
the  resistance  operating  to  reduce  the  effect, 
when  we  multiply  the  voltage  by  the  effec- 
tive current.  In  one  circuit,  for  example, 
we  might  have  a  volume  or  pressure  of 
1,000  volts  and  a  current  of  15  amperes, 
while  on  another  we  would  have  300  volts 
at  50  amperes.  Owing  to  the  evident  differ- 
ence in  resistance,  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
immensely  reduces  the  electrical  energy  on 
a  circuit — the  resistance  is,  according  to 
Ohm's  Law,  66.66  ohms  on  the  first  circuit 
and  only  6  ohms  on  the  second — we  find 
that  the  effective  power  is  the  •  same  in 
both,  15,000  watts. 

The  effective  power  on  a  circuit  in  watts 
may  also  be  calculated  as   the  product  of 
the  square  of  the  current  by  the  resistance; 
also,  as  the  quotient  between  the  square  of  ' 
the  voltage  and  the  resistance.     Thus,  for 
the  second  circuit  named  above,  we  have: 
6  X  2,500=  15,000  and  90,000  -r-  6=  15,000. 
Here,  2,500  is  of  course  the  square  of  50 
(or   50  X  50),    and   90,000,    the    square   of  . 
300  (or  300  X  300). 

In  order  to  obtain  an  idea  of  the  exact 
power  with  which  we  are  dealing,  we  may 
say  that  approximately  746  watts  make  one 
electrical  horsepower.  Since,  therefore,  one 
horsepower  is  equal  to  33,000  foot-pounds 
per  minute,  or  550  foot-pounds  per  second, 
one  watt  is  the  quotient  resulting  from 
dividing  746  into  550,  which  is  somewhat 
over  24  foot-pound  in  each  second. 

When  a  current  power  of  one  watt  is 
continuously  exerted  during  the  period  of 
one  hour,  we  have  one  watt-hour,  as  the 
expression  for  the  energy  expended.  In 
order  to  find  the  equivalent  of  the  watt- 
houi  in  terms  of  work  actually  done,  we 
must  take  the  product  of  the  watts  (volts 
X  amperes)  and  the  number  of  seconds, 


408 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


3,600.  This  gives  the  answer  in  joules. 
For  a  circuit  giving  a  power  of  15,000 
watts,  we  have,  accordingly,  in  one  hour 
15,000  watt-hours,  or  54,000,000  joules.  This 
represents  somewhat  over  20  horsepower 
constantly  exerted  through  one  hour. 

LARGE  AND  SMALL  UNITS 
Since  electrical  calculations  vary  between 
immensely  large  and  immensely  small  quan- 
tities, it  is  necessary  to  have  expressions 
for  parts  and  multiples  of  the  various  units 
that  will  admit  of  expressing  these  with 
the  fewest  possible  figures.  Accordingly, 
we  have  terms  borrowed  from  the  metric 
system,  as  follows: 

i  kilowatt  —  1,000  watts 
i  millivolt  =  .001  volt 
i  milliampere  =  .001  ampere. 
Other    terms    have    the    prefixes    meg    and 
micro  (Greek  megas,  large;  mikros,  small), 
expressing,    respectively,    1,000,000   units   or 
unit.    Thus : 

i  megohm  =  1,000,000  ohms 
i  microhm  =  .000,001  ohm 


1,600,000 


SPECIFIC  RESISTANCE 
On  the  matter  of  what  is  known  as 
specific  resistance,  or  "resistivity,"  there  is 
a  vast  difference  between  various  substances. 
Of  course,  in  order  to  measure  the  resistivity 
of  several  substances,  portions  as  nearly  as 
possible  of  the  same  dimensions  of  each 
one  in  turn  must  be  used  for  the  experi- 
ment. Thus,  in  the  succeeding  table,  the 
unit  dimension  chosen  is  one  cubic  centi- 
metre. A  common  temperature  is  also  nec- 
essary, since  the  conductivity  of  a  substance 
increases  inversely  with  the  temperature. 
That  is  to  say,  the  colder  the  substance, 
the  smaller  its  resistance,  and  the  warmer 
the  substance,  the  greater  its  resistance. 
Experiments  are  best  conducted,  therefore, 
at  the  zero  of  temperature.  The  table  also 
gives  the  figures  for  conductivity  of  the 
several  substances — that  is  to  say,  the  power 
of  conducting  current  as  compared  with 
that  of  resisting  it. 

Specific  rasiit- 
ance  In  mi- 
crohms per 
cubic  cm. 


Relative  ronduc- 

tlTtty.  At  zero, 

Centigrade. 


Pure  silver 

Refined  copper 

Pure  gold 

Aluminium    (99.5     ) . 

Swedish  iron 

Platinum 

Lead 

German  silver 

Mercury 

Graphite 


loo.oo 1.521 

99-00 1.603 

86.65 2.077 

63.09 2.889 

16.00.  . ..  v 9.500 

10.60 8.982 

8.88 19.630 

7.70 20.760 

1.60 09.74 

0.07. .  .2,000  to  42,000 


In  general,  the  metals  are  the  best  con- 
ductors of  current;  most  other  substances, 
both  liquid  and  solid,  being  far  inferior  in 
this  quality.  Speaking  exactly,  however,  all 
substances  conduct  current  in  some  degree. 
Even  those  called  "insulators"  or  "dielec- 
trics" owe  their  power  to  practically  cut  off 
or  confine  the  current  to  the  fact  that  their 
resistivity  is  so  immense  that  the  amount  of 
current  passing  through  them  is  correspond- 
ingly minute.  Their  resistivity,  therefore, 
instead  of  being  measured  in  microhms  must 
be  stated  in  megohms  per  cubic  centimetre. 
The  following  table  gives  the  resistivity  in 
megohms  per  cubic  centimetre  of  familiar 
insulators. 


Substance. 

Mica 

Glass 

Gutta-percha.. .. 


Resistivity. 

84,000,000  megohms 
91,000,000 
450,000,000 


Shellac 9,000,000,000 

Ebonite 28,000,000,000 

Paraffine 34,000,000,000 

The  human  body  offers  a  resistance  of 
about  300,000  ohms  on  the  closure  of  the 
circuit,  and  of  about  3,000  ohms  after  the 
current  has  been  flowing  for  a  certain 
period. 

CALCULATING  WIRE  CONDUCTORS 

In  practical  determinations  of  the  sizes  of 
wire  to  be  used  for  given  circuits,  the  mil- 
foot  at  the  temperature  of  zero  is  taken  as 
the  unit.  The  mil  is  the  i-i,oooth  of  an 
inch,  and  is  used  in  measuring  the  diameter 
of  wires.  The  cross-sectional  area  is  meas- 
ured in  circular  mils.  A  circular  mil  rep- 
resents the  square  of  the  diameter.  Thus, 
if  a  wire  has  a  diameter  of  i  mil,  it  will 
also  have  an  area  of  i  circular  mil.  If  it 
has  a  diameter  of  2  mils,  it  will  have  an 
area  equivalent  to  the  square  of  2,  which 
is  4  (2X2).  With  a  diameter  of  3  mils, 
it  will  have  an  area  of  9  circular  mils 
(3X3). 

Therefore,  a  mil-foot  wire  is  one  that 
has  a  cross-sectional  area  of  I  circular  mil, 
and  is  i  foot  in  length.  The  following  table 
gives  the  facts  necessary  in  measuring  wire 
for  any  given  circuit : 

Resistance  In  ohms       Coefficient  of  ten- 
Metal  per  mil-font  at  zero         peratnre  rice  per 
Centigrade.  degree  Centigrade. 

Copper 9.59 00388 

Aluminium  15.20 00390 

Iron 58.00 00453 

German  Silver 125.91 00044 

The  coefficients  of  temperature  rise  are 
used  for  the  purpose  o€  giving  the  true 
resistance  at  any  required  temperature  above 


FIRST   PRINCIPLES    OF   ELECTRICITY 


409 


zero  Centigrade  (32°  Fahrenheit).  Thus, 
for  any  of  the  above  unit-wires  the  resist- 
ance at  any  given  temperature  may  be  found 
by  this  formula : 

R  =  rX(CXT  +  i). 

In  this  example,  R  represents  the  resistance 
we  wish  to  find;  r  is  the  unit  resistance  of 
the  wire  as  given  in  the  above  table;  C 
is  the  temperature  coefficient  of  the  metal, 
also  given  above;  T  is  the  given  tempera- 
ture above  zero. 

Thus,  to  find  the  resistance  of  a  unit  cop- 
per wire  at  100°  Centigrade,  we  proceed  as 
follows,  always  looking  at  the  table: 
R  =  9.59  X  (.00388  X  loo  +  i ) .    Then, 
R  =  9.59X(.388  +  i  or  1.388),  and  per- 
forming the  multiplication,  we  have  13.31092 
ohms  as  the  resistance  at  the  boiling  point. 

Since,  however,  temperature  is  generally 
measured  in  this  country  by  the  Fahrenheit 
thermometer,  we  shall  be  obliged,  in  using 
this  formula,  to  reduce  Fahrenheit  degrees 
to  Centigrade.  This  may  be  done  as  follows : 
Subtract  32  from  the  number  of  Fahrenheit 
degrees,  multiply  the  difference  by  5,  and  di- 
vide by  9.  Thus,  if  we  have  212°  Fahrenheit, 
and  wish  to  find  its  Centigrade  equivalent, 
we  proceed  as  follows : 

212  —  32  —  180. 
Then,  180  X    5  =  900, 

and,  900  -r-   9  =  100,  which  rep- 
resents the  degree  on  the  Centigrade  scale. 

The  practical  use  of  all  these  processes 
is  very  great,  since  the  size  of  wire  for  any 
given  circuit  may  be  readily  determined  by 
their  use.  Thus,  a  mil-foot  of  copper  wire 
at  the  temperature  of  60°  Fahrenheit  (15.55° 
Centigrade)  will  have  a  resistance  of  10.1654 
ohms,  and  100  feet  will  have  a  resistance  of 
1016.54  ohms.  If,  therefore,  we  wish  to  find 
the  cross-sectional  area  of  a  copper  wire 
that  will  have,  for  example,  a  resistance  of 
only  6  ohms  per  100  feet,  the  rule  is : 

Divide  the  unit  resistance  for  the  required 
length  of  wire  by  the  resistance  desired  in 
the  circuit,  in  order  to  find  the  cross-sec- 
tional area  of  the  wire  that  will  give  the 
required  resistance. 

Thus,  for  a  loo-foot  circuit  with  6  ohms 
resistance,  we  proceed  as  follows : 

1016.54  -i-  6=  168.42. 

The  wire  that  should  give  a  resistance  of 
exactly  6  ohms  per  hundred  feet  must  have 
a  cross-sectional  area  of  168.42  circular  mils. 

WIRE  GAUGES 

When  we  know  the  cross-sectional  area 
of  the  required  wire,  we  can  identify  it  by 
referring  to  the  wire  gauge  tables,  as  fol- 
lows. Here,  we  find  that  the  copper  wire 


sizes  nearest  are  those  known  as  Nos.  27 
and  28,  the  latter  having  a  somewhat  larger 
resistance,  the  former  a  considerably  smaller 
one.  However,  on  so  short  a  circuit  as  100 
feet  total,  No.  28  would  probably  answer, 
unless  great  exactitude  of  adjustment  was 
necessary;  in  which  case  No.  27  must  be 
used,  possibly  with  an  extra  resistance  piece. 
In  this  country,  copper  wire  is  measured 
by  the  so-called  Brown  &  Sharpe  (B.  &  S.), 
or  American  Wire  Gauge,  and  iron  wire, 
by  the  Birmingham  Wire  Gauge  (B.  W.  G.). 
The  following  table  gives  the  data  for  cop- 
per wire  sizes  on  the  B.  &  S.  gauge,  and  is 
approximately  correct  for  average  tempera- 
tures. 

BROWN  &  SHARP  WIRE  GAUGE 


1 

SUE. 

RESISTANCE. 

§£  £ 
.  v 
to  -  era 
<=        £ 

I 

1 

Diam- 
eter in 
•Mils. 

Square  of 
Diameter 
or  circ'lar 
Mils. 

Ohms 
^•periooo. 
Feet 

Feet 
per 
Ohm. 

>>>>».< 

5!f| 

oooo 

460.000 

211600.0 

.051 

19929.7 

430 

000 

409.640 

167804  9 

.063 

i  5804  .  9 

262 

00 

364.800 

133079  o 

.080 

12534.2 

208 

o 

324.950 

105592-5 

.101 

9945-3 

165 

I 

289  300 

83694-49 

.127 

7882.8 

130 

• 

257.630 

66373.22 

.160 

6251.4 

103 

3 

229.420 

52633.53 

.202 

4957-3 

81 

4 

204.310 

41742-57 

.254 

3931-6 

65 

§ 

181.940 

33102.16 

.321 

3H7  8 

52 

€ 

162.020 

26250.48 

-404 

2472.4 

I 

144.280 

20816.72 

•  509 

1960.6 

3* 

8 

128.490 

16509.68 

-643 

1555  0 

26 

9 

114.430 

13094.22 

.811 

1233-3 

20 

10 

101.390 

10381  57 

1.023 

977-8 

16 

II 

90.742 

8234.11 

1.289 

775-5 

13 

12 

80.808 

6529.93 

1.626 

615.02 

IO.9 

*3 

71.961 

a  048 

488  25 

8.1 

14 

64.084 

4106.75 

2.585 

386.80 

6.4 

15 

57-068 

3256.76 

3-177 

306.74 

5-1 

16 

50.820 

2582:67 

2*3  25 

4.0 

•7 

45  257 

2048.  19 

5-183 

192.  9« 

18 

40.303 

1624.33 

6.536 

152.99 

*-S 

»9 

35-390 

1251-45 

8  477 

117.96 

1.96 

20 

31.961 

1021.51 

10  394 

96.21 

i  60 

21 

28.462 

810.09 

13.106 

76.30 

1.28 

22 

25-347 

642.47 

16.525 

60.51 

i.  08 

23 

22    571 

509-45 

20.842 

47.98 

.80 

24 

20.  100 

404  01 

26.284 

38-05 

-63 

25 

17.900 

320.41 

33  135 

30.18 

•  SO 

26 

15.940 

254.08 

41.789 

23.93 

•  40 

27 

14.195 

201.49 

52.687 

18.9$ 

•31 

«8 

12.64! 

159-79 

66-445 

15.05 

•  25 

29 

11.257 

126.72 

83.752 

14.94 

.20 

3° 

IO.O25 

100.50 

105  641 

9.466 

.16 

3' 

8.928 

79-71 

133-191 

7.508 

•13 

32 

7-950 

63.20 

168.011 

5.952 

.098 

33 

7.080 

50-13 

211.820 

4.7*1 

.078 

34 

6.304 

39-74 

267.165 

3.743 

.062 

35 

5.614 

31.52 

336.81 

2.969 

.049 

36 

5  .000 

25.00 

424.65 

2-355  , 

.039 

37 

4-453 

19.83 

535  33 

1.868 

-o3r 

38 

3-9°5 

15.72 

675.22 

1.481  .' 

.025 

39 

3-531 

12.47 

851  789 

1-174  ; 

.020 

«° 

3-144 

9.88 

1074.11 

-931  : 

.015 

VARIETIES    OF   CIRCUIT 

The  discussion  of  resistance  brings  us 
logically  to  the  subject  of  circuits,  upon 
the  arrangement  of  which  very  much  de- 


410 


*IRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


pends  in  all  branches  of  electrical  work. 
In  general,  there  are  two  varieties  of  elec- 
trical circuit — the  series  and  the  parallel  or 
multiple.  As  shown  by  the  accompanying 
diagrams,  the  arrangement  of  the  series  cir- 


Galvanic  Cell  and  Series  Circuit. 

cuit  consists  in  coupling  the  cells,  lamps  or 
other  apparatus  in  tandem,  as  it  were,  so 
that  the  current  passes  through  each  and 
all  in  making  the  round  of  the  circuit.  In 
the  parallel  or  multiple  circuit,  the  cells,  or 
ether  apparatus,  are  on  bridges  between  the 


X6666 


Galvanic  Cell  and  Multiple  Circuit. 

leads,  or  wires,  the  negative  poles  of  all 
being  connected  to  one  lead,  the  positives 
to  the  other. 

So  much  for  the  arrangement  of  the  two 
varieties  of  circuit.  Their  electrical  qualities 
may  be  summed  in  the  following  rules : 

RESISTANCE    IN    CIRCUITS 

(1)  In  a  series  circuit  the  total  resistance 
is  equal  to  the  resistance  of  the  line  wires, 
plus  the  combined  resistances  of  the  cells 
or  other  apparatus.    The  effective  electrical 
pressure  of  a  battery  of  cells  in  series  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  combined  voltages 
of  all  the  cells,  although  the  resistance  is 
greater,  thus  reducing  the  current. 

(2)  In  a  parallel  or  multiple  circuit  the 
total  resistance  is  equal  to  the  resistance  of 
the  line  wire  plus  the  number  of  ohms  found 
by   dividing   the   resistance   of  one  cell   or 
other  piece  of  apparatus  by  the  number  of 


such  cells  or  other  apparatus.  The  total 
E.M.F.  of  a  battery  of  cells  in  multiple  is 
equivalent  to  the  E.M.F.  of  one  cell  form- 
ing it. 

To  illustrate  these  principles,  let  us  sup- 
pose that  on  a  given  circuit  the  outside  re- 
sistance, including  wires  and  all  other  ap- 
paratus, is  8  ohms;  that  the  battery  is 
composed  of  four  chemical  cells,  each  giving 
a  pressure  of  1.5  volts,  with  an  internal 
resistance  of  2  ohms  apiece.  Then,  with 
the  cells  in  series,  we  have  a  total  resistance 
of  16  ohms,  a  total  voltage  of  6,  and,  by 
Ohm's  Law,  a  current  strength  expressed 
by  6  -7-  1 6  =  .375  ampere. 

If  in  the  same  circuit  of  8  ohms  outside 
resistance  the  same  four  cells  be  connected 
in  multiple,  we  find  the  resistance  thus: 
2  -T-  4  =  .5 ;  total  resistance  8.5  ohms.  Total 
E.M.F.,  1.5  volts;  current,  by  Ohm's  Law, 
is  1.5 -7-8.5  =  .176  ampere. 

SERIES-MULTIPLE    CIRCUITS 

There  is  still  a  third  way  of  arranging  a 
battery  of  cells  in  a  circuit.  It  is  called 
series-multiple,  and  is  really  a  combination 
of  the  two  other  varieties  of  circuit.  Thus, 
with  the  four  cells  already  mentioned,  we 


Galvanic  Cells  in  Series-Multiple. 

may  form  a  series-multiple  circuit  by  con- 
necting two  cells  in  series,  and  arranging 
the  couple  on  a  bridge  between  the  leads; 
arranging  the  other  two  cells  in  precisely 
similar  manner.  Then,  remembering  the 
resistance  and  voltage  of  each  cell,  as  al- 
ready given,  we  understand  that  the  re- 
sistance of  each  couple  is  2  +  2  =  4  ohms, 
and  that  the  voltage  of  each  couple  is 
I-5~l~I-5  =  3  volts.  But,  because  each  pair 
of  cells  is  on  a  bridge — in  multiple — the 
total  internal  resistance  of  the  battery  is 
as  the  ratio  between  the  resistance  of  one 
couple  and  the  number  of  couples — which 
is  4-7-2  =  2  ohms — or,  in  this  case,  equal 
to  the  resistance  of  one  cell.  In  regard  to 
voltage  the  law  of  batteries  in  multiple  ap- 
plies; the  total  pressure  being  equal  to  the 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


411 


pressure  of  one  couple,  or  1.5  +  1.5=3. 
Hence,  the  total  circuit  resistance  being 
8  +  2  =  10  ohms,  we  have,  by  Ohm's  Law, 
a  current  of  3-7-  *o=.3  ampere. 

GALVANIC    CELLS    IN    CIRCUIT 

In  regard  to  the  arrangement  of  cells  in 
battery  suitable  for  any  given  circuit,  it 
may  be  said  that  there  are  a  number  of 
points  to  be  taken  into  consideration — the 
resistance  of  the  circuit,  the  current  strength 
required  and  the  economy  of  the  battery. 
With  a  very  high  external  resistance  (i.e. 
resistance  in  the  circuit  outside  the  battery) 
the  greatest  current  may  be  obtained  with 
the  cells  in  series,  as  already  seen,  although 
an  added  internal  resistance  is  necessarily 
involved.  This  is  the  least  economical  ar- 
rangement, however,  since  the  greater  ex- 
penditure of  current  involves  a  more  rapid 
deterioration  of  the  cells.  Altogether  the 


Two  Galvank  Cells  in  Series. 

most  effective  arrangement  is  to  construct 
the  battery  of  a  sufficient  number  of  cells 
to  make  the  total  of  internal  resistances 
equal  to  the  external  resistance  of  the  cir- 
cuit. However,  the  end  of  economy  is  best 
attained  when  the  internal  resistance  of 
each  cell  is  low  ;  since  by  this  means  a  cor- 
respondingly small  portion  of  the  energy  is 
consumed  in  heating  its  own  resistance. 
This  gives  a  good  current  strength  with 
slow  deterioration  of  the  elements.  That 
different  makes  of  cell  differ  in  internal 
resistance,  as  also  in  exact  voltage-equiva- 
lent, we  shall  learn  later. 

LAMPS,  MOTORS,  ETC.,  IN  CIRCUIT 

Just  as  the  highest  pressure  and  the 
greatest  current  may  be  obtained  with  a 
battery  of  cells  in  series,  also  the  greatest 
internal  resistance,  so  also  a  greater  cur- 
rent and  a  greater  pressure  are  required  to 
operate  lamps,  motors,  and  other  electrical 
apparatus  connected  in  ?  tt  ies.  There  is  also 


on  electrical  circuits,  particularly  when  mag- 
netic devices — motors,  etc. — are  used,  sev- 
eral varieties  of  "false  resistance, ' '  prominent 
among  which  is  the  so  called  counter-elec- 
tromotive force  (C.E.M.F.),  which,  as  sev- 
eral authorities  remark,  "behaves  precisely 
like  a  pressure  exerted  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion." It  follows,  therefore,  that  apparatus 
in  series  with  the  battery  involves  a  greater 
expenditure  of  electrical  energy  and  a  lower 
efficiency  than  when  in  multiple.  Indeed, 
it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  in  using  elec- 
trical motors  for  certain  purposes  (as  e.g. 
on  automobiles)  to  vary  the  connections  to 
circuit  so  as  to  have  the  field  and  armature 
in  series  for  low  speed,  and  in  multiple  for 
higher  speed. 

This  brings  tts  to  the  fundamental  laws 
regarding  the  arrangement  of  circuits: 

(1)  With   electrical  apparatus  in  series 
their  total  resistance  is  the  sum  of  the  in- 
dividual resistances. 

(2)  With  electrical  apparatus  in  multiple 
their  total  resistance  is  as  their  conductances . 

A  moment's  reflection  will  show  that  this 
latter  rule  is  merely  a  restatement  of  the 
one  already  given  for  batteries.  Thus,  if 
we  have  loo  16-candle-power  incandescent 
lamps  in  multiple  on  a  no- volt  circuit — 
each  lamp  having  a  resistance  of  246  ohms, 
hence  consuming  current  at  the  rate  of  .447 
ampere,  or  3.07  watts  per  candle-power — 
the  total  lamp  resistance  is  equivalent  to 
the  voltage  divided  by  the  total  conductance 
inamperes.  Thus,  IIO-T-(. 447X100)  =  2.46, 
which  is  the  same  as  dividing  the  resistance 
of  one  lamp  by  the  number  of  lamps,  or 
246-7-100  =  2.46.  This  condition  is  per- 
fectly in  accord  with  Ohm's  Law,  which 
makes  the  resistance  in  a  circuit  equivalent 
to  the  voltage  divided  by  the  current.  Thus, 
if  one  lamp  requires  .447  ampere  to  light  it, 
100  lamps  will  require  44.7  amperes,  and  if 
the  pressure  between  the  terminals  of  the 
circuit  is  no  volts,  we  have  110-7-44.7=2.46 
ohms,  as  before.  The  same  solutions  apply 
to  multiple  circuits  containing  motors  or 
other  electrically  operated  machines. 

WIRING   A    MULTIPLE-CIRCUIT 

In  order  to  find  the  proper  size  of  wire 
for  use  on  a  multiple  circuit,  the  following 
rule  is  given: 

1 i )  Take  twice  the  unit  resistance  of  the 
given  metal  at  an  average  temperature. 

(2)  Multiply  this  figure  by  the  total  length 
of  the  circuit,  and  by  the  number  of  lamps 
bridged  between  the  leads. 

(3)  Divide  the  product  by  the  resistance 
of  one  lamp  lighted. 


412 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


(.4)  Determine  the  percentage  of  loss,  or 
drop  in  potential,  and  subtract  it  front  100. 

(5)  Divide  the  product  by  the  same  figure 
expressing  percentage  of  loss. 

(6)  Multiply  the  two  quotients  together 
to  find  the  sise  of  the  wire  in  circular  mils. 

If,  for  example,  we  have  a  circuit  of  100 
feet  total  length  between  terminals;  50 
lamps  to  be  connected  in  multiple;  each 
having  a  resistance  of  246  ohms  hot;  sup- 
posing that  the  percentage  of  loss  is  to  be 
10  per  cent,  then,  as  already  explained,  we 
find  the  unit  resistence  for  copper  wire  at 
the  average  temperature  of  75°  Fahrenheit 
(23.8°  Centigrade),  as  follows: 

R  =  9.59  X  (.00388  X  23.8  +  i)=  10.47  + 
Then,  we  find  the  circular  mils  as  follows: 


CM 


_ 20.94  X  100  X  50     X  loo— 10 


10 


=  425-03 


246 
X  9  =  3825.27 

Reference  to  the  wiring  table  will  show 
that  No.  14  copper  wire  is  the  size  nearest 
to  the  required  figure. 

THE    THREE-WIRE   CIRCUIT 

Another  form  of  circuit  that  should  be 
explained  is  the  three-wire  circuit  frequently 
used  for  electric  lamps.  In  this  arrange- 
ment two  dynamos  are  coupled  in  series, 
the  leads  on  either  side  being  extended 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  circuit. 
Instead,  however,  of  simply  arranging  the 
lamps  on  bridges,  or  in  multiple,  a  third 


Diagram  of  a  Three-Wire  Circuit. 

wire  is  connected  to  the  length  of  conduc- 
tor between  the  terminals  of  the  two 
dynamos,  and  the  bridges  are  arranged  be- 
tween it  and  the  other  two  wires  on  either 
side.  Such  bridges  are  supposedly  ar- 
ranged directly  across  the  circuit  between 
the  two  main  leads,  topping  the  third  wire 
at  points  midway  in  their  lengths. 

In    calculating    the    electrical    conditions 


with  such  a  circuit  arrangement,  the  re-  • 
sistance  is  estimated  precisely  as  in  the 
series-multiple.  Thus,  if  each  complete 
bridge  contains  two  lamps  in  series,  their 
joint  resistance  would  be,  let  us  say,  246 
ohms  X  2  =  492  ohms.  If  there  are  too 
lamps  in  the  circuit,  or  50  2-lamp  bridges, 
the  total  resistance  will  be  492  -r-  50  =  9.84 
ohms,  or  four  times  the  ohmage  already 
found  for  the  same  number  of  lamps  in 
multiple.  Not  estimating  the  outside  re- 
sistance of  the  circuit  leads,  we  may  calcu- 
late the  amount  of  current  required,  as  fol- 
lows :  Since  two  dynamos  are  coupled  in 
series,  the  voltage  is  110X2  =  220  volts. 
Therefore,  the  total  current  required  is 
220-^9.84  =  22.35  amperes,  or  one-half  the 
figure  found  for  a  multiple  circuit.  Since 
the  total  lamp  resistance  is  four  times 
greater  on  a  three-wire  circuit,  as  compared  • 
with  another  of  the  same  dimensions,  the 
resistance  of  the  positive  and  negative  wires 
must  be  four  times  greater,  which  means 
that  each  wire  has  one-quarter  the  cross- 
section  required  for  a  multiple  circuit. 

Such  voltages  as  we  have  supposed  to  be 
used  in  the  lamp  circuits  just  discussed  can 
be  produced  only  by  a  dynamo  electrical 
generator.  Indeed,  as  already  suggested,  <• 
the  invention  of  this  machine  was  the  real 
beginning  of  electrical  lighting,  as  also  of  / 
commercial  motors,  and  all  the  manifold 
uses  which  electricity  serves  at  the  present 
day.  As  the  dynamo  involves  the  under- 
standing and  use  of  electrical  quantities  not 
yet  explained,  it  will  be  described  after  the 
theory  of  primary  chemical  cells  and  the 
properties  of  circuits  have  been  set  forth. 

GALVANIC    BATTERIES 

The  primary  electrical  cell  is  so  called  in 
distinction  from  the  "secondary"  cell,  ac- 
cumulator or  "storage  cell,"  as  being  an 
original  source  of  energy.  The  simplest 
form  of  this  apparatus  has  already  been 
described — a  sheet  of  zinc  and  a  sheet  of 
copper,  immersed  in  a  jar  filled  with  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid,  and  connected  to- 
gether by  an  outside  wire.  In  such  a  cell 
the  zinc  is  attacked  by  the  acid  and  gradu- 
ally consumed,  but  the  generation  of  current 
does  not  begin  until  the  circuit  of  the  out- 
side wire  is  closed,  thus  making  a  complete 
path  from  one  electrode  back  to  the  other, 
over  the  wire. 

Previous  to  the  closing  of  the  circuit  no 
particular  obvious  changes  take  place  be- 
yond the  accumulation  of  bubbles  of  hydro- 
gen on  the  surface  of  the  copper  electrode. 
The  hydrogen  is  liberated  as  the  oxygen  in 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF   ELECTRICITY 


413 


the  solution,  or  electrolyte,  combines  with 
the  zinc.  On  the  closure  of  the  circuit  the 
operation  of  consuming  the  zinc  is  greatly 
accelerated,  a  condition  of  electrical  poten- 
tial being  immediately  established  and  a 
constant  flow  of  current  resulting.  The 
chemical  activity  is  equally  marked,  consist- 
ing, according  to  the  accepted  theory  in  the 
"polarization"  of  the  molecules  composing 
the  solution,  so  that  there  is  a  regular  and 
orderly  rotation  from  one  electrode  to  the 
other,  the  oxygen  of  each  being  liberated  at 
the  zinc  plate,  to  unite  with  it,  and  the 
hydrogen  atoms  being  carried  across  to  the 
copper  surface,  there  to  be  deposited  in  the 
form  of  minute  bubbles  in  great  numbers. 
Of  course  the  process  can  not  continue  for 
a  very  extended  period  before  the  accumu- 
lation of  hydrogen  will  completely  cover 
the  copper,  thus  greatly  increasing  the  in- 
ternal resistance.  For  this  reason,  a  prac- 
tical cell  requires  the  use  of  some  substance 
to  act  as  a  "depolarizer,"  which  is  to  say 
an  absorbent  of  hydrogen.  In  the  most 
familiar  form  of  zinc-copper  cell,  the  Daniell 
"crow-foot,"  so  familiar  in  telegraphy,  the 
zinc  electrode  is  a  piece  cast  into  the  shape 
of  a  hand  or  claw,  with  several  fingers  ex- 
tended, and  is  fixed  at  the  upper  part  of 
the  jar.  The  copper  electrode  consists  of 
several  sheets  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
cell,  with  copper  sulphate  crystals  ("blue 
vitriol")  between;  this  latter  material  serv- 
ing to  depolarize  the  negative,  or  copper, 
electrode  as  the  process  of  current-genera- 
tion proceeds.  Were  it  not  for  this  the 
current  would  soon  cease  altogether,  and 
the  cell  be  rendered  useless. 

INTERNAL    RESISTANCE 

Having  explained  the  general  principles 
that  apply  in  all  forms  of  chemical  primary 
cell,  we  may  proceed  to  the  discussion  of 
internal  resistance.  In  the  first  place,  we 
may  note  that  the  voltage  of  a  single  primary 
cell  of  given  pattern  and  construction  will 
always  be  the  same,  no  matter  what  the 
size.  Although  two  cells  connected  in  series 
may  have  a  smaller  area  of  active  metal 
electrode  surface  than  another  larger  cell 
of  the  same  make,  the  two  cells  will  give 
twice  as  much  voltage  as  the  larger — more 
exactly,  twice  the  voltage  divided  by  the 
combined  internal  resistances.  The  only  ad- 
vantage to  be  gained  in  making  a  cell  larger 
is  that  its  internal  resistance  is  thus  dimin- 
ished. If  we  could  make  a  cell  sufficiently 
large,  the  internal  resistance  might  be  re- 
duced to  a  negligible  figure.  The  cost  would 
be  greater,  however,  than  the  advantage; 


since  we  would  get  no  more  power  out  of 
the  greater  consumption  of  element. 

The  electrolyte,  or  liquid  solution,  fur- 
nishes another  necessary  source  of  resistance. 
Water,  although  a  recognized  conductor  of 
current,  has  a  very  high  resistance,  regis- 
tering, according  to  best  authorities,  2,650,- 
000,000  microhms,  or  2,650  ohms,  per  cubic 
centimetre  at  the  temperature  of  greatest 
density.  The  addition  of  an  acid,  such  as 
sulphuric  or  hydrochloric,  operates  to  re- 
duce the  resistance  within  limits.  Thus, 
in  a  zoo-part  solution,  5  parts  sulphuric 
acid  and  95  parts  water,  the  resistance  is 
only  4.86  ohms  per  cubic  centimetre;  in  a 
30  per  cent  solution,  of  70  parts  water,  the 
resistance  is  1.37  ohms ;  in  a  50  per  cent 
solution,  equal  parts  of  water  and  acid,  the 
resistance  is  1.25  ohms.  Beyond  this  point, 
however,  the  ohmage  again  rises  rapidly, 
until  with  80  per  cent  of  acid,  the  resistance 
is  once  more  about  the  same  as  with  only 
5  parts.  It  might  seem,  therefore,  that 
within  limits  the  proportions  of  acid  and 
water  could  be  regulated  to  secure  a  low 
resistance.  But  we  must  not  forget  that 
such  an  arrangement  would  also  hasten  the 
consumption  of  the  zinc  element,  and  thus 
prove  more  expensive  than  a  high  resistance. 

From  what  has  just  been  said,  it  is  fairly 
evident  that  the  only  really  practical  meth- 
ods of  keeping  the  internal  resistance  of  a 
chemical  cell  within  reasonable  figures  is  to 
adopt  such  constructions  as  shall  combine 
high  pressures  with  good  economy.  Such 
results  may  be  obtained  either  (i)  by  using 
as  active  elements  substances  of  widely  dif- 
fering potential,  (2)  by  providing  to  prop- 
erly depolarize  the  cell. 

"NATURAL    POTENTIALS" 

In  a  chemical  cell  the  fundamental  con- 
sideration is  the  natural  potential  of  the 
substances  used  in  its  construction.  By 
natural  potential  we  may  understand  the 
varying  property,  as  between  two  different 
substances,  of  receiving  and  containing  an 
electrical  charge.  Substances  differ  in  this 
particular  as  in  their  capacity  for  conduct- 
ing current  or  heat.  Indeed,  the  recogni- 
tion of  this  fact  was  the  real  beginning  of 
electrical  science.  When  Galvani  observed 
that  the  legs  of  a  frog  hung  upon  a  copper 
hook,  so  as  to  touch  a  bar  of  iron,  were 
caused  to  twitch  convulsively,  he  had  really 
discovered  this  fact.  Subsequent  investiga- 
tions have  proved  that  there  is  a  regular 
series  of  substances,  so  arranged  according 
to  potential  that,  when  brought  into  contact, 
an  electrical  discharge  occurs.  As  previously 

27 


414 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES   OF    ELECTRICITY 


suggested,  the  current  differs  from  the  mo- 
mentary discharge,  or  "shock,"  only  in  being 
continuous. 

The  first  step  in  the  generation  of  cur- 
rent, therefore,  is  to  immerse  two  substances 
of  differing  potential  in  a  suitable  acid  so- 
lution, then  to  join  them,  outside  the  solu- 
tion, by  a  wire  that  passes  through  any 
apparatus  to  be  affected  by  current,  and 
completes  a  circuit.  Accordingly,  we  find 
that  the  flow  of  energy,  through  the  acid 
solution,  is  from  the  high-potential  sub- 
stance to  the  low-potential  substance,  and, 
through  the  outside  wire,  from  the  low- 
potential  substance  to  the  high-potential  sub- 
stance. Such  common  substances  are  in 
regular  order: 


I — Zinc — 1 1. 

2 — Tin — 10. 

3 — Lead — 9. 

4 — Iron — 8. 

5 — Nickel — 7. 

6 — Antimony — 6.      L    :;•  S* 

7— Copper— 5. 

8 — Silver — 4. 

9— Gold— 3. 
io — Platinum — 2. 
1 1 — Graphite —  I . 


Understanding  that  the  flow  of  energy  is 
in  the  indicated  conditions  from  the  sub- 
stance having  the  lower  number  to  that 
having  the  higher,  we  see  the  entire  theory 
of  the  Galvanic  cell  at  a  glance.  It  shows 
that,  while  the  zinc  electrode  is  positive 
within  the  acid,  it  is  negative  outside  it : 
hence  the  zinc  is  the  negative  pole  of  the 
cell,  and  the  current  returns  into  the  solu- 
tion at  the  point  at  which  the  circuit  wire 
is  joined  to  it. 

OPEN-CIRCUIT   CELLS 

Because,  as  the  above  table  shows,  there 
is  a  greater  difference  in  potential  between 
zinc  and  carbon  than  between  zinc  and  cop- 
per, we  may  understand  why  most  com- 
mercial cells  at  the  present  have  the  zinc 
and  carbon  elements.  This  variety  of  cell 
is  also  of  the  so-called  open-circuit  type. 
An  open-circuit  cell  is  one  that  may  be 
used  intermittently  and  left  with  the  circuit 
open  for  indefinite  periods,  without  injury. 
A  zinc-copper  closed-circuit  cell,  like  the 
Daniell  "blue-stone,"  already  described,  rap- 
idly deteriorates  when  the  outside  circuit 
is  open ;  the  acid  simply  eating  out  the  zinc, 
without  performing  useful  work.  If,  there- 
fore, it  is  used  for  any  purpose  where  cur- 
rent is  required  only  occasionally,  a  resist- 
ance  equal  to  or  greater  than  the  working 
load  should  be  switched  into  the  circuit 


during  periods  when  current  is  not  needed. 
No  cell  should  ever  be  left  on  closed  cir- 
cuit without  a  good-sized  resistance  on 
the  outside  circuit  wire;  since  this  condi- 
tion, known  as  short-circuiting,  is  one  of 
the  most  fertile  occasions  of  deterioration. 
Resistance  is  a  necessary  condition  to  prac- 
tical electrical  activity. 

Apart  from  the  fact  that  zinc  and  carbon 
are  the  typical  elements  in  open-circuit  cells, 
the  essential  constructional  difference  be- 
tween the  two  lies  in  the  nature  and  action 
of  the  depolarizer.  In  the  typical  closed- 
circuit  cell — the  Daniell  "blue-stone" — the 
depolarizer,  sulphate  of  copper,  acts  con- 
stantly to  absorb  the  hydrogen  gas  on  the 
surface  of  the  copper  plates  as  rapidly  as 
collected.  In  open-circuit  cells,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  depolarizer  acts  only  when  the 
circuit  is  open.  Thus,  such  a  cell  can  gen- 
erate effective  current  only  for  a  limited 
interval ;  requiring  a  period  of  rest,  in  or- 
der to  "recuperate,"  or  depolarize. 

The  typical  open-circuit  cell  is  the  Le- 
clanche,  so  widely  known  in  telephone  and 
electric  bell  work.  In  this  cell  the  zinc  is 
in  the  form  of  a  pencil  or  rod ;  the  carbon, 
in  the  form  of  a  plate ;  the  exciting  liquid, 
or  electrolyte,  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac 
in  water,  and  the  polarizer  dioxide  of  man- 
ganese. The  manganese  is  either  contained 
in  a  porous  earthenware  cup  or  is  in  the 
form  of  bricks,  or  "prisms,"  mixed  with 
carbon  and  other  substances.  There  arc 
very  many  cells,  constructed  on  the  same 
general  principles.  In  one  of  these  the  de- 
polarizer is  contained  in  a  porous  carbon 
vessel,  which  also  serves  as  the  negative 
electrode.  In  several  others,  the  depolarizer 
is  dispensed  with — the  end  being  attained 
by  enlarging  the  surface  of  the  carbon  in 
proportion  to  that  of  the  zinc.  This  is  a 
good  plan  in  securing  simplicity  of  construc- 
tion, also  in  giving  a  good-sized  voltage 
with  a  minimum  of  internal  resistance. 


Hitherto  we  have  discussed  the  proper- 
ties of  electrical  circuits  solely  with  ref- 
erence to  the  conduction  of  current,  as  it 
flows  between  points  of  differing  potential. 
In  its  passage  through  a  continuous  con- 
ducting circuit,  a  current  is  able  to  effect 
profound  chemical  changes;  to  transfer 
metals,  atom  by  atom,  through  an  electro- 
lytic solution,  as  in  electro-plating  and 
electrotyping;  to  produce  heat  where  suffi- 
cient resistance  is  interposed;  to  produce 
light,  where  there  is  a  gap  between  carbon 
terminals,  or  where  a  high-resistance  con- 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


415 


ductor  is  inclosed  fin  a  vacuum,  and  to  give 
rise  to  other  physical  and  therapeutic  effects. 
All  this  variety  of  activities  tells  us  noth- 
ing, however,  about  the  other  influences  con- 
stantly at  work  on  a  current-carrying  con- 


Whirl  of  Forcf  Around  a  Live  Wire. 

ductor.  To  take  the  matter  at  its  root,  we 
find  by  experiment  that  when  current  is 
flowing  along  the  length  of  a  wire,  there 
are  activities  manifested  constantly  at  right 
angles  to  it.  These  take  the  form  of  con- 
centric circles  of  force,  as  may  be  proved 
by  passing  the  wire  through  a  hole  in  a 
piece  of  cardboard,  and  dusting  iron  filings 
around  it.  Furthermore,  the  insulation  that 
effectually  confines  the  current  to  the  wire 
conductor,  preventing  its  spread  to  other 
conducting  substances  that  happen  to  come 


LAWS    OF    INDUCTION 

This  fact  may  be  proved  by  a  simple  ex- 
periment. Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  a 
circuit  of  wire  whose  terminals  are  con- 
nected to  the  poles  of  a  Galvanic  cell,  allow- 
ing current  to  flow  through  it,  as  soon  as 
it  is  closed.  If  we  have  also  another  cir- 
cuit of  wire  containing  no  battery,  but  hav- 
ing its  terminals  connected  to  a  galvanom- 
eter, or  current-indicator,  we  have  all  the 
apparatus  necessary  for  demonstrating  the 
phenomenon  known  as  induction.  This  may 
be  done  as  follows :  If  in  the  first  circuit 
we  have  a  finger  key  that  may  be  operated 
to  close  or  open  it  at  pleasure,  allowing  cur- 
rent to  flow  between  the  poles  of  the  cell, 
or  cutting  it  off,  we  will  learn  from  the 
galvanometer  that  immediately  upon  the 
closure  of  the  first  circuit,  a  momentary 
current  will  flow  in  the  second  circuit  in 
j  the  opposite  direction;  also,  that,  when  the 
first  circuit  is  opened  again,  another,  but 


Arrangement  of  Force  Around  a  Live  Wire. 

into  contact  with  it,  does  not  restrict  these 
forces  that  surround  the  wire,  like  so  many 
continuous  rings  of  activity,  one  within  an- 
other. 


Diagram  of   Electrical  Induction. 

weaker,  momentary  current  will  flow  in  the 
second  circuit,  but  in  the  same  direction  as 
in  the  first.  Now,  suppose  we  call  the  first, 
or  current-carrying,  circuit,  A,  and  the  sec- 
ond circuit,  B,  we  will  find  that  the  laws 
governing  current  induction  may  be  summed 
up  in  these  statements: 

(,i)  Increasing  the  strength  of  the  cur- 
rent in  A  increases  the  strength  of  the  cur- 
rent in  B,  flowing  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  the  current  in  A. 

(2)  Decreasing  the  strength  of  the  cur- 
rent in  A  decreases  the  strength  of  the  cur- 
rent in  B,  also   causing  it  to  flow  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  current  in  A. 

(3)  If  we  move  the  current-carrying  wire, 
A,  nearer  to  B,  we  induce  a  strong  current 
in   the   opposite   direction;   if  we   move   it 
further  from  B,  we  induce  a  weak  current 
in  the  same  direction. 

(4)  If    the    wire    used    in    circuit    A    is 
thicker   than   that   used    in   B,   the   current 
induced  in  B  will  show  a  greater  E.M.F. 


416 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES   OF   ELECTRICITY 


than  that  in  A.  Conversely,  if  the  wire 
used  in  A  be  thinner  than  that  used  in  B, 
the  induced  current  will  show  a  lower  E.M.F. 
than  that  in  A. 

In  the  same  manner,  if  a  circuit  including 
a  galvanometer  be  arranged  in  the  form  of 
a  coil,  and  a  magnetized  bar  be  introduced 
into  the  "eye"  of  the  coil,  the  same  phenom- 
ena will  be  observed.  Also,  if  a  compass 
needle  be  placed  near  a  current-carrying 
wire,  it  will  point  with  its  positive  pole  in 
the  direction  in  which  the  current  moves  in 


Effect  of  Induction  on  a  Magnetized  Needle. 

the  wire,  being  drawn  from  the  north.  Just 
as  the  activity  in  a  magnetized  bar  can  in- 
duce a  current  in  a  closed  circuit  of  wire, 
so,  when  a  wire  is  wound  about  an  iron  or 
steel  bar,  the  current  passing  through  it 
will  cause  it  to  become  a  magnet. 

MAGNETS    AND    MAGNETISM 

Magnetism  is  nearly  the  most  important 
factor  in  present-day  electrical  activity — 
forming  the  basis  of  the  dynamo  generator 
and  motor,  as  well  as  of  the  telegraph  and 
telephone  industries.  The  number  of  de- 
vices, based  upon  the  simple  principle  of 
inclosing  a  bar  of  iron  in  a  coil,  or  helix, 
of  insulated  wire,  is  surprisingly  large. 

At  the  start,  however,  we  must  under- 
stand definitely  that  the  essential  difference 
in  simple  voltaic  induction,  between  two 
circuits  of  wire,  as  just  explained,  and  mag- 
netic induction  by  which  the  current  in  a 
helix  of  wire  imparts  magnetic  properties 
to  a  bar  of  iron,  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
former  is  only  momentary,  at  the  closure 
or  opening  of  the  "live"  circuit,  while  the 
second  exerts  its  influence  so  long  as  cur- 
rent flows  in  the  helix.  If  the  bar  is  of 
soft  iron  the  magnetism  ceases  when  the 
current  in  the  helix  ceases ;  if  it  is  of  hard- 
ened steel  a  permanent  magnet  is  produced 
— the  magnetic  properties  lasting  after  the 
current  and  helix  have  been  withdrawn. 

Every  magnet  has,  to  use  general  terms, 
a  positive  and  a  negative,  or  a  north  and  a 
south,  pole.  The  difference  may  be  readily 
discovered  by  experiment.  Thus,  if  tjje 


north  pole  of  one  magnet  be  brought  near 
to  the  south  pole  of  another,  there  will  be 
mutual  attraction  and  a  tendency  to  come 
together;  but,  if  two  north  poles  or  two 
south  poles  be  brought  together,  there  will 
be  repulsion,  or  a  tendency  to  fly  apart. 

This  fact  may  be  readily  explained  by  the 
theory  that  the  magnetic  force  induced  in  a 
bar  of  iron  by  the  current  flowing  in  a 
helix  follows  the  direction  of  the  inducing 
current.  At  the  positive,  or  north,  pole, 
the  movement  is  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  the  hands  of  a  clock — if  we  look  at  the 
end  of  the  bar — and  at  the  negative,  or 
south,  pole  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
hands  of  a  clock.  Thus,  as  may  be  under- 
stood on  reflection,  if  the  opposite  poles  of 
two  magnets  be  brought  together,  the  direc- 
tion of  rotation  is  continuous,  and  energy 
from  one  flows  into  the  other,  causing  the 
phenomenon  of  "attraction" ;  while,  with 
the  bringing  together  of  the  like  poles  of 
two  magnets  the  movements  in  the  two  are 
contrary,  hence  allowing  no  transfer  of  en- 
ergy, and  causing  the  phenomenon  of  "re- 
pulsion." 

POLARITY    OF   MAGNETS 

The  position  of  the  poles  of  a  magnet 
may  thus  be  determined  by  the  direction 
of  winding  the  coil  or  helix.  If  this  is 
wound  in  the  direction  in  which  a  clock's 
hands  move,  or  from  left  to  right,  the  north 
pole  is  at  the  end  opposite  to  that  at  which 
the  current  enters.  If  it  is  wound  in  the 
direction  opposite  to  that  in  which  a  clock's 
hands  move,  the  north  pole  is  at  the  same 
end  at  which  the  current  enters.  This  fact 
is  important  in  telegraphy  and  some  other 
branches,  enabling  the  construction  of  dif- 
ferentially-wound magnets  having  two  wind- 
ings in  opposite  directions. 

POWER    OF    MAGNETS 

The  strength,  or  pulling-power,  of  a  mag- 
net depends  broadly  upon  the  number  of 
ampere-turns  in  the  helix,  or  the  number 
of  turns  given  to  a  wire  that  can  carry  one 
ampere  of  current.  Magnets  are  wound 
with  a  number  of  superposed  layers,  gener- 
ally to  a  depth  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the 
core,  or  iron  bar  in  the  centre  of  the  coil. 
The  finer  the  wire  the  greater  the  number 
of  turns,  consequently  the  greater  the  mag- 
netic effect,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  a  fine 
wire  has  a  greater  resistance  than  a  thick 
wire.  The  explanation  is  simple:  Winding 
with  a  large  number  of  turns  of  fine  wire 
allows  more  magnetic  circles  of  force  to 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


417 


act  upon  the  core;  while  winding  with  the 
same  number  of  turns  of  thick  wire  would 
quickly  place  the  core  out  of  reach  of  the 
circles  of  force  of  the  outer  turns,  which 
would  thus  be  rendered  useless  in  affecting 
it.  Within  limits,  then,  the  strength  of  a 
magnet  properly  wound  is  determined  by 
the  strength  of  the  current  in  the  helix, 
giving  a  greater  or  less  intensity  of  mag- 
netic activity  at  right  angles  to  the  wire. 
This  fact  holds  within  limits  because  too 
great  a  current  would  tend  to  heat  the  wires 
and  burn  out  the  insulation.  Thus,  very 
powerful  magnets  must  be  made  with  large 
cores  wound  with  proportionately  heavy 


MAGNETIC    LINES    OF   FORCE 

Just  as  the  fundamental  fact  connected 
with  an  electrical  circuit  is  a  flow  of  en- 
ergy, or  current,  from  the  point  of  high 
potential  to  that  of  low  potential,  so  in  a 
magnet  there  are  lines  of  force  constantly 
acting  between  the  poles,  and,  with  a  straight 


are  supposed  to  represent  the  lines  of  force, 
or  the  direction  of  the  current,  as  it  leaves 
the  north  pole  and  re-enters  at  the  south. 
If  we  place  one  pole  of  a  magnet  under 
a  card  holding  iron  filings,  these  filings  ar- 
range themselves  as  rays,  or  straight  lines 
starting  from  a  common  centre. 

MAGNETIC    UNITS 

In  treating  and  measuring  magnets  and 
magnetic  strength,  we  are  introduced  to  a 
new  series  of  quantities  and  units,  as  fol- 
lows : 

(1)  Magneto-motive     force      (M.M.F.), 
whose   unit  is  the  gilbert. 

(2)  Magnetic  current,  or  flux,  whose  unit 
is  the  maxwell. 

(3)  Magnetic    resistance,    or    reluctance, 
whose  unit  is  the  oersted. 

(4)  Magnetic  density,  or  intensity,  whose 
unit  is  the  gauss. 

The  gilbert  is  the  amount  of  magnetizing 
force  developed  by  a  current  of  .7958  am- 
pere flowing  through  one  ampere-turn  of 


V  VI 

Polarity  of  Bar  Magnets  and  Directions  of  Windings. 


bar  magnet  forming  series  of  arcs  between 
the  two.  If  we  take  a  permanent  bar  mag- 
net and  place  it  near  a  quantity  of  iron 
filings  we  will  find  that  these  will  be  at- 
tracted to  both  poles,  and  will  adhere  there 
with  considerable  force.  But  toward  the 
centre  of  the  bar  we  will  see  very  few. 
This  indicates  that  there  is  some  system  in 
the  magnetic  power  of  attraction,  and  that 
it  is  not  the  same  at  all  points. 

If  now  we  place  over  the  bar  magnet  a 
plate  of  glass  or  a  sheet  of  stiff  paper,  and 
on  it  dust  a  quantity  of  iron  filings,  we  will 
find  the  filings  starting  out  from  either 
pole,  and  at  points  midway  between,  de- 
scribing arcs  or  parts  of  circles,  over  the 
bar,  and  meeting  in  the  middle  of  the  "field." 

The   lines   thus   described  by  the  filings 


wire  wound  on  the  iron  core.  Consequently, 
a  current  of  one  ampere  will  give  1.257  gil- 
berts M.M.F. 

CALCULATING   FOR   MAGNETS 

The  number  of  ampere-turns  in  a  solenoid 
is  the  product  of  the  number  of  complete 
convolutions  by  the  number  of  amperes  car- 
ried on  the  wire.  Thus,  with  100  turns  of 
wire  adjusted  to  carry  3  amperes  at  a  given 
voltage,  we  would  have  300  ampere-turns. 
If  the  voltage  is  doubled,  we  have  twice 
the  amperage,  hence  600  ampere-turns.  If 
it  is  half  as  great,  we  have  only  half  the 
amperage,  hence  only  150  ampere-turns. 

In  order,  therefore,  to  find  the  number  of 
gilberts  developed  in  a  given  magnet,  we 
take  one-tenth  the  product  of  4  multiplied 


418 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES   OF   ELECTRICITY 


by  3.14159  and  multiply  it  by  the  number 
of  ampere-turns.  The  figure,  3.14159,  is  the 
ratio  between  the  circumference  and  di- 
ameter of  a  circle — thus  the  circumference 
of  every  circle  is  3.14159  times  its  diameter. 
Since  wire  wound  about  an  iron  core  is  cir- 
cular in  section,  it  is  necessary  to  use  this 
figure  in  determining  the  relation  between 
the  force  moving  on  the  circumference — 
this  is  the  electric  current — and  the  force 
acting  at  right  angles  to  it.  Then,  taking 
a  helix  of  300  ampere-turns,  as  above,  we 
have: 

(4  X  3.14159  -3- 10)  X  300  =  377.1    gilberts. 

The  calculation  of  reluctance  and  flux  de- 
pends largely  upon  experiment,  determining 
the  permeability,  susceptibility,  and  other 
properties  of  the  iron  used  in  the  cere.  In 
general,  however,  reluctance,  like  electrical 
resistance,  increases  with  the  length  and 
decreases  with  the  area— of  the  core.  The 
flux,  like  electric  current  in  Ohm's  Law, 
varies  directly  with  the  M.M.F.  and  in- 
versely with  the  reluctance. 

DYNAMOS    AND    MOTORS 

The  facts  already  explained  will  enable  us 
to  get  a  clear  idea  of  the  operation  of  elec- 
trical dynamos  and  motors.  These  machines 
consist  essentially  of  double  or  multiple-pole 


Simplest  Possible  Dynamo. 

electro-magnets,  between  the  poles  of  which 
is  placed  a  rotating  wire-wound  armature. 
An  accompanying  figure,  showing  the  sim- 
plest possible  form  of  dynamo,  gives  all  the 
essential  points  of  the  machine.  Here  we 
have  the  north  pole,  N,  and  the  south  pole, 
5,  of  an  electro-magnet.  Between  the  pole 
pieces  is  a  rotating  spindle  turned  by  a 
handle,  and  carrying  a  single  turn  of  wire, 
A,  the  ends  of  which  are  attached  to  the 
two-part  commutator  shown  near  the  handle. 
In  this  figure  the  loop  of  wire  would  be 
called  the  "armature,"  and  the  greatest  dif- 
ference between  this  simple  machine  and  the 
powerful  dynamos  used  to  produce  currents 
to  move  street  cars  and  supply  electric  lights 


is  in  the  construction  of  the  armature.  In 
the  latter,  instead  of  a  simple  loop  of  wire, 
there  are  a  great  number  of  such  loops  or 
of  coils,  wound  on  a  "drum,"  or  "ring,"  and 
running  at  right  angles  to  the  magnetic 
lines  of  force.  The  rule  is  that,  electro- 
motive force  (E.M.F.)  generated  by  any 
dynamo,  is  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
turns  of  wire  about  the  "core,"  or  frame- 
piece,  of  the  rotating  armature;  and,  within 
certain  limits,  to  the  speed  with  which  the 
armature  is  revolved 

In  the  next  figure  is  shown  a  diagram  of 
one  method  of  winding  a  ring  armature  and 


Ring  Armature  and  Four-Part  Commutator. 

attaching  the  terminals  of  the  several  coils 
to  the  segments  of  a  four-part  commutator. 
The  next  figure  shows  such  an  armature  in 
position  between  the  pole  pieces,  the  lines 
of  magnetic  force  being  indicated  by  the 
dotted  lines  across  the  end  of  the  armature. 
The  connections  of  the  coil  to  the  commu- 
tator segments  are  also  shown,  and  the 
brushes,  for  taking  off  the  current  resting 
on  the  periphery  of  the  commutator.  On 
rotating  the  armature  on  its  spindle  the 


Armature  in  position  between  the  field-poles  of 
a  dynamo,  showing  lines  of  force  (dotted),  direc- 
tion of  rotation,  and  the  arrangement  of  brushes 
on  a  two-part  commutator. 

condition  follows  that  is  shown  in  the  next 
figure.  The  lines  of  force  are  greatly  de- 
flected as  indicated  by  the  broken  lines  in 
this  cut,  and  by  the  turning  of  the  armature 
a  very  intense  excitement  of  the  "field"  is 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


419 


created.  From  this  excitement  a  current 
results,  whose  strength  for  work  is  in  pro- 
portion to  terms  of  the  rule  quoted  above. 

OPERATION   OF   A   DYNAMO 

The  effect  produced  by  the  revolving  of 
the  armature  of  a  dynamo  is  that  the  arma- 
ture itself  is  transformed  into  an  electro- 
magnet, having  two  north  poles  and  two 
south  poles,  points  for  the  exit  and  entrance 
of  the  current,  respectively.  These  poles 
alternately  exert  an  attracting  and  repel- 
ling force  on  the  magnetic  field,  and  hence 
continually  distort  the  magnetic  lines  of 
force.  The  result  is  a  constant  shifting  of 
the  neutral  points,  and  a  continual  series  of 
alternate  attractions  and  repulsions  at  the 
active  points.  These  rapid  changes,  de- 
manding a  constant  readjustment  of  the 
magnetic  lines,  transform  the  magnetic 
movements  among  the  molecules  into  elec- 
trical energy,  which  emerges  in  the  form 
of  a  current  at  the  terminals  of  the  arma- 
ture winding  attached  to  the  segments  of 


Distortion  of  the  lines  of  force  in  a  two-pole 
dynamo,  showing  induced  polarity  of  the  armature. 

the  commutator,  being  conveyed  to  the  out- 
side circuit  by  flat  pieces,  called  brushes, 
which  rest  against  the  commutator,  as  shown 
in  a  former  figure. 

Of  course  the  cycle  of  operations  already 
described  involve  that  an  alternating  cur- 
rent is  produced,  one  that  moves  first  in  one 
direction  then  in  the  other.  However,  by 
using  a  commutator  of  2,  4,  or  any  larger 
number  of  parts,  and  by  placing  the  brushes 
at  a  certain  point,  on  what  is  called  the 
"diameter  of  commutation,"  the  effect  of 
a  continuous  direct  current  is  obtained. 

If  a  dynamo  is  to  generate  an  alternating 
current,  the  terminals  of  the  armature  wind- 
ing are  attached  each  to  a  separate  collec- 
tor ring,  instead  of  to  the  segments  of  a 
commutator.  A  brush  then  rests  on  each 
ring,  and  the  current  flows  in  one  direction 
or  the  other  over  the  outside  circuit,  ac- 
cording to  the  position  of  the  rotating  arma- 
ture, which  causes  a  continual  fluctuation 
from  maximum  to  minimum  in  the  current 
generated  in  its  winding.  If  three  collector 
rings  are  used,  and  proper  connections  are 
made  to  the  armature  winding,  a  three-phase 


current  may  be  produced,  which,  of  course, 
requires  a  three-wire  circuit.  Alternating 
and  polyphase  currents  are  useful  in  power 
transmission,  being  capable  of  traveling  to 
greater  distances  than  a  direct  current,  with- 
out serious  impairment  of  power. 

DIRECT    CURRENT    MOTORS 

An  electric  motor  is  in  all  essential  par- 
ticulars identical  with  a  dynamo,  except  for 
the  fact  that  a  current,  led  to  the  windings 
of  both  field  magnets  and  armature,  pro- 
duces a  rotation  of  the  armature,  on  ac- 
count of  the  conditions  already  described 
above. 

A  dynamo  may  be  run  as  a  motor  with 
no  other  changes  than  shifting  the  brushes 
to  a  backward  lead — which  is  to  say,  plac- 
ing them  at  opposite  ends  of  a  diameter 
toward,  instead  of  away  from,  the  direction 
of  rotation— at  an  angle  from  the  theoretical 
diameter  of  commutation,  which  is  at  90 
degrees  to  the  magnetic  lines  of  force.  In 
a  dynamo,  as  just  explained,  the  rotation 
of  the  armature,  cutting  across  the  lines  of 
force  between  the  field  magnets,  tends  con- 
stantly to  increase  the  electromotive  force 
of  the  current  generated  in  the  armature 
coils,  with  the  result  of  strengthening  the 
field,  or,  as  the  term  is,  increasing  the  num- 
ber of  magnetic  lines.  In  this  process  a 
counter-electromotive  force  is  constantly 
generated  as  the  speed  of  rotation  in- 
creases. In  a  motor,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
current  is  supplied  to  both  the  armature  and 
the  field  magnets,  and,  giving  them  both 
polarity,  sets  up  an  attractive  force  between 
them,  thus  producing  rotation  of  the  arma- 
ture. Consequently,  in  a  motor  the  mag- 
netic drag,  which  tends  to  retard  the  rota- 
tion of  a  dynamo  armature,  is  the  real  driv- 
ing force,  exerting  a  rotative  pull  upon  the 
current  carrying  wires  of  the  armature  coil 
and  upon  any  protruding  portions  of  its 
core.  Another  operative  difference  lies  in 
the  fact  that,  while  the  C.E.M.F.  generated 
by  rotation  of  a  dynamo  moves  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  current,  that  generated  in 
a  motor  moves  in  the  opposite  direction. 
Consequently,  in  a  motor  the  C.E.M.F.  in- 
creases (i)  with  increased  strength  of  field 
and  (2)  with  increased  speed  of  armature 
rotation.  With  a  series-wound  motor,  there- 
fore, an  increased  rotation  involves  a  smaller 
absorption  of  energy  from  the  electrical 
source,  on  account  of  the  increased  gen- 
eration of  C.E.M.F.,  and,  when  working 
under  a  heavy  load,  necessitating  a  reduc- 
tion in  speed,  less  C.E.M.F.  is  generated 
and  more  energy  is  absorbed. 


420 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


CALCULATING    AN    ELECTRIC 
MOTOR 

In  calculating  the  power  of  a  motor,  we 
must  remember  that  the  force  at  work 
produces  rotation  of  the  armature,  and  is, 
therefore,  called  the  torque,  or  twisting 
force.  Such  a  force  is  able  to  raise  a  given 
weight  suspended  to  a  cord  wound  around 
a  pulley  on  the  shaft.  On  this  account  it 
is  measured  in  terms  of  foot-pounds,  as  in- 
dicating an  amount  of  energy  able  to  move 
so  many  pounds  through  so  many  feet. 
Furthermore,  the  time  occupied  in  this  work 
is  important,  since  a  greater  power  can 
raise  a  given  weight  more  rapidly  than  a 
smaller  power.  Thus,  if  we  have  a  motor 
that  can  exert  a  working  torque  of  100 
foot-pounds  at  a  rotative  speed  of  50  revo- 
lutions per  second,  we  can  find  its  power  in 
foot-pounds  by  multiplying  the  product  of 
these  two  quantities  by  twice  the  ratio  be- 
tween the  circumference  and  diameter  of 
a  circle  (3.141592).  Thus: 
loo  X  50  X  6.283184  =  31415.92  foot-pounds. 
This  divided  by  550  gives  57.12  horsepower. 

More  complicated  formulae  are  neces- 
sarily used  in  exact  calculations,  but  this  is 
fundamental. 

EFFICIENCY    OF    MOTORS 

The  efficient  power  of  an  electric  motor 
depends  upon  the  torque,  or  twisting  power, 
exerted  upon  the  spindle  of  the  armature, 
causing  it  to  rotate.  Furthermore,  the 
amount  of  torque,  or  the  efficient  twisting 
force  expressed  in  foot-pounds,  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  flux  in  the  armature 
core,  and  that,  upon  the  current  strength 
circulating  in  its  coils ;  consequently,  also, 
upon  the  number  of  wires  wound  upon  its 
circumference.  On  the  other  hand,  although 
a  high-powered  motor  armature  rotates  less 
rapidly  than  one  of  lower  power,  the  effi- 
cient output  of  a  given  motor  is,  within 
proper  limits,  in  direct  ratio  to  the  number 
of  revolutions  per  minute  of  its  armature, 
consequently,  within  its  limits,  to  the  im- 
pressed E.M.F.  Thus  the  speed,  and  con- 
sequently also  the  power,  of  a  stationary 
motor  may  be  varied  by  throwing  in  re- 
sistance through  the  full  capacity  of  the 
rheostat,  thus  decreasing  the  kilowatt  in- 
put. Also,  a  motor  that,  from  some  in- 
herent peculiarity  of  its  construction  or  ma- 
terials, runs  at  low  speed,  at  a  given  pres- 
sure, for  a  given  power,  if  wound  for  a 
higher  speed,  will  give  a  higher  power 
equivalent,  while  another  motor,  running  at 


an  unusually  high  speed  for  its  power  effi- 
ciency, is  working  at  its  full  capacity. 

POWER   AND    SPEED    OF    MOTORS 

The  power  efficiency  of  a  well-built  elec- 
tric motor  varies  directly,  within  definite 
limits,  as  its  weight.  Thus,  as  given  by 
several  authorities,  a  ^-horsepower  motor 
should  weigh  about  100  pounds,  or  200 
pounds  per  horsepower,  while  a  5-horse- 
power  motor  should  weigh  about  600 
pounds,  or  120  pounds  per  horsepower,  and 
a  i5-horsepower  about  1,500  pounds,  or  100 
pounds  per  horsepower,  which  seems  to  be 
the  general  ratio  for  all  powers  above  that. 
It  is  thus  evident  that,  while  the  higher 
powers  involve  greater  weights,  and  the 
higher  efficiencies  involve  greater  speeds,  the 
weight  per  horsepower  and  the  speed  of  ro- 
tation both  decrease  with  the  higher  rating 
of  the  motor.  Similarly,  the  characteristic 
normal  speeds,  estimated  as  revolutions  per 
minute  of  the  armature  spindle,  decrease 
with  the  higher  ratings.  A  ^-horsepower 
motor  should  run  normally  at  about  1,300 
revolutions  per  minute,  or  at  a  ratio  of 
2,600  revolutions  per  horsepower;  the  5- 
horsepower  motor,  at  900  revolutions,  or  180 
per  horsepower,  and  the  is-horsepower  mo- 
tor, at  750  revolutions,  or  50  per  horse- 
power. With  higher  powered  motors  the 
normal  speed  decreases  on  a  constantly 
smaller  ratio.  Thus,  a  25o-horsepower  mo- 
tor runs  normally  at  about  425  revolutions, 
or  at  a  ratio  of  1.7  per  horsepower. 

As  may  readily  be  inferred  from  the  data 
already  given,  the  efficiency  of  an  electric 
motor  increases  directly  with  its  power. 
Thus,  in  the  broad  average,  motors  of  low 
power  consume  about  one  kilowatt  of  in- 
put current  per  horsepower  of  output,  al- 
though the  rule  rapidly  fails  with  increas- 
ing powers,  until  the  horsepower  output  is 
in  excess  of  the  kilowatt  input — which  is 
to  say,  the  internal  resistance  of  the  motor 
is  decreased  until  the  efficiency  reaches  as 
high  as  ninety  per  cent  or  slightly  above. 
Thus  if  a  well-designed  6-horsepower  motor 
requires  an  input  current  of  about  six  kilo- 
watts, or  6,000  watts,  which  is  approximately 
equivalent  to  8  horsepower,  its  operation 
represents  only  4,476  warts,  or  74.6  per  cent 
efficiency.  As  a  rule  the  efficiency,  rep- 
resented by  the  input  and  the  output  of 
smaller  motors,  is  much  lower.  Thus,  a 
small  fan  motor  yields,  on  an  average,  less 
than  forty  per  cent  efficiency;  a  2-horse- 
power  motor  represents  about  sixty  per 
cent;  and  a  zoo-horsepower  motor  about 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF   ELECTRICITY 


421 


ninety  per  cent,  or  approximately  an  out- 
put of  74.6  kilowatts  to  an  input  of  82.9. 

ELECTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERIES 

An  electric  storage  battery,  or  accumu- 
lator, is  an  instrument  capable  of  being  so 
affected  by  an  electric  current  passed  through 
it  that  certain  chemical  transformations  are 
electrolytically  produced,  which  will  occa- 
sion the  giving-off  of  a  current,  so  soon  as 
the  original  source  is  disconnected  and  a 
circuit  is  closed  through  any  other  suitable 
devices.  For  these  reasons  it  is  more  cor- 
rectly to  be  described  as  a  "secondary  bat- 
tery," deriving  its  power  to  produce  current 


Section  through  a  small  storage  cell,  showing 
one  plate  in  position.  Numbered  parts  are:  posi- 
tive binding  post  (i),  attached  to  plate  shown; 
negative  binding  post  (2),  attached  to  plate  at 
rear  of  that  shown;  rubber  stopper  of  cell  (3); 
vent  tube  (4) ;  outer  metal  case  (5) ;  lead  lining 
of  case  (6) ;  hard  rubber  insulator  (7) ;  positive 
element  or  plate  (8) ;  negative  element  or  plate 
at  its  rear  (9);  sealing  of  cell  (10);  hard  rubber 
jar  (n);  terminal  of  all  positive  plates  (12); 
terminal  of  all  negative  plates  (13);  the  fluid 
or  electrolyte  (14). 

from  impressed  conditions,  rather  than  from 
the  differing  specific  potentials  of  two  nat- 
ural substances — as,  for  example,  copper 
and  zinc — as  in  the  typical  galvanic  or 
chemical  primary  cell.  When,  however,  the 
required  conditions  are  thoroughly  im- 
pressed by  an  outside  agent,  the  internal 
reactions  of  a  secondary  cell  are  very  sim- 
ilar to,  although  nearly  the  reverse  of,  those 
observed  in  a  primary  cell,  resulting  in 
both  cases  in  the  production  of  a  current. 

In  the  secondary  battery  the  electrolytic 
process,  by  which  the  active  surfaces  of  two 


plates  are  continuously  consumed  in  produc- 
ing a  current  on  the  outside  circuit,  depends 
upon  the  use  of  different  chemical  substances 
on  the  surface  of  two  plates  of  lead — this  is 
the  substance  most  commonly  used,  al- 
though some  others  have  been  found  par- 
tially suitable — and  electro-chemically  re- 
storing the  normal  conditions,  when  the 
exhaustion  has  sufficiently  progressed.  Were 
it  practicable  to  thus  restore,  or  "recharge," 
an  ordinary  copper-zinc  primary  cell,  we 
would  have  precisely  the  conditions  theo- 
retically occurring  in  the  secondary  battery, 
except  for  the  fact  that  the  latter  seems  to 
be  a  complete  reversal  of  the  former,  show- 
ing the  action  on  the  outside  wire  that 
the  primary  shows  in  the  electrolyte.  Thus, 
in  the  operation  of  the  secondary  cell,  we 
find  that  the  positive  plate  is  the  one  at- 
tacked by  the  oxygen,  while  the  hydrogen 
unites  with  the  negative. 

In  both  varieties  of  cell,  however,  the 
strength  and  pressure  of  the  current  depend 
principally  upon  the  ability  of  the  compo- 
nents of  the  decomposing  electrolyte  to 
unite  with  the  substance  of  the  electrodes. 
This  is  shown  in  the  action  of  the  earliest 
type  of  "storage  battery" — if  we  may  so 
term  this  device — in  which  two  sheets  of 
platinum  or  silver  were  partially  immersed 
in  an  aqueous  solution  of  sulphuric  acid. 
By  connecting  the  two  plates  to  the  poles 
of  an  active  galvanic  cell,  a  distinct  elec- 
trolysis was  set  up,  which  resulted  in  an 
accumulation  of  oxygen  bubbles  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  anode  and  of  hydrogen  bubbles 
on  the  .surface  of  the  cathode.  When  the 
surfaces  have  thus  been  covered,  the  pri- 
mary cell  may  be  disconnected,  and  on 
closing  a  circuit  between  the  two  immersed 
plates  a  weak  current  will  be  observed  to 
flow  from  the  plate,  used  as  the  anode  in 
this  experiment,  to  that  used  as  the  cathode, 
such  current  continuing  until  the  recompo- 
sition  of  the  water  is  complete.  Because, 
however,  oxygen  can  not  attack,  or  unite 
with,  silver  or  platinum,  under  such  condi- 
tions, the  current  is  weak  and  of  short 
duration. 

PRACTICAL  SECONDARY  BAT- 
TERIES 

In  order  to  obtain  a  practical  secondary 
battery,  the  first  requirement  is  that  we 
use  two  plates  of  some  metal  that  may  be 
readily  attacked  by  the  separated  compo- 
nents of  the  electrically  decomposed  solu- 
tion. Hitherto  lead  has  been  found  to  be 
the  most  advantageous  substance  for  a 
commercial  cell. 


422 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF   ELECTRICITY 


In  passing  a  current  through  a  cell  com- 
posed of  two  lead  plates,  the  resulting 
electrolysis  is  evidenced  by  the  collection 
of  bubbles  at  the  cathode  and  by  the  chem- 
ical modification  of  the  anode,  whose  sur- 
face, under  the  action  of  the  oxygen  thus 
liberated,  becomes  transformed  into  lead 
peroxide.  The  operation  of  "charging"  such 
a  cell  may  be  continued  until  it  begins 
"gasing/'  at  which  point  the  limit  has  been 
reached,  and  it  is  ready  to  give  off  a  brief 
and  weak  current,  during  the  recomposi- 
tion  of  the  water,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sil- 
ver or  platinum  cell  described  above. 

The  problem  of  increasing  the  current 
strength  and  pressure  of  a  storage  battery 
is,  therefore,  in  brief,  how  the  surfaces  of 
the  plates  exposed  to  the  electrolyte  may  be 
increased,  in  order  to  permit  the  formation 
of  a  greater  quantity  of  lead  peroxide,  and 
the  absorption  of  a  larger  proportion  of 
hydrogen  gas.  This  condition  obviously 
holds  good,  since,  if  the  surplus  hydrogen 
is  allowed  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere, 
the  recomposition  of  water,  on  which  the 
current  depends,  can  not  take  place.  There 
are,  accordingly,  two  distinct  types  of  bat- 
tery, distinguished  primarily  by  the  method 
adopted  in  increasing  the  active  surfaces. 
They  are  usually  designated  by  the  names 
of  their  original  inventors,  as  the  Plante 
and  the  Faure  types. 

PLANTE  AND  FAURE  CELLS 

In  the  original  Plante  cell  smooth  lead 
plates  were  used,  as  in  the  experimental 
device  described  above.  The  charging  sur- 
face of  the  two  was  then  increased  by  a 
process  of  "forming,"  which  was  conducted 
in  the  following  manner:  A  current  was 
sent  through  the  cell  by  connecting  one 
plate,  A,  to  the  positive  terminal  of  a  dyna- 
mo, and  the  other,  B,  to  the  negative  pole. 
As  soon  as  the  charging  was  complete,  the 
cell  was  discharged,  or  nearly  so,  and  it 
was  again  connected  up  to  the  dynamo  in 
reversed  direction,  B  serving  as  the  anode 
and  A  as  the  cathode.  By  repeated  charg- 
ings,  dischargings  and  reversals,  the  sur- 
faces of  both  plates  were  so  thoroughly  at- 
tacked by  the  liberated  oxygen  as  to  as- 
sume a  porous  or  spongy  appearance.  Thus 
a  larger  quantity  of  both  oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen could  reach  the  metal  before  the  charg- 
ing limit  was  attained.  Cells  formed  in 
this  manner  gave  an  efficiency  rating  of  7.5 
ampere-hours  per  pound  of  lead,  but  pre- 
sented the  difficulty,  shared  by  virtually  all 
commercial  secondary  batteries,  that  an  in- 
crease of  output-efficiency  involves  a  cor- 


respondingly brief  duration  of  usefulness : 
the  plates  rapidly  became  thoroughly  rot- 
ten and  had  to  be  replaced. 

The  Faure,  or  pasted,  battery  was  origi- 
nally devised  to  overcome  the  difficulty  of 
increased  efficiency  at  the  expense  of  dura- 
bility. Its  fundamental  theory  is  to  con- 
struct the  positive  and  negative  plates  on 
different  lines,  chemically.  Thus,  he  ap- 
plied the  required  chemical  substances  di- 
rectly to  the  surfaces  of  the  plates — red 
lead  to  the  positive  plate,  and  litharge,  or 
lead  monoxide,  to  the  negative.  These  ac- 
tive substances  are  attached  to  the  plates 
by  depositing  them  in  suitable  scratches, 
indentations,  or  perforations.  Thus,  the 
many  varieties  of  this  type  of  cell  are  dis- 
tinguished primarily  by  the  manner  of  mak- 
ing the  grids  and  applying  the  active  ma- 
terial. The  composition  of  the  paste  also 
differs  among  them. 

DISCHARGING    A    STORAGE    CELL 

In  discharging  a  storage  battery,  several 
chemical  changes  are  brought  about.  Thus 
the  oxygen  in  the  electrolyte  begins  to  at- 
tack the  spongy  surface  of  the  negative 
plate,  releasing  hydrogen,  by  the  action  of 
which  the  lead  peroxide  of  the  positive 
plate  is  reduced  to  monoxide  and  the  ox- 
ides on  both  to  sulphates.  In  charging 
again  these  conditions  are  reversed,  the  sul- 
phate on  the  negative  plate  being  changed 
to  metallic  lead,  and  that  on  the  other  to 
peroxide.  In  either  case  the  series  of  chem- 
ical reactions  and  changes  continue  until 
the  entire  exposed  surface  has  been  at- 
tacked. If  charging  is  continued  beyond 
this  point  the  fact  is  evidenced  by  the  giv- 
ing-off  of  gas  in  the  shape  of  bubbles  on 
the  surface  of  the  electrolyte,  as  in  the 
primitive  platinum  battery  previously  de- 
scribed. 

Several  general  rules  are  adopted  in 
charging.  In  the  first  place,  the  voltage  of 
the  charging  generator  should  be  about  ten 
per  cent  higher  than  that  of  the  battery  it- 
self in  discharging.  Thus,  for  a  battery  of 
one  hundred  volts  a  charging  current  of 
one  hundred  and  ten  volts  is  generally  used. 
In  averaging  the  rates  specified  by  the  vari- 
ous manufacturers,  the  amperage  of  a  nor- 
mal charging  current  should  be  about  one- 
eighth  that  of  the  battery  itself  in  discharg- 
ing. Thus,  a  400  ampere-hour  battery  is 
normally  charged  with  a  current  of  fifty 
amperes  for  8  hours,  although  any  cell  may 
be  charged  in  a  shorter  period  by  follow- 
ing instructions  furnished  by  the  manufac- 
turers. 


FIRST    PRINCIPLES    OF    ELECTRICITY 


423 


CAPACITY  OF  STORAGE  CELLS 

The  output,  or  discharge,  capacity  of  a 
fully  charged  secondary  cell  is  estimated 
in  ampere-hours,  generally  at  the  8-hour 
rate  of  discharge.  Such  a  cell,  however, 
may  be  discharged  at  any  rate  with  a  slight 
increase  in  amperage  as  the  rate  is  raised. 
Thus  a  certain  cell,  rated  at  800  ampere- 
hours,  gives  loo  amperes  of  current  at  the 
8-hour  discharge,  140  at  the  5-hour  dis- 
charge, 200  at  the  3-hour,  and  400  at  the 
i-hour. 

The  output  of  a  storage  cell,  as  estimated 
in  ampere-hours,  gives  a  fair  indication  of 
its  efficiency,  since  the  standard  cell  is  con- 
structed to  register  between  2  and  2.5  volts 
at  full  charge.  Various  rules  have  been 
given  for  calculating  the  current  output, 
for  example,  giving  between  7  and  8  am- 
pere-hours per  pound  of  lead,  or  about  6 
ampere-hours  per  square  foot  of  positive 
plate  surface.  Neither  rule  is  conclusive, 
however — giving  too  high  a  rating  for 
some  makes  and  too  low  a  rating  for  others 
— since  the  manner  of  constructing  the  cell 
and  the  nature  of  the  active  material  em- 
ployed are  important  factors  in  modifying 
the  efficient  strength  in  current.  Such  fig- 
ures would  also  indicate  merely  the  amper- 
age at  a  given  rate  of  discharge,  as  the 
above  figures  indicate.  Theoretically,  the 
most  authoritative  rule  gives  40.24  ampere- 
hours  per  pound  of  lead  sulphate,  making 
the  assumption  that  the  entire  active  ma- 
terial of  both  plates  is  transformed  into 
this  substance  in  discharging,  which  is  never 
accomplished  in  practice.  The  earlier  Plante 
cells  yielded  a  current  of  7^2  amperes  per 
pound  of  metallic  lead,  which  is  a  fair  aver- 
age for  its  genus  to  the  present  time. 

ALTERNATING    CURRENTS 

Most  of  what  has  been  said  in  the  present 
article  refers  to  direct  current  electricity. 
There  is  another  variety,  however,  known 
as  the  alternating  current,  which  has  a  wide 
significance  in  modern  electrical  engineer- 
ing. We  have  already  learned  that  in  di- 


rect-current apparatus  the  circuit  has  a  posi- 
tive and  a  negative  pole  or  terminal,  the 
current  emerging  from  the  source  at  the 
former  and  re-entering  it  at  the  latter. 
This  is  necessarily  the  case  with  the  en- 
ergy generated  in  a  galvanic  or  chemical 
cell.  With  an  alternating  current  the  move- 
ment is  first  from  one  terminal  and  then 
from  the  other,  each  being  in  turn  the  posi- 
tive and  the  negative.  The  movement  of 
such  a  current  may  be  graphically  repre- 
sented by  a  straight  line,  from  a  point  of 
which  an  irregular  arc  is  drawn  to  another 
point  further  on.  This  represents  the  rise 
and  gradual  fall  of  potential  in  the  current 
moving  in  one  direction.  From  the  latter 
point  another  similar  irregular  arc  is  drawn 
under  the  line,  indicating  the  gradual  rise 
and  fall  of  potential  of  the  current  moving 
in  the  opposite  direction.  In  these  two 
arcs,  drawn  between  three  points  on  the 
line,  we  have  what  is  technically  known  as 
a  complete  "cycle,"  or  the  interval  between 
the  points  at  which  the  current  again  moves 
in  the  direction  taken  at  the  start.  Thus, 
calling  the  three  points  A,  B,  and  C,  we 
find  that  an  arc  begun  at  C  would  be  above 
the  line  again,  etc. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  alternating 
current,  differing,  as  the  saying  is,  in  phase. 
Thus  the  simple  alternating  current  just 
mentioned  is  the  monophase,  or  single  phase. 
There  is  also  the  two-phase  or  quarter- 
phase  current  and  the  three-phase.  The 
two-phase  current  may  be  compared  to  two 
single-phase  currents  on  the  same  circuit, 
the  second  beginning  at  approximately  the 
highest  point  of  the  first.  It  requires  four 
wires  to  conduct  it  The  three-phase  cur- 
rent may  be  compared  to  three  single-phase 
currents,  following  one  another  at,  say,  one- 
third  of  a  phase  apart.  It  requires  three 
wires  to  conduct  it.  All  alternating  cur- 
rents move  in  certain  frequencies,  which  is 
to  say  perform  so  many  complete  cycles 
per  second.  The  standard  three-phase  cur- 
rent used  in  power  transmission  is  125  cy- 
cles. The  standard  single-phase  current  for 
electric  lighting  is  60  cycles. 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY 


THE  term  "wireless  telegraphy"  is  commonly  applied  to  a  system  of 
signaling  through  space  by  means  of  electric  waves.  In  1864  Clerk 
Maxwell  published  his  electro-magnetic  theory  of  light,  and  predicted 
the  existence  of  electric  waves  similar  to  light  waves.  In  1888  they  were 
discovered  experimentally  by  Heinrich  Hertz  at  the  University  of  Berlin. 

When  a  spark  jumps  across  a  gap  between  two  conducting  surfaces, 
such  as  two  metal  balls,  the  electric  charge  of  the  two  bodies  oscillates 
back  and  forth  and  sends  off  into  space  ether  waves,  which  travel  with  the 
speed  of  light.  They  differ  from  light  waves  only  in  being  much  longer, 
as  they  are  from  half  an  inch  to  many  feet  in  length,  while  light  waves  are 
between  15  to  29  millionths  of  an  inch  long.  These  waves  can  be  reflected 
•by  metals ;  refracted  by  prisms  and  lenses  of  wax ;  polarized  by  wood ;  and 
diffracted,  just  like  light  waves.  They  pass  through  wood,  earth,  stone, 
and  such  materials,  but  metals  are  opaque  to  them.  When  emitted  from 
the  summit  of  the  aerial  wire,  or  antenna,  of  a  space-telegraphy  apparatus, 
these  waves  move  out  in  ever  enlarging  concentric  circles,  resembling 
nothing  more  closely  than  the  effect  on  the  surface  of  a  pond  produced  by 
throwing  a  stone  into  the  water.  According  to  the  most  exact  estimates, 
they  vibrate  at  the  rate  of  230,000,000  per  second,  traveling  outward  from 
the  emitting  source,  in  all  directions,  at  the  rate  of  186,400  miles  per  second. 

When  such  electric  waves  strike  a  circuit  of  wire  with  the  ends  nearly 
touching,  or  two  pieces  of  metal  at  the  extremities  of  a  gap  in  a  circuit, 
a  spark  passes  across  the  gap.  A  still  better  apparatus  for  detecting  the 
presence  of  electric  waves  is  the  coherer,  invented  in  1897  by  Guglielmo 
Marconi,  which  has  made  wireless  telegraphy  practicable.  This  is  a  small 
glass  tube  exhausted  of  air  and  filled  with  fine  filings  of  nickel  and  silver. 
In  the  ends  are  silver  plugs  which  come  within  about  one  millimetre 
of  meeting. 

The  Marconi  apparatus,  as  now  used,  consists  of  a  wire  reaching  as 
high  as  possible  into  the  air,  usually  suspended  from  a  mast.  This  is 
connected  with  an  induction  coil  having  a  spark  gap,  and  when  the  spark 
passes  the  electric  waves  are  sent  out  in  all  directions.  The  receiving 
apparatus  is  the  coherer  already  described,  in  circuit  with  a  battery  and 
an  electric  bell,  sounder,  or  telephone.  When  the  electric  waves  from 
the  oscillator  reach  the  coherer  it  becomes  a  conductor,  the  circuit  is 
completed,  and  the  signal  is  given 

(424) 


WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY 


425 


There  are  other  methods  of  electric  signaling  without  wires  which 
may  become  practically  developed.  W.  H.  Preece  in  England  has  sent 
messages  several  miles  by  two  methods — conduction  and  induction.  In 
the  first  the  current  is  sent  through  the  earth  itself,  and  in  the  second 
a  body  charged  with  electricity  induces  the  opposite  charge  in  a  similar 
body  at  a  distance. 


WORKING  along  the  lines  of  a  theory 
propounded  by  Prof.  Joseph  Henry, 
Hermann  von  Helmholtz,  and  several  other 
electrical  authorities,  Dr.  Heinrich  Hertz 
demonstrated  by  a  series  of  elaborate  ex- 
periments that  the  discharge,  or  "shock," 
from  a  Leyden  jar,  or  other  form  of  con- 
denser, is  not  a  merely  direct  passage  of 
energy  from  a  point  of  high  potential  to  one 
of  lower  potential,  but  consists  rather  in  a 
"series  of  rapidly  surging  waves,  oscillating 
until  equilibrium  is  established."  The  same 
holds  true  for  the  effects  given  off  from  a 
momentary  current  in  an  electric  circuit. 
In  conducting  his  experiments  he  made  use 
of  the  form  of  oscillator  now  almost  uni- 
versally employed  in  wireless  telegraphy  ap- 
paratus— a  Ruhmkorff  coil  giving  a  very 
high-tension  current  in  its  secondary  wind- 
ing, the  two  poles  of  the  secondary  circuit 
ending  in  two  highly  polished  brass  balls. 
These  two  brass  balls,  the  distance  between 
which  is  adjustable,  are  held  on  the  ends 
of  rods  holding  sliding  spheres,  D,  D.  By 
altering  the  positions  of  these  spheres,  the 
oscillator  may  be  tuned  tc  the  resonator. 
This  resonator  is  a  coil  or  open  circuit, 
whose  two  terminals  also  end  in  brass  knobs. 
With  such  a  resonator,  adjusted  to  the 
wave  lengths  given  off  by  any  particular 
oscillator,  and  placed  within  the  discovered 
area  of  effect,  the  discharge  will  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  spark  between  its  knobs.  The 
fact  of  wave  motion  was  demonstrated  by 
*he  fact  that  in  some  positions,  near  to  the 
coil,  no  effect  was  noticeable,  while  at 
others,  further  from  it,  a  spark  was  ob- 
tained— thus  establishing  the  fact  of  loops 
and  nodes.  That  these  waves,  like  those 
of  light,  could  be  reflected,  Hertz  demon- 
strated by  the  use  of  polished  concave  metal 
mirrors,  arranging  his  oscillator  and  resona- 
tor each  in  front  of  one  of  the  mirrors.  By 
placing  the  coil  in  front  of  a  similar  mirror 
with  a  prism  of  pitch  at  a  determined  dis- 
tance, the  fact  of  refraction  of  the  waves 
was  also  demonstrated  with  the  resonator, 


although  in  this  experiment,  'as  in  the  others, 
the  dimensions  of  the  resonator — which  is 
to  say,  the  total  length  of  wire  forming  the 


FIG.  i.— Diagram  of  an  induction  coil  and  at- 
tachments of  the  type  employed  on  wireless  teleg- 
raphy circuits.  The  parts  are  the  battery  (B) ; 
the  iron  core  (/)  composed  of  a  bundle  of  wires; 
the  primary  winding  (PP)  connected  to  the  ter- 
minals of  the  battery  through  the  switch;  the  sec- 
ondary winding  (SS)  wound  over  the  primary; 
the  iron  hammer  of  the  magnetic  vibrater  (H) ; 
the  back  stop  of  the  vibrater  (0)  that  adjusts 
the  amplitude  of  the  vibrations,  breaking  the 
primary  circuit  so  many  times  per  second,  accord- 
ing to  adjustment  at  O,  thus  enabling  an  induced 
alternating  current  in  the  secondary  winding.  The 
terminals  of  the  secondary  are  led  out  to  either 
side  of  a  gap,  across  which  a  spark  may  arch, 
in  length,  according  to  the  tension  in  the  sec- 
ondary. A  condenser  (C  C')  is  bridged  be- 
tween the  leads  of  the  primary  circuit,  being 
charged  and  discharged  at  each  make  and  break, 
thus  demagnetizing  the  core  and  allowing  greater 
frequency  of  alternation  in  the  secondary. 

coil  of  its  open  circuit — must  be  in  propor- 
tion with  the  wave  lengths  of  the  reflected 
vibrations,  a  principle  still  recognized  in 


426 


WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY 


the  various  devices  for  obtaining  syntonic, 
or  tuned,  effects  between  two  wireless  tele- 
graph stations. 

Although  the  Hertz  open-circuit  resona- 
tor, when  attuned  to  the  proper  undulatory 
amplitude,  can  reveal  the  presence  of  a 
Hertzian  wave  of  its  own  vibratory  fre- 
quency— exhibiting  the  phenomenon  found 
in  a  high-tension  secondary  coil,  a  spark 
between  the  terminals — it  is  not  used  as  a 
receiving  instrument  in  any  system  of  wire- 
less telegraphy.  In  receiving  the  impulses 
transmitted  across  a  distance  without  wires, 
another  principle — in  which  again  light  and 
Hertzian  waves  resemble  one  another — is 
utilized.  This  is  the  discovered  ability  of 
both  varieties  of  wave  force,  under  given 
conditions,  to  modify  the  resistance  of  an 
electrical  circuit.  In.  the  case  of  light  this 
fact  is  demonstrated  in  the  interesting  proc- 
jss  of  radiophony,  or  the  transmission  of 
articulate  speech  and  other  sounds  by  .  a 
luminous  ray.  A  ray  of  light  reflected  from 
a  mirror,  through  a  lens,  upon  a  polished 
diaphragm,  against  which  speech  or  other 
sounds  are  led  through  a  mouthpiece,  may 
be  so  varied  in  intensity,  by  the  superposed 
frequencies  of  sounds  striking  the  dia- 
phragm, that,  being  focused  upon  a  cell  of 
selenium  included  in  a  live  electric  circuit, 
it  can  vary  the  resistance  of  the  circuit, 
so  as  to  permit  a  reproduction  of  the  sounds 
in  a  telephonic  receiver.  The  involved  prin- 
ciple of  variant  resistance  is  the  same  as 
is  applied  in  the  carbon  telephone  transmit- 
ter, and  enables  it  to  convey  to  line  the  ex- 
act vibrations  of  vocal  and  other  sounds. 

In  practical  space-telegraphy  an  instru- 
ment known  as  a  "coherer"  is  employed,  to 
operate  on  precisely  the  same  principle  on 
being  affected  by  Hertzian  impulses — name- 
ly, to  modify  the  resistance  of  an  electrical 
circuit.  The  coherer,  as  used  by  Marconi, 
is  a  modification  of  the  apparatus  called 
the  "Branly  tube."  It  consists  of  a  vacuous 
glass  tube  at  either  end  of  which  enter  the 
conducting  wires  of  the  circuit.  Each  of 
these  wires  is  joined  to  a  silver  plug,  and 
the  space  between  them  is  loosely  filled 
with  nickel  filings.  In  normal  condition  the 
resistance  to  the  electrical  current  offered 
by  this  device  may  be  equal  to  several 
megohms,  but,  under  the  influence  of  mag- 
netic force,  or  when  exposed  to  the  action 
of  a  Hertzian  wave,  the  resistance  is  in- 
stantly lowered,  being  estimated,  perhaps, 
only  in  units  or  tens  of  ohms.  The  con- 
ductivity thus  produced  continues  after  the 
cessation  of  the  affecting  impulse,  or  until 
the  tube  is  tapped  lightly,  which  act  "deco- 


heres" it.  For  this  reason  the  decoherer  is 
an  essential  part  of  all  Hertzian  telegraphic 
apparatus. 

In  all  systems  of  space-telegraphy  to  the 
present  time  the  tall  aerial  wire,  or  antenna, 
is  an  essential  feature.  This  wire  is  carried 
into  the  air  on  a  pole  or  mast,  the  height 
of  this,  relatively  at  least  to  other  parts  of 
the  apparatus,  having  a  very  definite  effect 
on  the  distance  of  the  transmission,  also  on 
the  selective  efficiency,  as  will  be  presently 
explained.  Of  the  three  prominent  sys- 
tems, the  Marconi,  the  Slaby-Arco,  and  the 
Braun,  the  first  two  earth  the  extremity  of 
the  secondary  circuit  extension  opposite  to 


FIG.  2. — Diagram  of  the  Hertz  oscillator  and 
resonator  as  used  in  wireless  telegraphy.  A  is 
the  primary  circuit  including  battery  and  hand 
key;  B,  the  secondary  circuit,  including  the  spark 
gap  C  and  the  adjusting  balls,  D  D.  E  is  the 
resonator.  Dotted  arrows  show  the  directions  of 
the  alternating  induced  currents. 

the  aerial  wire.  The  Braun  system  avoids 
this  feature,  with  several  resulting  advan- 
tages, according  to  published  claims. 

The  general  features  of  a  Marconi  non- 
selective  space-telegraphing  apparatus  are 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  Here,  as  may  be  readily 
seen,  the  transmitting  apparatus  is  essen- 
tially a  Hertz  oscillator  with  one  extremity, 
A,  of  the  oscillator  circuit  extended  ver- 
tically into  the  air;  the  other,  B,  grounded. 
The  key,  C,  for  closing  the  primary  circuit 
of  the  coil,  is  used  to  tap  out  the  Morse  sig- 
nals, which  are  transmitted  through  space 
in  the  form  of  successive  undulations.  At 
the  receiving  station  the  coherer,  C,  is  in- 
cluded in  series  between  the  aerial,  A,  and 
the  ground,  B.  It  is  also  included  in  the 
circuit  of  the  battery,  D,  with  the  inductive 
resistances,  or  reactance  coils,  E  E,  con- 
nected to  its  terminals  for  the  purpose  of 


WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY 


427 


preventing  the  Hertzian  impulses  from  leak- 
ing into  the  battery  circuit.  At  each  mo- 
ment of  coherence  the  immense  resistance 
of  the  coherer  is  broken  down  and  current 
from  battery,  D,  moving  unobstructed,  en- 
ergizes the  relay,  F,  closing  the  circuit  of 
battery,  G.  Current  from  this  battery  ener- 
gizes the  sounder,  H,  delivering  the  Morse 
messages,  also  the  magnet,  K,  operating  the 
decoherer,  and  causing  its  clapper,  L,  to 
lightly  tap  the  coherer  tube.  Bridged  upon 
this  circuit  are  the  non-inductive  resistances, 
M  and  N,  which  act  to  prevent  sparking 
at  the  sounder  and  decoherer  contacts.  An- 
other such  coil,  P,  is  similarly  run  parallel 
to  the  relay,  F. 

The  apparatus  arrangements  thus  shown 
agree  in  all  essential  particulars  with  those 
used  by  Marconi  to  the  present  time,  and, 
with  such  variations  as  can  increase  the 
message-carrying  power  of  the  vibrations, 
are  adequate  to  all  requirements  in  short- 
distance  space-telegraphy.  Indeed,  the  most 
important  differences  between  the  Marconi 
and  other  systems  are  found,  not  in  the 
methods  of  transmitting  and  receiving,  but 
in  the  peculiar  devices  adopted  to  at- 
tain the  end  of  selective,  or  syntonic,  sig- 
naling through  space.  That  this  problem 
is  by  no  means  a  simple  one  is  evidenced 


FIG.  3. — Diagram  of  the  transmitting  (7)  and 
receiving  (77)  stations  of  a  Marconi  wireless 
telegraph  circuit.  In  I,  A  is  the  aerial  wire;  B, 
the  grounded  wire;  C,  the  Morse  telegraph  key 
in  primary  circuit.  In  77,  A  and  B  same  as  be- 
fore; C,  the  coherer;  D,  battery  in  circuit  with 
coherer;  E  E,  inductive  resistances;  F,  relay 
closing  circuit  of  battery,  G;  77,  the  sounder;  K, 
magnet  of  decoherer.  L;  M.  N,  P,  non-inductive 
resistances  to  prevent  sparking. 

by  the  number  of  widely  divergent  methods 
adopted  by  experimenters  in  their  efforts 
to  perfect  its  solution. 

To  the  casual  student  the  most  imme- 
diate expedient  would  seem  to  be  found  in 
making  the  aerial  wires  of  different  lengths, 
using  a  given  length  for  transmitting  sig- 
nals to  a  receiving  station  with  the  same 
length,  thus  securing,  so  far  as  musical 
analogy  holds  good,  a  common  amplitude 


and  frequency  between  the  two.  That  this 
consideration  has  a  very  definite  bearing  on 
the  matter  can  not  be  denied,  but,  taken  by 
itself,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  all  requirements. 
Mr.  Marconi  explains  this  fact  in  the_  fol- 
lowing words :  "A  dead-beat  radiator — i.e., 
one  that  does  not  give  a  train  or  succession 
of  electrical  oscillations — is  not  suitable  for 
tuned  cr  syntonic  space-telegraphy.  ...  A 
transmitter  consisting  of  a  vertical  wire 


FIG.  4. — Transmitter  station  of  Marconi  wire- 
less telegrah,  equipped  with  combined  cylinder  and 
transformer  apparatus  for  syntonic  selective  sig- 
naling. 

discharging  through  a  spark-gap  is  not  a 
persistent  oscillator.  Its  electrical  capacity 
is  comparatively  so  small  and  its  capability 
of  radiating  waves  so  great  that  the  oscil- 
lations which  take  place  in  it  must  be  con- 
siderably damped.  In  this  case,  receivers  or 
resonators  of  a  Considerably  different  period 
or  pitch  will  respond  and  be  affected  by  it." 
With  the  obvious  aim  of  increasing  the 
oscillatory  power  of  the  transmitter,  Mar~ 
coni  devised  the  double  cylinder  arrange- 
ment, shown  in  Fig.  4.  Two  concentric 
metal  cylinders  were  used,  the  inner  one 
connected  to  earth,  the  outer  to  the  an- 
tenna, with  the  oscillator  circuit  bridged 
between.  In  explaining  the  theory  of  this 
apparatus,  Mr.  Marconi  says :  "One  neces- 
sary condition  of  this  system  is  that  the  in- 
ductance of  the  two  conductors  should  be 
unequal,  it  being  preferable  that  the  large 
inductance  should  be  joined  to  the  non- 
earthed  conductor.  I  assume  that  in  order 
to  radiate  the  necessary  amount  of  energy, 
it  is  essential  that  there  should  be  difference 
in  phase  of  the  oscillations  in  the  two  conduc- 
tors, as  otherwise  their  mutual  effect  would 
be  to  neutralize  that  of  each  other."  With 
the  first  experimental  use  of  such  an  appara- 
tus, using  cylinders  seven  meters  in  height, 
he  states  that  the  "signals  were  not  inter- 
fered with  or  read  by  other  wireless  teler- 
graph  installations  worked  by  my  assistants 


WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY 


or  by  the  Admiralty  in  the  immediate  vi- 
cinity," between  St.  Catherine's,  Isle  of 
Wight,  and  Poole,  a  distance  of  three 
miles. 

Such  a  system  is  thus  selective,  in  the 
sense  that  it  secures  exclusiveness.  In  order 
to  secure  complete  selectiveness  between  a 
large  number  of  stations,  so  equipped,  it 
would  be  necessary,  of  course,  to  vary  the 
apparatus  in  regard  to  its  capacity,  oscilla- 
tory frequency,  and  amplitude  of  vibra- 
tions emitted  and  received. 

Another  selective  device  consists  in  the 
use  of  a  double-wound  transformer,  or 
"Tesla  coil";  the  primary  winding  being 
included  in  circuit  with  the  spark  coil 
secondary  and  a  condenser,  with  the  os- 
cillator on  a  bridge,  and  the  secondary  be- 
ing connected  on  the  one  side  to  the  aerial 
wire,  on  the  other  to  the  ground.  In  the  re- 
ceiving station  a  similar  transformer  was 
interposed  between  the  aerial  and  the  co- 
herer, which  latter  was  included  in  the 
circuit  of  the  secondary  winding,  other 


arrangements  being  virtually  the  same  as 
in  non-selective  receiving  apparatus.  On 
the  point  of  adjusting  this  apparatus,  Mr. 
Marconi  says:  "The  period  of  oscillation  of 
the  vertical  conductor  can  be  increased  by 
introducing  turns  of  wire,  or  decreased  by 
diminishing  their  number,  or  by  introducing 
a  condenser  in  series."  It  is  essential,  how- 
ever, that  the  two  electrical  circuits  of  the 
transmitter  should  be  tuned  to  the  same 
period,  or  octave,  of  electrical  oscillations, 
which  is  to  say,  that  there  should  be  a 
predetermined  fixed  relation  between  the 
number  of  turns  in  the  transformer  pri- 
mary and  secondary.  The  condenser  bridged 
on  the  coherer  circuit  has  the  effect  of  mak- 
ing the  tuning  more  marked,  "by  increas- 
ing the  capacity  of  the  secondary  resonating 
circuit  of  the  transformer."  Briefly  de- 
scribed, the  peculiar  resonance  of  any  given 
selective  station  is  proportionate  to  the 
windings,  with  which,  as  in  the  Braun 
system,  the  oscillatory  intensity  may  be 
stepped  up  or  stepped  down. 


AUTOMOBI    ES 


THE  automobile,  or  self-propelled  road  carriage,  is  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  facts  of  present-day  life.  We  see  it  in  all  forms,  from 
the  light  motor-driven  bicycle  to  the  five-ton  truck  or  large  pas- 
senger omnibus.  Although  automobiles  have  geen  built  and  used  in 
America  only  during  the  last  six  or  eight  years,  it  is  a  remarkable  fact 
that  they  really  antedate  the  railroad.  As  long  ago  as  1769,  a  certain 
Captain  Cugnot  of  the  French  army  built  a  steam  carriage  for  use  with 
artillery.  It  was  an  awkward,  topheavy  affair,  having  a  single  front 
wheel  hung  on  a  fork,  so  as  to  be  turned  by  a  steering  wheel,  and  at 
the  same  time  driven  by  a  primitive  sort  of  engine  whose  steam  was 
drawn  from  the  huge  kettle-like  boiler  made  to  swing  with  the  front 
wheel.  Although  a  great  curiosity  in  his  time,  as  also  at  the  present 
day  (it  is  still  preserved  in  a  museum  in  Paris),  it  could  only  make 
about  three  miles  an  hour  on  the  very  best  roads,  and  would  fall  head- 
long down  every  bank  if  the  driver  were  not  both  strong  and  careful. 
During  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  number  of  engineers, 
particularly  in  England,  actually  built  and  operated  heavy  steam  car- 
riages of  large  power.  Some  of  these  could  make  a  speed  as  high  as 
twenty  miles  an  hour,  carrying  a  dozen  or  twenty  passengers,  and  weighed 
several  tons.  Indeed,  the  industry  increased  so  rapidly  that  steam  road 
carriages  were  for  some  years  formidable  rivals  of  the  then  newly  invented 
railroad  locomotive.  What  the  result  would  have  been  if  Parliament  had 
not  made  the  law  in  1845  reserving  the  highways  for  horse  carriages 
we  can  not  say.  We  know,  however,  that  this  was  the  reason  that  noth- 
ing was  done  in  the  way  of  perfecting  these  vehicles  for  nearly  fifty  years. 
To  be  sure  an  occasional  enterprising  engineer  would  build  a  steam 
carriage  that  was  both  heavy  and  slow-going,  but  the  day  of  modern 
automobiles  did  not  arrive  until  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.. 
In  1885  Gottlieb  Daimler  of  Cannstatt,  Germany,  invented  the  high-speed, 
internal-combustion  engine,  operated  by  the  gas  of  gasoline  or  other 
spirit.  He  fitted  this  motor  to  a  tricycle,  and  later  to  a  four-seated  car- 
riage, thus  making  the  first  step  in  the  direction  of  the  modern  gasoline 
vehicle  which  is  so  familiar  a  sight  in  all  parts  of  the  world  at  the  present 
time.  The  next  or  more  important  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  auto- 
mobile were  due  to  the  labors  of  the  French  engineers,  Panhard-Levassor, 
the  Peugeots,  Mors,  and  others  who  operated  under  Daimler's  rights  in 

(429)  28 


430 


AUTOMOBILES 


France,  and  eventually  brought  the  motor  vehicle  to  its  present  high 
perfection.  Meantime,  in  1889,  another  French  engineer,  Leon  Serpollet, 
had  invented  his  famous  flash  boiler,  or  steam  generator,  consisting  of 
several  coils  of  flattened  steel  tubing,  which,  heated  over  a  fire,  would 
instantly  vaporize  water  injected  through  them.  Since  this  apparatus  was 
both  safe  and  efficient,  it  was  very  well  suited  for  a  light  and  compact 
steam  carriage,  and  for  this  purpose  he  used  it.  Since  the  practical  per- 
fection of  the  electrical  storage  battery  the  electric  automobile  has  also 
appeared. 

MOTOR    VEHICLES    BRIEFLY    DISCUSSED 


THE   THREE   TYPES   OF  VEHICLE 

THERE  are  at  the  present  time  three  types 
of  motor  vehicle — steam,  gasoline,  and 
electrical.  Steam  carriages  are  necessarily 
complicated  and  difficult  to  manage  by  per- 
sons not  skilled  in  the  theory  of  the  steam- 
engine.  While  there  is  little  or  no  danger 
of  exploding,  there  is  constant  trouble  from 
the  boilers  burning  out,  due  to  allowing  the 
water  to  sink  to  too  low  a  level.  This  is  an 
accident  due  to  carelessness  and  insufficient 
knowledge  of  the  machine.  The  safety  of 


cause  one  or  more  of  the  flues  to  collapse, 
thus  putting  out  the  fire,  and  allowing  all 
steam  to  escape  through  the  bottom  of  the 
boiler.  This  is  a  startling  occurrence,  but 
by  no  means  a  dangerous  one,  and  saves  the 
life  of  the  passenger  at  the  expense  of  a  set 
of  new  flues.  Because  of  the  constant  dan- 
ger of  break-downs,  burning-out,  and  defec- 
tive valves  in  a  steam  carriage  with  an  un- 
skilled driver,  the  gasoline  machine  is  al- 
ways growing  in  popularity.  It  is  easier  to 
manage,  has  no  boiler,  requires  no  furnace^ 


A    steam    runabout — a    familiar    type 


light    American  automobile. 


automobile  boilers  may  be  easily  explained. 
The  shell  is  generally  made  of  steel,  while 
the  flues  passing  through  the  crown  plates 
at  either  end  are  of  copper.  Since  at  high 
temperatures  steel  expands  more  rapidly 
than  copper,  the  result  of  overheating  with 
the  small  amount  of  water  in  the  boiler  will 
be  simply  that  the  excess  of  pressure  will 


may  be  started  by  turning  a  crank,  and 
stopped  by  throwing  out  a  clutch  connecting 
the  motor  to  the  driving-wheels.  As  for  the 
electric  carriage,  its  sphere  of  usefulness  is 
confined  to  city  traffic  or  to  very  short  tours 
out  of  town,  since  its  radius  of  travel  is 
limited  to  the  capacity  of  its  storage  bat- 
teries of  one  charge  of  current.  Thus  few 


AUTOMOBILES 


431 


A  typical  gasoline  touring  car.  This  is 
modeled  on  French  lines,  and  represents  a 
type  of  carriage  that  is  followed  by  very 
many  American  manufacturers.  The  motor 


is  beneath  the  sloping  bonnet  over  the  for- 
ward axle,  and  drives  to  a  transverse  coun- 
tershaft, which  is  connected  by  chains  and 
sprockets  to  the  two  rear  wheels. 


electrical  vehicles  can  travel  more  than  25, 
or  at  most,  40  miles  before  the  batteries 
must  be  charged  again. 

THE    DIFFERENTIAL    GEAR 

It  may  be  said  that  the  motor  carriage 
resembles  a  horse  carriage  only  in  the  fact 
that  it  runs  on  four  wheels  and  has  the 
same  kind  of  a  body.  For  its  successful 
operation  it  requires  several  apparatus  that 
have  never  been  used  on  any  other  type  of 
vehicle.  In  the  first  place,  in  order  to  trans- 
mit power  to  the  two  rear  wheels,  it  is 
necessary  that  a  device  known  as  the  dif- 
ferential gear  be  placed  on  the  rear  axle. 
Briefly  described,  a  differential  gear  is  a 
machine  that  can  enable  the  two  driving- 
wheels  to  turn  at  different  speeds.  This  is 
necessary  when  the  carriage  has  to  turn  a 
corner,  for  if  both  the  wheels  were  always 
moving  at  the  same  speed,  the  vehicle  could 
turn  only  on  a  very  large  curve,  such  as  is 
necessary  to  use  in  railroad  tracks. 

This,  of  course,  would  make  it  impossible 
to  turn  a  street  corner,  or  to  get  out  of 
the  way  of  another  vehicle  in  the  same  road. 
How  the  differential  gear  works  may  be 
easily  understood  from  a  brief  description. 
The  rear  axle  in  most  automobiles  turns 
around  with  the  power  transmitted  from  the 
engine.  The  two  wheels  are  keyed  fast  to 
it,  instead  of  being  hung  loose  on  a  boss, 
as  in  horse  carriages.  In  order  to  arrange 
the  differential  gear  the  rear  axle  is  divided 
in  the  centre,  and  to  each  end  is  keyed  a 
bevel  gear  or  toothed  wheel.  Between  these 


two  bevel  gears  is  hung  the  sprocket,  and 
on  several  of  its  spokes  are  bevel  pinions, 
meshing  with  the  two  bevel  gears  just  de- 
scribed. When  the  carriage  is  driving 
straight  ahead  the  bevel  pinions  are  held 
fast  between  the  teeth  of  the  gears  and  do 
not  turn  on  their  axes.  They  thus  act  to 
carry  both  halves  of  the  divided  axle  shafts. 
As  soon,  however,  as  the  steering  wheels 
make  a  movement  to  turn  the  carriage  one 
of  the  driving  wheels  becomes  a  pivot  or 
centre,  around  which  the  other  moves.  It 
thus  offers  a  resistance  against  the  forward 
movement  imparted  to  the  sprocket,  and 
the  bevel  pinions,  let  on  to  its  spokes,  im- 
mediately begin  to  turn  on  their  axes,  trav- 
eling over  the  face  of  one  gear,  while  still 
imparting  movement  to  the  other.  Thus 
the  movements  of  the  wheel  are  perfectly 
compensated;  the  one  continuing  to  move 
at  full  speed  while  the  other  is  revolving 
very  slowly  or  is  entirely  stationary. 

STEERING   APPLIANCES 

In  steering  the  motor  carriage  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  pivoted  stud  axles,  as  they  are 
called,  instead  of  the  swinging  front  axle, 
as  in  horse  carriages,  with  wheels  arranged 
to  cut  under  the  body.  Briefly  described, 
these  axles  consist  of  short  bosses,  which  are 
hinged  at  either  extremity  of  a  rigid  axle 
shaft,  so  as  to  swing  the  connected  wheels 
backward  or  forward  as  the  driver  may  de- 
sire. The  steering  mechanism  is  very  sim- 
ple. Each  one  of  the  stud  axles  carries  an 
arm  at  right  angles  to  its  length,  and  these 


432 


AUTOMOBILES 


two  arms  are  connected  across  the  width  of 
the  carriage  by  a  link  bar.  The  link  steer- 
ing lever  may  be  connected  by  suitable  ar- 
rangements so  as  to  give  the  two  wheels  on 
their  pivot  inclination  to  the  left  or  right 
From  the  fact  that  the  steering  is  usually 
accomplished  with  the  front  wheels  and  the 
driving  by  the  rear*  wheels,  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  when  the  former  are  inclined  in  any 
direction  the  movement  given  by  the  latter 
will  turn  the  carriage  round  m  the  arc  in- 
dicated by  the  inclination  of  the  front 
wheels.  In  order,  however,  to  prevent  the 
wheels  from  skidding  or  slipping  sidewise, 
when  attempting  to  turn,  it  is  necessary  to 


would  otherwise  be  imparted  to  the  body 
and  running  gear,  greatly  to  the  disturb- 
ance of  the  machinery  and  the  annoyance 
of  the  passengers. 

AUTOMOBILE  UNDERFRAMES 
It  is  also  necessary  to  have  a  flexible  un- 
derframe,  in  order  that  nothing  may  be 
strained  or  broken  in  passing  over  uneven 
road  surfaces  or  along  the  side  of  slopes. 
Regarding  the  springs  that  are  necessary  it 
may  be  stated  briefly  that  they  must  be 
longer  and  more  yielding  than  those  used 
with  horse  carriages.  The  reason  is  that 
they  must  be  able  to  bear  all  the  jolts  and 


An  electric  cab   of   familiar   type.     The   batteries  are  contained  in  the  box  under  the  body,  and  the 
motors  are    hung    on   the   "dead"   rear  axle,  driving  to  the  wheels  direct 


arrange  the  front  wheels  so  that  they  will 
describe  concentric  arcs  in  turning.  Were 
this  not  done  the  turning  would  be  ex- 
tremely uncertain,  even  when  no  accident 
occurred. 

RUBBER   TIRES 

In  order  to  secure  good  traction  on  ordi- 
nary streets  and  roadways,  it  is  necessary 
to  use  rubber  tires,  either  solid  or  pneu- 
matic. This  saves  a  good  deal  of  power 
that  would  otherwise  be  wasted,  since  the 
effect  of  the  rubber  surface  is  to  take  a 
firm  grip  of  the  surface  of  the  road,  thus 
allowing  all  the  power  to  be  used  in  turn- 
ing the  wheels,  rather  than  overcoming  use- 
less resistance.  Pneumatic  tires  have  the 
further  advantage  of  a  resilient  support, 
saving  the  passengers  from  many  of  the 
shocks  of  travel  on  an  uneven  road  that 


shocks  of  travel  at  high  speed,  and  at  the 
same  time  absorb  the  vibrations  of  the 
motor. 

SPEED   CHANGING 

In  regulating  the  speed  of  an  automobile 
there  are  several  things  to  be  considered, 
since  the  driver  should  always  keep  before 
his  mind  the  old  maxim  that  an  increase 
of  speed  generally  means  a  decrease  of 
power.  Consequently  he  will  find  that  in 
attempting  to  travel  over  a  heavy  road  or  up 
a  steep  hill,  it  is  easier  to  move  on  the  low 
speed  than  on  a  high  one,  provided  that 
any  form  of  mechanical  speed  changer  is 
used.  With  steam-engines  the  speed  and 
power  are  varied  at  the  same  time  by 
changing  the  point  of  cut-off  by  the  link, 
or  by  regulating  the  inlet  of  steam  with  the 
throttle.  With  gasoline  engines  the  speed 


AUTOMOBILES 


433 


may  be  varied  over  a  wide  range  by  throt- 
tling, which  operates  by  regulating  the 
amount  of  fuel  charge  admitted  to  the  com- 
bustion space,  or  by  changing  the  ratio  of 
gas  and  air  passing  from  the  carburetter. 
With  electric  vehicles  the  situation  is  some- 
what different,  since  the  speed  and  power 
of  an  electric  motor,  within  certain  limits, 
are  in  direct  ratio.  Thus,  although  very 
few  electric  vehicles  are  driven  through 
more  than  a  single  reduction,  it  is  necessary 
to  change  the  speed  and  power  by  changing 
the  pressure  of  the  batteries.  This  is  done 
by  varying  the  couple  of  the  battery  units 
from  multiple  connection  to  series.  All  gas- 
oline vehicles  are  provided  with  a  device 
known  as  the  speed-changing  gear  which 
affords  a  ready  means  for  varying  the  speed 
without  throttling  the  motor,  also  for  re- 
versing the  travel  of  the  carriage.  Such 
a  device  consists  either  of  sliding  spur 
gears  or  of  some  arrangement  of  sun  and 
planet  wheels,  whose  relative  movements 
are  regulated  by  band  and  drum  clutches. 
Such  a  change-speed  gear,  which  is  used 
on  a  well-known  make  of  American  motor 
carriage,  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration.  The  use  of  such  gears  as  the 
only  means  of  varying  the  speed  of  a  motor 
carriage  is  by  no  means  economical,  since 
the  power  output  of  the  engine  is  always 
the  same,  whether  the  carriage  be  travel- 
ing at  the  lowest  or  highest  speed.  The 
best  practice  with  a  three-speed  gear,  which 
is  the  most  usual  form,  is  to  start  the  car- 
riage by  throwing  on  the  clutch  at  low  gear, 
and  when  it  has  fairly  begun  shift  to  inter- 
mediate gear  and  vary  the  speed  by  throt- 
tling. It  is  necessary  to  use  the  low  gear 
only  when  ascending  hills  or  passing 
through  heavy  places  in  the  road.  At  such 
times  the  power  is  the  principal  considera- 
tion, and  the  speed  only  secondary. 

SPEED    CHANGING    IN    ELECTRIC 
CARS 

In  the  typical  electric  automobile  the 
armature  shaft  is  direct-connected  with  a 
spur  pinion,  meshing  with  an  internal  or 
external  gear  attached  to  the  road  wheel. 
This  is  the  general  practice  where  two 
motors — one  for  each  drive  wheel — are  used, 
in  which  case  the  act  of  making  long  turns 
retards  the  rotation  of  one  motor's  arma- 
ture, causing  the  motor  to  "act  as  a  dyna- 
mo," since  its  C.E.M.F.  overbalances  the 
E.M.F.  of  the  battery.  Other  makes  of  car- 
riage have  a  single  motor  arranged  to  drive 
a  countershaft  containing  a  differential  gear, 


or  to  drive  direct  on  the  differential  drum  of 
a  centre-divided  "live"  axle.  In  practical^ 
all  carriages  reversal  is  accomplished  by  a 
rotary  switch,  which  changes  the  direction  of 
the  current  flowing  to  the  armatures,  the  re- 
versal being  invariably  accomplished  after 
throwing  on  the  lowest  speed  combination. 
Braking  is  usually  accomplished  by  shoe  or 
hand  brakes  after  the  power  has  been  dis- 


A  typical  American  speed-changing  gear.  The 
motor  fly-wheel,  Q,  is  on  a  shaft  carrying  keyed 
gears,  A  and  B,  sprocket,  C,  and  gear,  D,  turn 
loose  on  the  shaft.  By  throwing  on  the  friction 
clutch,  G,  the  friction  disks,  E  and  E,  are  pressed 
together,  and  the  sprocket  drives  from  the  main 
shaft,  giving  the  high  speed  forward.  By  throw- 
ing in  clutch,  H,  gear,  A,  drives  K,  and  L 
drives  D,  giving  the  low  speed  forward.  By 
throwing  in  clutch,  M,  gear,  B,  drives  N  through 
idler,  Pt  and  L  drives  D  and  sprocket,  C,  in  the 
reverse  direction.  Thus  one  backward  and  two 
forward  speeds  are  obtained. 

connected,  although  in  emergencies  the 
switch  is  often  reversed  and  the  high  speed 
thrown  in. 

Speed  changes  are  accomplished  by  vary- 
ing the  connections  of  the  batteries  between 
the  series  and  parallel  arrangements;  the 
range  of  speeds  and  pressures  thus  made 
available  varying  only  with  the  number  of 
battery  units  used.  It  is  a  common  practice, 
particularly  with  a  few  units,  to  use  a  varia- 
ble rheostat  to  still  further  increase  the 
range;  while,  when  two  motors  are  nsed, 


484 


AUTOMOBILES 


it  is  customary  to  vary  the  connections  of 
the  field  windings,  sometimes  also  of  the 
armatures,  between  series  and  parallel  ar- 
rangements. 

Thus,  with  a  two-unit  battery  supplying 
energy  to  two  motors,  three  possible  speed 
combinations  are  available.  The  first,  or 
lowest,  speed  has  the  two  battery  units  con- 
nected in  parallel  and  the  fields  of  the  two 
motors  in  series-parallel,  thus  reducing  the 
E.M.F.  of  the  battery  and  the  intake  ca- 
pacity of  the  motors  each  one-half.  The 
second  speed  has  the  two  battery  units  in 
series  and  the  fields  in  series-multiple,  thus 
giving  three-quarter  efficiency.  The  third, 
or  highest,  speed,  has  the  battery  units  in 
series  and  the  fields  in  multiple,  thus  giving 
full  power. 

Of  course,  the  effect  of  connecting  the 
battery  units  in  series,  or  "in  quantity"  as 
the  English  have  it,  is  to  give  a  cumulative 
effect  to  the  E.M.F.,  thus  increasing  the 
pressure  to  a  figure  equivalent  to  the  sum 
of  the  individual  unit  voltages ;  by  con- 
necting the  four  units  into  series-multiple 
this  total  figure  for  E.M.F.  is  halved,  and  by 


connecting  them  in  parallel  it  is  quartered,  or 
made  equivalent  merely  to  the  voltage  of 
each  unit.  The  opposite  efficiency  effects 
are  obtained  by  connecting  the  motors.  In 
series  the  C.E.M.F.  of  the  armatures  is 
cumulatively  exerted  on  the  line,  thus 
halving  the  efficiency  of  the  battery  pres- 
sure; in  multiple,  it  is  reduced  to  unity, 
thus  allowing  full  effect  to  the  battery 
pressure. 

The  storage  cells  used  in  automobiles  con- 
tain either  five  or  seven  plates,  and  vary  in 
weight  between  thirty-five  and  sixty  pounds 
each.  Their  output  capacity  ranges  be- 
tween 200  and  300  ampere-hours.  Taking 
such  a  four-unit  battery,  consisting  of  44 
cells,  of  300  ampere-hour  capacity  each,  and 
of  49.5  pounds  weight  each,  the  series  ar- 
rangement would  give  a  pressure  of  88  volts, 
the  series-parallel  of  44  volts,  and  the  paral- 
lel of  22  volts.  With  a  well-constructed  6- 
horsepower  motor,  the  highest  pressure  ar- 
rangement should  give  1,250  revolutions  per 
minute,  the  second,  600  revolutions,  and  the 
third,  300  revolutions.  Such  a  battery,  how- 
ever, would  weigh  2,178  pounds. 


GAMES  OF  CARDS 


THE  most  familiar  of  parlor  games  are  played  with  suit  cards,  which 
have  been  in  common  use  for  centuries.     The  exact  origin  of  cards 
is  uncertain,  but  it  is  certain  that  their  use  dates  from  a  very  remote 
period.    Many  of  the  games  are  also  very  ancient,  at  least  in  their  general 
principles.     Cards  have  been  used  not  only  for  social  games,  but  also  for 
gambling  and  as  a  means  of  divination,  or  fortune-telling.    There  is  no  use 
of  condemning  them,  however,  on  this  account,  since  gambling  and  fortune- 
telling  can  be  done  with  any  kind  of  apparatus.    It  is  better  to  learn  to  re- 
gard cards  as  a  means  of  innocent  amusement  than  to  associate  them  wholly 
with  the  evil  ends  for  which  some  people  use  them. 

Card-playing  was  first  put  upon  a  scientific  basis  by  the  writings  of 
Edmund  Hoyle,  whose  treatise  on  whist  is  one  of  the  classics  of  the  English 
language.  Many  new  games  have  arisen  since  he  wrote  (in  1743),  but 
whist  still  holds  first  place  in  the  estimation  of  most  card-players. 


RULES    AND    TERMS    IN    PLAYING    WHIST 


LONG  WHIST  is  played  by  four  per- 
sons, with  a  complete  pack  of  fifty-two 
cards.  The  four  players  divide  themselves 
into  two  parties,  each  player  sitting  oppo- 
site his  partner.  This  division  is  usually 
accomplished  by  what  is  called  cutting  the 
cards,  the  two  highest  and  the  two  lowest 
being  partners;  or  the  partnership  may  be 
settled  in  any  other  way  that  may  be  de- 
cided on.  The  holder  of  the  lowest  card  is 
the  dealer.  But  previous  to  their  being 
dealt,  the  cards  are  "made" — that  is,  shuf- 
fled— by  the  elder  hand,  and  "cut"  by  the 
younger  hand.  The  undermost  card  in  the 
pack,  after  it  has  been  shuffled  and  cut,  is 
the  "trump." 

THE  PLAY. — The  whole  pack  is  now  dealt 
out  card  by  card,  the  dealer  beginning  with 


the  player  on  his  left,  the  elder  hand.  The 
last  card — the  trump — is  then  turned  face 
upward  on  the  table,  where  it  remains  till 
the  first  trick  is  won.  The  deal  completed, 
each  player  takes  up  his  allotted  thirteen, 
and  arranges  them  in  his  hand  according 
to  the  several  suits — the  Hearts,  Clubs, 
Spades,  and  Diamonds  by  themselves  in 
their  regular  order.  The  elder  hand  now 
leads  or  plays  a  card.  His  left-hand  adver- 
sary follows,  then  his  partner,  and  last  of 
all  his  right-hand  adversary.  Each  player 
must  "follow  suit,"  if  he  can,  and  the 
highest  card  of  the  suit  led  wins  the  "trick" ; 
or  if  any  player  can  not  follow  suit,  he 
either  passes  the  suit:  that  is,  plays  some 
card  of  another  suit,  or  trumps:  that  is, 
plays  a  card  of  the  same  suit  or  denomi- 

(435) 


436 


GAMES    OF   CARDS 


nation  as  the  turned-up  card.  Thus,  we 
will  suppose  the  first  player  leads  a  nine  of 
spades,  the  second  follows  with  a  ten,  the 
third,  who  perhaps  holds  two  high  cards, 
plays  a  queen,  and  the  last  a  two  or  a 
three.  The  trick  would  then  belong  to  the 
third  player,  who  won  it  with  his  queen. 
The  winner  of  the  trick  then  leads  off  a 
card,  and  the  others  follow  as  before,  and 
so  on  till  the  thirteen  tricks  are  played. 
A  second  deal  then  takes  place  as  before, 
and  so  the  game  proceeds  till  one  or  the 
other  side  has  obtained  ten  tricks,  which  is 
game. 

The  order  and  value  of  the  cards  in  whist 
is  as  follows:  Ace  is  highest  in  play  and 
lowest  in  cutting.  Then  follow  king,  queen, 
knave,  ten,  nine,  eight,  seven,  six,  five, 
four,  three,  two,  the  lowest. 

SCORING. — But  there  are  other  ways  of 
scoring  points  besides  tricks.  The  four 
court  cards  of  the  trump  suit  are  called 
honors;  and  the  holders  of  four  score  four 
toward  the  game;  the  holders  of  three  score 
two;  but  if  each  player  or  each  set  of 
partners  hold  two,  then  honors  are  said  to 
be  divided,  and  no  points  are  added  to  the 
game  on  either  side.  Thus,  A  and  C 
(partners)  have  between  them  the  ace, 
knave,  and  queen.  At  the  end  of  the  deal 
or  round,  they  say  and  score  two  by  hon- 
ors; or,  B  and  D  hold  ace  and  king  only, 
while  A  and  B  have  queen  and  knave  in 
their  hands ;  then  the  honors  are  divided. 

All  tricks  above  six  score  to  the  game. 
All  honors  above  two  score  in  the  way  ex- 
plained— two  points  for  three  -honors,  four 
points  for  four  honors. 

There  being  thirteen  tricks  which  must 
be  made  in  each  round  or  deal,  it  follows 
that  seven  points  may  be  gained,  which, 
with  the  four  honors,  would  finish  the  game 
in  a  single  deal.  This  stroke  of  good  for- 
tune is,  however,  seldom  attained.  It  is 
much  more  likely  that  four  or  five  deals 
are  made  before  the  game  is  won.  As  we 
have  explained,  ten  points  is  game  in  long 
whist. 

In  short  whist,  which  is  the  ordinary 
game  cut  in  half,  five  points  win.  But  if 
either  side  get  up  to  nine  points,  then  the 
holding  of  honors  is  of  no  advantage.  In 
the  language  of  the  whist-table,  at  nine 
points  honors  do  not  count.  But  at  eight 
points,  the  player  who  holds  two  honors  hi 
his  hand  has  what  is  called  the  privilege 
of  the  call.  That  is,  he  may  ask  his  partner 
if  he  has  an  honor — "Can  you  one?"  or 
"Have  you  an  honor?"  If  the  partner 
asked  does  hold  the  requisite  court  card, 


the  honors  may  be  shown,  the  points  scored, 
and  the  game  ended.  But  the  inquiry  must 
not  be  made  by  the  player  holding  the  two 
honors  till  it  is  his  turn  to  play,  nor  must 
the  holder  of  a  single  honor  inquire  of  bis 
partner  if  he  has  two. 

Nor  does  the  holding  of  four  honors  en- 
title the  partners  to  show  them  at  any 
stage  of  the  game  except  at  eight  points. 
To  put  the  matter  epigrammatically,  at  six 
or  seven  points,  tricks  count  before  honors; 
at  eight  points,  honors  count  before  tricks. 

At  nine  points,  honors  do  not  count.  It 
must  be  understood,  however,  that,  in  or- 
der to  count  honors  at  eight  points,  they 
must  be  shown  before  the  first  trick  is 
turned,  or  they  can  not  be  claimed  till  the 
round  is  completed.  Thus  it  might  hap- 
pen that  the  partners  at  eight  points,  hold- 
ing the  honors  between  them,  and  neglect- 
ing to  show  them,  would  be  beaten,  even 
though  the  other  side  wanted  three  or  four 
tricks  for  the  game. 

A  single  game  is  won  by  the  side  which 
first  obtains  the  ten  points  by  a  majority 
of  one,  two,  three,  or  four  points. 

A  double  game  is  made  when  one  side 
obtains  ten  points  before  the  other  has 
scored  five. 

A  lurch  or  triplet  is  won  by  obtaining 
ten  points  to  nothing  on  the  other  side. 

A  rubber  is  two  games  won  out  of  three. 

The  points  of  a  rubber  are  reckoned 
thuswise :  For  the  single  game,  one  point ; 
for  the  double,  two  points;  and  for  the 
rub,  two  points.  Thus  it  is  possible  to  ob- 
tain six  points  in  one  rubber — namely,  two 
doubles  and  the  rub. 

A  Iwrch  or  triplet  is  in  some  companies 
reckoned  for  three  points.  Generally,  how- 
ever, a  lurch  is  only  counted  as  a  double 
game  where  triplets  are  counted ;  it  is  pos- 
sible, therefore,  for  the  winners  to  obtain 
eight  points. 

A  slam  is  when  the  whole  thirteen  tricks 
are  won  in  a  single  hand. 

The  game  is  usually  marked  on  the  table 
by  coins  or  counters,  or  by  the  holes  in 
a  cribbage-board.  Many  pretty  little  con- 
trivances have  been  invented  as  whist- 
markers. 

TECHNICAL   TERMS    USED    IN 
WHIST 

ACE. — Highest  in  play,  lowest  in  cutting. 

BLUE  PETER. — A  signal  for  trumps,  allow- 
able in  modern  play.  This  term  is  used 
when  a  high  card  is  unnecessarily  played  in 
place  of  one  of  lower  denomination,  as  a 
ten  for  a  seven,  a  five  for  a  deuce,  etc. 


GAMES    OF    CARDS 


437 


BUMPER. — Two  games  won  in  succession 
before  adversaries  have  won  one;  that  is, 
a  rubber  of  full  points — five  at  long  whist, 
eight  at  short. 

CUT. — Lifting  the  cards,  when  the  upper- 
most portion  (not  fewer  than  three)  is 
placed  below  the  rest.  The  pack  is  then 
ready  for  the  dealer. 

CUTTING-IN. — Deciding  the  deal  by  each 
player  taking  up  not  fewer  than  three  cards, 
and  the  two  highest  and  two  lowest  be- 
come partners.  In  case  of  ties,  the  cards 
must  be  cut  again. 

CUTTING-OUT. — In  case  of  other  person  or 
persons  wishing  to  play,  the  cut  is  adopted 
as  before,  when  the  highest  (or  lowest,  as 
may  be  agreed  on)  stands  out  of  the  game, 
and  does  not  play. 

CALL,  THE. — The  privilege  of  the  player 
at  eight  points  asking  his  partner  if  he 
holds  an  honor — "Have  you  one?"  The 
partners  having  eight  points  are  said  to 
have  the  call.  When  each  side  stands  at 
eight,  the  first  player  has  the  privilege.  No 
player  can  call  till  it  is  his  turn  to  play. 

DEAL. — The  proper  distribution  of  the 
cards,  from  left  to  right,  face  downward. 

DEAL,  MIS-. — A  misdeal  is  made  by  giving 
a  card  too  many  or  too  few  to  either 
player;  in  which  case  the  deal  passes  to 
the  next  hand. 

DEAL,  FRESH. — A  fresh  or  new  deal,  ren- 
dered necessary  by  any  violation  of  the 
laws,  or  by  any  accident  to  the  cards  or 
players. 

DOUBLE. — Ten  points  scored  at  long  whist 
before  adversaries  have  obtained  five ;  or  in 
short  whist,  five  before  three. 

ELDER-HAND. — The  player  to  •  the  left  of 
the  dealer. 

FACED  CARD. — A  card  improperly  shown 
in  process  of  dealing.  It  is  in  the  power 
of  adversaries  in  such  cases  to  demand  a 
new  deal. 

FINESSING. — A  term  used  when  a  player 
endeavors  to  conceal  his  strength,  as  when, 
having  the  best  and  third  best  (as  ace  and 
queen),  he  plays  the  latter,  and  risks  his  ad- 
versary holding  the  second  best  (the  king). 
If  he  succeed  in  winning  with  his  queen, 
he  gains  a  clear  trick,  because,  if  his  ad- 
versary throws  away  on  the  queen,  the  ace 
is  certain  of  making  a  trick.  The  term 
finessing  may  be  literally  explained  by  say- 
ing a  player  chances  an  inferior  card  to 
win  a  trick  with  while  he  holds  the  king 
card  in  his  hand. 

FORCING. — This  term  is  employed  when 
the  player  obliges  his  adversary  or  partner 
to  play  his  trump  or  pass  the  trick.  As, 


for  instance,  when  the  player  holds  the  last 
two  cards  in  a  suit,  and  plays  one  of  them. 

HAND. — The  thirteen  cards  dealt  to  each 
player. 

HONORS. — Ace,  king,  queen,  and  knave 
of  trumps,  reckoned  in  the  order  here 
given. 

JACK. — The  knave  of  any  suit. 

KING  CARD. — The  highest  unplayed  card 
in  any  suit;  the  leading  or  winning  card. 

LEAD,  THE. — The  first  player's  card,  or 
the  card  next  played  by  the  winner  of  the 
last  trick. 

LONG  TRUMPS. — The  last  trump  card  in 
hand,  one  or  more,  when  the  rest  are  all 
played.  It  is  important  to  retain  a  trump 
in  an  otherwise  weak  hand. 

LOOSE  CARDS. — A  card  of  no  value,  which 
may  be  thrown  away  on  any  trick  won  by 
your  partner  or  adversary. 

LONGS. — Long  whist,  as  opposed  to  short. 

LURCH. — The  players  who  make  the 
double  point  are  said  to  have  lurched  their 
adversaries. 

LOVE. — No  points  to  score.     Nothing. 

MARKING  THE  GAME. — Making  the  score 
apparent,  with  coins,  etc.,  as  before  ex- 
plained. 

No  GAME. — A  game  at  which  the  players 
make  no  score. 

OPPOSITION. — Side  against  side. 

POINTS. — The  score  obtained  by  tricks 
and  honors.  The  wagering  or  winning  pe- 
riods of  the  game. 

QUARTE. — Four   cards   in   sequence. 

QUARTE  MAJOR. — A  sequence  of  ace,  king, 
queen,  and  knave. 

QUINT. — Five  successive  cards  in  a  suit; 
a  sequence  of  five,  as  king,  queen,  knave, 
ten,  and  nine. 

RENOUNCE. — Possessing  no  card  of  the 
suit  led,  and  playing  another  which  is  noi. 
a  trump. 

REVOKE. — Playing  a  card  different  from 
the  suit  led,  though  the  player  can  follow 
suit.  The  penalty  for  the  error,  whether 
made  purposely  or  by  accident,  is  the  for- 
feiture of  three  tricks. 

RUBBER. — The  best  two  of  three  games. 

RUFFING — Another  term  for  trumping 
a  suit  other  than  trumps. 

SEQUENCE. — Cards  following  in  their  nat- 
ural order,  as  ace,  king,  queen,  two,  three^ 
four,  etc.  There  may,  therefore,  be  a  se- 
quence of  four,  five,  six,  and  so  on. 

SINGLE. — Scoring,  at  long  whist,  ten 
tricks  before  your  adversaries  have  scored 
five. 

SEE-SAW. — When  each  partner  trumps  a 
suit.  For  instance,  A  holds  no  diamonds, 


438 


GAMES   OF   CARDS 


and  B  no  hearts.  When  A  plays  hearts,  B 
trumps  and  returns  a  diamond,  which  A 
trumps  and  returns  a  heart,  and  so  on. 

SCORE. — The  points  gained  in  a  game  or 
rubber. 

SLAM. — Winning  every  trick  in  a  round. 

SHORTS. — Short  whist  as  opposed  to  long. 

TENACE. — Holding  the  best  and  third 
best  of  any  suit  led  when  last  player. 
Holding  tenace,  as  king  and  ten  of  clubs. 
When  your  adversary  leads  that  suit,  you 
win  two  tricks  perforce.  [Tenace  minor 
means  the  second  and  fourth  best  of  any 
suit] 

TREBLE. — Scoring  five  (at  short  whist) 
before  your  adversaries  have  marked  one. 

TERCE. — A  sequence  of  three  cards  in  any 
suit. 

TERCE  MAJOR. — Ace,  king,  and  queen  of 
any  suit  held  in  one  hand. 

TRICKS. — The  four  cards  played,  includ- 
ing the  lead. 

TRUMP. — The  last  card  in  the  deal;  the 
turn-up. 

TRUMPS. — Cards  of  the  same  suit  as  the 
turn-up. 

TIES. — Cards  of  like  denomination,  as 
two  kings,  queens,  etc.  Cards  of  the  same 
number  of  pips. 

TRUMPING  SUIT. — Playing  a  trump  to  any 
other  suit  led. 

UNDERPLAY. — Playing  to  mislead  your 
adversaries;  as  by  leading  a  small  card 
though  you  hold  the  king  card  of  the  suit. 

YOUNGER  HAND. — The  player  to  the  right 
of  the  dealer. 

SHORT    RULES 

FOR  FIRST   HAND  OR  LEAD 

(i.)  Lead  from  your  strong  suit,  and  be 
cautious  how  you  change  suits;  and  keep 
a  commanding  card  to  bring  it  in  again. 

(2.)  Lead  through  the  strong  suit  and 
up  to  the  weak,  but  not  in  trumps,  unless 
very  strong  in  them. 

(3.)  Lead  the  highest  of  a  sequence;  but 
if  you  have  a  quart  or  quint  to  a  king,  lead 
the  lowest. 

(4.)  Lead  through  an  honor,  particularly 
if  the  game  be  much  against  you. 

(5.)  Lead  your  best  trump,  if  the  ad- 
versaries be  eight,  and  you  have  no  honor; 
but  not  if  you  have  four  trumps,  unless  you 
have  a  sequence. 

(6.)  Lead  a  trump  if  you  have  four  or 
five,  or  a  strong  hand;  but  not  if  weak. 

(7.)  Having  ace,  king,  and  two  or  three 
small  cards,  lead  ace  and  king,  if  weak  in 
trumps,  but  a  small  one  if  strong  in  them. 


(8.)  If  you  have  the  last  trump,  with 
some  winning  cards,  and  one  losing  card 
only,  lead  the  losing  card. 

(9.)  Return  your  partner's  lead,  not  the 
adversaries' ;  and  if  you  have  only  three 
originally,  play  the  best;  but  you  need  not 
return  it  immediately,  when  you  win  with 
the  king,  queen,  or  knave,  and  have  only 
small  ones,  or  when  you  have  a  good  se- 
quence, have  a  strong  suit,  or  have  five 
trumps. 

(10.)  Do  not  lead  from  ace  queen,  or  ace 
knave. 

(11.)  Do  not  lead  an  ace,  unless  you 
have  a  king. 

(12.)  Do  not  lead  a  thirteenth  card,  un- 
less trumps  be  out. 

(13.)  Do  not  trump  a  thirteenth  card, 
unless  you  be  last  player,  or  want  the  lead. 

(14.)  Keep  a  small  card  to  return  your 
partner's  lead. 

(15.)  Be  cautious  in  trumping  a  card 
when  strong  in  trumps,  particularly  if  you 
have  a  strong  suit. 

(16.)  Having  only  a  few  small  trumps, 
make  them  when  you  can. 

(17.)  If  your  partner  refuses  to  trump 
a  suit,  of  which  he  knows  you  have  not 
the  best,  lead  your  best  trump. 

(18.)  When  you  hold  all  the  remaining 
trumps  play  one,  and  then  try  to  put  the 
lead  in  your  partner's  hand. 

(19.)  Remember  how  many  of  each  suit 
are  out,  and  what  is  the  best  card  left  in 
each  hand. 

(20.)  Never  force  your  partner  if  you 
are  weak  in  trumps,  unless  you  have  a  re- 
nounce, or  want  the  odd  trick. 

(21.)  When  playing  for  the  odd  trick, 
be  cautious  of  trumping  out,  especially  if 
your  partner  be  likely  to  trump  a  suit; 
make  all  the  tricks  you  can  early,  and 
avoid  finessing. 

(22.)  If  you  take  a  trick,  and  have  a 
sequence,  win  with  the  lowest. 

FOR   SECOND   HAND 

(23.)  With  king,  queen,  and  small  cards, 
play  a  small  one,  when  not  strong  in 
trumps.  But  if  weak,  play  the  king.  With 
ace,  king,  queen,  or  knave,  only,  and  a 
small  card,  play  the  small  one. 

FOR  THIRD   HAND 

(24.)  With  ace  and  queen,  play  her 
majesty,  and,  if  she  wins,  return  the  ace. 
In  all  other  cases  the  third  hand  should 
play  his  best  card  when  his  partner  has 
led  a  low  one.  It  is  a  safe  rule  for  the 
third  hand  to  play  his  highest 


GAMES    OF    CARDS 


439 


FOR  ALL  THE  PLAYERS 

(25.)  Fail  not,  when  in  your  power,  to 
make  the  odd  trick. 

(26.)  Attend  to  the  game,  and  play  ac- 
cordingly. 

(27.)  Hold  the  turn-up  card  as  long  as 
possible,  and  so  keep  your  adversaries  from 
a  knowledge  of  your  strength. 

(28.)  Retain  a  high  trump  as  long  as 
you  can. 

(29.)  When  in  doubt  win  the  trick. 

(30.)  Play  the  game  fairly  and  keep  your 
temper. 

CUTTING  IN 

(31.)  The  highest  two  are  partners 
against  the  lowest  two. 

(32.)  Less  than  three  cards  is  not  a  cut. 

[If  fewer  than  three  cards  Be  cut  off  the  pack, 
the  player  so  cutting  must  replace  the  cards, 
and  cut  again.] 

(33.)  In  cutting,  the  ace  is  lowest. 

(34.)  Ties  must  cut  again. 

(35.)  After  the  pack  is  cut,  no  fresh 
cards  can  be  called  for  in  that  deal. 

(36.)  If  a  card  be  exposed,  a  new  cut 
may  be  demanded. 

(37.)  All  cutting-in  and  cutting-out  must" 
be  by  pairs. 

(38.)  The  right-hand  adversary  cuts  to 
the  dealer. 

SHUFFLING 

(39.)  The  cards  must  be  shuffled  above 
the  table. 

(40.)  Each  player  has  a  right  to  shuffle 
the  cards,  the  dealer  last. 

DEALING 

(41.)  The  cards  must  be  dealt  one  at  a 
time,  commencing  with  the  player  to  the 
left  of  the  dealer. 

(42.)  In  case  of  a  misdeal,  the  deal 
passes  to  the  next  player. 

[The  following  are  misdeals: — A  card  too  many 
or  too  few  given  to  either  player.  An  exposed 
card.  Looking  to  the  trump  card  before  it  is 
turned  up  in  the  regular  order  of  play.  Deal- 
ing the  cards  with  the  pack  not  having  been 
cut.  The  trump  card  dropped  out  of  turn. 
A  faulty  pack.  In  every  case,  except  the  last, 
the  deal  is  lost  if  a  fresh  deal  be  claimed  by 
opponents.  A  card  faced  by  any  other  than 
the  dealer  is  not  subject  to  penalty.] 

(43.)  The  dealer  must  not  touch  the  cards 
after  they  have  left  his  hand,  but  he  is 
allowed  to  count  those  remaining  undealt 
if  he  suspects  he  has  made  a  misdeal. 

(44).  The  trump  card  must  be  kft  on 
the  table,  face  upward,  till  the  first  trick 
is  turned. 

[If  it  is  not  then  taken  up,  however,  it  can  be 
treated  as  an  exposed  card,  and  called  at  any 


part  of  the  game,  provided  that  no  revoke  be 
made  by  playing  it] 

(45).  One  partner  may  not  deal  for  an- 
other without  the  consent  of  opponents. 

THE  GAME 

(46).  Any  card  played  out  of  turn  can 
be  treated  as  an  exposed  card  and  called, 
provided  no  revoke  be  thereby  caused. 
[Thus,  a  player  who  wias  a  trick  plays  another 
card  before  his  partner  plays  to  the  trick.  The 
second  card  becomes  an  exposed  card.] 

(47.)  If  the  third  player  throws  down 
his  card  before  the  second,  the  fourth 
player  has  a  right  also  to  play  before  the 
second;  or,  if  the  fourth  hand  play  before 
the  second  or  third,  the  cards  so  played 
must  stand,  and  the  second  be  compelled 
to  win  the  trick  if  he  can. 

(48.)  No  player  but  he  who  made  the 
last  trick  has  a  right  to  look  at  it  after  it 
has  been  turned. 

(49.)  A  trump  card  played  in  error  may 
be  recalled  before  the  trick  is  turned. 

[But  if  the  playing  of  such  trump  cause  the  next 
player  to  expose  a  card,  such  last  exposed  card 
can  not  be  called.] 

(50.)  If  two  cards  be  played,  or  if  the 
player  play  twice  to  the  same  trick,  his  op- 
ponents can  elect  which  of  the  two  shall 
remain  and  belong  to  the  trick.  Provided, 
however,  that  no  revoke  be  caused. 

[But  if  the  trick  should  happen  to  be  turned 
with  five  cards  in  it,  adversaries  may  claJm  a 
fresh  deal.] 

(51.)  A  player,  before  he  throws,  may 
require  his  partner  to  "draw  his  card,"  or 
he  may  have  each  card  in  the  trick  claimed 
by  the  players  before  the  trick  is  completed. 

[The  proper  way  is  to  say,  "Draw  your  cards," 
as  then  the  chance  of  partner  claiming  the 
wrong  one  is  lessened.] 

(52.)  If  two  players  answer  the  lead  to- 
gether, the  one  whose  turn  it  was  to  play 
can  call  the  other  card  in  the  next  or  fol- 
lowing trick  as  an  exposed  card. 

(53-)  No  player  is  allowed  to  transfer 
his  hand  to  another  without  the  consent  of 
his  adversaries. 

(54.)  A  hand  once  abandoned  and  laid 
down  on  the  table  can  not  be  taken  up 
again  and  played. 

(55.)  If  a  player  announce  that  he  can 
win  every  trick,  adversaries  may  call  his 
cards. 

THE   REVOKE 

.(56.)  The  penalty  for  a  revoke  is  the 
forfeiture  of  three  tricks.  If  a  revoke  be 
made,  the  adverse  party  may  add  three 
to  their  score  by  taking  them  from  their 
opponents,  or  they  may  reduce  your  score 
by  three. 


440 


GAMES   OF   CARDS 


Cln  order  ta  more  fully  explain  the  intent  of 
a  revoke:  "If  a  suit  is  led,  and  any  one  of 
the  players,  having  a  card  of  the  same  suit, 
shall  play  another  suit  to  it — that  constitutes 
a  revoke.  But  if  the  error  be  discovered  be- 
fore the  trick  is  quitted,  or  before  the  party 
having  so  played  a  wrong  suit,  or  his  partner, 
shall  play  again,  the  penalty  only  amounts  to 
the  cards  being  treated  as  exposed,  and  being 
liable  to  be  called."] 

(57.)  If  a  player  revoke,  and  before  the 
trick  is  turned  discovers  his  error,  adver- 
saries may  call  on  him  to  play  his  highest 
or  lowest  card  of  the  suit  led,  or  they  may 
call  the  card  exposed  at  any  time  when  such 
call  will  not  lead  to  another  revoke. 

(58.)  No  revoke  can  be  claimed  till  the 
trick  is  turned  and  quitted,  or  the  revoker's 
partner  has  played  again. 

(59-)  When  a  revoke  is  claimed,  the 
cards  must  not  be  mixed,  under  forfeiture 
of  the  game. 

(60.)  The  player  or  partners  against 
•whom  a  revoke  is  established  can  not  claim 
the  game  in  that  deal. 

(61.)  No  revoke  can  be  claimed  after 
the  cards  are  cut  for  the  next  game. 

(62.)  When  a  revoke  has  occurred  on 
both  sides,  there  must  be  a  new  deal. 

(63.)  The  proof  of  a  revoke  is  with  the 
claimants,  who  may  examine  each  trick 
on  the  completion  of  the  round. 

CALLING   HONORS 

(64.)  Honors  can  not  be  counted  unless 
they  are  claimed  before  the  next  deal. 
No  omission  to  score  them  can  be  rectified 
after  the  cards  are  packed,  but  an  over- 
score  can  be  deducted. 

(65.)  Honors  can  only  be  called  at  eight 
points,  and  then  only  by  the  player  whose 
turn  it  is  to  play. 

[It  is  quite  usual  to  omit  calling  honors  when 
the  game  is  pretty  certain,  but  the  shortest 
and  fairest  plan  is  for  the  player  holding  two 
honors  to  ask,  "Can  you  one?"  when,  if  your 
partner  holds  one,  the  game  is  at  an  end.] 

(66.)  At  nine  points  honors  do  not  count. 

(67.)  Four  honors  in  one  or  both  part- 
ners' hands  count  four  to  the  game;  three 
honors,  two.  Two  honors  on  each  side  are 
not  scored,  but  are  said  to  be  divided. 

THE  SCORE 

(68.)  If  both  partners  score,  and  a  dis- 
crepancy occur  between  them,  adversaries 
may  elect  which  score  to  retain. 

(69.)  The  score  can  not  be  amended  after 
the  game  is  won  and  the  cards  packed. 

INTIMATIONS   BETWEEN   PARTNERS 

(70.)  A  player  may  ask  his  partner, 
"What  are  trumps?"  or,  "Can  you  folio* 


suit?"  "Is  there  not  a  revoke?"  Or  he 
may  tell  him  to  draw  his  card.  All  other 
intimations  are  unfair. 

(71.)  Lookers-on  must  not  interfere  un- 
less appealed  to. 

THE  LEAD — FIRST  HAND 

Begin  with  the  suit  of  which  you  have 
the  greatest  number;  for,  when  trumps  are 
out,  you  will  probably  make  the  tricks  in  it. 

If  you  hold  equal  numbers  in  different 
suits,  begin  with  the  strongest;  it  is  the 
least  liable  to  injure  your  partner. 

Sequences  are  always  eligible  leads;  they 
support  your  partner's  hand  without  injur- 
ing your  own. 

Lead  from  king  or  queen  rather  than 
from  a  single  ace;  for,  since  your  oppo- 
nents will  lead  from  contrary  suits,  your 
ace  will  be  powerful  against  them. 

Lead  from  king  rather  than  queen,  and 
from  queen  rather  than  knave;  for  the 
stronger  the  suit,  the  less  is  your  partner 
endangered. 

Do  not  lead  from  ace  queen,  or  ace 
knave,  till  you  are  obliged;  for,  if  that 
suit  be  led  by  your  opponents,  you  have 
a  good  chance  of  making  two  tricks  in  it 

In  sequences  to  a  queen,  knave,  or  ten, 
begin  with  the  highest,  and  so  distress 
your  left-hand  adversary. 

With  ace,  king,  and  knave,  lead  the  king; 
if  strong  in  trumps,  you  may  wait  the  re- 
turn of  this  suit,  and  finesse  the  knave. 

With  ace,  queen,  and  one  small  card, 
lead  the  small  one;  by  this  lead,  your 
partner  has  a  chance  of  making  the  knave. 

With  ace,  king,  and  two  or  three  small 
cards,  play  ace  and  king  if  weak,  but  a 
small  card  if  strong,  in  trumps;  when 
strong  in  trumps,  you  may  give  your  part- 
ner the  chance  of  making  the  first  trick. 

With  king,  queen,  and  one  small  card, 
play  the  small  one;  for  your  partner  has 
an  equal  chance  to  win,  and  there  is  little 
fear  of  your  making  king  or  queen. 

With  king,  queen,  and  two  or  three  small 
cards,  lead  a  small  card  if  strong,  and  the 
king  if  weak,  in  trumps;  strength  in  trumps 
entitles  you  to  play  a  backward  game,  and 
to  give  your  partner  a  chance  of  winning 
the  first  trick.  But  if  weak  in  trumps,  lead 
the  king  and  queen,  to  secure  a  trick  in 
that  suit. 

With  ace,  with  four  small  cards,  and  no 
other  good  suit,  play  a  small  one  if  strong 
in  trumps,  and  the  ace  if  weak;  strength 
in  trumps  may  enable  you  to  make  one 
or  two  of  the  small  cards,  although  your 
partner  can  not  support  your  lead. 


GAMES   OF   CARDS 


441 


With  king,  knave,  and  ten,  lead  the  ten ; 
if  your  partner  has  the  ace,  you  may  prob- 
ably make  three  tricks,  whether  he  pass 
the  ten  or  not. 

With  king,  queen,  and  ten,  lead  the  king; 
for,  if  it  fail,  by  putting  on  the  ten,  upon 
the  return  of  the  suit  from  your  partner, 
you  may  make  two  tricks. 

With  queen,  knave,  and  nine,  lead  the 
queen;  upon  the  return  of  that  suit  from 
your  partner,  by  putting  on  the  nine,  you 
make  the  knave. 

SECOND   HAND 

With  ace,  king,  and  small  ones,  play  a 
small  card  if  strong  in  trumps,  but  the 
king  if  weak.  Otherwise  your  ace  or  king 
might  be  trumped  in  the  latter  case.  Ex- 
cept in  critical  cases  no  hazard  should  be 
run  with  few  trumps. 

With  ace,  queen,  and  small  cards,  play  a 
small  one ;  upon  the  return  of  that  suit  you 
may  make  two  tricks. 

With  ace,  knave,  and  small  cards,  play  a 
small  one;  upon  the  return  of  that  suit 
you  make  make  two  tricks. 

With  ten  or  nine,  with  small  cards,  play  a 
small  one.  By  this  plan  you  may  make  two 
tricks  in  the  suit. 

With  king,  queen,  ten,  and  small  cards, 
play  the  queen.  By  playing  the  ten  on  the 
return  of  the  suit  you  stand  a  good  chance 
of  making  two  tricks. 

With  king,  queen,  and  small  cards,  play 
a  small  card  if  strong  in  trumps,  but  the 
queen  if  weak  in  them;  for  strength  in 
trumps  warrants  a  backward  game.  It  is 
advantageous  to  keep  back  your  adver- 
saries' suit. 

With  a  sequence  to  your  highest  card  in 
the  suit,  play  the  lowest  of  it,  for  by  this 
means  your  partner  is  informed  of  your 
strength. 

With  queen,  knave,  and  small  ones,  play 
the  knave,  because  you  will  probably  secure 
a  trick. 

With  queen,  ten,  and  small  ones,  play  a 
small  one,  for  your  partner  has  an  equal 
chance  to  win. 

With  either  ace,  king,  queen,  or  knave, 
with  small  cards,  play  a  small  one ;  your 
partner  has  an  equal  chance  to  win  the 
trick. 

With  either  ace  king,  queen,  or  knave, 
with  one  small  card  only,  play  the  small 
one,  for  otherwise  your  adversary  will 
finesse  upon  yon. 

If  a  queen  of  trumps  be  led,  and  you  hold 
the  king,  put  that  on;  if  your  partner  hold 
the  ace,  you  do  no  harm;  and  if  the  .king 


be  taken,  the  adversaries  have  played  two 
honors  to  one. 

If  a  knave  of  trumps  be  led,  and  you 
hold  the  queen,  put  it  on;  for,  even  at 
the  worst,  you  bring  down  two  honors  for 
one. 

If  a  king  be  led,  and  you  hold  ace,  knave, 
and  small  ones,  play  the  ace,  which  can  only 
make  one  trick. 


The  third  hand  plays  high. 

With  ace  and  king,  play  the  ace  and  im- 
mediately return  the  king.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  you  should  keep  the  command  of 
your  partner's  hand. 

With  ace  and  queen,  play  the  ace  and 
return  the  queen.  By  this  means  you  make 
a  certain  trick,  though  it  is  sometimes  policy 
to  play  the  queen.  Your  partner  is,  how- 
ever, best  supported  by  the  old-fashioned 
method. 

With  ace  and  knave,  play  the  ace  and  re- 
turn the  knave,  in  order  to  strengthen  your 
partner's  hand. 

With  king  and  knave,  play  the  king;  and 
if  it  win,  return  the  knave. 

Play  the  best  when  your  partner  leads  a 
small  card,  as  it  best  supports  him. 

If  you  hold  ace  and  one  small  card  only, 
and  your  partner  lead  the  king,  put  on  the 
ace,  and  return  the  small  one;  for,  other- 
wise, your  ace  may  be  an  obstruction  to  his 
suit. 

If  you  hold  king  and  only  one  small  card, 
and  your  partner  lead  the  ace,  when 'the 
trumps  are  out,  play  the  king;  for,  by  put- 
ting on  the  king,  there  will  be  no  obstruc- 
tion to  the  suit. 

FOURTH    HAND 

If  a  king  be  led,  and  you  hold  ace,  knave, 
and  a  small  card,  play  the  small  one;  for 
supposing  the  queen  to  follow  you  will  prob- 
ably make  both  ace  and  knave. 

When  the  third  hand  is  weak  in  his  part- 
ner's lead,  you  may  often  return  that  suit 
to  great  advantage;  but  this  rule  must  not 
be  applied  to  trumps,  unless  you  are  very 
strong  indeed. 

Never  neglect  to  secure  the  trick  if  there 
is  any  doubt  about  the  game. 

If  you  hold  the  thirteenth  trump,  retain  it 
to  make  a  trick  when  your  partner  fails  in 
his  -lead. 

If  you  stand  in  the  nine  holes,  make  all 
the  tricks  you  can ;  but  at  the  same  time  be 
careful.  Watch  the  game  narrowly,  and 
look  well  to  your  partner's  lead. 


442 


GAMES    OF   CARDS 


LEADING   TRUMPS 

Lead  trumps  from  a  strong  hand,  but 
never  from  a  weak  one;  by  which  means 
you  will  secure  your  good  cards  from  being 
trumped. 

Never  trump  out  with  a  bad  hand,  al- 
though you  hold  five  small  trumps;  for, 
since  your  cards  are  bad,  you  only  bring 
out  your  adversaries'  good  ones. 

If  you  hold  ace,  king,  knave,  and  three 
small  trumps,  play  ace  and  king;  for  the 
probability  of  the  queen  falling  is  in  your 
favor. 

If  you  hold  ace,  king,  knave,  and  one  or 
two  small  trumps,  play  the  king,  and  wait 
the  return  from  your  partner  to  put  on  the 
knave.  By  this  plan  you  may  win  the  queen. 
But  if  you  have  particular  reasons  to  ex- 
haust trumps,  play  two  rounds,  and  then 
your  strong  suit. 

If  you  hold  ace,  king,  and  two  or  three 
small  trumps,  lead  a  small  one,  with  a  view 
to  letting  your  partner  win  the  first  trick; 
but  if  you  have  good  reason  for  getting  out 
trumps,  play  three  rounds,  or  play  ace  and 
king,  and  then  your  strong  suit. 

If  your  adversaries  are  eight,  and  you 
hold  no  honor,  throw  off  your  best  trump; 
for  if  your  partner  has  not  two  honors, 
you  lose  the  game.  But  if  he  should  hap- 
pen to  hold  two  honors — as  he  probably 
would — you  have  a  strong  commanding 
game. 

Holding  ace,  queen,  knave,  and  small 
trumps,  play  the  knave;  by  this  means,  the 
king  only  can  make  against  you. 

Holding  ace,  queen,  ten,  and  one  or  two 
small  trumps,  lead  a  small  one;  this  will 
give  your  partner  a  chance  to  win  the  first 
trick,  and  keep  the  command  in  your  own 
hand. 

Holding  king,  queen,  ten,  and  small 
trumps,  lead  the  king;  for,  if  the  king  be 
lost,  upon  the  return  of  trumps  you  may 
finesse  the  ten. 

Holding  king,  knave,  ten,  and  small  ones, 
lead  the  knave ;  it  will  prevent  the  adver- 
saries from  making  a  small  trump. 

Holding  queen,  knave,  nine,  and  small 
trumps,  lead  the  queen ;  if  your  partner  hold 
the  ace,  you  have  a  chance  of  making  the 
whole  suit. 

Holding  queen,  knave,  and  two  or  three 
small  trumps,  lead  the  queen. 

Holding  knave,  ten,  eight,  and  small 
trumps,  lead  the  knave;  on  the  return  of 
trumps,  you  may  finesse  the  eight. 

Holding  knave,  ten,  and  three  small 
trumps,  lead  the  knave;  this  will  most  dis- 
tress your  adversaries,  unless  two  honors 


are  held  on  your  right  hand,  the  odds 
against  which  are  about  three  to  one. 

Holding  only  small  trumps,  play  the  high- 
est; by  which  means  you  support  your  part- 
ner. 

Holding  a  sequence,  begin  with  the  high- 
est; thus  your  partner  is  instructed  how  to 
play  his  hand,  and  can  not  be  injured. 

If  any  honor  be  turned  up  on  your  left, 
and  the  game  much  against  you,  lead  a 
trump  as  soon  as  you  can.  If  you  do  this 
you  may  probably  retrieve  an  almost  lost 
game. 

In  all  other  cases  it  is  dangerous  to  lead 
through  an  honor  without  you  are  strong  in 
trumps,  or  have  an  otherwise  good  hand. 
All  the  advantage  of  leading  through  an 
honor  lies  in  your  partner  finessing. 

If  the  queen  be  turned  up  on  your  right, 
and  you  hold  ace,  king,  and  small  ones,  lead 
the  king.  Upon  the  return  of  trumps  finesse, 
unless  the  queen  falls.  Otherwise  the  queen 
will  make  a  trick. 

With  the  knave  turned  up  on  your  right, 
and  you  holding  king,  queen,  and  ten,  the 
best  play  is  to  lead  the  queen.  Upon  the 
return  of  trumps  play  the  ten.  By  this 
style  of  play  you  make  the  ten. 

If  the  knave  turn  up  on  your  right,  and 
you  hold  king,  queen,  and  small  ones,  it  is 
best  to  lead  the  king.  If  that  come  home, 
you  can  play  a  small  one,  for  the  chance  of 
your  partner  possessing  the  ace. 

If  knave  turn  up  on  your  right,  and  you 
have  king,  queen,  and  ten,  with  two  small 
cards,  lead  a  small  one.  Up'on  the  return 
of  trumps,  play  the  ten.  The  chances  are  in 
favor  of  your  partner  holding  an  honor, 
and  thus  you  make  a  trick. 

If  an  honor  be  turned  up  on  your  left, 
and  you  hold  only  one  honor  with  a  small 
trump,  play  out  the  honor,  and  then  the 
small  one.  This  will  greatly  strengthen 
your  partner's  hand,  and  can  not  injure 
your  own. 

If  an  honor  be  turned  up  on  the  left,  and 
you  hold  a  sequence,  lead  the  highest;  it 
will  prevent  the  last  hand  from  injuring 
your  partner. 

If  a  queen  be  turned  up  on  the  left,  and 
you  hold  ace,  king,  and  a  small  one,  lead 
the  small  trump;  you  have  a  chance  for 
winning  the  queen. 

If  a  queen  be  turned  up  on  your  left,  and 
you  hold  knave,  with  small  ones,  lead  the 
knave;  for  the  knave  can  be  of  no  service, 
since  the  queen  is  on  yoar  left. 

If  an  honor  be  turned  up  by  your  partner, 
and  you  are  strong  in  trumps,  lead  a  small 
one;  but  if  weak  in  them,  lead  the  best 


GAMES    OF    CARDS 


443 


you  have.  By  this  means  the  weakest  hand 
supports  the  strongest. 

If  an  ace  be  turned  up  on  the  right,  and 
you  hold  king,  queen,  and  knave,  lead  the 
knave;  it  is  a  secure  lead. 

If  an  ace  be  turned  up  on  the  right,  and 
you  hold  king,  queen,  and  ten,  lead  the  king ; 
and  upon  the  return  of  trumps,  play  the 
ten.  By  this  means  you  show  strength  to 
your  partner,  and  probably  make  two  tricks. 

If  a  king  be  turned  up  on  the  right,  and 
you  hold  queen,  knave,  and  nine,  lead  the 
knave,  and  upon  the  return  to  trumps,  play 
the  nine :  it  may  prevent  the  ten  from  mak- 
ing. 

If  a  king  be  turned  up  on  your  right,  and 
you  hold  knave,  ten,  and  nine,  lead  the  nine; 
upon  the  return  of  trumps,  play  the  ten. 
This  will  disclose  your  strength  in  trumps 
to  your  partner. 

If  a  queen  be  turned  up  on  the  right,  and 
you  have  ace,  king,  and  knave,  lead  the 
king.  Upon  the  return  of  trumps,  play  the 
knave,  which  makes  a  certain  trick. 

HOW  TO  PLAY  WHEN  YOU  TURN  UP  AN  HONOR 

If  you  turn  up  an  ace,  and  hold  only  one 
small  trump  with  it,  if  either  adversary  lead 
the  king,  put  on  the  ace. 

But  if  you  turn  up  an  ace,  and  hold  two 
or  three  small  trumps  with  it,  and  either 
adversary  lead  the  king,  put  on  a  small  one ; 
for,  if  you  play  the  ace,  you  give  up  the 
command  in  trumps. 

If  you  turn  up  a  king  and  hold  only  one 
small  trump  with  it,  and  your  right-hand 
adversary  lead  a  trump,  play  a  small  one. 

If  you  turn  up  a  king,  and  hold  two  or 
three  small  trumps  with  it,  if  your  right- 
hand  adversary  lead  a  trump,  play  a  small 
one. 

If  you  turn  up  a  queen  or  knave,  and 
hold  besides  only  small  trumps,  if  your 
right-hand  adversary  lead  a  trump,  put  out 
a  small  one. 

If  you  hold  a  sequence  to  the  honor  turned 
up,  play  it  last. 

HOW    TO   PLAY   FOR   THE   ODD   TRICK 

Never  trump  out  if  you  can  avoid  it,  for 
you  can  hardly  be  sure  of  the  other  three 
hands. 

If  your  partner,  by  hoisting  the  blue  peter, 
or  by  any  other  allowable  intimation,  shows 
that  he  has  means  of  trumping  any  suit, 
be  cautious  how  you  trump  out.  Force 
your  partner,  if  strong  in  trumps,  and  so 
make  all  the  tricks  you  can. 

Make  tricks  early  in  the  game,  and  be 
cautious  in  finessing. 


With  a  single  card  of  any  suit,  and  only 
two  or  three  small  trumps,  lead  the  single 
card. 

RETURNING   PARTNER'S      LEAD 

In  the  following  cases  it  is  best  to  return 
your  partner's  lead  directly: 

When  you  win  with  the  ace,  and  can  re- 
turn an  honor;  for  then  it  will  greatly 
strengthen  his  hand. 

When  he  leads  a  trump,  in  which  case 
return  the  best  remaining  in  your  hand  un- 
less you  hold  four.  An  exception  to  this 
arises  if  the  lead  is  through  an  honor. 

When  your  partner  has  trumped  out;  for 
then  it  is  evident  he  wants  to  make  his 
strong  suit. 

When  you  have  no  good  card  in  any 
other  suit;  for  then  you  are  entirely  depen- 
dent on  your  partner. 

In  the  following  instances  it  is  proper  that 
you  should  NOT  return  your  partner's  lead 
immediately: 

When  you  win  with  the  king,  queen,  or 
knave,  and  have  only  small  cards  remain- 
ing. The  return  of  a  small  card  will  more 
distress  than  strengthen  your  partner's  hand. 

When  you  hold  a  good  sequence;  for  then 
you  may  make  tricks  and  not  injure  his 
hand. 

When  you  have  a  strong  suit.  Leading 
from  a  strong  suit  is  a  direction  to  your 
partner  and  can  not  injure  him. 

When  you  have  a  good  hand ;  for  in  this 
case  you  have  a  right  to  consult  your  own 
hand,  and  not  your  partner's. 

When  you  hold  five  trumps ;  for  then  you 
are  warranted  to  play  trumps  if  you  think 
it  right. 

When,  in  fine,  you  can  ensure  two  or 
three  tricks,  play  them,  and  then  return  the 
lead.  With  a  leading  hand,  it  is  well  to 
play  your  own  game. 

THE   FINISH 

The  most  important  part  of  a  game  at 
whist  is  the  finish — the  last  two  or  three 
tricks.  Be  careful  how  you  play,  or  you 
may  make  a  bad  ending  to  a  good  begin- 
ning. 

LOOSE  CARD. — If  you  hold  three  winning 
cards  and  a  loose  one,  play  the  latter,  and 
trust  to  your  partner. 

LOOSE  TRUMP  AND  TENACE. — Holding 
these,  play  the  loose  trump. 

KING  AND  THE  LEAD. — If  you  hold  a  king, 
and  a  loose  card,  the  best  plan  is  to  play 
the  last,  so  that  your  partner  may  lead  up 
to  your  king. 

LONG  TRUMPS. — If  you  hold  three,  it  is 
best  to  lead  the  smallest;  by  this  means  you 


444 


GAMES    OF    CARDS 


give  your  partner  a  chance  of  making  tricks, 
and  still  hold  a  commanding  card  in  your 
own  hand.  It  is  not  well  to  play  out  the 
king  card. 

THIRD  HAND  WITH  KING,  ETC. — "Suppos- 
ing," says  Coelebs,  "ten  tricks  being  made, 
you  remain  with  the  king,  ten,  and  another. 
If  second  hand  plays  an  honor  cover  it; 
otherwise  finesse  the  ten  for  a  certain  trick. 
If  you  want  two  tricks  play  your  king." 

RUNNING  A  CARD. — The  same  authority 
says :  "With  such  cards  as  knave,  nine,  eight, 
against  ten  guarded,  by  'running'  the  eight 
you  make  every  trick." 

STRENGTH   IN  TRUMPS 

The  following  hands  are  given  by  Hoyle 
to  demonstrate  what  is  known  as  being 
strong  in  trumps : 

Ace,  king,  and  three  small  trumps. 

King,  queen,  and  three  small  trumps. 

Queen,  ten,  and  three  small  trumps. 

Queen  and  four  small  trumps. 

Knave  and  four  small  trumps. 

Five  trumps  without  an  honor  must  win 
two  tricks  if  led. 

FORCING  YOUR  PARTNER 

You  are  justified  in  forcing  your  partner 
if  you  hold — 

Ace  and  three  small  trumps. 
King  and  three  small   trumps. 
Queen  and  three  small  trumps. 
Knave  and  four  small  trumps. 
Five  trumps. 

CALCULATIONS   ON    HANDS   HELD 

At  long  whist. 

It  is  about  five  to  four  that  your  partner 
holds  one  card  out  of  any  two. 

Five  to  two  that  he  holds  one  card  out  of 
any  three. 

Two  to  one  that  he  does  not  hold  a  cer- 
tain named  card. 

Three  to  one  that  he  does  not  hold  two 
out  of  three  named  cards  in  a  suit. 

Three  to  two  that  he  does  not  hold  two 
cards  out  of  any  four  named. 

Five  to  one  that  your  partner  holds  one 
winning  card. 

Four  to  one  that  he  holds  two. 

Three  to  one  that  he  holds  three. 

Three  to  two  that  he  holds  four. 

Four  to  six  that  he  holds  five. 

SHORT   WHIST,  DUMMY,  ETC. 

THE    LAWS    OF    SHORT    WHIST 

(i.)  The  game  consists  of  five  points. 
One  point  scored  saves  the  triple  game; 


three  points,  a  double.    The  rubber  is  reck- 
oned as  two  points. 

[Eight  points  may  therefore  be  gained  in  a  sin- 
gle rubber.] 

(2.)  Honors  can  not  be  "called"  at  any 
part  of  the  game,  and  do  not  count  at  the 
point  of  four. 

[In  all  other  respects,  honors  are  reckoned  as 
in  long  whist.] 

(3.)  The  highest  two  and  lowest  two  are 
partners,  the  lowest  cut  having  tne  deal. 

[The  cards  are  to  be  shuffled  and  cut  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  way  as  in  the  old-fashioned 
game.] 

(4.)  An  exposed  card  necessitates  a  fresh 
deal. 

(5.)  In  cases  of  misdeal,  the  deal  passes 
to  the  next  player. 

[Misdeals  occur  from  precisely  the  same  causes 
as  in  long  whist,  and  need  not,  therefore,  be 
stated.] 

(6.)  No  questions  as  to  either  hand  can 
be  asked  after  the  trick  is  turned. 

[Nor  are  any  questions  except  those  admissible 
in  the  other  game  to  be  asked.] 

(7.)  Any  card  played  out  of  turn,  or 
shown  accidentally,  can  be  called. 

(8.)  A  revoke  is  subject  to  the  penalty 
of  three  tricks. 

[Taken   as   in   long  whist.] 

(9.)  The  side  making  the  revoke  remains 
at  four,  in  whatever  way  the  penalty  be 
enforced. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  dilate  upon  the  best 
method  of  playing  each  separate  hand  at 
this  game,  because  whatever  is  useful  and 
true  at  long  whist  is  equally  useful  and 
true  at  short  whist.  The  only  advantage  of 
the  short  game  lies  in  the  more  forcible  use 
that  can  be  made  of  trumps.  "Trumps," 
says  Carleton,  "should  be  your  rifle  com- 
pany; use  them  liberally  in  your  manoeu- 
vres ;  have  copious  reference  to  them  in 
finessing,  to  enable  you  to  maintain  a  long 
suit.  Should  you  be  weak  in  trumps,  ruff 
a  doubtful  card  at  all  times;  with  a  com- 
mand in  them,  be  very  chary  of  that 
policy. 

Let  your  great  principle  always  be  to  keep 
the  control  of  your  adversaries'  suit,  and 
leave  that  of  your  partner  free.  If  you 
see  the  probable  good  effect  of  forcing,  de- 
cide which  of  your  adversaries  you  will  as- 
sail, but  do  not  attempt  them  both  at  once. 
Let  it  be  the  stronger  if  possible.  When 
you  force  both  hands  opposed  to  you,  one 
throws  away  his  useless  cards ;  while  the 
chance  is,  the  other  makes  trumps  that, 
under  other  circumstances,  would  have  been 
sacrificed." 


GAMES    OF    CARDS 


445 


DUMMY,  OR  THREE-HANDED 
WHIST 

This  game  is  precisely  the  same  as  long 
whist,  only  that  one  player  takes  two  hands, 
one  of  which  he  holds  in  the  usual  man- 
ner, and  the  other  he  spreads  open  on  the 
table.  The  rules  are  the  same. 

ANOTHER  GAME  is  played  by  three  per- 
jons,  in  which  two  nines  and  fours,  and  one 
of  the  five  is  cast  out  from  the  pack,  and 
each  player  plays  on  his  own  account. 

A  THIRD  WAY  of  playing  three-handed 
whist  is  to  reject  the  fourth  hand  alto- 
gether, and  allow  it  to  remain  unseen  on  the 
table.  Each  player  then  takes  the  miss,  or 
unseen  hand,  in  exchange  for  his  own,  if 
he  thinks  fit.  Each  player  stands  on  his 
cards,  and  the  best  hand  must  win.  There 
is,  however,  room  for  finesse,  and  the  plaver 


who  sees  two  hands — the  miss,  and  that 
first  dealt  to  him — has  an  undeniable  ad- 
vantage. 

TWO-HANDED    WHIST 

This  game  is  either  played  as  double 
dummy,  by  exposing  two  hands  and  playing 
as  with  four  players,  or  by  rejecting  two 
hands  and  each  player  making  the  best  he 
can  of  his  own  hand.  In  these  games  each 
honor  counts  as  one  point  in  the  game. 
There  is  but  small  room  for  skill  in  any  of 
the  imperfect  whist  games,  and  the  player 
who  is  acquainted  with  the  real  old-fash- 
ioned game  need  not  be  told  how  to  play  his 
cards  at  dummy  or  French  humbug.  At  best 
these  games  are  inferior  to  cribbage,  ecarte, 
all-fours,  or  any  of  the  regular  two-handed 
games. 


EUCHRE,   ITS   RULES  AND  VARIATIONS 


EUCHRE  is  played  with  a  pack  of  thirty- 
two  cards,   all  below  the   seven  being 
rejected.     Two,  three,  or  four  persons  may 
play,  but  the  four-handed  game  is  the  best. 

THE    DEAL 

The  players  having  cut  for  deal,  the  pack 
is  shuffled  and  the  player  to  the  right  of  the 
dealer  cuts.  The  deal  is  executed  by  giv- 
ing five  cards  to  each  player.  The  dealer 
gives  two  cards  at  a  time  to  each  in  rota- 
tion, beginning  with  the  player  to  his  left; 
he  then  gives  three  cards  at  a  time  to  each, 
or  vice  versa.  In  whichever  manner  the 
dealer  commences  to  distribute  the  cards, 
he  must  continue;  he  must  not  deal  two  to 
the  first,  three  to  the  next,  and  so  on.  After 
each  player  has  received  five  cards,  the 
dealer  turns  up  the  next  card  for  trumps, 
and  places  it  face  upward  on  top  of  the 
stack. 

The  right  to  deal  passes  successively  to 
the  left. 

At  the  outset  of  the  game  each  player  cuts 
for  the  deal,  and  the  lowest  cut  deals.  In 
a  tie,  the  parties  tied  cut  again.  The  players 
cutting  the  highest  two  cards  play  against 
those  cutting  the  lowest  two. 

In  cutting,  the  ace  is  lowest,  and  the  other 
cards  rank  as  at  whist. 

Should  a  player  expose  more  than  one 
card,  he  must  cut  again. 

The  cards  may  be  shuffled  by  any  player 
who  demands  that  privilege,  but  the  dealer 
has  always  the  right  to  shuffle  last. 


The  cards  must  be  cut  by  the  right-hand 
opponent  before  they  are  dealt. 

A  cut  must  not  be  less  than  four  cards  re- 
moved from  the  top,  nor  must  it  be  made  so 
as  to  leave  less  than  four  cards  at  the  bot- 
tom ;  and  the  pack  must  be  put  on  the  table 
for  the  cut. 

RANK 

The  cards  in  suits,  not  trumps,  rank  as  at 
whist,  the  ace  being  the  highest,  the  seven 
the  lowest.  When  a  suit  is  trump,  the  cards 
rank  differently.  The  knave  of  the  suit 
turned  up  is  called  the  right  bower,  and  is 
the  highest  trump.  The  other  knave  of  the 
same  color  (black  or  red,  as  the  case  may 
be)  is  called  the  left  bower,  and  is  the  next 
highest  trump. 

ORDER  UP,  ASSIST,  PASS,  AND 
TAKE    UP 

When  the  trump  is  turned,  the  player  to 
the  left  of  the  dealer  examines  his  hand  to 
determine  his  plans.  He  may  either  order 
up  the  trump,  or  pass.  If  he  thinks  his 
cards  are  strong  enough  to  win  three  tricks, 
he  says,  "I  order  it  up."  The  dealer  then 
discards  one  card  from  his  hand,  and  puts 
it  under  the  stack  face  downward,  and  the 
trump,  card  belongs  to  the  dealer,  instead 
of  the  card  he  discarded.  If  the  eldest  hand 
is  not  satisfied  with  his  cards,  he  says,  "I 
pass." 

If  the  eldest  hand  pass,  the  partner  of  the 
dealer  then  has  the  option  of  declaring  what 

29 


446 


GAMES    OF   CARDS 


he  will  do,  and  he  may  either  assist  his 
partner,  or  pass.  If  his  hand  is  strong 
enough,  with  the  help  of  the  trump  his  part- 
ner has  turned,  to  win  three  tricks,  he  says, 
"I  assist,"  and  his  partner  discards  as  be- 
fore, and  the  trump  card  belongs  to  him. 
If  the  partner  of  the  dealer  has  a  weak  hand, 
he  says,  "I  pass,"  and  the  third  player,  that 
is,  the  player  next  to  the  right  of  the 
dealer,  has  the  option  of  saying  what  he 
will  do. 

The  third  player  proceeds  exactly  as  the 
eldest  hand,  and,  if  he  pass,  the  dealer  has 
the  next  say. 

If  all  the  other  players  pass,  the  dealer 
may  either  take  up  the  trump  or  pass.  If 
his  hand  is  strong  enough  to  take  three 
tricks,  he  says,  "I  take  it  up."  The  dealer 
then  discards  the  weakest  card  from  his 
hand,  and  takes  the  trump  card  instead. 
If  the  dealer  has  a  weak  hand,  he  says,  "I 
turn  it  down,"  and,  at  the  same  time,  places 
the  trump  card  face  up  under  the  stack. 

If  the  dealer  turns  down  the  trump,  the 
eldest  hand  has  the  option  of  naming  any 
suit  (except  the  one  turned  down)  for 
trumps,  or  of  passing  again.  If  he  pass,  he 
says,  "I  pass  the  making." 

If  the  eldest  hand  pass  the  making,  the 
partner  of  the  dealer  then  has  the  option 
of  making  the  trump,  and  so  on  in  rotation 
up  to  and  including  the  dealer. 

If  all  the  players,  including  the  dealer,  de- 
cline to  make  the  trump,  a  fresh  deal  takes 
place,  and  the  eldest  hand  deals. 

If  either  side  -adopt  (play  with  the  suit 
turned  up  for  trump)  or  make  the  trump, 
the  play  of  the  hand  commences. 

When  the  trump  is  made  of  the  same 
color  as  the  turn  up  (that  is,  black,  if  the 
turn  up  is  black,  or  red,  if  it  is  red),  it  is 
called  making  it  next  in  suit. 

If  the  trump  is  made  of  a  different'  color 
from  the  turn  up,  it  is  called  crossing  the 
suit. 

WHEN   TO    PLAY   ALONE 

If  a  player  holds  a  hand  so  strong  that 
he  has  a  reliable  hope  of  taking  all  five 
tricks  without  the  assistance  of  his  partner, 
he  may  play  alone.  If  he  plays  without  his 
partner,  he  says,  "I  play  alone."  His  part- 
ner then  places  his  cards  face  downward 
on  the  table,  and  makes  no  sign. 

If  the  eldest  hand  order  up,  or  make  the 
trump,  either  he  or  his  partner  may  play 
alone.  If  the  dealer's  partner  assist,  or 
make  the  trump,  either  he  or  the  dealer 
may  play  alone.  If  the  player  to  the  right 
of  the  dealer  order  up  or  make  the  trump, 


he  may  play  alone  (but  his  partner  can 
not).  If  the  dealer  take  up  or  make  a 
trump,  he  may  play  alone  (but  his  partner 
can  not). 

A  player  can  not  play  alone  after  having 
passed  a  trump,  or  passed  the  making  of  a 
trump.  A  player  can  not  play  alone  when 
the  opposing  side  adopt  or  make  the  trump; 
nor  can  he  play  alone  unless  he  announce 
his  intentions  to  do  so  before  he  or  the 
opposing  side  make  a  lead. 

THE   PLAY 

The  eldest  hand  leads  a  card  and  each 
player  in  rotation  plays  a  card  to  the  lead. 
The  four  cards  thus  played  constitute  a 
trick.  A  player  must  follow  suit  if  he  can, 
but  if  not  able  to  follow  suit  he  may  play 
any  card  he  chooses. 

The  highest  card  of  the  suit  led  wins 
the  trick;  trumps  win  all  other  suits.  The 
winner  of  the  trick  leads  to  the  next,  and 
so  on  until  the  five  tricks  are  played. 

THE    SCORE 

The  game  is  five  points,  although  of 
late  it  has  become  customary  to  play  games 
f  ten  points. 

If  the  side  who  adopt,  or  make  a  trump, 
win  all  five  tricks,  they  make  a  march,  and 
score  two. 

If  they  win  three  tricks,  they  make  the 
point,  and  score  one.  Four  tricks  count  no 
more  than  three  tricks. 

If  they  fail  to  take  three  tricks  they  are 
euchred,  and  the  opposing  side  scores  two 
points. 

When  a  player  plays  alone  and  takes  all 
five  tricks,  he  scores  four  points. 

If  he  takes  three  tricks  he  scores  one 
point.  If  he  fails  to  take  three  tricks  he  is 
euchred,  and  the  opposing  side  scores  two 
points.  By  some  rules,  to  euchre  a  lone 
hand  counts  the  opposing  side  four  points. 

Cards  are  used  in  marking  game.  The 
face  of  the  three  being  up,  and  the  face  of 
the  four  down  on  it,  counts  one,  whether 
one,  two,  or  three  pips  are  exposed;  the 
face  of  the  four  being  up,  and  the  three 
over  it,  face  down,  counts  two,  whether 
one,  two,  three,  or  four  of  the  pips  are 
shown;  the  face  of  the  three  uppermost 
counts  three;  and  the  face  of  the  four  up- 
permost counts  four. 

GOLDEN    MAXIMS 

Never  lose  sight  of  the  state  of  the  game. 
When  you  are  four  and  four,  adopt  or  make 
the  trump  upon  a  weak  hand. 

When   the   game   stands   three   to   three, 


GAMES    OF    CARDS 


447 


reflect  before  you  adopt  or  make  a  trump 
upon  a  weak  hand,  for  a  euchre  will  put 
your  adversaries  out. 

When  you  are  one  and  your  opponents 
have  scored  four,  you  can  afford  to  try  and 
make  it  alone  upon  a  weaker  hand  than  if 
the  score  were  more  in  your  favor. 

When  you  are  eldest  hand,  and  the  score 
stands  four  for  you  and  one  for  your  op- 
ponents, do  not  fail  to  order  up  the  trump, 
to  prevent  them  from  playing  alone.  This 
is  called  a  "bridge."  You  need  not  do  this 
if  you  hold  the  right  bower,  or  the  left 
bower  guarded. 

Never  trump  your  partner's  winning 
cards,  but  throw  your  losing  and  single 
cards  upon  them. 

If  your  partner  adopts  or  makes  the 
trump,  and  you  hold  the  right  or  left  bow- 
er alone,  ruff  with  it  as  soon  as  you  can 
pet  the  opportunity. 

When  playing  second,  be  careful  how 
you  ruff  a  card  of  a  small  denomination  the 
first  time  round,  for  it  is  an  even  chance 
,  that  your  partner  will  be  able  to  take  the 
trick  if  you  let  it  pass.  Throw  away  any 
single  card  lower  than  an  ace,  so  that  you 
may  ruff  the  suit  you  throw  away  when  it 
is  led. 

When  your  partner  assists,  and  you  hold 
a  card  next  higher  to  the  turn-up  card,  ruff 
with  it  when  an  opportunity  occurs,  for  by 
so  doing  you  give  your  partner  information 
of  value. 

When  you  are  in  the  position  of  third 
player,  ruff  with  high  or  medium  trumps. 

When  your  partner  leads  a  lay  ace,  and 
you  have  none  of  that  suit,  do  not  trump 
it;  but  if  you  have  a  single  card,  throw  it 
away  upon  it. 

When  second  hand,  if  compelled  to  follow 
suit,  head  the  trick  if  possible,  to  strengthen 
your  partner's  game. 

When  you  can  not  follow  suit  or  trump, 
dispose  of  your  weakest  card. 

When  opposed  to  a  person  playing  it 
alone,  be  careful  how  you  separate  two 
cards  of  the  same  suit.  Be  cautious  how 
you  separate  your  trumps  when  you  hold 
the  left  bower  guarded. 

When  it  comes  your  turn  to  say  what 
you  will  do,  decide  promptly,  saying,  "I 
pass,"  "assist,"  etc.,  at  once. 

In  discarding,  endeavor  to  keep  as  few 
suits  as  possible. 

EUCHRE   WITH    THE  JOKER 

A  euchre  pack  is  usually  accompanied  by 
a  specimen  blank  card,  which  has  given 
rise  to  this  amusing  variety  of  the  game  of 


euchre.  It  is  called  "the  joker,"  or  highest 
trump  card,  and  ranks  above  the  right 
bower.  If  this  "joker"  should  happen  to 
be  turned  for  trump,  the  dealer  must  turn 
up  the  next  card  to  determine  the  trump 
suit.  In  all  other  particulars  the  game  is 
played  in  the  same  manner  as  the  regular 
game  of  euchre. 

TWO-HANDED    EUCHRE 

The  rules  of  the  four-handed  game  apply 
equally  to  two-handed  euchre. 

The  player,  remembering  that  he  has  but 
a  single  hand  to  contend  against,  may  play, 
or  even  order  up,  if  he  has  a  reasonable  _ 
hope  of  making  three  tricks. 

MISDEALS 

A  card  too  many  or  too  few  given  to  either 
player. 

Dealing  the  cards  when  the  pack  has  not  been 
properly  cut;  the  claim  for  a  misdeal  in  this  case 
must  be  made  before  the  trump  card  is  turned, 
and  before  the  adversaries  look  at  their  cards. 

Whenever  a  misdeal  is  attributable  to  any 
interruption  by  the  adversaries,  the  deal  will 
not  be  forfeited. 

If,  during  the  deal,  a  card  be  exposed  by 
the  dealer  or  partner,  should  neither  of  the 
adversaries  have  touched  their  cards,  the 
latter  may  claim  a  new  deal,  but  the  deal 
is  not  lost. 

If,  during  the  deal,  the  dealer's  partner 
touch  any  of  his  cards,  the  adversaries  may 
do  the  same  without  losing  their  privilege 
of  claiming  a  new  deal  should  chance  give 
them  that  option. 

If  an  opponent  displays  a  card  dealt,  the 
dealer  may  make  a  new  deal,  unless  he  or 
his  partner  have  examined  their  own  cards. 

If  a  deal  is  made  out  of  turn,  it  is  good, 
provided  it  be  not  discovered  before  the 
dealer  has  discarded,  and  the  eldest  hand 
has  led. 

If  a  card  is  faced  in  dealing,  unless  it  be 
the  trump  card,  a  new  deal  may  be  de- 
manded, but  the  right  to  deal  is  not  lost. 

If  the  pack  is  discovered  to  be  defective, 
by  reason  of  having  more  or  less  than  thirty- 
two  cards,  the  deal  is  void;  but  all  the 
points  before  made  are  good. 

The  dealer,  unless  he  turn  down  the 
trump,  must  discard  one  card  from  his  hand 
and  take  up  the  trump  card. 

The  discard  is  not  complete  until  the 
dealer  has  placed  the  card  under  the  pack; 
and  if  the  eldest  hand  makes  a  lead  before 
the  discard  is  complete,  he  can  not  take 
back  the  card  thus  led,  but  must  let  it  re- 
main. The  dealer,  however,  may  change 


448 


GAMES   OF   CARDS 


the  card  he  intended  to  discard  and  substi- 
tute another,  or  he  may  play  alone,  notwith- 
standing a  card  has  been  led.  After  the 
dealer  has  quitted  the  discarded  card,  he 
can  not  take  it  back  under  any  circunv 
stances. 

After  the  discard  has  been  made,  the 
dealer  may  let  the  trump  card  remain  upon 
the  table  until  it  is  necessary  to  play  it. 
After  the  trump  card  has  been  taken  in 
hand,  no  player  has  a  right  to  demand  its 
denomination,  but  he  may  ask  what  card  is 
trump,  and  the  dealer  must  inform  him. 

Should  a  player  play  with  more  than  five 
cards,  or  the  dealer  forget  to  discard  or 
omit  to  declare  the  fact  before  three  tricks 
have  been  turned,  the  offending  party  is  de- 
barred from  counting  any  points  made  in 
that  deal,  under  these  circumstances.  Should 
the  adverse  side  win,  they  may  score  all  the 
points  they  make. 

PLAY  OUT  OF  TURN,  AND  EXPOS- 
URE OF  CARDS 

All  exposed  cards  may  be  called,  and  the 
offending  party  compelled  to  lead  or  play 
the  exposed  card  or  cards  when  he  can 
legally  do  so,  but  in  no  case  can  a  card  be 
called  if  a  revoke  is  thereby  caused. 

EXPOSED    CARDS 

Two  or  more  cards  played  at  once. 

If  a  player  indicates  that  he  holds  a  certain 
card  in  his  hand. 

Any  card  that  is  dropped  with  its  face  upward. 

All  cards  exposed,  by  accident  or  otherwise,  so 
that  an  opponent  can  distinguish  and  name  them. 

If  any  player  lead  out  of  turn,  his  ad- 
versaries may  demand  of  him  to  withdraw 
his  card,  and  the  lead  may  be  compelled 
from  the  right  player,  the  card  improperly 
led  be  treated  as  an  exposed  card,  and  called 
at  any  time  during  that  deal,  provided  it 
causes  no  revoke. 

If  any  player  lead  out  of  turn,  and  the 
mislead  is  followed  by  the  other  three,  the 
trick  stands  good;  but  if  only  the  second, 
or  the  second  and  third,  have  played  to  the 
false  lead,  their  cards,  on  discovery  of 
their  mistake,  are  taken  back,  and  there  is 
no  penalty  save  against  the  original  of- 
fender, whose  card  may  be  called. 

If  a  player  play  out  of  turn,  his  oppo- 
nents may  compel  him  to  withdraw  his 
card,  and  the  card  so  played  may  be  treated 
as  an  exposed  card,  and  called  at  any  time 
during  that  deal,  provided  no  revoke  is 
thereby  caused. 

If  any  player  trump  a  card  in  error,  and 
thereby  induce  an  opponent  to  play  other- 


wise than  he  would  have  done,  the  latter 
may  take  up.  his  card  without  penalty,  and 
may  call  upon  the  offender  to  play  the 
trump  at  any  period  of  the  hand. 

If  two  cards  be  played,  or  if  the  player 
play  twice  to  the  same  trick,  his  opponent 
can  elect  which  of  the  two  shall  belong  to 
the  trick,  provided,  however,  that  no  re- 
voke be  caused. 

If  a  player,  imagining  that  he  can  take 
every  trick,  or  for  any  other  reason,  throw 
down  his  cards  upon  the  table  with  their 
faces  exposed,  the  adverse  side  may  call 
each  and  all  of  the  cards  so  exposed,  as 
they  may  deem  most  advantageous  to  their 
game,  and  the  delinquent  party  must  play 
the  exposed  cards  accordingly.  This,  how- 
ever, in  the  case  of  a  lone  hand  only. 

REVOKE 

When  a  revoke  takes  place,  the  adverse 
party  are  entitled  to  add  two  points  to  their 
score. 

If  a  suit  is  led,  and  any  one  of  the  play- 
ers, having  a  card  of  the  same  suit,  shall 
play  the  card  of  another  suit  to  it — that 
constitutes  a  revoke.  But  if  the  error  be 
discovered  before  the  trick  is  quitted,  or 
before  the  party  having  so  played  a  wrong 
suit,  or  his  partner,  shall  play  again,  the 
penalty  only  amounts  to  the  cards  being 
treated  as  exposed,  and  being  liable  to  be 
called. 

When  the  player  who  has  made  a  re- 
voke corrects  his  error,  his  partner,  if  he 
has  played,  can  not  change  his  card  played; 
but  the  adversary  may  withdraw  his  card 
and  play  another  if  he  elects  to  do  so. 

When  a  revoke  is  claimed  against  ad- 
versaries, if  they  mix  their  cards,  or  throw 
them  up,  the  revoke  is  taken  for  granted, 
and  they  lose  the  two  points. 

No  party  can  claim  a  revoke  after  cutting 
for  a  new  deal. 

A  revoke  on  both  sides  causes  forfeit  to 
neither;  but  a  new  deal  must  be  made. 

If  a  player  makes  a  revoke,  his  side  can 
not  count  any  point  or  points  made  in  that 
hand. 

A  party,  refusing  to  play  an  exposed  card 
on  call,  forfeits  two  to  his  opponents. 

MAKING   THE   TRUMP,  PLAYING 
ALONE 

Any  player  making  a  trump  can  not 
change  the  suit  after  having  once  named 
it;  and  if  he  should  by  error  name  the  suit 
previously  turned  down,  he  forfeits  his 
right  to  make  the  trump,  the  privilege  pass- 
ing to  the  next  eldest  player. 


449 


A  player  may  only  play  alone  when  he 
orders  up,  takes  up,  or  makes  a  trump ;  or 
when  his  partner  assists,  orders  up,  or 
makes  a  trump.  He  can  not  play  alone 
with  a  trump  he  has  passed,  or  with  a 
trump  the  making  of  which  he  has  passed ; 
nor  can  he  play  alone  after  a  lead  has 
been  made  either  by  himself  or  by  his 
opponents. 

A  pla*yer  can  not  play  alone  when  he  or 
his  partner  is  ordered  up  by  an  opponent, 
or  when  the  opposite  side  adopt  or  make 
the  trump. 

When  a  player,  having  the  right  to  play 
alone,  resolves  to  do  so,  his  partner  can  not 
thereafter  supersede  him,  and  play  alone 
instead. 

When  a  player  announces  that  he  will 
go  it  alone,  his  partner  must  place  his  cards 
upon  the  table  face  downward,  and  should 
the  latter  expose  the  face  of  any  of  his 
cards,  either  by  accident  or  design,  his  op- 


ponents may  compel  him  to  play  or  not  to 
play  with  his  partner,  at  their  option. 

A  player  who  goes  alone  must  announce 
his  intention  in  a  clear  and  audible  tone,  so 
that  no  doubt  can  be  entertained  of  his  de- 
sign. ' 

DELICATE    HINTS    BETWEEN 
PARTNERS 

If  a  partner  indicates  his  hand  by  words 
or  gestures  to  his  partner,  directs  him  how 
to  play,  even  by  telling  him  to  follow  the 
rules  of  the  game,  or  in  any  way  acts  out 
of  order,  the  adversary  scores  one  point. 

If  a  player,  when  his  side  is  at  a  bridge, 
call  the  attention  of  his  partner  to  the  fact, 
so  that  the  latter  orders  up,  the  latter  for- 
feits the  right  to  order  up,  and  either  of  the 
opponents  may  play  alone,  if  they  choose 
so  to  do. 

No  player  has  a  right  to  see  any  trick  but 
the  one  last  turned. 


THE    NATIONAL    GAME    OF    DRAW    POKER 


iT    requires   a   pack   of   fifty-two   cards   to 
play    this    game,    and    any    number    of 
persons  from  two  to  six. 

THE    DEAL 

Before  the  dealer  begins  to  deal  the 
carde,  the  player  next  to  his  left,  who  is 
called  the  ante-man,  or  age,  must  deposit 
in  the  pool  an  ante  not  exceeding  one- 
half  the  limit  previously  agreed  upon;  this 
is  called  a  blind. 

The  deal  is  executed  by  giving  five  cards 
to  each  player,  one  at  a  time,  beginning 
with  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  dealer. 

THE    ORIGINAL    HAND 

After  the  cards  have  been  dealt  the  play- 
ers consult  their  hands,  and  each  player,  in 
rotation,  beginning  with  the  player  to  the 
left  of  the  age,  determines  whether  he  will 
go  in  or  not.  Any  player  who  decides  to 
go  in — that  is,  to  play  for  the  pool — must 
put  into  the  pool  double  the  amount  of 
the  ante,  except  the  player  holding  the  age, 
who  contributes  the  same  amount  as  his 
original  ante. 

Those  who  declare  they  will  not  play 
throw  their  cards,  face  downward,  upon 
the  table  in  front  of  the  next  dealer. 

Any  player,  when  it  is  his  turn,  and  after 
making  the  ante  good,  may  raise,  i.  e.,  in- 
crease the  an*",  any  amount  within  the 


.limit  of  the  game ;  the  next  player,  after 
making  good  the  ante  and  raise,  may  then 
also  raise  it  any  amount  within  the  limit; 
and  so  on.  Each  player  as  he  makes  good 
and  pays  a  share  that  equalizes  his  with 
the  other  players  who  are  in  before  him, 
may  thus  increase  the  ante  if  he  chooses, 
compelling  the  others  to  pay  up  that  in- 
crease, or  abandon  their  share  of  the  pool. 
Each  player  who  raises  the  ante  must 
do  so  in  rotation,  going  round  to  the 
left,  and  any  player  who  remains  in  to 
play  must  put  in  the  pool  as  much  as 
will  make  his  stake  equal  to  such  increase, 
or  abandon  everything  which  he  has  al- 
ready contributed  to  the  pool. 

STRADDLE 

When  betting  upon  the  original  hand, 
the  straddle  may  be  introduced.  The  strad- 
dle is  nothing  more  than  a  double  blind. 

The  straddle  does  not  give  a  player 
the  age,  it  only  gives  him  the  first  oppor- 
tunity to  be  the  last  in  before  the  draw; 
that  is,  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  last 
straddler,.  after  looking  at  his  hand,  and  be- 
fore the  draw,  must  be  the  first  to  declare 
whether  he  will  make  good  the  straddle, 
and  so  on,  in  rotation,  up  to  the  player  who 
made  the  last  straddle.  After  the  draw,  the 
player  to  the  left  of  the  age  must  make  the 
first  bet,  provided  he  remains  in. 


460 


GAMES    OF   CARDS 


FILLING    THE    HANDS 

When  all  are  in  who  intend  to  play, 
each  player  has  the  right  to  draw  any 
number  of  cards  he  chooses,  from  one 
to  five,  or  he  can  retain  the  cards  originally 
dealt  to  him.  If  a  player  draws  cards, 
he  must  discard  a  like  number  from  his 
hand  previous  to  drawing,  and  the  rejected 
cards  must  be  placed  face  downward  upon 
the  table  near  the  next  dealer. 

The  dealer  asks  each  player  in  rotation, 
beginning  with  the  holder  of  the  age,  how 
many  cards  he  wants,  and,  when  the  player 
has  discarded,  he  gives  the  number  re- 
quested from  the  top  of  the  pack.  When 
the  other  hands  have  been  helped,  the  deal- 
er, if  he  has  "gone  in,"  and  wants  cards, 
then  helps  himself  last. 

BET,  RAISE,  AND    CALL 

When  all  the  hands  are  filled,  the  player 
to  the  left  of  the  age  has  the  first  say, 
and  he  must  either  bet  or  retire  from  the 
game,  forfeiting  what  he  has  already  staked. 
The  same  with  all  the  other  players,  in 
rotation,  up  to  the  age.  When  a  player 
makes  a  bet,  the  next  player  must  either 
see  him — that  is,  put  in  the  pool  an  equal 
amount,  or  go  better — that  is,  make  the 
previous  bet  good,  and  raise  it  any  amount 
not  exceeding  the  limit;  or  he  must  retire. 
This  continues  either  until  some  one  player 
drives  all  the  others  out  of  the  game,  and 
takes  the  pool  without  showing  his  hand ; 
or  until  all  the  other  players  who  remain 
in  see  the  last  raise  (no  one  going  better) 
and  call  the  player  who  made  the  last 
raise.  In  this  event,  that  is,  when  a  call 
is  made,  the  players  remaining  in  all  show 
their  hands,  and  the  strongest  hand  takes 
the  pool. 

If  all  the  players  pass,  up  to  the  age,  the 
latter  takes  the  pool,  and  the  deal  ends. 

VALUE 

ONE  PAIR. — If  two  players  each  hold  a 
pair,  the  higher  pair  wins;  if  the  two  are 
similar,  the  highest  remaining  card  wins. 

Two  PAIRS. — If  the  players  each  hold  two 
pairs,  the  highest  pair  wins.  If  the  two 
pairs  are  similar,  the  player  whose  remain- 
ing card  is  the  highest  wins. 

TRIPLETS. — Three  cards  of  the  same  de- 
nomination, not  accompanied  by  a  pair. 
The  highest  triplet  wins.  Triplets  beat 
two  pairs. 

A  STRAIGHT. — A  sequence  of  five  cards 
not  all  of  the  same  suit.  An  ace  may  either 
begin  or  end  a  straight.  If  more  than  one 


player  holds  a  straight,  the  straight  headed 
by  the  highest  card  wins.  A  straight  will 
beat  triplets. 

A  FLUSH. — Five  cards  of  the  same  suit, 
not  in  sequence.  If  more  than  one  player 
holds  a  flush,  the  flush  containing  the 
highest  card  wins;  if  the  highest  cards  tie, 
the  next  highest  cards  in  those  two  hands 
win,  and  so  on.  A  flush  will  beat  a  straight, 
and,  consequently,  triplets. 

A  FULL. — Three  cards  of  the  same  de- 
nomination and  a  pair.  If  more  than  one 
player  holds  a  full,  the  highest  triplets 
win.  A  full  will  beat  a  flush. 

FOURS. — Four  cards  of  the  same  denomi- 
nation, accompanied  by  any  other  card.  If 
more  than  one  player  holds  fours,  the  high- 
est fours  win.  When  straights  are  not 
played,  fours  beat  a  straight  flush. 

A  STRAIGHT  FLUSH — A  sequence  of  five 
cards,  all  of  the  same  suit.  If  more  than 
one  player  holds  a  straight  flush,  the  win- 
ning hand  is  determined  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  straight,  which  see. 

When  none  of  the  foregoing  hands  are 
shown,  the  highest  card  wins;  if  these  tie, 
the  next  highest  in  those  two  hands,  and 
so  on. 

If,  upon  a  call  for  a  show  of  hands,  it 
occurs  that  two  or  more  parties  interested 
in  the  call  hold  hands  identical  in  value, 
and  those  hands  are  the  best  out,  the  parties 
thus  tied  must  divide  the  pool,  share  and 
share  alike.  • 

THE    TECHNICAL   TERMS 

AGE. — Same  as  eldest  hand. 

ANTE. — The  stake  deposited  in  the  pool 
by  the  age  at  the  beginning  of  the  game. 

BLAZE. — This  hand  consists  of  five  court 
cards,  and,  when  it  is  played,  beats  two 
pairs. 

BLIND. — The  ante  deposited  by  the  age 
previous  to  the  deal.  The  blind  may  b' 
doubled  by  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  eld- 
est hand,  and  the  next  player  to  the  left  may 
at  his  option  straddle  this  bet;  and  so  on, 
including  the  dealer,  each  player  doubling. 
The  player  to  the  left  of  the  age  alone 
has  the  privilege  of  the  first  straddle,  and 
if  he  decline  to  straddle,  it  debars  any 
other  player  coming  after  him  from  doing 
so.  To  make  a  blind  good  costs  double 
the  amount  of  the  ante,  and  to  make  a 
straddle  good  costs  four  times  the  amount 
of  the  blind.  Each  succeeding  straddle  costs 
double  the  preceding  one. 

CALL. — When  the  bet  goes  round  to  the 
last  bettor,  a  player  who  remains  in,  if 
he  does  not  wish  to  see  and  go  better, 


GAMES    OF    CARDS 


451 


simply  sees  and  calls,  and  then  all  those 
playing  show  their  hands,  and  the  highest 
hand  wins  the  pool. 

CHIPS. — Ivory  or  bone  tokens,  represent- 
ing a  fixed  value  in  money. 

DISCARD. — To  take  from  your  hand  the 
number  of  cards  you  intend  to  draw  and 
place  them  on  the  table,  near  the  next 
dealer,  face  downward. 

DRAW. — After  discarding  one  or  more 
cards,  to  receive  a  corresponding  number 
from  the  dealer. 

ELDEST  HAND,  OR  AGE. — The  player  im- 
mediately at  the  left  of  the  dealer. 

FILLING. — To  match,  or  strengthen  the 
cards  to  which  you  draw. 

FOUL  HAND. — A  hand  composed  of  more 
or  less  than  five  cards. 

GOING  BETTER. — When  any  player  makes 

a  bet,  it  is  the  privilege  of  the  next  player 

to    the    left    to    raise    him  —  after    making 

good    the   amount   already   bet   by   his    ad- 

,  versary,   to  make  a   still   higher  bet. 

GOING  IN. — Making  good  the  ante  of  the 
age  and  the  straddles  (if  any)  for  the 
privilege  of  drawing  cards  and  playing 
for  the  pool. 

LIMIT. — A  condition  made  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  game,  limiting  the  amount  of 
any  single  bet  or  raise. 

MAKING  GOOD. — Depositing  in  the  pool  an 
amount  equal  to  any  bet  previously  made. 
This  is  done  previous  to  raising  or  calling  a 
player,  and  is  sometimes  called  seeing  a  bet. 

ORIGINAL  HAND. — The  first  five  cards 
dealt  to  any  player. 

PAT  HAND. — An  original  hand  not  likely 
to  be  improved  by  drawing,  such  as  a  full, 
straight,  flush,  or  pairs. 

PASS. — "I  Pass,"  signifies  that  a  player 
throws  up  his  hand  and  retires  from  the 
game. 

JACK  POTS. — Comes  from  out  West.  See 
page  453. 

RAISING  A  BET. — The  same  as  going  bet- 
ter. 

SAY. — When  it  is  the  turn  of  any  player 
to  declare  what  he  will  do,  whether  he  will 
bet,  or  pass  his  hand,  it  is  said  to  be  his 
say. 

SEEING  A  BET. — Synonymous  with  mak- 
ing good. 

STRADDLE. — Refer  to  Blind. 

TABLE-STAKES.  —  A  table-stake  signifies 
that  each  player  places  his  stake  where  it 
may  be  seen,  and  that  a  player  can  not  be 
raised  more  than  he  has  upon  the  table ; 
but,  at  any  time  between  deals,  he  may  in- 
crease his  stake  from  his  pocket,  or  he 
may  put  up  any  article  for  convenience's 


sake,  say  a  key,  and  state  that  that  makes 
his  stake  as  large  as  any  other  player's,  and 
he  is  then  liable  to  be  raised  to  any  amount 
equal  to  the  stake  of  any  other  player,  and 
must  make  good  with  cash.  When  playing 
table-stakes,  if  a  player  have  no  money  on 
the  table,  he  must  put  up  or  declare  his 
stake  previous  to  raising  his  hand,  and,  fail- 
ing to  do  this,  he  must  stand  out  of  the 
game  for  that  hand. 

THE    LAWS 

CUT   AND   DEAL 

(i.)  The  deal  is  determined  by  casting 
one  card  to  each  player,  and  the  lowest  card 
deals. 

(2.)  In  casting  for  the  deal,  the  ace  is 
lowest  and  the  king  highest.  Ties  are  de- 
termined by  cutting. 

(3.)  The  cards  must  be  shuffled  above 
the  table;  each  player  has  a  right  to  shuffle 
the  cards,  the  dealer  last. 

(4.)  The  player  to  the  right  of  the  dealer 
must  cut  the  cards. 

(5.)  The  dealer  must  give  each  player 
one  card  at  a  time,  in  rotation,  beginning 
to  his  left,  and  in  this  order  he  must  de- 
liver five  cards  to  each  player. 

(6.)  If  the  dealer  deals  without  having 
the  pack  properly  cut,  or  if  a  card  is  faced 
in  the  pack,  there  must  be  a  fresh  deal. 
The  cards  are  reshuffled  and  recut,  and 
the  dealer  deals  again. 

(7.)  If  a  card  be  accidentally  exposed 
by  the  dealer  while  in  the  act  of  dealing, 
the  player  to  whom  such  card  is  dealt  must 
accept  it  as  though  it  had  not  been  ex- 
posed. 

(8.)  If  the%dealer  give  to  himself,  or 
either  of  the  other  players,  more  or  less 
than  five  cards,  and  the  player  receiving 
such  a  number  of  cards  discover  and  an- 
nounce the  fact  before  he  raises  his  hand, 
it  is  a  misdeal. 

(9.)  If  the  dealer  give  to  himself,  or 
either  of  the  other  players,  more  or .  less 
than  five  cards,  and  the  player  receiving 
such  improper  number  of  cards  lift  his 
hand  before  he  announces  the  fact,  it  is 
not  a  misdeal,  and  the  player  must  retire 
from  the  game  for  that  hand. 

(10.)  After  the  first  hand  the  deal  pro- 
ceeds m  rotation,  beginning  with  the  player 
to  the  left  of  the  dealer. 

DISCARD   AND   DRAW 

(11.)  After  the  deal  has  been  completed, 
each  player  who  remains  in  the  game  may 
discard  from  his  hand  as  many  cards  as 


452 


GAMES   OF   CARDS 


he  chooses,  or  his  whole  hand,  and  call 
upon  the  dealer  to  give  him  a  like  number 
from  the  top  of  those  remaining  in  the 
pack.  The  eldest  hand  must  discard  first, 
and  so  in  regular  rotation  round  to  the 
dealer,  who  discards  last.  All  the  players 
must  have  discarded  before  any  party  is 
helped. 

(12.)  Any  playei,  after  having  asked  for 
fresh  cards,  must  take  the  exact  number 
called  for;  and  after  cards  have  once  been 
discarded  they  must  not  again  be  taken  in 
hand. 

(13.)  Any  player,  previous  to  raising  his 
hand  or  making  a  bet,  may  demand  of  the 
dealer  how  many  cards  he  drew,  and  the 
latter  must  reply  correctly.  By  raising  his 
hand,  or  making  a  bet,  the  player  forfeits 
the  right  to  inquire,  removing  the  obliga- 
tion to  answer. 

(14.)  Should  the  dealer  give  any  player 
more  cards  than  the  latter  has  demanded, 
and  the  player  discover  and  announce  the 
fact  before  raising  his  cards,  the  dealer 
must  withdraw  the  superfluous  cards  and 
restore  them  to  the  pack.  But  if  the  player 
raise  the  cards  before  informing  the  dealer 
of  the  mistake,  he  must  retire  from  the 
game  during  that  hand. 

(15.)  Should  the  dealer  give  any  player 
fewer  cards  than  the  latter  has  discarded, 
and  the  player  discover  and  announce  the 
fact  previous  to  lifting  the  cards,  the  dealer 
must  give  the  player  from  the  pack  suffi- 
cient cards  to  make  the  whole  number  cor- 
respond with  the  number  originally  de- 
manded. If  the  player  raise  the  cards  be- 
fore making  the  demand  for  more,  he  must 
retire  from  the  game  during  that  hand. 

(16.)  If  a  player  discard  and  draw  fresh 
cards  to  his  hand,  and  while 'serving  him 
the  dealer  expose  one  or  more  of  the  cards, 
the  dealer  must  place  the  exposed  cards 
upon  the  bottom  of  the  pack,  and  give  to 
the  player  a  corresponding  number  from 
the  top  of  the  pack. 

BET,  CALL,  AND   SHOW 

(17.)  In  opening  the  pool,  the  age  makes 
the  first  ante,  which  must  not  exceed  one- 
half  the  limit.  After  the  cards  are  dealt, 
every  player  in  his  proper  turn,  beginning 
with  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  age, 
must  make  this  ante  good  by  depositing 
double  the  amount  in  the  pool,  or  retire 
from  the  game  for  that  hand. 

(18.)  After  the  cards  have  been  dealt, 
any  player,  in  his  proper  turn,  beginning 
with  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  age,  after 
making  good  the  age's  ante,  may  raise  the 

* 


same  any  amount  not  exceeding  the  limit 
of  the  game. 

(19.)  After  the  hands  are  filled,  any 
player  who  remains  in  the  game  may,  in 
his  proper  turn,  beginning  with  the  player 
to  the  left  of  the  age,  bet  or  raise  the 
pool  any  amount  not  exceeding  the  limit 
of  the  game. 

(20.)  After  the  draw  has  been  made,  the 
eldest  hand  or  age  has  the  privilege  of 
deferring  his  say '  until  after  all  the  other 
players  have  made  their  bets,  or  passed. 
The  age  is  the  last  player  to  declare  whether 
he  will  play  or  pass.  If,  however,  the  age 
pass  out  of  the  game  before  the  draw,  then 
the  next  player  to  his  left  in  the  game 
after  the  draw  must  make  the  first  bet; 
or,  failing  to  bet,  must  pass  out. 

(21.)  If  a  player,  in"  his  regular  turn, 
bet,  or  raise  a  bet  any  amount  not  ex- 
ceeding the  limit  of  the  game,  his  adver- 
saries must  either  call  him,  go  better,  or 
retire  from  the  game  for  that  hand. 

(22.)  When  a  player  makes  a  bet  he 
must  deposit  the  amount  in  the  pool. 

(23.)  If  a  player  makes  good,  or  sees  a 
bet,  and  calls  for  a  show  of  hands,  each 
player  must  show  his  entire  hand  to  the 
board,  the  caller  last,  and  the  best  poker 
hand  wins  the  pool. 

(24.)  If  a  player  bets,  or  raises  a  bet,  and 
no  other  player  goes  better  or  calls  him, 
he  wins  the  pool  and  can  not  be  compelled 
to  show  his  hand. 

(25.)  Upon  a  show  of  hands,  if  a  player 
miscall  his  hand,  he  does  not  lose  the  pool 
for  that  reason,  for  every  hand  shows  for 
itself. 

(26.)  If  a  player  pass  or  throw  up  his 
hand,  he  passes  out  of  the  game,  and  can 
not,  under  any  circumstances  whatever, 
participate  further  in  that  game. 

(27.)  Any  player  betting  with  more  or 
less  than  five  cards  in  his  hand  loses  the 
pool,  unless  his  opponents  all  throw  up 
their  hands  before  discovering  the  foul 
hand.  If  only  one  player  is  betting  against 
the  foul  hand,  that  player  is  entitled  to  the 
ante  and  all  the  money  bet ;  but  if  there  are 
more  than  one  betting  against  him,  then  the 
best  hand  among  his  opponents  is  entitled 
to  the  pool. 

(28.)  If  a  player  makes  a  bet,  and  an  ad- 
versary raises  him,  and  the  player  who 
made  the  previous  bet  has  not  money  suffi- 
cient to  see  the  raise,  he  can  put  up  all  the 
funds  he  may  have  and  call  for  a  show  for 
that  amount. 

(29.)  None  but  the  eldest  hand  (the  age) 
has  the  privilege  of  going  a  blind.  The 


GAMES    OF   CARDS 


453 


party  next  and  to  the  left  of  the  eldest  hand 
may  double  the  blind,  and  the  next  player 
straddle  it,  the  next  double  the  straddle, 
and  so  on,  but  the  amount  of  the  straddle, 
when  made  good,  must  not  exceed  the  limit 
of  the  game, 

(30.)  A  player  can  not  straddle  a  blind 
and  raise  it  at  the  same  time,  nor  can  any 
player  raise  a  blind  before  the  cards  are 
dealt. 

(31.)  If  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  age 
decline  to  straddle  a  blind,  he  prevents  any 
other  player  from  doing  so. 

JACK-POT 

This  is  played  as  follows :  When  all  the 
players  pass  up  to  the  blind  hand,  the  latter 
allows  his  blind  to  remain  in  the  pot,  and 
each  of  the  other  players  deposits  a  similar 
amount.  The  blind  now  deals,  and  any 
player  in  his  regular  turn  may  open  or  break 
the  pot,  provided  he  holds  a  pair  of  jacks 
or  better,  but  a  player  is  not  compelled  to 
do  so,  this  being  entirely  optional. 

Each  player  in  turn,  commencing  with 
the  one  at  the  left  of  the  dealer,  declares 
whether  he  can  and  will  open  the  pot. 

If  no  player  open  the  pot,  then  each  player 
deposits  in  the  pool  the  same  amount  that 
was  previously  contributed,  and  the  deal 
passes  to  the  next  player.  The  same  per- 
formance or  mode  of  action  will  continue 
until  some  player  holds  the  necessary  cards, 
and  is  willing  to  break  the  pot 

A  player  may  break  the  pot  for  any 
amount  within  the  limits  of  the  game,  and 
each  player  in  turn  must  make  the  bet  good, 
raise  it,  or  retire. 

After  all  the  players   who  determine  to 

go  in  have  made  good  the  bet  of  the  player 

who   opened   the   jack-pot,   and   the   hands 

t  have  been  filled,  then  the  opener  of  the  pot 

makes  the  first  bet. 

If  all  pass  up  to  the  player  who  broke 
the  pot,  the  latter  takes  the  pool,  and  can 
only  be  compelled  to  show  the  jacks,  or 
better,  necessary  to  break  the  pot. 

A  player  who  breaks  the  pot  on  a  pair, 
may  split  the  pair  in  order  to  draw  to  a 
four  flush  or  straight;  but,  if  he  does  so, 
he  must  lay  the  discard  to  one  side,  separate 
from  any  other  cards,  so  that  after  the 
result  has  been  determined  he  may  satisfy 
the  other  players  that  he  broke  the  pot 
with  a  correct  hand.  If  this  precaution  is 
not  observed,  and  attention  is  called  to  it, 
the  delinquent  is  subject  to  deposit  in  the 
pool,  as  penalty,  twice  the  amount  of  his 
original  bet. 


If  no  player  come  in  exc^t  the  one  who 
broke  the  pot  on  an  insufficient  hand,  a 
new  hand  must  be  dealt,  and  the  penalty 
added  to  the  pot. 

STRAIGHT    POKER 

Straight  poker,  which  is  sometimes  called 
Bluff,  is  played  with  a  pack  of  fifty-two 
cards.  The  same  rules  as  those  of  draw 
poker  govern  it.  It  differs  from  the  latter 
game  in  the  following  particulars  only: 

(i.)  The  winner  of  the  pool  has  the 
deal. 

(2.)  Each  player  antes  before  the  cards 
are  cut  for  the  deal. 

(3.)  Any  player  may  pass  with  the 
privilege  of  coming  in  again,  provided  no 
player  preceding  him  has  made  a  bet. 

(4.)  No  player  is  permitted  to  discard  qr 
draw  any  cards. 

(5.)  When  all  the  players  pass,  the  eldest 
hand  deals,  and  each  player  deposits  an- 
other ante  in  the  pool,  thus  making  what  is 
termed  a  "double-header."  When  a  mis- 
deal occurs,  the  rule  is  the  same. 

WHISKEY   POKER 

Each  player  contributes  one  chip  to  make 
a  pool,  and  the  same  rules  govern  as  at 
draw  poker,  save  that  the  strongest  hand 
you  can  get  is  a  straight  flush.  Five  cards 
are  dealt  to  each  player,  one  at  a  time,  and 
an  extra  hand  is  dealt  on  the  table,  which 
is  called  the  widow.  The  eldest  hand  then 
examines  his  cards,  and  if,  in  his  judg- 
ment, his  hand  is  sufficiently  strong,  he 
passes.  The  next  player  then  has  the 
privilege  of  the  widow,  and,  supposing  him 
to  take  it,  he  then  lays  his  discarded  hand 
(that  which  he  relinquishes  for  the  widow) 
face  up  in  the  centre  of  the  table,  and  the 
next  player  to  the  left  selects  from  it  that 
card  which  suits  him  best  in  filling  his 
hand,  and  so  on  all  around  the  board,  each 
player  discarding  one  card  and  picking  up 
another,  until  some  one  is  satisfied,  which 
he  signifies  by  knocking  upon  the  table. 
When  this  occurs,  all  the  players  around 
to  the  satisfied  party  have  the  privilege  of 
one  more  draw,  when  the  hands  are  shown, 
and  the  strongest  wins.  If  any  player 
knocks  before  the  widow  is  taken,  the 
widow  is  then  turned  face  up,  and  each 
player  from  him  who  knocks  has  but  one 
more  draw.  Should  no  one  take  the 
widow,  but  all  pass  to  the  dealer,  he  then 
turns  the  widow,  and  all  parties  have  the 
right  to  draw  until  some  one  is  satisfied. 


454 


GAMES   OF   CARDS 


THE  POPULAR  GAME  OF  BRIDGE 


IN  its   funadamental  principles,  Bridge  is 
the  same  as  Single  Dummy  Whist,  with 
several  variations  and  additions. 

The  game  is  played  by  four  persons,  or 
two  pairs  of  partners,  as  in  whist. 

The  cards  are  shuffled,  cut,  and  dealt  pre- 
cisely as  in  whist,  except  that  the  last  card 
is  not  turned  up  for  trump;  the  dealer  hav- 
ing the  right  to  name  the  trump  suit,  or 
announce  "no  trumps,"  if  his  hand  seems 
sufficiently  good  to  take  over  six  tricks. 
This  privilege  may  also  be  transferred  to 
his  partner  if  he  wishes. 

The  eldest  hand,  or  his  partner,  has  the 
right  to  double;  the  dealer  and  his  part- 
ner having  then  the  right  to  "redouble,"  and 
so  on,  until  satisfied.  Each  "double"  oper- 
ates to  render  the  value  of  each  trick-point 
twice  as  great  as  before. 

After  the  eldest  hand  has  led  the  first 
card,  the  dealer's  partner  spreads  his  hand, 
face  upward,  on  the  table,  allowing  the 
dealer  to  play  both  hands,  as  in  Dummy 
Whist.  Each  trick  is  taken  by  the  part- 
ners who  capture  it,  and  all  trick-points 
over  six  are  scored  by  the  winning  part- 
ners. 

Thirty  trick-points  win  the  game.  Two 
games  out  of  three  win  the  rubber.  If 
the  first  two  games  are  won  by  the  same 
two  partners,  the  third  is  not  played.  Trick- 
points  alone  win  a  game,  and  must  always 
be  considered  apart  from  all  other  points 
in  the  game. 

Trick-points  differ  in  value  according  to 
the  suit  that  is  trump;  their  values  being 
always  multiplied  by  2  in  doubling,  and  by 
2  again  in  redoubling.  This  is  explained 
in  Law  3. 

In  addition  to  these,  there  are  various 
other  points  that  count  but  do  not  score, 
as  the  product  of  the  trick  value  of  the 
suit  by  the  number  in  each  case.  Thus,  if 
a  player  and  his  partner  hold  four  honors, 
when  spades  are  trumps,  it  counts  8;  when 
clubs  are  trumps,  16;  when  diamonds  are 
trumps,  24;  when  hearts  are  trumps,  32, 
as  explained  in  Law  2.  Five  honors  score 
in  similar  fashion;  while  five  honors  in  one 
hand  score  20,  40,  60,  or  80,  according  to 
the  suit — being  the  product  of  the  trick 
value  of  the  suit  by  10.  Similarly,  four 
honors  in  one  hand  score  16,  32,  48,  or  64, 
according  to  the  suit;  five  honors,  one  of 
which  is  in  the  partner's  hand,  score  18, 


36,  54,  or  72,  according  to  the  suit.  Three 
honors  between  two  partners,  however,  score 
4,  8,  12,  or  16,  according  to  suit. 

If  the  game  is  played  without  trumps,  as 
already  explained,  each  trick  above  six 
scores  12,  but,  since  only  the  aces  count  as 
honors,  the  figures  just  given  can  not  ap- 
ply. However,  three  aces  held  by  two 
partners  count  30;  four  aces,  40,  and  four 
aces  in  one  hand,  100. 

Additional  points  may  be  counted  for 
partners  by  what  are  known  as  Slam  and 
Chicane,  as  explained  in  Laws  7  and  8. 
Also,  when  partners  win  a  rubber,  100  points 
are  counted  in  their  favor,  in  addition  to 
all  other  advantages  gained  by  them. 

THE    LAWS    OF   BRIDGE 

THE  RUBBER 

(l.)  A  rubber  is  the  best  of  three  games. 
A  third  game  is  not  played  in  case  the  same 
partners  have  won  the  first  two  games. 

SCORING 

(2.)  A  game  consists  of  not  less  than  30 
trick-points  obtained  by  tricks  alone,  exclu- 
sive of  all  other  points  that  may  be  scored 
for  Honors,  Chicane,  or  Slam.  Trick-points, 
and  all  the  other  points  scored,  are  to  be 
added  together  when  the  rubber  is  con- 
cluded. 

(3.)  Each  trick  above  six  counts  2  trick- 
points  when  spades  are  trumps ;  4,  when 
clubs  are  trumps ;  6,  when  diamonds  are 
trumps ;  8,  when  hearts  are  trumps,  and  12, 
when  no  trumps  have  been  declared. 

(4.)  Honors  consist  of  ace,  king,  queen, 
jack,  and  ten  of  the  trump  suit.  When  "no 
trump"  has  been  declared,  the  trumps  are 
only  four  of  the  aces. 

The  scores  for  honors  are  reckoned  upon 
the  original  value  of  the  trick-points.  The 
value  of  honors  is  not  affected  by  doubling 
or  redoubling. 

(5.)  Honors  in  trumps  are  reckoned  as 
follows :  (a)  If  a  player  and  his  partner 
jointly  hold  five  honors,  they  score  for 
honors  five  times  the  original  value  of  the 
trump-suit  trick-points;  (&)  if  a  player  am* 
his  partner  hold  four  honors,  they  score 
for  honors  four  times  the  original  value  of 
the  trump-suit  trick-points;  (c)  if  they 
hold  three  honors,  they  score  for  honors 
twice  the  original  value  of  the  trump-suit 


GAMES   OF   CARDS 


455 


trick-points;  (rf)  if  a  player  holds  in  his 
own  hand  five  honors  of  the  trump  suit,  he 
and  his  partner  score  ten  times  the  original 
value  of  the  trump-suit  trick-points. 

If  a  player  in  his  own  hand  holds  four 
honors  of  the  trump  suit,  he  and  his  partner 
score  eight  times  the  value  of  the  trump- 
suit  trick-points.  If  the  player's  partner 
hold  the  fifth  honor,  they  score  in  addition 
the  single  value  of  the  trump-suit  trick- 
points. 

(6.)  Honors,  when  no  trump  has  been 
declared,  are  reckoned  as  follows:  (a)  If 
the  player  and  his  partner  jointly  hold  four 
aces,  they  score  for  honors  40  points;  (b) 
if  they  jointly  hold  three  aces,  they  score 
30  points;  (c)  if  a  player  holds  the  four 
aces  in  his  own  hand,  he  and  his  partner 
score  loo  points. 

(7.)  Chicane  is  when  a  player  holds  no 
trumps  in  his  hand.  When  he  and  his  part- 
ner score  for  the  chicane,  the  original  value 
of  the  trump-suit  trick-points  are  unaltered 
by  doubling  or  redoubling.  If  the  partner 
of  the  player  who  has  chicane  has  honors 
to  score,  the  trick-points  above  named  are 
added  to  his  score  for  honors.  If  the  oppo- 
nents score  honors,  the  trick-points  are  de- 
ducted from  their  score  for  honors. 

(8.)  Slam  is  when  a  player  and  his  part- 
ner take  all  thirteen  tricks;  they  score  for 
Grand  Slam  40  points. 

(9.)  If  they  take  twelve  tricks,  they  score 
for  Little  Slam  20  points. 

(10.)  At  the  conclusion  of  a  rubber,  100 
additional  points  are  added  to  the  score  of 
the  winning  partners. 

(n.)  The  total  scores  for  trick-points, 
honors,  and  all  other  points  gained  by  each 
side,  are  added  together,  and  the  differ- 
ences between  the  total  represents  the  num- 
ber of  points  to  be  paid  to  the  winning 
partners  by  the  losing  partners. 

(12.)  If  an  erroneous  score  affecting 
tricks  should  occur,  such  mistake  can  be 
rectified  at  any  time  prior  to  the  conclusion 
of  the  round  or  play  to  a  deal  in  which  it 
occurs.  A  round  is  not  concluded  until  the 
last  card  of  the  next  following  deal  has 
been  dealt,  or  until,  in  case  of  the  last  game 
of  the  rubber,  the  score  has  been  finally 
made  up. 

(13.)  If  an  erroneous  score  affecting 
honors,  chicane,  or  slam  should  occur, 
the  mistake  may  be  corrected  at  any  time 
before  the  score  of  the  rubber  has  been 
finally  made  up. 

(14.)  Cutting-in,  Cutting-out,  Entry,  Re- 
entry, and  Dealing  are  subject  to  the  same 
laws  as  hold  in  Whist 


A   NEW   DEAL 

(15.)  There  must  be  a  new  deal  under 
all  the  following  circumstances:  (a)  If, 
during  a  deal,  or  during  the  play  of  the 
hand,  the  pack  be  proved  to  be  incorrect 
or  imperfect;  (&)  if  any  card  be  faced  in 
the  pack;  (c)  if  any  player  has  more  or 
less  than  thirteen  cards;  (</)  a  new  deal  is 
required  under  the  same  circumstances  as 
hold  in  Whist. 

The  dealer  does  not  lose  the  deal. 

DECLARING  TRUMPS 

(16.)  The  dealer,  having  examined  his 
hand,  has  the  option  of  declaring  what  suit 
shall  be  trumps,  or  whether  the  hand  shall 
be  played  without  trumps.  In  the  latter 
case,  he  declares,  "No  trumps." 

(17.)  If  the  dealer  decline  to  take  a 
declaration,  he  must  pass  it  over  to  his 
partner  by  saying,  "I  leave  it  to  you,  part- 
ner," or  words  to  that  effect,  and  his  partner 
must  make  such  declaration  as  he  may 
deem  best. 

(18.)  A  declaration  once  made  can  not 
be  altered. 

(19.)  If  the  dealer's  partner  make  a  dec- 
laration before  the  dealer  has  ordered  him 
to  do  so,  either  of  the  adversaries  has  the 
right,  after  looking  at  his  hand,  to  demand 
a  fresh  deal,  but  is  debarred  from  consult- 
ing his  partner  as  to  doing  so. 

DOUBLING  AND  REDOUBLING 

(20.)  Doubling,  redoubling,  etc.;  doubles, 
quadruples,  etc.,  the  value  of  the  trick- 
points  as  given  in  Law  3.  The  score  for 
honors,  slam,  or  chicane  is  in  no  wise  af- 
fected by  doubling,  etc. 

(21.)  After  the  trump  has  been  declared 
by  the  dealer  or  his  partner,  the  opposing 
player  on  the  dealer's  left  hand  has  the  right 
to  double.  If  he  does  not  wish  to  double,  he 
must  say  to  his  partner,  "May  I  play?" 
If  his  partner  does  not  wish  to  double,  he 
answers  "Yes";  otherwise  he  says,  "I 
double." 

(22.)  If  either  of  the  opponents  has 
doubled,  the  dealer  or  his  partner  may  re- 
double, the  declarer  of  the  trump  having 
the  first  right  to  do  so. 

(23.)  .If  the  dealer  or  his  partner  has  re- 
doubled, the  opposing  partners  may  re- 
double, the  original  doubler  having  the  first 
right. 

(24.)  Redoubling  may  be  repeated  with- 
out limit,  only  ceasing  when  the  question, 
"May  I  play?"  has  been  answered  "Yes." 
It  is  always  advisable  to  establish  a  limit 
before  commencing  to  play. 


456 


GAMES    OF   CARDS 


DUMMY 

(25.)  As  soon  as  a  card  is  led,  the  deal- 
er's partner  shall  spread  his  cards,  face  up- 
ward, on  the  table,  and  the  duty  of  playing 
cards  from  that  hand,  which  is  called 
Dummy,  and  of  claiming  and  enforcing  any 
penalties  arising  during  the  hand,  shall  de- 
volve solely  upon  the  dealer. 

(26.)  The  dealer's  partner,  after  expos- 
ing the  dummy,  is  debarred  from  taking 
any  part  whatever  in  the  play  of  the  hand, 
excepting  only  that  he  may  ask  the  dealer 
if  he  has  a  card  of  the  suit  which  he  may 
have  renounced;  and  he  may  play  a  card 
from  the  dummy  if  ordered  by  the  dealer. 

(27.)  If  the  dealer's  partner  should  call 
attention  to  any  incident  in  respect  of  which 
any  penalty  might  be  exacted,  except  as 
stated  in  Law  29,  the  fact  that  he  has  done 
so  shall  deprive  the  dealer  of  the  right  of 
exacting  such  penalty  against  adversaries. 

(28.)  When  the  dealer  draws  a  card  from 
dummy,  or  orders  his  partner  to  play  a 
card,  such  card  is  not  considered  played 
until  actually  quitted. 

(29.)  As  the  dummy's  cards  are  in  plain 
view  of  his  adversaries,  he  is  not  liable 
to  any  penalty  for  revoke.  Should  he  re- 
voke, and  the  error  not  be  discovered  until 
the  trick  is  turned  and  quitted  the  trick 
stands  good. 

(30.)  If  the  dealer  lead  out  of  turn, 
either  from  his  own  hand  or  from  dummy, 
he  incurs  no  penalty. 

(31.)  The  holder  of  the  dummy  hand 
being  barred  from  playing,  his  partner  is 
not  liable  to  any  penalty  for  an  error,  which 
can  give  him  no  advantage.  Thus  he  may 
expose  some  or  all  of  his  cards,  or  may 
declare  that  he  has  the  game  or  trick,  etc., 
without  incurring  any  penalty. 

EXPOSED  CARDS 

(32.)  If  after  the  deal  has  been  com- 
pleted and  before  the  trump  has  been  de- 
clared, either  the  dealer  or  his  partner 
exposes  a  card  from  his  hand,  either  of 
the  adversaries,  without  consultation  with 
his  partner,  may  claim  a  new  deal. 

(33-)  If  after  the  deal  has  been  completed 
and  before  a  card  is  led,  any  player  shall 
expose  a  card,  his  partner  shall  forfeit 
any  right  to  double  or  redouble  to  which 
he  would  otherwise  be  entitled ;  and  in  case 
of  a  card  being  exposed  by  the  leader's 


partner  the  dealer  may,  instead  of  calling 
the  card,  require  the  leader  not  to  lead 
the  suit  of  the  exposed  card. 

CARDS   LIABLE  TO  BE  CALLED 

(34.)  All  cards  exposed  by  the  dealer's 
adversaries  are  liable  to  be  called,  and  must 
be  left  face  upward  upon  the  table;  but 
a  card  is  not  an  exposed  card  when  dropped 
on  the  floor  or  elsewhere  below  the  table. 

THE  REVOKE 

(3S-)  A  revoke  is  when  a  player  (other 
than  dummy)  holding  one  or  more  cards 
of  the  suit  ledj  plays  a  card  of  a  different 
suit. 

(36.)  The  penalty  for  a  revoke,  attach- 
ing to  all  players,  except  the  dummy,  is 
at  the  option  of  the  adversaries.  At  the 
end  of  the  hand  they  may,  after  consul- 
tation, either  take  three  tricks  from  the  re- 
voking player  and  add  them  to  their  own, 
or  deduct  the  value  of  three  trick-points 
from  his  score,  or  add  the  value  of  three 
trick-points  to  their  own  score.  No  other 
methods  can  be  adopted.  The  penalty  (a) 
can  be  claimed  for  as  many  revokes  as 
occur  during  the  hand;  (&)  is  applicable 
only  to  the  score  of  the  hand  in  which  it 
occurs;  (c)  under  no  circumstances  can  the 
side  revoking  score  game,  grand  slam,  or 
little  slam  in  that  hand;  (d)  whatever 
their  previous  score  may  be,  the  side  revok- 
ing can  not  attain  a  higher  score  toward 
the  game  than  twenty-eight. 

(37.)  If  a  player  discover  his  mistake 
in  time  to  save  a  revoke,  any  player  or 
players  who  have  played  after  him  may 
withdraw  their  cards  and  substitute  others, 
and  their  cards  withdrawn  are  not  liable 
to  be  called.  If,  however,  the  revoking 
player  be  one  of  the  dealer's  adversaries,  the 
dealer  may  call  the  card  thus  played  in 
error,  or  may  require  him  to  play  his 
highest  or  lowest  card  to  that  trick  in 
which  he  had  renounced. 

(38.)  If  either  of  the  dealer's  adversaries 
prior  to  his  partner  playing  should  call  at- 
tention to  the  trick  either  by  saying  that  it 
is  his  or  by  naming  his  card,  or  drawing 
it  toward  him  without  being  required  to 
do  so,  the  dealer  may  require  that  opponent's 
partner  to  play  his  highest  or  lowest  card 
of  the  suit  then  led  or  to  win  or  to  lose  the 
trick. 


GAMES    OF   CARDS 


467 


RULES   AND    REGULATIONS   OF   HEARTS 


IN  some  respects  the  game  of  hearts  is  a 
variation  of  whist,  with  which  it  has 
several  points  in  common.  It  is  regularly 
played  by  four  persons,  each  one  being 
independent  of  every  other,  and  never 
paired  with  a  partner.  The  entire  pack  is 
dealt  in  rotation,  as  in  whist,  and  the 
cards  are  played  as  in  that  game,  each 
player  being  obliged  to  follow  suit,  if  pos- 
sible. 

Unlike  whist,  however,  tricks  do  not 
count  for  points,  and  the  object  of  the 
game  is  to  avoid  taking  tricks,  particularly 
such  as  contain  hearts.  It  is  a  matter  of  no 
importance,  however,  whether  tricks  are 
taken  or  not,  so  long  as  no  hearts  are 
captured. 

The  cards  rank  as  in  whist — the  ace 
highest  and  the  deuce  lowest — although  the 
ace  is  low  in  cutting.  The  deal  is  deter- 
mined and  performed  precisely  as  in  whist, 
but  the  last  card  is  not  turned  for  trumps, 
nor  are  trumps  declared  or  used  in  play. 

The  play  begins  with  the  eldest  hand, 
the  first  on  the  dealer's  left,  and  continues, 
as  in  whist,  the  player  taking  the  last 
trick  leading  in  the  next  round.  Each 
player  strives  to  avoid  taking  a  trick  con- 
taining heart  cards,  also  to  get  rid  of  all 
the  hearts  originally  dealt  to  him. 

At  the  close  of  the  hand  each  player  re- 
ports the  number  of  hearts  taken  by  him, 
retaining  his  captured  tricks  intact  until 
the  report  is  verified.  He  must  then  pay 
one  chip  into  the  pool  for  every  heart  taken. 
The  pool  is  then  divided  among  the  players 
having  taken  no  hearts,  or,  in  case  all  the 
players  hold  hearts,  the  pool  is  divided 
among  those  holding  only  one  heart  each. 
In  either  case  the  odd  chip  goes  to  the  win- 
ning player  who  is  nearest  to  the  dealer's 
left.  The  rules  governing  the  division  of 
the  pool  are  as  follows: 

(i.)  If  one  player  takes  the  whole  thir- 
teen hearts,  he  must  pay  thirteen  chips  into 
the  pool,  which  is  thus  divided:  the  other 
three  players  receive  four  chips  each,  and 
the  odd  chip  goes  to  the  winning  player 
who  sits  nearest  to  the  left  of  the  dealer. 

(2.)  If  only  one  player  has  captured  no 
heart  cards,  he  takes  all  the  counters  in  the 
pool. 

(3.)  If  two  or  more  players  have  not 
captured  heart  cards,  the  pool  is  divided 
among  them  as  equally  as  possible,  any  odd 


counters  remaining  after  the  division  going 
to  the  winning  player  nearest  to  the  left 
of  the  dealer. 

(4.)  When  all  the  four  players  capture 
hearts,  the  player  who  takes  the  least  num- 
ber of  hearts  is  paid  by  the  other  three. 

A  somewhat  more  satisfactory  method 
is  to  make  a  pool  to  stand  over  for  the 
next  hand,  if  (i)  all  the  players  have 
taken  hearts,  or  (2)  one  player  has  taken 
all  the  hearts.  One  player  taking  the  en- 
tire heart  suit  pays  16  chips  into  the  pool, 
but  the  rules  of  the  game  forbid  the  same 
player  doing  this  twice  in  succession. 

Another  method,  making  the  stakes  some- 
what higher,  is  to  count  5  chips  for  the  ace 
of  hearts,  4  for  the  king,  3  for  the  queen, 
2  for  the  jack,  and  I  for  every  other  heart 
card. 

As  regards  dealing,  revoking,  etc.,  the 
same  rules  apply  as  in  whist.  If  a  card, 
belonging  to  a  player  other  than  the  dealer, 
be  exposed  in  dealing  or  a  misdeal  occur, 
the  same  dealer  must  deal  again.  A  card 
exposed  in  the  course  of  the  play  can  not 
be  called. 

A  revoke  requires  the  player  making  it 
to  pay  into  the  pool  chips  to  the  number 
that  it  already  contains  and  13  in  addition, 
and  precludes  him  from  winning  any 
points  in  that  round. 

When  a  trick  is  won  it  must  be  gathered 
and  turned  before  the  next  lead.  Any 
player,  however,  may  demand  the  right  to 
look  at  the  last  trick  turned. 

Since  the  object  of  the  game  of  hearts 
is  to  avoid  taking  a  trick,  particularly 
one  containing  heart  cards,  considerable 
care  must  be  exercised  in  playing  a  hand. 
A  few  rules  will  suffice,  however,  to  show 
the  general  principles  involved: 

(i.)  It  is  well  to  play  out  a  short  suit 
as  soon  as  possible. 

(2.)  Iris  well  to  play  the  highest  cards 
of  any  suit  held,  as  soon  as  opportunity 
presents,  or  whenever  unable  to  follow  the 
suit  of  the  card  led. 

(0£;It  is  not  advisable  to  lead  from  a 
short  suit,  unless  all  the  cards  be  of  low 
denomination. 

(4.)  In  leading  from  a  long  suit,  lead  as 
low  a  card  as  possible,  in  order  to  avoid 
taking  the  trick,  in  case  some  other  player 
is  short  that  suit  and  discards  a  heart  card. 

(5.)  In  following  a  suit  of  which  you  hold 


468 


GAMES    OF   CARDS 


high  cards,  play  a  high  card  if  the  suit  is 
long.  It  is  better  to  take  a  trick  without 
hearts  than  to  be  obliged  to  follow  with  a 
heart. 

(6.)  Lead  from  a  single  card  of  any  suit 
except  hearts. 

(7.)  Lead  from  the  highest  card  of  a 
short  suit. 

(8.)  If  you  have  two  or  three  low  hearts, 
with  commanding  cards  in  other  suits,  and 
no  available  short  suit,  lead  a  low  heart 
whenever  the  opportunity  presents,  in  order 
to  eliminate  this  dangerous  suit  before 
some  other  player  develops  a  short  suit. 

(9.)  Do  not  lead  the  highest  card  of  a 
suit  that  has  already  been  led  more  than 
once,  and  in  no  case  lead  the  last  remain- 
ing card  of  a  suit. 

(10.)  When  a  suit  has  been  led  three 
times,  and  one  or  two  cards  of  other  suits 
have  been  played  to  the  leads,  do  not  again 
lead  the  suit  unless  you  are  sure  that  you 
are  leading  the  lowest  card  not  played. 

(il.)  With  a  short  suit  (less  than  four) 
of  the  card  led,  play  the  highest,  unless  the 
suit  led  is  hearts. 

(12.)  With  a  long  suit  of  the  card  led, 
do  not  beat  it,  unless  it  is  a  very  low  one. 

(13.)  When  holding  no  card  of  the  suit 
led,  discard  your  highest  heart,  unless  you 
deem  it  more  advisable  to  get  rid  of  a  dan- 
gerous card  of  another  suit. 

(14.)  When  hearts  are  led,  play  a  low 
one,  if  possible  lower  than  the  card  led. 
If  compelled  to  take  the  trick,  do  so  with 
your  highest  heart. 

(15.)  When  you  have  commanding  cards 
of  the  suit  led  the  first  time,  being  second 
or  third  player,  play  the  highest  you  hold, 
taking  the  chances  that  no  one  is  short  of 
the  suit  in  that  round.  Do  not  play  the 
highest  if  it  is  your  long  suit;  better  under- 
play the  highest  card  already  played. 


(16.)  If  possible,  avoid  taking  a  trick 
when  you  have  no  available  card  to  lead. 

FIVE    OR    SIX    HANDED    HEARTS 

The  game  of  hearts  may  be  played  by 
five  or  six  players— sufficient  small  cards  of 
any  suit  except  hearts  being  rejected  from 
the  pack,  in  order  to  ensure  the  same  num- 
ber of  cards  being  dealt  to  each  player. 

HEART  JACK-POT 

The  jack-pot  is  kept  entirely  separate 
from  the  ordinary  pool,  and  each  player 
deposits  a  counter  in  a  small  dish  provided 
for  the  purpose. 

At  every  new  deal,  each  player  deposits 
one  chip  in  the  jack- pot,  in  regular  rota- 
tion, until  some  player  who  has  taken  no 
trick  at  all  in  one  round  captures  the  jack- 
pot, together  with  all  the  chips  he  may  be 
entitled  to  in  the  regular  pool. 

If  only  one  player  in  the  game  takes  no 
hearts,  each  of  the  others  pays  him  a  chip 
for  each  heart  they  have  captured,  as  in 
the  regular  game,  but  the  original  four 
chips  must  remain  in  the  pot. 

If  two  or  more  players  take  no  hearts, 
twelve  chips  are  equally  divided  between 
them,  but  the  thirteenth  chip  must  be  put 
into  the  jack-pot,  thus  increasing  its  value. 

If  all  the  players  .capture  hearts,  the 
thirteen  chips  do  not  go  into  the  jack-pot, 
but  form  a  double  pool,  and  the  whole  is 
divided  equally  between  the  players  who 
capture  no  hearts  in  the  next  round. 

If  three  players  take  no  hearts,  then  the 
odd  chip  remaining  after  the  division  has 
been  made  goes  into  the  jack-pot. 

If  it  should  happen  that  two  players 
take  no  trick,  then  the  jack- pot  is  divided, 
any  odd  counter  remaining  after  the  equal 
division  being  left  for  the  new  jack-pot. 


GAMES  OF  SKILL 


FOREMOST  among  the  games  under  this  head  may  be  mentioned 
Chess,  Draughts  or  Checkers,  and  Dominoes.      Each  of  them  de- 
mands study  and  practice,  in  order  to  be  really  enjoyable,  and,  when 
proper  rules  are  observed,  the  element  of  chance  is  reduced  to  the  lowest 
terms. 

Chess  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  known  games  of  skill.  Various  the- 
ories are  advanced  as  to  its  origin.  One  account  states  that  the  wife  of 
Ravanna,  King  of  Ceylon,  devised  it  in  order  to  amuse  her  royal  spouse 
with  an  image  of  war  while  his  metropolis  was  closely  besieged  by  Rama. 
This  tradition  would  place  the  origin  of  the  game  at  about  3000  B.C.,  ac- 
cording to  the  estimates  of  conservative  historians.  There  is  little  cer- 
tainty, however,  beyond  the  fact  that  it  was  anciently  known  in  India, 
whence  it  was  carried  to  China,  Japan,  Persia,  and  Arabia.  It  appeared  in 
Europe  in  early  mediaeval  times,  where  it  was  the  "favorite  amusement  of 
both  court  and  cloister."  Originally  it  was  played  by  four  persons,  being 
known  as  Chatumnga,  which  is  the  Sanskrit  word  for  "four-hand."  Later 
in  its  history  the  rules  were  modified  to  accommodate  only  two  players, 
as  at  present.  The  European  game,  as  at  present  played  among  us,  repre- 
sents still  further  modifications  of  the  Oriental  rules.  Since  multitudes  of 
volumes  have  been  written  on  the  game  and  the  situations  involved  in  play- 
ing it,  no  more  can  be  attempted  here  than  to  give  an  outline  of  the  rules. 

Draughts  or  Checkers  is  another  ancient  game,  most  probably  of  Egyp- 
tian origin.  Ancient  sculptors  represent  the  Pharaohs  playing  the  game 
with  their  wives  and  courtiers.  From  their  day  to  the  present  it  has  been 
popular  in  the  Land  of  the  Nile,  whence  it  was  imported  to  Europe  a  few 
centuries  ago. 

•  As  a  game,  it  is  very  often  underrated,  because  it  is  supposed  that  there 
is  little  or  no  play  in  it.  Thus,  when  a  person  is  asked  if  he  plays  draughts, 
his  reply  is  not  unusually,  "No,  it  is  such  a  stupid  game." 

Whenever  this  remark  is  made  to  us,  we  challenge  the  person  to  a 
series  of  games,  when,  having  beaten  him  some  half-dozen  in  succession, 
we  prove  that  there  must  be  some  play  in  the  game,  or  such  a  result  would 
be  improbable. 

When  playing  chess,  there  are  so  many  pieces,  each  having  a  different 
moving  power  and  a  relative  value,  that  one  oversight,  caused  probably 
by  a  momentary  relaxation  of  memory,  loses  a  game,  whereas  in  draughts 
such  a  result  is  less  probable,  and  the  attention  can  be  more  completely 

(459) 


460 


GAMES    OF    SKILL 


devoted  to  some  plot,  through  which  the  opponent  does  not  see.  As  a 
rule,  a  good  draught-player  is  a  more  acute  person  on  every-day  subjects 
than  is  a  good  chess-player,  and  thus  we  strongly  recommend  draughts  as 
a  game  likely  to  call  into  action  very  useful  qualities. 

Another  ancient  game  is  that  known  as  Dominoes,  which  has  been  at- 
tributed by  various  authorities  to  the  Greeks,  Hebrews,  and  Chinese.  It 
was  introduced  into  Italy  several  centuries  ago,  whence,  about  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  taken  to  France.  In  the  latter  country 
it  is  still  popular  in  the  cafes  and  public  resorts,  being  very  nearly  a  char- 
acteristic national  game.  Quite  contrary  to  the  supposition  that  it  is  a 
trivial  amusement,  those  best  acquainted  with  the  game  agree  that  it 
affords  room  for  much  curious  calculation.  It  is  by  no  means  a  mere 
game  of  chance.  Let  any  ordinary  player  enter  the  lists  against  an  old 
and  experienced  hand,  and  he  will  soon  discover  that  it  requires  some- 
thing besides  good  weapons  to  come  off  victorious  in  this  as  in  most  other 
contests.  In  fact,  it  is  as  much  a  game  of  skill  as  any  of  the  card  games. 
A  moderately  good  player  can  generally  tell  what  his  adversary  has  in  his 
hand,  by  his  style  of  play;  and  by  calculating  two  or  three  moves  in  ad- 
vance, he  may  either  block  the  game  or  leave  it  open,  just  as  he  finds  it 
will  suit  his  purpose. 

The  ordinary  game — technically  termed  "double  sixes" — is  played  with 
twenty-eight  dominoes.  In  some  parts  of  England — chiefly  in  the  North 
— they  use  "double  nines"  and  "double  twelves."  But  it  signifies  little 
how  many  dominoes  are  used,  the  rules  and  principles  of  the  game,  as 
here  laid  down,  will,  in  most  cases,  equally  apply. 


GENERAL  RULES  FOR  THE  GAME  OF  CHESS 


WE  will  now  proceed  to  give  the  neces- 
sary directions  for  playing  the  game. 
The  game  is  played  on  a  board  divided 
into  sixty-four  squares,  colored  alternately 
black  and  white.  It  is  the  same  as  that  used 
at  draughts.  Eight  pieces  of  different  de- 
nominations and  powers,  and  eight  pawns, 
are  allotted  to  each  competitor.  As  a  nec- 
essary distinction,  each  set  is  colored  in  a 
different  way,  one  commonly  being  white, 
the  other  red  or  black.  The  pieces  are 
named  as  follows: 


King 


Queen. 


Biihop- 


Every  player,  therefore,  is  provided  with 
one    king,    one    queen,    two    bishons,    two 


knights,  and  two  rooks,  besides  the  eight 
pawns.  They  are  placed,  at  the  beginning 
of  each  game,  in  the  order  shown  on  the 
facing  page. 

In  placing  the  board,  care  must  be  taken 
that  a  white  corner  square  be  at  the  right 
hand  of  each  player.  It  should  also  be  ob- 
served that  the  queen  must  be  placed  upoit 
a  square  of  her  own  color. 

THE  PIECES:    THEIR  POWERS  AND 
MODE   OF    ACTION 

The  king  can  move  in  any  direction — for- 
ward, backward,  sidewise,  or  diagonally — 
provided  always,  of  course,  that  he  does  not 
move  into  check.  The  king  possesses  one 
great  prerogative — that  of  never  being 
taken;  but,  by  way  of  counterbalancing  the 
advantage  of  this  exemption,  he  is*  restrained 
from  exposing  himself  to  check.  He  can 
move  only  one  square  at  a  time,  except 
when  he  castles,  which  he  may  do  once  dur- 


GAMES    OF    SKILL 


461 


ing  each  game.  He  may  then  move  two 
squares.  He  can  not  castle  when  in  check, 
nor  after  he  has  once  moved,  nor  with  a 
rook  that  has  been  moved,  nor  if  any  of 
the  squares  over  which  he  has  to  move  be 
commanded  by  an  adverse  piece. 

The  queen  can  move  either  horizontally 
or  diagonally.  She  combines  the  powers  of 
the  bishop  and  the  rook.  She  can,  at  one 
move,  pass  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
board,  or,  if  moving  diagonally,  from  cor- 
ner to  corner.  Although  she  can  move  and 
take  in  the  same  manner  as  a  bishop  or  as 
a  rook,  she  must  make  the  whole  of  one 
move  in  one  direction,  and  can  not  combine 
in  one  move  the  powers  of  these  two  pieces : 
in  other  words,  she  can  not  move  round  a 
corner  at  one  step. 

The  rook  (sometimes  called  the  castle) 
may  pass  along  the  entire  length  of  the 


board  at  one  move.  It  may  move  back- 
ward, or  forward,  or  sidewise — but  al- 
ways horizontally,  never  diagonally. 

The  bishop  can  move  only  in  a  diagonal 
direction,  but  can  go  any  number  of  squares, 
from  one  to  eight,  or  as  far  as  the  space  be 
open.  The  bishop  can  never  change  the 
color  of  his  square.  Thus,  the  white  king's 
bishop  being  on  a  white  square  at  the  be- 
ginning, remains  so  throughout  the  game. 
This  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  his  move 
being  purely  diagonal. 

The  knight  has  a  power  of  moving  which 
is  quite  peculiar,  and  rather  difficult  to  ex- 
plain. He  moves  two  squares  at  once  in  a 
direction  partly  diagonal  and  partly  straight. 
He  changes  the  color  of  his  squares  at  every 
move.  The  knight  is  the  only  piece  that 
possesses  what  is  styled  the  "vaulting  mo- 
tion." He  is  not  precluded  from  going  to  a 
square  between  which  and  his  own  other 
pieces  intervene.  Thus,  instead  of  moving 


your  king's  pawn  two,  as  your  first  move, 
you  might,  if  good  play  permitted  it,  move 
out  either  of  your  knights  right  over  the 
row  of  pawns  in  front.  This  power  is  pos- 
sessed by  the  knight  alone,  all  the  other 
pieces  being  obliged  to  wait  until  there  is  an 
opening  in  front  of  them  before  they  can 
emerge. 

The  pawn  moves  in  a  straight  line  toward 
the  adverse  party.  It  can  not  move  out  of 
its  file  except  in  capturing  one  of  the  oppos- 
ing pawns  or  pieces,  when  it  steps  one  square 
in  a  diagonal  or  slanting  direction,  and  oc- 
cupies the  square  of  the  captured  piece.  It 
can  only  be  moved  one  square  at  a  time, 
excepting  in  the  first  move,  when  the  player 
has  the  option  of  advancing  it  two  squares. 
The  pawn  is  the  only  piece  which  can  not 
retreat,  and  which  does  not  take  in  the  di- 
rection in  which  it  moves.  For  full  ex- 
planations relative  to  "queening  the  pawn," 
and  taking  a  pawn  en  passant,  see  instruc- 
tions on  those  points. 

ABBREVIATIONS 

The  abbreviations  which  are  invariably 
used  in  chess  publications  are  the  following : 
K.  for  king,  Q.  for  queen,  B.  for  bishop,  Kt. 
for  knight,  R.  for  rook,  P.  for  pawn,  Sq. 
for  square,  and  Ch.  for  check.  The  pieces 
on  one  side  of  the  board  are  distinguished 
from  those  on  the  other  in  the  following 
manner :  Those  on  the  same  side  as  the 
king  are  named  after  him,  as  Ki's  B.  (king's 
bishop),  K.'s  Kt.  (king's  knight),  K.'s  R. 
(king's  rook)  ;  while  those  on  the  same  side 
as  the  queen  are  named  Q.'s  B.  (queen's 
bishop),  Q.'s  Kt.  (queen's  knight),  Q.'s  R. 
(queen's  rook).  The  pawns  are  distin- 
guished in  like  manner.  The  pawn  occupy- 
ing the  square  in  front  of  the  K.'s  B.  is 
called  K.'s  B.'s  P. ;  that  in  front  of  the  K.'s 
Kt.  is  called  K.'s  Kt.'s  P.;  that  in  front  of 
the  Q.'s  R.  the  Q.'s  R.'s  P.,  etc. 

CHESS    NOTATION 

It  is  very  necessary  that  the  beginner 
should  thoroughly  understand  the  system  of 
notation  which  is  used,  for  without  it  he 
could  never  make  any  use  of  book  games. 

The  diagram  on  next  page  fully  explains 
it.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  moves  are  reck- 
oned both  for  black  and  white. 

Suppose  the  white  queen's  bishop  moves 
one  square,  it  is  then  said  to  stand  on  its 
second,  which  is  the  black  queen's  bishop's 
seventh.  The  white  king's  eighth  is  the 
black  king's  first,  and  vice  versa  all  through 
the  pieces. 


462 


GAMES   OF   SKILL 


TECHNICAL   TERMS    USED    IN    THE 
GAME 

The  Move. — Whichever  player  opens  the 
game  by  making  the  first  move  is  said  to 
have  "the  move." 

Check. — When  your  king  is  attacked  by 
any  piece,  he  is  said  to  be  "in  check,"  and 
it  is  your  opponent's  duty  to  give  you  warn- 
ing of  such  an  event  by  crying  "Check," 
when  he  makes  the  move.  You  must  then 
put  your  king  out  of  check  by  moving  him, 
by  taking  the  checking  piece,  or  by  interpos- 
ing one  of  your  own  men  between  the  check- 
ing piece  and  your  .king,  thus  "covering" 
check,  as  it  is  termed. 

Checkmate  is  the  term  used  when  the  king 
is  in  inextricable  check,  i.e.,  when  none  of 


Q4L8. 


O.R.,. 


Q.Re 


OR., 


o-«-«ito.K 


Q.Kt.8 


jjj-0 

OKU, 


0  Kt.6. 


0*1* 


9*310 
QKl., 


0-B.t 


•ttO 

QB-7. 


QB6 


OB.4 


98  O 
QB> 


veG 

OB«, 


6«0 

01. 


J?i. 
o« 


o* 


o* 


*-* 

K.6. 


K.J. 


K« 


K3- 


K. 


rO      fa 


•8-31 
R.fl7 


KKV7 


9HT! 
KB-3- 


K.B.«q 


K.Kl-5. 


K-Ki.4. 

•9-nm 

K  Kl.3. 


K.Kt 


K.R.8. 


K.R.,. 


KR:«. 


ran 

KR.3. 


the  above  means  avails  to  place  him  beyond 
the  range  of  the  attacking  pieces.  When  a 
checkmate  is  obtained,  the  game  is  at  an 
end,  that  being  the  sole  object. 

Discovered  Check  is  when  the  player 
moves  a  pawn  or  piece  from  before  an- 
other piece,  thereby  opening  or  "discov- 
ering" check;  e.g.,  the  black  rook  may  be 
on  a  line  with  the  opposing  king,  the  only 
intervening  piece  being  a  black  pawn.  The 
removal  of  this  pawn  is  said  to  "discover 
check." 

Double  Check  is  when  check  is  discovered 
as  above,  the  king  being  also  attacked  by  the 
piece  moved. 

Perpetual  Check  is  when  the  king  of  one 
of  the  players  can  be  checked  almost  at 
every  move,  and  when  he  has  little  else  to 
do  but  move  out  of  check.  When  the  game 
has  reached  this  stage,  the  weaker  player 
may  demand  that  checkmate  shall  be  given 
in  a  certain  number  of  moves,  in  default  of 


which   it  may  be  declared  a  drawn  game. 
(See  Law  13.) 

Drawn  Game. — A  drawn  game  may  arise 
from  several  causes : 

1.  As  ab«ve. 

2.  Stalemate.   (See  "Stalemate.") 

3.  Equal     play.       "Between     very     good 
players,"   remarks   Phillidor,   "it  sometimes 
happens  that  the  equipoise  in  force  and  po- 
sition  is  constantly  sustained  in  the  open- 
ing, in  the  intermediate  stages,  and  in  the 
last  result;   when  either  all  the  exchange- 
able pieces  have  been  mutually  taken,  or  the 
remaining    forces    are    equal— as    a    queen 
against  a  queen,  a  rook  against  a  rook,  with 
no  advantage  in  position,  or  the  pawns  are 
mutually  blocked  up." 

4.  Absence   of  mating  power,   i.e.,   when 
neither  player  possesses  the  force  requisite 
to    obtain    a    checkmate.      ("See    "Mating 
Power.") 

5.  Unskilful   use  of  a   sufficiently  strong 
force.  If  one  player  is  superior  in  force  to 
his   adversary,    and   possesses   the   requisite 
mating  power,  the  game  may  still  be  drawn 
by  the  unskilful  use  of  that  superiority.     If 
he  can  not  effect  a  checkmate  in  fifty  moves 
it  may  be  declared  a  drawn  game. 

Stalemate  describes  that  state  of  the 
game  when  one  of  the  players  has  nothing 
left  but  his-  king,  which  is  so  placed  that, 
although  not  in  check,  he  can  not  move 
without  going  into  check. 

Castling  is  a  double  operation,  accom- 
plished by  moving  the  king  and  one  of  the 
rooks  at  the  same  time.  When  the  removal 
of  the  bishop  and  the  knight  on  the  one  side, 
or  of  the  bishop,  knight,  and  queen  on  the 
other,  has  cleared  the  intervening  squares, 
the  king  may  castle  with  either  of  his  rooks. 
If  it  should  be  done  on  the  king's  side  of 
the  board,  the  king  is  to  be  placed  on  the 
knight's  square,  and  the  rook  on  the 
bishop's;  if  in  the  queen's  section,  the  king 
must  be  moved  to  the  bishop's  square,  and 
the  rook  to  the  queen's.  In  other  words,  the 
king,  in  either  case,  must  move  two  squares, 
and  the  rook  be  placed  on  the  opposite  side 
of  him  to  that  on  which  he  stood  before. 

En  Prise. — A  piece  is  said  to  be  en  prise 
when  under  attack. 

En  Passant  (in  passing). — If  your  adver- 
sary has  advanced  one  of  his  pawns  to  the 
fifth  square,  and  you  move  one  of  your 
pawns  in  either  of  the  adjoining  files  two 
squares,  he  is  entitled  to  take  your  pawn, 
en  passant,  as  though  you  had  only  moved 
it  one  square.  This  peculiar  mode  of  cap- 
ture can  only  be  effected  by  pawns. 

Ranks  and  Files.— The  lines  of  squares 
running  from  left  to  right  are  known  as 


GAMES   OF   SKILL 


463 


ranks,  and  those  perpendicular  to  them,  run- 
ning from  one  player  to  the  other,  are  called 
files. 

Passed  and  Isolated  Pawns. — A  pawn  is 
said  to  be  "passed"  when  it  is  so  far  ad- 
vanced that  no  pawn  of  the  adversary's  can 
oppose  it.  An  isolated  pawn  is  one  that 
stands  alone  and  unsupported. 

Doubte  Paroon. — Two  pawns  on  the  same 
file. 

" J'adoube"  (signifying  7  adjust  or  I  ar- 
range) is  the  expression  generally  used 
when  a  player  touches  a  piece  to  arrange 
it  without  the  intention  of  making  a  move. 
Perhaps  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that 
he  should  say  "J'adoube,"  but  he  must  at 
any  rate  use  an  equivalent  expression. 

To  Interpose. — This  term  explains  itself. 
If  your  king  or  one  of  your  pieces  is  at- 
tacked, and  you  move  another  of  your  pieces 
between  the  attacking  piece  and  the  piece 
attacked,  either  for  the  purpose  of  covering 
check,  or  as  a  means  of  protection,  or  with 
any  other  object,  you  are  said  to  "inter- 
pose." 

Winning  the  Exchange. — You  are  said 
"to  win  the  exchange"  when  you  gain  a 
rook  for  a  bishop,  a  bishop  for  a  knight,  or, 
in  short,  whenever  you  gain  a  superior  piece 
by  giving  an  inferior. 

Queening  a  Pawn. — You  are  said  to  "queen 
a  pawn"  when  you  advance  it  to  the  eighth 
square  on  the  file.  You  may  then  claim  a 
queen  or  any  other  piece  in  exchange  for  it. 
Formerly  the  rule  was,  that  you  might  sub- 
stitute for  it  any  piece  you  had  previously 
lost,  but  according  to  the  modern  game  three 
or  more  rooks,  or  bishops,  or  knights  may 
be  obtained  in  this  way. 

Gambit. — This  term,  which  is  derived 
from  the  Italian,  describes  an  opening  in 
which  a  pawn  is  purposely  sacrificed  at  an 
early  stage  of  the  game,  in  order  subse- 
quently to  gain  an  advantage.  Several 
gambits  are  distinguished  by  the  names  of 
their  inventors,  such  as  the  Cochrane  gam- 
bit, the  Muzio  gambit,  the  Salvio  gambit, 
etc?;  there  are  also  the  bishop's  gambit,  the 
queen's  gambit,  etc. 

Mating  Power. — Force  requisite  to  bring 
about  a  checkmate :  a  king  and  queen  against 
king  and  two  bishops,  king  and  two  knights, 
king  and  bishop  and  knight,  or  against  king 
and  rook,  can  effect  checkmate.  King  and 
two  bishops  can  mate  against  king  and 
bishop,  or  king  and  knight.  King  with  two 
bishops  and  knight  can  mate  against  king 
and  rook.  King  with  rook  and  bishop  can 
mate  against  rook  and  king.  King  can  al- 
ways draw  against  king  and  bishop,  or  king 
and  knight.  King  and  rook  against  either 


u    king   and   bishop,    or   king   and    knight, 
makes  a  drawn  game,  etc. 

LAWS    OF    THE    GAME 

The  following  laws  are  in  force  in  all  the 
principal  clubs  in  this  country: 

1.  If  a  player  touch  one  of  his  men,  un- 
less for  the  purpose  of  adjusting  it,  when  he 
must   say   "J'adoube"    (see   Law   4),   or   it 
being  his  turn  to  move,  he  must  move  the 
piece  he  has  so  touched. 

[Walker  gives  the  following  remarks  on 
this  law:  "When  you  touch  a  piece  with  the 
bona  fide  intention  of  playing  it,  the  saying 
J'adoube  will  not  exonerate  you  from  com- 
pleting the  move.  A  chess-player's  meaning 
can  not  be  misunderstood  on  the  point;  and 
were  it  otherwise,  you  might  hold  a  man  in 
your  hand  for  five  minutes,  and  then  saying 
'J'adoube,'  replace  it,  and  move  elsewhere."] 

2.  If  the  men  are  not  placed  properly  at 
the  beginning  of  the  game,  and  this  is  dis- 
covered before  four  moves  have  been  made 
on   each   side,   the   game   must   be   recom- 
menced.   If  the  mistake  should  not  be  found 
out  till  after  four  moves  have  been  made,  the 
game  must  be  proceeded  with. 

3.  Where  the  players  are  even,  they  must 
draw  lots  for  the  first  move,   after  which 
they  take  the  first  move  alternately.    When 
a  player  gives  odds,  he  has  the  option  of 
making  the  first  move,  and  the  choice  of 
men  in  every  game. 

[In  giving  odds,  should  it  be  agreed  upon 
to  give  a  pawn,  it  is  customary  to  take  the 
K.  B.  P.  If  a  piece  is  to  be  given,  it  may 
be  taken  from  either  the  king's  or  queen's 
side.] 

4.  If  a  player  should  accidentally  or  other- 
wise move  or  touch  one  of  his  men  without 
saying  "J'adoube,"  his  adversary  may  com- 
pel  him   to   move   either   the   man   he   has 
touched  or  his  king,  provided  the  latter  is 
not  in  check. 

5.  When  a  player  gives  check,  and  fails  to 
give  notice  by  crying  "Check,"  his  adversary 
need  not,  unless  he  think  proper,  place  his 
king  out  of  check,  nor  cover. 

[If  it  is  discovered  that  the  king  is  in 
check,  and  has  been  so  for  several  moves 
past,  the  players  must  move  the  men  back 
to  the  point  at  which  they  stood  when  check 
was  given.  If  they  can  not  agree  as  to  when 
check  was  first  given,  the  player  who  is  in 
check  must  retract  his  last  move,  and  de- 
fend his  king.] 

6.  The  player  who  effects  checkmate  wins 
the  game. 

7.  Stalemate   constitutes   a    drawn    game. 

8.  So  long  as  you  retain  your  hold  of  a 
piece  you  may  move  it  where  you  will. 


164 


GAMES    OF   SKILL 


9.  Should  you  move  one  of  your  adver- 
sary's men   instead  ol  your  own,   he   may 
compel    you    to    take    the    piece    you    have 
touched,  should  it  be  en  prise,  or  to  replace 
it  and  move  your  king;  provided,  of  course, 
that  you  can  do  so  without  placing  him  in 
check, 

10.  Should  you  capture  a  man  with  one 
that  can  not  legally  take  it,  your  adversary 
may  compel  you  either  to  take  such  piece 
(should  it  be  en  prise)   with  one  that  can 
legally  take  it,  or  to  move  the  piece  touched ; 
provided  that  by  so  doing  you  do  not  dis- 
cover check,  in  which  case  you  may  be  di- 
rected to  move  your  king. 

11.  Should  you  move  out  of  your  turn, 
your  adversary  may  compel  you  either  to 
retract  the  move,  or  leave  the  piece  where 
you  placed  it,  as  he  may  think  most  advan- 
tageous. 

12.  If  you  touch  the  king  and  rook,  in- 
tending to  castle,  and  have  quitted  hold  of 
the  one  piece,  you  must  complete  the  act  of 
castling.     If  you  retain  your  hold  of  both, 
your  adversary  may  compel  you   to  move 
either  of  them. 

13.  The    game    must   be    declared   to   be 
drawn  should  -"ou  fail  to  give  checkmate  in 
fifty  moves,  when  you  have 

King  and  queen  against  king. 

King  and  rook  against  king. 

King  and  two  bishops  against  king. 

King,  bishop,  and  knight  against  king. 

King  and  pawn  against  king. 

King  and  two  pawns  against  king. 

King  and  minor  piece  against  king. 

14.  Drawn    games    of    every    description 
count  for  nothing. 

15.  Neither  player  may  leave  a  game  un- 
finished,  nor   leave   the   room   without   the 
permission  of  his  adversary. 

16.  Lookers-onr  are  not  permitted  to  speak, 
nor  in  any  way  express  their  approbation 
or  disapprobation  while  a  game  is  pending. 

17.  In  case  a  dispute  should  arise  on  any 
point  not  provided  for  by  the  laws,  a  third 
party  must  be  appealed  to,  and  his  decision 
shall  be  final. 

HINTS    FOR    COMMENCING   THE 
GAME 

To  open  the  game  well,  some  of  the 
pawns  should  be  played  out  first.  The  royal 
pawns,  particularly,  should  be  advanced  to 
their  fourth  square;  it  is  not  often  safe  to 
advance  them  further.  The  bishop's  pawn 
should  also  be  played  out  early  in  the  game ; 
but  it  is  not  always  well  to  advance  the 
rook's  and  knight's  pawns  too  hastily,  as 
these  afford  an  excellent  protection  to  your 
king  in  case  you  should  castle.  Phillidor 


describes  pawn-playing  as  "the  soul  of 
chess."  When  they  are  not  too  far  ad- 
vanced, and  are  so  placed  as  to  be  mutually 
supporting,  they  present  a  strong  barrier  to 
the  advance  of  your  adversary,  and  prevent 
him  from  taking  up  a  commanding  position. 
If  you  play  your  pieces  out  too  early,  and 
advance  too  far,  your  adversary  may  oblige 
you  to  bring  "hem  back  again  by  advancing 
his  pawns  upon  them,  and  you  thus  lose 
time. 

Do  not  commence  your  attack  until  you 
are  well  prepared.  A  weak  attack  often  re- 
sults in  disaster.  If  your  attack  is  likely 
to  prove  successful,  do  not  be  diverted  from 
it  by  any  bait  which  your  adversary  may 
purposely  put  in  your  way.  Pause,  lest  you 
fall  into  a  snare. 

Beware  of  giving  check  uselessly — i.e., 
unless  you  have  in  view  the  obtaining  of 
some  advantage.  A  useless  check  is  a  move 
lost,  which  may,  particularly  between  good 
players,  decide  the  game. 

It  is  generally  injudicious  to  make  an  ex- 
change when  your  position  is  good,  or  when, 
by  so  doing,  you  bring  one  of  your  adver- 
sary's pieces  into  good  play.  Never  make 
an  exchange  without  considering  the  conse- 
quences. When  your  game  is  crowded  and 
ill  arranged  and  your  position  inferior,  it 
is  advantageous  to  exchange.  Sometimes 
also,  when  you  are  much  superior  in  force, 
it  is  worth  your  while  to  make  an  equal 
exchange. 

The  operation  of  castling  often  relieves  a 
crowded  game.  A  lost  opportunity  of  cas- 
tling, or  castling  at  the  wrong  time,  is  a  dis- 
advantage which  may  be  turned  to  account 
by  your  adversary. 

Never  put  your  queen  before  your  king  in 
such  a  way  that  your  adversary  may  bring 
forward  a  bishop  or  rook  and  attack  her, 
and  the  king  through  her.  In  such  a  case, 
unless  you  can  interpose  another  piece,  you 
will  inevitably  lose  your  queen. 

It  is  good  play  to  "double"  your  rooks — 
i.  e.,  to  make  them  mutually  supporting. 
Don't  bring  your  rooks  into  active  pla> 
soon.  They  can  generally  operate  most  ef- 
fectively at  a  distance,  and  they  are  there- 
fore of  most  value  toward  the  end  of  a 
game,  when  the  board  is  comparatively  clear. 
From  time  to  time  take  a  review  of  the 
game.  Although  an  incurably  tedious  player 
is  a  general  nuisance,  it  is  mere  folly  to  play 
without  "knowing  the  reason  why."  To 
take  an  occasional  review  of  the  game  gets 
you  into  a  systematic  habit.  When  near  the 
close,  take  notice  of  the  position  of  your  ad- 
versary's pawns,  and  if  you  find  that  you  can 
queen  before  him,  make  all  haste  to  do  so; 


GAMES    OF    SKILL 


465 


if  not,  attack  his  pawns  so  as  to  prevent  him 
from  queening.  If  your  adversary  possesses 
a  decided  advantage,  look  out  for  a  means 
of  drawing  the  game. 

Do  not  stick  to  one  opening,  but  learn  as 
many  as  you  can. 

Always  be  willing  to  accept  odds  of  a  bet- 
ter player,  so  that  the  game  may  be  inter- 
esting to  him.  If  you  should  lose,  it  is  nat- 
ural that  you  should  feel  inwardly  chagrined, 
but  do  not  let  your  disappointment  be  per- 
ceived. "Keep  your  temper"  is  a  golden 
rule.  Do  not  give  up  the  game  before  you 
are  quite  sure  it  is  lost.  On  the  other  hand, 
you  should  not  too  hastily  jump  to  the  con- 
clusion that  you  have  won  it. 

It  is  necessary  that  you  should  occasion- 
ally study  some  of  the  best  book  games,  but 
without  actual  practice  proficiency  can  sel- 
dom be  attained. 

Endeavor  to  understand  the  reasons  which 
lead  to  your  adversary's  moves,  and  take 
measures  accordingly. 

"OPENINGS"  OF  GAMES. — The  principal 
openings  are  the  king's  gambit,  the  queen's 
gambit,  the  king's  knight's  opening,  the 
king's  bishop's  opening,  etc.  From  these 
spring  the  various  gambits,  known  as  the 
Evans,  the  Muzio,  the  Cunningham,  the 
Allgaier,  the  Cochrane,  the  Giuoco  piano, 
etc.,  most  of  them  deriving  their  names  from 
the  inventors.  All  these  gambits  have  a  va- 
riety of  subdivisions,  and  openings  not 
founded  on  them  are  termed  irregular  open- 
ings. We  shall,  after  denning  each  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  these  openings,  give  il- 
lustrations of  them. 

The  King's  Gambit. — In  this  gambit,  the 
first  player  advances  his  KB. P.  two  squares 
at  his  second  move. 

The  Queen's  Gambit  is  when  the  first 
player,  at  his  second  move,  advances  his 
Q.  B.  P.  two  squares. 

•King's  Bishop's  Gambit  is  so  styled  be- 
cause the  first  player  brings  out  the  K.  B. 
at  his  second  move. 

King's  Knight's  Gambit. — In  this  much- 
used  opening  the  first  player  brings  out  his 
K.  Kt.  at  his  second  move. 

The  Evans  Gambit,  so  styled  from  its  in- 
ventor, Captain  W.  D.  Evans,  R.  N.,  is 
when  the  player  advances  Q.  Kt.  P.  two  at 
his  fourth  move,  and  sacrifices  it,  with  the 
object  of  recovering  at  least  its  equivalent, 
at  the  same  time  obtaining  a  decided  lead. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  the  queen's 
pawn-two-opening,  the  queen's  bishop's 
pawn's  opening,  the  Lopez  gambit,  the  king's 
pawn-one-opening,  the  queen's  counter-gam- 
bit, the  king's  rook's  pawn's  gambit,  the 
Allgaier  gambit,  the  Muzio  gambit,  the 


Cochrane  gambit,  the  Cunningham  gambit, 
the  bishop's  gambit,  the  Damian's  gambit, 
the  Greco  counter-gambit,  etc.,  etc. 

In  an  article  of  such  limited  scope  as  the 
present,  it  would  be  impossible  to  treat  at 
any  length  upon  every  one  of  these  openings. 
We  shall  therefore  content  ourselves  with 
making  a  selection  which  will  be  at  once  in- 
teresting and  suitable  for  beginners.  In 
every  case  we  have  preferred  to  give  those 
variations  which  are  considered'  the  best  and 
most  legitimate,  believing  that  the  study  and 
practice  of  such  positions-  will  be  more  ad- 
vantageous to  the  learner  than  giving,  as 
some  writers  do,  inferior  play  and  positions, 
and  then  afterward  giving  the  correct  ones. 

The  King's  Gambit.  — 

White.  Black. 

1.  K.  P.  2.  i.  K.  P.  2. 

2.  K.  B.  P.  2.  2.  P.  takes  P. 

3.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3.  3.  K.  Kt.  P.  2. 

4.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4. 

There  has  been  much  difference  of  opin- 
ion as  to  the  move  which  black  should  now 
make.  Some  writers  prefer  advancing  K. 
Kt.  P.,  while  Walker  and  a  whole  host  of 
authorities  think  it  better  to  place  the  K.  B. 
at  Kt.  second  :  "Although,"  says  Walker, 
"playing  the  pawn  is  productive  of  more 
brilliant  situations."  He  advises  both  moves 
for  practice. 

King's  Bishop's  Opening.  —  This  opening 
is  considered  by  the  great  chess  master, 
Phillidor,  as  the  very  finest  opening  for  the 
first  player,  as  it  brings  out  the  bishop  at 
the  second  move,  and  immediately  attacks 
black's  K.  B.  P.,  his  weakest  point.  From 
this  opening  spring  some  of  the  finest  and 
most  difficult  combinations  known.  It  com- 
mences thus  : 


White. 
i.  K.  P.  to  K.  4. 


Black. 
i.  P.  to  K.  4. 


2.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4.          2.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4  (best). 

3.  P.  to  Q.  B.  3.  3.  Q.  to  K.  2  (good). 

4.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

Some  prefer  to  play  the  Kt.  to  K.  2,  but 
in  our  opinion  this  is  not  so  good  as  to  B. 
3,  because  in  the  former  case  black  could 
take  K.  B.  P.  with  his  bishop  (check)  ;  and 
if  white  K.  takes  bishop,  black  queen  gives 
check  at  her  B.  4,  and  white  loses  bishop. 

White.  Black. 

4.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

5.  Q.  to  K.  2.  s-  P-  to  Q.  3. 

6.  P.  to  Q.  3.  6.  P.  to  Q.  B.  3. 

If  black  plays  his  Q.  B.,  pinning  Kt.,  white 
will  advance  R.  P.,  which  will  cause  black 
either  to  retire  bishop  (which  will  be  los- 
ing time)  or  force  an  exchange,  which  will 
open  the  game  to  white's  queen.  Therefore 
it  will  be  better  for  black  to  play  P.  to  Q. 
B.  3,  as  we  have  given  it,  which  will  leave 
the  game  pretty  equal  up  to  this  point.  If 


466 


GAMES   OF   SKILL 


black,  at  his  third  move,  replies  as  follows 
— which  is  an  inferior  move — then  the  game 
proceeds  thus : 

White.  Black. 

3.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

4.  P.  to  Q.  4.  4-  P.  takes  P. 

5.  P.  to  K.  5.  5-  Kt.  to  K.  5. 

6.  Q.  to  K.  2.  6.  Kt.  to  Kt.  4. 

7.  P.  to  K.  B.  4.  7.  Kt.  to  K.  3. 

8.  P.  to  K.  B.  5. 

If  black  now  play  8.  Kt  to  K.  B., 

white  has  the  best  of  the  game,  and  ought 
to  win ;  but  if  black  play  Kt.  to  Kt.  4,  white 
will  play  Q.  to  K.  R.  5,  and  then  P.  to  K 
R.  4.  If  white  at  his  third  move  should  play 
Q.  to  K.  2,  attacking  K  B.  P.  and  threaten- 
ing ch.  with  Q.  and  capture  of  bishop,  and 
if  black  advance  Q.  P.  one,  it  may  then  be- 
come the  Ruy  Lopez  gambit  by  white  play- 
ing as  his  fourth  move  P.  to  K.  B.  4.  If  the 
gambit  referred  to  be  not  properly  met,  it 
leads  to  strong  positions  of  attack.  It  is 
better  for  the  second  player  to  refuse  the 
pawn  offered. 

King's  Knight's  Opening. — This  is  a  sound 
opening,  and  has  been  largely  treated  upon 
by  many  writers.  Some  'fine  situations 
spring  from  it.  At  the  second  move,  white 
directly  attacks  K.  P.  with  K.  Kt.  We  will 
give  the  opening,  and  a  few  brief  remarks 
thereon,  together  with  a  game  arising  from 
it: 

White.  Black. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.  i.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

For  black,  in  reply  to  this,  to  move  P.  to 
K  B.  3,  would  only  show  weak  play,  and 
would  enable  white  to  win  in  a  few  moves, 
or  at  any  rate  to  obtain  a  rook  and  a  pawn 
in  exchange  for  a  knight.  Black's  best  an- 
swer is  the  following: 

2.  Q.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

Black  thus  defends  his  pawn,  and  has  the 
advantage  of  a  counter-attack. 

King's  Knight's  Gambit. — This  is  a  varia- 
tion of  the  king's  gambit,  brought  about  by 
white  at  his  fourth  move  advancing  the  K. 
R.  P.  before  bringing  out  his  K  B.  This 
variation  brings  out  some  fine  play,  but  is 
not  so  strong  for  the  first  player  as  the 
king's  gambit  proper.  The  Allgaier  gambit 
springs  from  this  opening. 

White.  Black. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.  i.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  P.  to  K.  B.  4.  2.  P.  takes  P. 

3.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3.  3.  P.  to  K.  Kt.  4. 

4.  P.  to  K.  R.  4.  4.  P.  to  K.  Kt.  5  (best). 

5.  K.  Kt.  to  K.  5. 

By  white's  last  move  the  game  emerges  into 
the  Allgaier.    Black's  best  move  now  is 
5.  P.  to  K.  R.  4. 

6.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4.        6.  R.  to  K.  2. 

This  move  of  black's  is  considered  better 
than  K  Kt.  to  R.  3. 


7.  P.  to  Q.  4.  7.  P.  to  Q.  3. 

8.  Kt.  to  Q.  3.  8.  K.  B.  P.  advances. 

If  white  now  plays  K.  Kt.  P.,  black  has  the 
best  of  the  game  by  keeping  the  gambit 
pawn.  If  white  attacks  queen  with  bishop, 
black  will  give  check  with  pawn,  and  have 
the  stronger  game.  Most  authorities  con- 
sider this  opening  weak  for  the  first  player. 
The  Allgaier  Gambit. — This  opening,  the 
invention  of  a  noted  German  from  whom  It 
takes  its  name,  arises  out  of  the  king's 
knight's  gambit,  as  detailed  in  the  preceding 
paragraph.  It  is  not  a  safe  opening,  al- 
though, if  successful,  it  will  prove  a  strong 
one.  When  properly  met,  the  siege  is  soon 
raised,  and  the  second  player  will  stand  in 
the  better  position.  It  is,  however,  a  fine 
opening,  and  requires  cautious  play  on  both 
sides.  It  is  as  follows : 

White.  Black. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.  i.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  P.  to  K.  B.  4.  2.   P.  takes  P. 

3.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3  3-  P.  to  K.  Kt  4. 

4.  P.  to  K.  R.  4.  4.  P.  to  K.  Kt.  5. 

5.  K.  Kt.  to  Kt.  5. 

White's  fifth  move  constitutes  the  Allgaier 
gambit,  white  intending  to  sacrifice  the 
knight  if  attacked  by  the  pawns.  Black 
may  reply  in  several  ways,  but  in  our  opin- 
ion his  best  move  is  the  following : 

5.  P.  to  K.  R.  3. 
Black  by  this  move  wins  the  knight. 

6.  Kt.  takes  K.  B.  P.     6.  K.  takes  Kt 

7.  Q.  takes  P.  7.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

8.  Q.  takes  B.  P. 

The  last  move  is  much  better  than  giving 
check  with  the  bishop,  which  would  only 
have  the  effect  of  involving  white's  game. 
Walker  says,  "No  better  move  can  be 
played  at  this  crisis."  It  will  be  good  prac- 
tice for  the  student  to  continue  the  above 
opening,  and  exercise  his  ingenuity  by  finish- 
ing the  game. 

The  Muzio  Gambit. — This  is  another  va- 
riation of  the  king's  gambit,  and  is  produced 
by  white  offering  to  sacrifice  knight  in  or- 
der to  gain  a  strong  attacking  position.  II 
is  the  invention  of  Signer  Muzio,  an  Italian 
player  of  some  eminence.  Walker  says  this 
may  be  classed  as  the  most  brilliant  and 
critical  opening  known,  and  recommend!  the 
student  to  play  it  at  every  opportunity;  he 
also  throws  out  the  warning  that  an  incor- 
rect move  may  irrecoverably  lose  the  game. 
The  defence  is  most  difficult  to  discover  in 
actual  play. 

White.  Black. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.  i.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  P.  to  K.  B.  4.  2.  P.  takes  P. 

3.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3.  3.  P.  to  K.  Kt  4. 

4.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4.       4.  K.  Kt.  P.  advances. 

5.  Castles. 

This  move  constitutes  the  gambit;  for,  in- 
stead of  white  withdrawing  his  Kt.,  or  mov- 
ing it  to  Q.  4,  he  allows  it  to  remain  and  be 


GAMES    OF    SKILL 


467 


taken.  It  now  rests  with  black  whether  he 
will  accept  the  gambit.  Walker  says  he  can 
not  do  better. 

5.  P.  takes  Kt. 
6.  Q.  takes  P.  6.  Q.  to  K.  B.  3  (best). 

This  last  move  is  Sarratt's  defence,  which 
is  clearly  shown  to  be  the  best. 

'7.  K.  P.  advances.  7.  Q.  takes  K.  P. 

This  is  black's  best  move,  for,  if  he  does  not 
take  P.,  white  at  once  obtains  the  advan- 
tage by  playing  P.  to  Q.  2,  defending  K.  P. 
If  black  play  Q.  to  Kt.  3  (ch.),  white  moves 
K.  to  R.  sq.,  and  ought  to  win. 

The  Scotch  Gambit,  or  Queen's  Pawn 
Two  Opening. — This  gambit  has  a  fine,  dash- 
ing attack,  and  one  of  its  advantages  is,  that 
in  case  it  should  miscarry,  the  disaster  is 
comparatively  slight.  "It  is,"  as  Walker 
says,  "one  of  the  most  attacking  yet  safe 
methods  of  commencing  the  game  which 
can  possibly  be  adopted."  Again,  "It  is  alike 
fertile  in  resource  and  safe  in  results." 

White.  Black. 

T.  P.  to  K.  4.  i.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3.  2.  Q.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

3.  P.  to  Q.  4. 

The  third  move  of  white  gives  it  the  name 
of  the  Queen's  Pawn  Two  Opening.  White 
plays  the  pawn  for  the  purpose  of  opening 
the  game,  especially  for  his  bishops.  Black 
may  now  take  the  pawn  either  with  his  P. 
or  Kt.  We  will  suppose  him  to  do  the  for- 
mer, which  we  consider  best : 

3.  P.  takes  P. 

4.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4. 

Some  players  now  give  black's  fourth 
move  as  B.  to  Q.  Kt.  5  (ch.)  ;  but  this  is  a 
decidedly  bad  move,  and  with  an  indifferent 
player  would  lose  the  game.  Black's  best 
move  is  that  introduced  by  Macdonnell,  and 
described  by  Walker  as  a  sound  defence. 
We  give  it  below: 

4.  Q.  to  K.  B.  3. 

White  may  now  castle,  or  play  P.  to  Q.  B. 
3;  either  of  which  is  better  than  Kt.  or  B. 
to  K.  Kt.  5. 

HOW    TO    FINISH    THE   GAME 

Having  now  considered  the  "Hints  for 
Commencing  the  Game,"  and  studied  most 
of  the  principal  openings,  we  must  say  a 
few  words  with  regard  to  finishing  the 
game.  It  is  often  very  difficult  to  checkmate 
when  you  have  a  king,  bishop,  and  knight 
against  a  king.  Although  possessing  the 
requisite  mating  power,  good  players  have 
often  failed  to  accomplish  the  mate  within 
the  stipulated  fifty  moves.  The  only  way  in 
which  it  can  be  done  is  by  driving  the  ad- 
verse king  to  a  corner  commanded  by  your 


bishop.  The  better  to  convey  our  meaning, 
we  give  an  illustration.  Suppose  the  men 
to  be  placed  thus : 

White  K.  at  K.  B.  6. 

"     K.  B.  at  K.  B.  5. 

"     Kt.  at  K.  Kt.  5. 
Black  K.  at  K.  R.  sq. 

Then,  in  eighteen  moves,  white  may  effect 
checkmate : 


White. 

1.  Kt.  to  K.  B.  7  (ch.). 

2.  B.  to  K.  4. 

3.  B.  to  K.  R.  7. 

4.  Kt.  to  K.  5. 

5.  Kt.  to  Q.  2. 

6.  K.  to  K.  sq. 

7.  K.  to  Q.  6. 

8.  B.  to  K.  Kt.  6  (ch.). 

9.  Kt.  to  Q.  B.  5. 

10.  B.  to  B.  7. 

11.  Kt.  to 

12.  K.  to 

13.  K.  to 

14.  B.  to 

15.  Kt.  to 


Black. 

1.  K.  to  Kt.  sq. 

2.  K.  to  K.  B.  sq. 

3.  K.  to  K.  sq. 

4.  K.  to  K.  B.  sq. 

5.  K.  to  K.  sq. 

6.  K.  to  Q.  sq. 

7.  K.  to  K.  sq. 

8.  K.  to  Q.  sq. 

9.  K.  to 
10.  K.  to 

Kt.  7  (ch.).   ii.  K.  to 
B.  6.  12.  K.  to 

Kt.  6.  13.  K.  to 

6  (ch.).  14.  K.  to 

_    B.  5.  15.  K.  to 

16.  B.  to  Q.  7.  16.  K.  to 

17.  Kt.  to  Q.  R.  6  (ch.).    17.  K.  to 
1  8.  B.  to  Q.  B.  6,  checkm. 

As  will  be  observed  from  the  above  ex- 
ample, one  of  the  important  objects  is  never 
to  let  the  king  escape  into  the  middle  of 
the  board. 

In  our  division  on  checkmate  we  should 
not  omit  to  give  the  "Fool's  Mate"  and  the 
"Scholar's  Mate." 

The  former  shows  that  it  is  possible  to 
effect  mate  in  as  few  as  two  moves.  It  is 
easy  to  understand  why  it  should  be  named 
the  "fool's  mate"  ;  but  why  a  checkmate 
which  may  be  effected  in  four  moves  should 
be  termed  "scholar's  mate"  is  probably  less 
capable  of  explanation. 

Fool's  Mate.  — 

Black. 

1.  K.  P.  2. 

2.  Queen  mates. 


White. 

1.  K.  Kt.  P.  2  sq. 

2.  K.  B.  P.  i  sq. 

Scholar's  Mate.  — 

White. 

1.  K.  P.  2. 

2.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4. 

3.  Q.  to  K.  R.  5. 


Black. 

1.  K.  P.  2. 

2.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4. 
3-  Q.  P.  i. 

4.  Q.  takes  K.  B.  P.,  giving  "scholar's  mate." 

King  and  Queen  against  King.  —  Several 
examples  of  this  checkmate  might  be  given, 
but  the  one  below  will  probably  be  suffi- 
cient. The  principal  point  upon  which  the 
learner  need  be  warned  is  against  allowing 
his  adversary  to  effect  stalemate.  Suppose 
the  pieces  to  be  placed  thus: 

White  king  at  K.  sq. 

"     queen  at  Q.  B.  sq. 
Black  king  at  Q.  3. 

The  game  may  then  proceed  as  follows  : 


White. 

1.  Q.  to  K.  Kt.  5. 

2.  K.    tO    K.    2. 

3.  K.  to  K.  3. 

4.  K.  to  K.  4. 

5.  Q.  to  K.  Kt.  6. 

6.  K.  advances. 

7.  Q.  mates. 


Black. 

1.  K.  to  K.  4. 

2.  K.  to  Q.  3. 

3.  K.  to  K.  3. 

4.  K.  to  Q.  3. 

6. 


468 


GAMES    OF   SKILL 


King  and  Queen  against  King  and  Rook. 
— Suppose  the  men  to  be  placed  thus: 

White  king  at  K.  B.  3. 

"     queen  at  K.   sq. 
Black  king  at  K.   R.  7. 

"     rook,  at  K.  Kt  7, 


supposing  white  to  have  the  first  move,  the 
game  may  be  completed  In  three  moves : 


White, 
to  K.  5  (ch.). 


j.  to  Q.  R.  (ch.).      _ 
!.  to  K.  sq.,  and  wins. 


Black. 

1.  K.  to  R.  8. 

2.  K.  moves. 


RULES   FOR   PLAYING   DRAUGHTS  OR   CHECKERS 


DRAUGHTS  is  played  on  the  same 
board  as  chess,  the  men,  however,  be- 
ing placed  entirely  on  squares  of  one  color. 

There  are  twelve  men  on  each  side,  ar- 
ranged on  the  squares  from  I  to  12  and 
from  21  to  32. 

The  two  squares  marked  i  and  5,  and  32 
and  28,  are  called  the  double  corners,  and 
these  must  always  be  on  the  right  hand 
of  the  player,  while  the  left-hand  lowest 
squares,  4  and  29,  must  always  be  on  the 
left-hand  side. 

Having  placed  the  men,  the  first  move  is 
arranged  between  the  players  by  lot. 

The  men  move  one  square  at  a  time ;  thus, 
the  man  on  22  can  move  either  to  18  or  17; 
the  man  on  23  can  move  either  to  19  or  18. 


The  men  can  only  move  forward,  not  back- 
ward, until  they  have  succeeded  in  reaching 
the  bottom  row  of  the  adversary's  squares, 
when  they  are  crowned  by  having  a  second 
man  placed  above  them.  They  are  then 
termed  kings,  and  can  move  either  forward 
or  backward  as  desirable. 

A  man  may  take  an  opponent's  man  by 
leaping  over  him  and  taking  up  the  vacant 
square  beyond  him,  the  piece  taken  being 
removed  from  the  board. 

A  man  may  take  two  or  three  men  at  one 
move,  provided  he  can  leap  over  each  in 
succession.  To  understand  this,  place  a 
white  man  at  18,  n,  and  25,  and  a  black  man 
at  29,  all  other  pieces  being  removed  from 
the  board.  The  Wack  man  can  move  and 


take  the  three  white  men,  as  he  can  leap  to 
22,  15,  and  8,  thus  taking  the  .men  on 
squares  18,  n,  and  25.  A  king  can  take 
both  backward  and  forward  any  number  of 
men,  as  long  as  a  square  is  open.  Thus, 
place  a  white  man  on  25,  26,  27,  19,  10,  9, 
and  17.  A  black  king  at  29  could  take  all 
these  men  at  once,  for  Ke  could  leap  from 
29  to  22,  taking  25  man;  to  31,  taking  26; 
to  24,  taking  27 ;  to  15,  taking  19 ;  to  6,  tak- 
ing 10;  to  13,  taking  9;  and  to  22,  taking 
17,  and  taking  all  these  in  one  move. 

If  a  man  take  other  men,  and  in  the  tak- 
ing reach  the  bottom  row,  he  can  not  go  on 
taking,  as  a  king,  until  the  adversary  has 
moved. 

Example. — Place  a  white  man  at  24,  7, 
16,  and  8,  a  black  man  at  28.  The  black 
man  takes  24  by  leaping  to  19,  takes  16  by 
leaping  to  12,  takes  8  by  leaping  to  3,  and 
is  there  crowned;  but  can  not  leap  to  10, 
thus  taking  the  man  at  7,  until  the  adver- 
sary has  moved. 

The  game  is  won  when  all  the  adversary's 
men  are  either  taken  or  blockaded  so  that 
they  can  not  move,  and  it  is  drawn  when 
two  kings  or  less  remain  able  to  move,  in 
spite  of  the  adversary. 

LAWS. — The  following  are  the  established 
laws  of  the  game,  which  should  be  learned 
by  every  person  who  is  desirous  of  becoming 
a  draught-player. 

RULES    OF   THE   GAME 

The  chief  laws  for  regulating  the  game  of 
draughts  are  as  follows: 

1.  Each   player  takes   the   first   move  al- 
ternately, whether  the  last  game  be  won  or 
drawn. 

2.  Any  action  which  prevents  the  adver- 
sary from  having  a  full  view  of  the  men  is 
not  allowed.  • 

3.  The  player  who  touches  a  man  must 
play  him. 

4.  In   case   of   standing   the   huff,    which 
means  omitting  to  take  a  man  when  an  op- 
portunity for  so  doing  occurred,  the  other 
party  may  either   take  the   man,   or   insist 
upon  his  man,  which  has  been  so  omitted 
by  his  adversary,  being  taken. 

5.  If  either  party,  when  it  is  his  turn  to 


GAMES    OF    SKILL 


469 


move,  hesitates  above  three  minutes,  the 
other  may  call  upon  him  to  play;  and  if, 
after  that,  he  delay  above  five  minutes 
longer,  then  he  loses  the  game. 

6.  In  the  losing  game,  the  player  can  in- 
sist upon  his  adversary  taking  all  the  men 
in  case  opportunities  should  present  them- 
selves for  their  being  so  taken. 

7.  To  prevent   unnecessary  delay,   if  one 
color  have  no  pieces  but  two  kings  on  the 
board,  and  the  other  no  piece  but  one  king, 
the  latter  can  call  upon  the  former  to  win 
the  game  in  twenty  moves :  if  he  does  not 
finish  it  within  that  number  of  moves,  the 
game  to  be  relinquished  as  drawn. 

8.  If  there  are  three  kings  to  two  on  the 
board,  the  subsequent  moves  are  not  to  ex- 
ceed forty. 

ADVICE. — The  men  should  be  kept  as 
much  as  possible  in  a  wedge  form  toward 
the  centre  of  the  board.  Avoid  moving  a 
man  on  the  side  square,  for,  when  there,  he 
is  deprived  of  half  his  power,  being  able  to 
take  in  one  direction  only. 

Consider  well  before  you  touch  a  man,  for 
a  man  once  touched  must  be  moved. 

Avoid  the  cowardly  practice  of  moving  a 
man,  and  then,  when  you  discover  by  your 
adversary's  move  that  you  have  committed 
an  error,  taking  your  move  back.  Stand 
the  consequences  though  the  game  be  lost, 
and  next  time  you  will  be  more  careful.  A 
game,  even  if  won  after  replacing  a  man, 
is  unsatisfactory,  and  not  to  be  counted 
a  victory,  and  often  leads  to  disputes.  The 
rules  are  made  to  avoid  all  argument  and 
dispute,  and  the  more  closely,  therefore,  you 
obey  these,  the  more  harmonious  will  be 
your  games. 

GAMES 

Draughts  is  a  game  in  which  one  is  par- 
ticularly called  upon  to  estimate  the  skill 
and  style  of  play  of  one's  adversary.  One 
person  may  very  easily  be  drawn  into  a  trap, 
where  another  more  cautious  could  not  be 
thus  defeated.  Again,  a  too  cautious  player 
may  be  defeated  by  a  dashing  move,  where- 
as another  opponent  would  win  the  game 
in  consequence.  We  will  now  give  one  or 
two  examples  of  games,  calling  attention  to 
the  points  in  each.  The  men  are  supposed 
to  be  arranged  as  before  mentioned — white's 
men  from  21  to -32,  black's  from  i  to  12. 
Black  moves  first. 

White. 

22    to     l8. 

25  to  1 8  (takes). 
29  to  25. 

Now,  at  this  point  of  the  game,  if  white 
were  a  very  young  or  incautious  player,  he 
might  be  easily  tempted  into  a  false  move  by 


Black, 
ii  to  15. 
15  to  22  (takes). 

8  to  11. 


black  moving  n  to  16,  for  white,  seeing  a 
supposed  advantage  in  position,  might  move 
24  to  20.  Let  us  suppose  these  moves  to 
have  been  made,  and  black  wins  at  once,  for, 
moving  3  to  8,  he  compels  white  to  take  20 
to  n,  and  then,  with  a  man  at  8,  takes  u, 
18,  and  25,  and  procures  a  king  at  29,  thus 
gaining  a  majority  of  two  men,  an  advan- 
tage equivalent  to  the  game,  for,  by  ex- 
changing man  for  man  on  every  occasion, 
he  would  soon  reduce  the  odds  to  4  to  2, 
or  2  to  o. 

If,  however,  black  play  a  more  cautious 
game,  he  should  move  4  to  8. 

White  again  might  lose  the  game  if  he 
moved  either  24  or  23  to  19,  for  black  would 
respond  by  10  to  15,  when  white  must  move 
from  19  to  10,  black  from  6  to  29,  taking 
these  men  as  before. 

Black's  best  move  is,  perhaps,  25  to  22. 

At  this  period  of  the  game  exchanges  of 
men  usually  take  place,  the  object  being  an 
advantage  of  position,  as  follows  : 

Black.  White. 

9  to  14.  18  to     9. 

5  to  14.  24  to  20. 

6  to     9.  22  to  18. 

1  to     5.  28  to  24. 

Up  to  the  present  time  no  great  advan- 
tage is  gained  on  either  side,  the  game  being, 
perhaps,  slightly  in  favor  of  black,  who  may 
cause  a  separation  in  white's  men  by  the 
following : 

Black. 
9  to  13. 
5  to  14. 

White  may  reply  by — 

33  to  1 8. 
Then, 

14  to  23.  27  to  18. 

Now,  unless  black  moves  2  to  6,  or  10  to 
15,  white  could  procure  a  king  as  follows: 
Suppose  black  had  moved  12  to  16,  then 
white  18  to  14, 

Black.  White. 

10  to  17.  21  to  14. 

and  whatever  black  now  does,  white  must 
procure  a  king.  It  is  under  such  conditions 
as  these  that  the  acute  player  often  wins  a 
game;  for  we  shall  find  that  the  eagerness 
for  gaining  this  king  may  cause  white  to  be 
in  a  difficult  position.  Carrying  on  the  game 
under  this  supposition,  we  have 

Black.  White. 

16  to  19.  24  to  15. 

11  to  18.  13  to     9. 
8  to  11.  9  to     5. 

18  to  22.  26  to  17.     • 

13  to  22.                            5  to     i  (king). 

2  to  6.                            i  to  10. 

7  to  14.  32  to  28. 

14  to  17.  28  to  24. 

3  to     8.*  31  to  27. 

8  to  12.  27  to  23. 

*  This  move  of  black's  will  very  likely  lose  him 
a  man,  or,  at  least,  allow  his  adversary  to  make  a 
king  rapidly. 


White. 
18  to     9. 


470 


GAMES    OF    SKILL 


Black  must  now  lose  a  man,  and  therefore 
the  game,  as  follows: 

Black.  White. 

aa  to  26,  or  17  to  21.    23  to   18. 

26  to  31,  or  22  to  25.    19  to  15,  and  white 

wins 

The  Double  Corners. — When  there  is  one 
king  against  two,  the  rule  is  that  the  game 
is  drawn  unless  it  be  won  in  at  least  twenty 
moves.  If  the  player  does  not  know  how  to 
block  up  in  the  double  corners,  this  may 
easily  be  a  drawn  game.  We  will  now  show 
the  moves  for  blocking  in  the  double  cor- 
ners, giving  the  case  that  will  require  the 
greatest  number  of  moves. 

Black's  kings  at  I  and  5;  white's  at  10. 

Black.  White. 

5  to     9,.  10  to  15. 
9   to   14.  15   to   19. 

14  to   18.  19  to  24. 

18  to  23.  24  to  28  (reaches 
i  to     6. '  28  to  32.    double 

6  to  10.  32  to  28.    corner.) 

10  to  15.  28  to  32. 

15  to  19.  32  to  28. 
23  to  27.  28  to  32. 

19  to  23.  32  to  28. 

27  to  32.  28  to  24. 

23  to  18.  24  to  19. 
32  to  28.  19  to  16. 

18  to  15.  1 6  to  20. 

15  to  n,  and  wins  in  15  moves. 

Had  black  moved  from  15  to  19  at  last, 
white  could  have  gone  to  24,  and  the  game 
would  have  been  prolonged.  There  is  no 
position  on  the  board  where  two  kings  can 
not  defeat  one  in  fifteen  moves. 

It  is  usual  with  two  experienced  players 
to  pronounce  the  game  drawn  when  there 
are  two  kings  only  on  each  side,  one  of 
which  is  enabled  to  reach  the  double  cor- 
ners. There  are,  however,  two  or  three 
chances  of  catching  an  incautious  player. 

The  following  example  will  serve  to  il- 
lustrate cases.  White's  positions  are  king 
at  28  and  at  30;  black's  at  24  and  19.  Black 
moves. 

Black.  White. 

24  to  27.  28  to  32. 

19  to  23.  30  to  26. 
23  to  30.  32  to  23. 
30  to  25.  23  to  26. 

25  to  30.  26  to  22,  and  wins. 

Another  case  may  be  tried  with  caution, 
and  it  is  as  follows,  two  kings  each :  black 
at  15  and  23;  white  at  16  and  25.  White 
moves. 

White.  Black. 

25  to  22.  23  to  1 8. 

1 6  to   ii.  1 8  to  25. 

11  to  18,  and  wins  next  move  by  blocking. 

These  aje  not  positions  likely  to  entrap 
very  good  players,  but  succeed  very  often 
with  average  hands. 

The  game  in  these  instances  resulted  in 
the  winner  having  what  is  called  "the  move." 
To  ascertain  whether  you  have  the  move  of 
any  one  of  your  adversary's  men,  examine 
the  situation  of  each.  If  your  opponent  has 


a  black  square  at  a  right  angle  under  his 
man,  you  have  the  move,  and  vice  vers&. 

Draughts  is  in  reality  a  deeply  interesting 
game,  and  one  that  is  very  rarely  appre- 
ciated. 

THE    LOSING   GAME  OF  DRAUGHTS 

The  losing  game  of  draughts  is  rarely  un- 
derstood, and  therefore  rarely  appreciated. 
We  believe  that  "there  is  even  more  fore- 
sight required  in  the  losing  than  in  the 
winning  game  of  draughts,  for  it  is  equally 
necessary  to  see  several  moves  ahead,  and 
the  game  may  be  almost  instantly  lost  by 
a  thoughtless  move. 

To  win  at  the  losing  game  we  must  com- 
pel our  adversary  to  take  all  our  men,  and 
the  novice  usually  commences  by  losing  as 
many  men  as  possible.  This  proceeding  is 
an  error;  the  player  has  the  advantage  who 
has  the  most  men  on  the  table,  a$  will  be 
instanced  by  one  or  two  examples. 

Suppose  white  to  have  a  king  on  each  of 
the  four  squares,  I,  2,  3,  4;  black,  one  on  31. 
First,  we  will  suppose  that  white  commences 
thus: 

White.  Black. 

4  to  8.  31  to  27. 
3  to  7.  27  to  23. 
a  to  6.  23  to  18. 
i  to  5. 

Black  must  now  retreat,  for,  if  he  moves  to 
14  or  15,  the  game  is  lost,  as  he  may  be  com- 
pelled to  take  each  of  his  opponent's  men 
in  succession.  Thus,  suppose  he  move  to  14 : 

White.  Black. 

5  to     9.  14  to     5. 

6  to     9.  5  to   14. 

7  to  10.  14  to     7. 

8  to  1 1  and  wins. 

Thus  black's  move  must  be  a  retreat  in  an- 
swer to  white's  i  to  5.  Then, 

White. 


5  to    9. 

6  to  14. 
to  1 8. 


i  i 


Black. 
18  to  22. 

22    tO    26. 

26  to  31. 
31  to  27. 

At  this  point,  if  white  advanced  from  18  to 
23  to  be  taken,  he  would  lose  the  game  un- 
less very  careful,  as  the  lost  man  would  have 
the  move  against  him.  His  best  move,  there- 
fore, would  be  18  to  25.  If  black  moves  to 
24,  he  loses.  Black  had  better  move  to  32, 
and  white  6  to  10. 


Black. 
32  to  28. 
28  to  32. 
32  to  28. 
28  to  19. 
19  to  3. 


White. 

8  to  ii. 
.15  to  19. 
19  to  24. 

10  to  15. 

1 1  to     7,  and  wins. 


We  will  now  point  out  the  best  "traps"  for 
the  losing  game. 

Suppose  white's  men  to  be  placed  from 
21  to  32.  If  then  we  can  secure  one  of  the 
adversary's  men  at  21,  we  are  almost  cer- 


GAMES    OF    SKILL 


tain  to  lose  all  our  men  first,  and  thus  to 
win  the  game,  for,  by  keeping  this  man 
blocked  until  required,  he  can  be  made  use 
of  at  the  right  time.  Let  us  take  an  ex- 
ample, white  moving  first. 

White.  Black. 

22  to  18.  9  to  14. 

18  to     9.  5  to  14  (Very  bad 

21  to  17.  14  to  21.  play;  this 
24  to  20.  ii  to  1 6.  ought    to 
20  to  ii.  7  to  1 6.  have  been 

23  to  18  (Not  acood  i0  to  15.  6tois.) 
1 8  to   ii.    move,    but       8  to  15. 

28  to  24.    will    serve     15  to  19. 

24  to  15.    to  ill  us-       6  to  10. 
15  to     6.    trate    the       i  to  10. 

26  to  22.  advantage       4  to    8. 

27  to  23.  of  man  at     16  to  19. 
23  to  16.  21.)                 12  to  19. 

22  to  18.  10  to  15. 
18  to     4.  3  to     8. 

4  to  ii.  2  t»     7. 

II     tO       2. 

White  now  has  six  men  on  the  board, 
while  black  has  only  two;  but  white  can 
reduce  this  number  at  any  time  by  moving 
30  to  26.  Black  can  only  move  19  to  24 


or  to  23.  Suppose  he  move  it  to  23,  then  it 
will  be  better  for  white  to  reduce  black  to 
one  as  follows: 


White. 

31  to  27. 
30  to  23. 
29  to  25. 

32  to  28. 
28  to  24. 


Black. 
23  to  26. 

21  tO  3O. 
30  tO  21. 
21  tO  17. 

17  to   14. 


If  black  move  to  18,  10,  or  9,  he  loses  at 
once,  so  14  to  17  is  the  best  move.  If 
white  move  27  to  23  he  loses  the  game,  for 
black  would  move  17  to  22,  from  which 
white  could  not  escape.  Hence  the  game( 
would  be  best  played  by 


White. 

2  to     6. 

6  to  10. 
10  to  14. 
14  to  17. 


Black. 

17    tO    21. 
21    to    25. 

25  to  30. 


The  game  might  now  be  prolonged,  but 
still  to  win  the  losing  game  with  the  four 
against  one  is  almost  a  certainty,  as  it  can 
only  be  lost  by  an  oversight. 


RULES   FOR  VARIOUS  GAMES  WITH   DOMINOES 


AFTER  the  dominoes  have  been  well 
shuffled,  each  player  draws  one,  and 
he  who  draws  the  domino  containing  the 
smallest  number  of  pips  wins  "the  down" ; 
in  plainer  English,  he  wins  the  privilege  of 
playing  first.  Sometimes  a  different  method 
of  deciding  who  shall  have  "the  down"  is 
adopted.  One  of  the  players  draws  a  dom- 
ino, and  without  showing  it,  asks  if  it  is  odd 
or  even.  If  the  adversary  guesses  right  he 
wins  "the  down" ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  he 
guesses  wrong,  he  loses  it.  The  latter 
method  is  the  more  common  of  the  two.  A 
third  method  Is  in  use  on  the  Continent. 
The  person  holding  the  highest  double  has 
the  "pose,"  or  "down,"  and  he  commences 
by  playing  that  domino.  If  there  should  be 
no  doubles,  then  the  person  holding  the 
highest  domino  has  the  pose.  However,  it 
is  quite  immaterial  which  of  these  plans  is 
adopted.  The  dominoes  having  been  shuf- 
fled, each  player  takes  six  or  seven,  as  may 
be  agreed  upon. 

If  it  is  found  that  one  of  the  players  has 
drawn  more  than  the  number  agreed  upon, 
his  adversary  withdraws  the  extra  number, 
and  puts  them  back  on  the  heap,  keeping  the 
face  downward,  of  course.  Each  player 
then  takes  up  his  dominoes,  and  the  first 
player  commences  by  putting  down  one  of 
his  dominoes,  after  which  his  adversary  joins 
one  to  it,  containing  on  one  of  its  sections 
the  same  number  of  pips  as  are  marked 
upon  adjoining  section  of  the  domino  first 


played.  They  thus  play  alternately  till  the 
game  may  become  so  "blocked"  that  one  of 
the  players  can  not  "go."  His  adversary 
will  then  continue  to  play  as  long  as  there 
is  an  end  open.  If  he  should  succeed  in 
getting  rid  of  all  his  men  he  wins  the  game ; 
but  if  the  game  should  be  blocked  at  both 
ends  before  either  player  has  played  out, 
they  compare  the  aggregate  number  of  pips 
on  all  the  dominoes  in  each  hand,  and  who- 
ever has  the  smallest  number  wins  the 
game. 

GENERAL  MAXIMS 

1.  Endeavor  to  play  so  as  to  ^keep  both 
ends  open,  so  that  you  may  be  sure  of  being 
able  to  "go"  next  time. 

2.  Play  out  your  heavy  dominoes  first,  be- 
cause, if  the  game  becomes  blocked,  you  will 
then  have  fewer  pips  to  count. 

3.  Contrive  to  play  so  that  the  numbers 
at  both  ends  shall  be  those  of  which  you 
hold   the   most.     By  this   means   you   may 
often    block    your    adversary    till    you    are 
played  out. 

4.  If  you  have  made  both  ends  alike,  and 
your   adversary   plays,    follow   him   at  tnat 
end,  as  the  chances  are  that  he  can  not  go 
at  the  other,  which  you  may  keep  open  for 
yourself  until  you  are  unable  to  play  at  his 
end. 

5.  It  is  sometimes  an  advantage  to  hold 
heavy   dominoes,   as   they  not   infrequently 
enable  you  to  obtain  what  is  called  a  good 


472 


GAMES    OF   SKILL 


"follow";  and  if  your  adversary  should  hold 
none  but  low  dominoes,  he  would  not  be 
able  to  go,  thus  enabling  you  to  play  five  or 
six  times  consecutively,  or  even  to  play  out. 

6.  When   you    have   sole   command   over 
both  ends  you  are  generally  in  a  position  to 
"block"  the  game  or  not,  as  you  think  most 
expedient  for  your  own  game.     In  such  a 
case,  you  must  be  guided  by  the  number  of 
dominoes  you  hold  compared  with  those  in 
your   adversary's   hands ;    and  another  ele- 
ment   for    your    consideration    would    be 
whether  yours  are  light  or  heavy.     If  they 
are  light,  and  fewer  in  number  than  your  ad- 
versary's, of  course  your  best  policy  is  to 
close  the  game  at  once  and  count.     But  in 
this  you  must  learn  to  calculate  from  your 
adversary's  style  of  play  whether  his  hand 
is  light  or  heavy. 

7.  At  the  commencement  of  the  game  it  is 
better  to  have  a  variety  in  hand. 

8.  If  you  hold  a  "double,"  with  two  of  the 
same  number,  it  is  better  to  play  the  double 
before  either  of  the  others.     Sometimes  you 
will  be  obliged  to  play  one,  in  which  case 
you  must  endeavor  to  force  the  double. 

9.  If  you  hold  a  double,  and  one  other  of 
the  same  number,  play  both  consecutively; 
but  if  you  are  unable  to  do  that,  endeavor,  at 
any  rate  to  let  the  double  go  first. 

10.  In   playing   against   "the   down,"   en- 
deavor to  deceive  your  opponent  by  playing 
a  domino  or  two  at  each  end  indifferently. 
This  is  better  than  playing  to  his  last  dom- 
ino, as  it  leads  him  to  believe  you  can  not 
go  at  that  end,  while  at  the  same  time  you 
may  be  simply  keeping  both  ends  open. 

11.  If  your   adversary  has   possession   of 
one  end,   make  the  other  of  a  number  of 
which  you  hold  several,  with  a  view  of  forc- 
ing him  to  play  at  his  end,  and  shutting  it 
against  the*  dominoes  he  was  keeping  it  for. 

12.  If  you  hold  several  doubles,  wait  till 
your  adversary  makes  the  number  for  them 
in  preference  to  making  them  for  yourself; 
otherwise,  a  good  player  will  see  what  you 
are   aiming  at,  and  will  block   the   double. 
But  if  you  hold  a  double  with  several  dupli- 
cates,  and  can  bring  that  number  at  both 
ends,  do  so. 

13.  If  your  adversary  can  not  go  at  one 
end,  and  you  hold  the  double  of  that  end, 
it  is  better  that  you  should  play  at  the  other 
as  long  as  you  can.    When  you  are  blocked 
at  that  end,  you  may  then  play  your  double, 
and  your  adversary  will  then  in  most  cases 
be  obliged  to  open  the  other  end  for  you. 

14.  It  is  generally  considered  that  a  light 
hand,  yet  with  no  number  missing,  is  the 
best  fo'r  ordinary  play.     The  following,  for 
example,  would  be  a  very  fine  hand:  6 — 3> 


5 — 4,  2 — i,  i — o,  2 — o,  o — o.  An  example  of 
a  bad  hand  would  be :  6—6,  5—5,  6—2,  2—2, 
2—1,  i— i ;  but  the  worst  possible  hand 
would  be  the  following:  6 — 6,  5 — 5,  4 — 4, 
3 — 3»  2 — 2,  i — i.  The  latter,  however,  would 
seldom  occur  in  actual  play. 

15.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  be- 
cause a  hand  is  heavy  it  must  therefore  lose. 
Provided  it  is  equally  varied,  it  has  an  equal 
chance  of  success  with  a  light  hand.     The 
disadvantage    of    a    heavy    hand    is    shown 
when  the  game  becomes  blocked,  and  has 
to  be  decided  by  counting. 

16.  In  leading  "the  down"   from  a  hand 
consisting  of  a  high  double  and  several  light 
dominoes,   lead  the   double,  and   afterward 
endeavor  to  obtain  command  of  both  ends. 
Suppose,  for  example,  you  hold  the  follow- 
ing hand :  5—5,  2—2,  2—3,  2—4,  i— o,  5—0 ; 
it  would  be  better  to  play  the  5 — 5,  as  your 
other  double  can  be  forced  by  the  aid  of  the 
2 — 4  and  2 — 3 

17.  It  will  at  all  times  be  found  a  difficult 
thing,  in  an  equal  game  and  between  equal 
players,  for  the  second  player  to  win. 

18.  Endeavor  to  bring  both  ends  as  often 
as  you  can  to  a  number  of  which  you  have 
several   duplicates,   for  by  that  means  you 
may  block  your  adversary. 

19.  In  blocking  the   game,  you   must  be 
cautious  that  you  do  not  block  it  to  your- 
self, and  leave  it  open  to  your  adversary. 

20.  During  the  game  look  over  the  domi- 
noes  which  have  been  played,  so  that  you 
may  calculate  what  numbers  are  likely  to  be 
soon  run  out,  and  what  numbers  your  oppo- 
nent is  likely  to  be  short  of. 

21.  Do  not  push  the  game  to  a  block  if 
you  hold  a  heavy  hand,  but  play  out  your 
heaviest  first,  and  keep  both  ends  open. 

22.  Use  your  judgment  freely.     It  is  not 
always  the  best  policy  to  adhere  too  strictly 
to  the  rules  laid  down  in  books.     In  fact, 
a  wily  player  will  oftentimes  find  it  expe- 
dient to  play  a  speculative,  eccentric  game, 
apparently  quite  at  variance  with  the  ordi- 
nary "laws." 

23.  Keep  perfectly  quiet,  attentively  watch 
your  opponent's  moves,  and  prevent  him,  if 
you  can,  from  obtaining  an  insight  into  your 
play. 

24.  Last    (though   not   least),   don't   lose 
your  temper. 

ALL    FIVES 

This  game  stands  next  in  popularity  to 
the  preceding  one.  The  same  number  of 
dominoes  are  taken,  or  as  many  as  may 
be  agreed  upon,  and  in  many  points  it  is 
similar.  The  object  of  the  game  is  to  con- 
trive so  to  play  that  the  aggregate  number 


GAMES    OF   SKILL 


473 


of  pips  on  the  dominoes  at  both  ends  shall 
number  5,  10,  15,  or  20.  If  they  number  5, 
the  player  who  makes  the  point  counts  one; 
if  10,  two;  if  15,  three;  if  20,  four. 

In  order  to  make  our  meaning  clearer,  we 
give  an  illustration.  Suppose  that  at  one  end 
there  is  o — o,  and  at  the  other  a  five.  The 
next  player  then  plays  5 — 5  to  the  single  five, 
and  scores  two,  because  the  aggregrate  num- 
ber of  pips  on  the  dominoes  at  both  ends  is 
ten.  If  the  opponent  should  follow  up  by 
playing  the  o — 5  to  the  o — o,  he,  of  course, 
scores  three. 

To  give  another  illustration.  Suppose  at 
one  end  is  6 — 6,  and  the  next  player  places 
at  the  other  end  4 — 4,  he  scores  four  for 
making  twenty. 

If  the  game  becomes  blocked,  he  who 
holds  the  least  number  of  pips  counts  one. 

The  custom  as  to  what  number  shall  be 
"up"  is  different  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  In  some  places  it  is  ten;  in  others 
fifteen ;  in  others  again,  twenty.  The  num- 
ber ought  to  be  agreed  upon  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  game.  In  our  opinion  it 
adds  to  the  interest  of  the  game  to  select  the 
lower  numbers. 

Sometimes  the  game  is  so  played  that  he 
who  makes  five  counts  five;  ten  is  made  to 
count  ten,  and  so  on ;  but  in  that  case  not 
fewer  than  50,  and  not  more  than  100,  points 
should  constitute  the  game. 

As  we  have  shown,  the  material  point  in 
which  this  game  differs  from  the  previous 
one  is  that  you  count  the  fives,  from  which 
circumstance  it  derives  its  name. 

The  next  best  thing  to  making  fives  your- 
self is  to  prevent  your  adversary  from  doing 
so;  and  when  you  do  give  him  the  opportu- 
nity of  making  a  point  it  should  only  be  in 
order  that  you  may  make  two  or  three 
points  yourself. 

When  your  adversary  fails  to  avail  him- 
self of  a  good  chance,  you  may  presume  that 
he  does  not  hold  such  and  such  dominoes, 
and  from  that  and  like  indications,  which 
you  must  carefully  store  up  in  your  mem- 
ory, you  will  be  able  to  form  a  tolerably 
accurate  estimate  of  his  hand.  You  should 
never  omit  to  turn  these  indications  to  good 
account. 

There  is  only  one  domino  in  the  whole 
pack  which  can  be  led  without  the  next 
player  being  able  to  make  a  point  from  it; 
namely,  2 — 3.  Always  lead  that  if  possible. 

If  you  must  play  one  of  two  dominoes, 
either  of  which  you  fear  your  adversary  will 
turn  to  his  account,  of  course  you  must  play 
that  by  which  you  think  you  will  be  likely 
to  lose  the  least. 

It  is  good  practice  occasionally  to  take  a 


survey  of  the  game  as  far  as  it  has  gone, 
not  only  in  order  to  refresh  your  memory 
as  to  what  has  been  played,  but  also  that 
you  may  form  an  opinion,  if  possible,  of 
what  your  opponent's  "little  game"  is.  If 
there  are  good  grounds  for  coming  to  the 
conclusion  that  he  holds  heavy  numbers 
while  you  hold  light  ones,  block  up  the  game 
as  speedily  as  you  can,  and  proceed  to  count. 
To  understand  your  opponent's  hand  is  a 
most  important  matter,  and  we  do  not  think 
we  have  insisted  on  it  too  much.  Good 
players  will  tell  you  that  they  have  won 
many  games  by  watching  closely  the  oppo- 
nent's moves,  and  drawing  therefrom  in- 
ferences respecting  the  dominoes  he  hold* 
in  hand.  We  need  not  add,  the  greatest 
caution  must  be  used  in  forming  these 
inferences. 

THE   DRAWING    GAME 

The  same  number  of  dominoes  are  used, 
and  the  lead  is  drawn  for  in  the  same  man- 
ner in  this  as  in  the  previously  described 
games. 

The  difference  is  that  when  a  player  can 
not  go,  he  must  draw  a  domino  from  the 
pack.  If  he  can  not  then  go,  he  must  draw 
another,  and  so  on  until  he  is  able  to  con- 
tinue the  game. 

He  who  plays  out  first,  or,  in  case  the 
game  becomes  blocked,  he  who  holds  the 
smallest  number  of  pips,  wins. 

The  French  have  a  different  way  of  play- 
ing this  game.  The  player  who  holds  the 
highest  double,  or,  in  the  event  of  there  be- 
ing no  double,  the  highest  domino,  has  the 
Pose  or  lead.  The  second  player,  should  he 
be  unable  to  go,  may  draw  all  the  remaining 
dominoes  except  two,  which  must  remain 
untaken.  If  he  leave  more  than  two,  the 
first  player,  should  he  require  them  in  order 
to  continue  the  game,  may  appropriate  the 
surplus,  still  leaving  two  on  the  table. 

If  a  player  can  not  go,  it  is  compulsory 
that  he  draw  till  he  gets  hold  of  a  domino 
that  will  enable  him  to  continue  the  game. 

Each  player  may  take  the  pose  alternately, 
or  the  winner  in  the  first  instance  may  re- 
tain it,  as  agreed  upon. 

The  French  method  of  counting  is  also 
different.  When  a  player  has  played  out,  he 
counts  the  pips  in  his  opponent's  hand,  and 
scores  them  to  his  own  account.  In  case 
the  game  should  become  blocked,  the  player 
holding  the  fewest  pips  scores  the  number 
of  pips  in  his  adversary's  hand  to  his  own 
account,  each  pip  counting  one.  A  game 
consists  of  from  20  to  zoo  points,  according 
to  agreement. 


474 


GAMES   OF   SKILL 


With  respect  to  the  English  method  of 
playing  this  game,  the  general  instructions 
and  maxims  given  on  the  other  games  apply 
equally  to  this.  But  a  few  words  must  be 
added  with  regard  to  the  French  play.  He 
who  has  the  highest  double  is  compelled  to 
play  first,  and  can  not  draw  any  more  dom- 
inoes until  it  is  his  turn  to  play  again,  but 
his  opponent  may  draw  all  but  two,  which 
two  must  remain  untaken  during  that  game. 
But  the  second  player  should  not  draw  more 
than  half  the  dominoes,  unless  really  com- 
pelled by  the  badness  of  his  hand,  as  by  this 
means  it  will  leave  a  chance  of  his  oppo- 
nent having  as  many  to  draw.  A  good 
player  at  times  might  be  justified  in  taking 
all  but  two,  for  by  the  calculation  and  judg- 
ment obtained  by  having  them,  he  might  be 
enabled  to  play  them  all  before  his  oppo- 
nent could  play  his  five  or  six  dominoes,  as 
the  case  may  be.  Should  the  second  player 
hold  a  good  hand,  comprising  dominoes  of 
every  denomination,  he  should  not  draw  un- 
til compelled.  If  he  should  happen  to  draw 
high  doubles,  he  ought  to  continue  to  draw 
until  he  holds  several  of  that  number. 

It  is  not  always  the  player  holding  the 
greatest  number  who  gets  out  first,  because 
as  he  has  some  of  almost  every  denomina- 
tion, his  adversary  will  keep  playing  to  him, 
and  the  odds  are  that  he  (the  adversary) 
will  be  able  to  play  out  first.  Still,  in  many 
games,  the  one  holding  the  largest  number 
of  dominoes  possesses  this  advantage,  that 
he  has  the  power  to  keep  both  ends  open  to 
himself,  but  closed  to  his  opponent,  and  he 
may  thus  run  out. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  play  out  first  with 
the  largest  number  (supposing  that  only  two 
dominoes  remain  untaken),  you  should  by 
all  means,  and  in  the  first  place,  endeavor  to 
ascertain  what  those  two  are.  You  may 
arrive  at  this  in  two  ways.  Suppose  you 
hold  so  many  of  a  particular  number  that 
with  those  already  played  they  make  six  out 
of  the  seven  of  that  denomination,  you  must 
by  all  means  keep  playing  them. 

As  an  illustration,  we  will  suppose  you 
hold  in  your  hand  four  threes,  and  that 
two  other  threes  have  already  been  played. 
Now,  if  you  play  your  threes,  and  your  ad- 
versary, not  being  able  to  play  to  them,  be- 
comes blocked,  it  is  quite  clear  that  one  of 
the  dominoes  on  the  table  is  a  three.  Then, 
if  those  you  hold  in  your  hand  are  3 — 2, 
4 — 3,  3 — 6,  and  3 — 3,  and  you  find  among 
the  dominoes  played  3 — o  and  3 — i,  it  is, 
of  course,  quite  safe  to  conclude  that  the 
domino  which  is  left  is  the  3 — 5. 

The  second  plan  is  this.  If  during  the 
course  of  the  game  you  have  given  your  op- 


ponent opportunities  of  playing  a  certain 
double  which  you  do  not  yourself  hold,  you 
may  be  certain  that  it  is  one  of  the  left 
dominoes. 

A  little  experiment,  in  order  to  test  the 
nature  of  your  adversary's  hand,  so  as,  how- 
ever, not  materially  to  injure  your  own, 
would  often  be  found  more  expedient  than 
groping  all  the  while,  as  it  were,  in  the 
dark. 

By  carefully  looking  over  your  own  hand, 
you  may  judge  pretty  correctly  as  to  whether 
your  adversary's  is  light  or  heavy. 

It  is  only  by  taking  into  account  all  these 
and  other  nice  points  that  a  player  can  pos- 
sibly be  successful. 

Having  formed  an  idea  of  your  opponent's 
hand,  you  should  make  it  an  object  to  "run 
out,"  or  play  so  that  he  may  be  blocked,  or 
that  he  may  be  obliged  to  leave  both  ends 
open  for  you  to  play  out. 

Having  given  some  instructions  to  the 
player  who  holds  the  larger  number  of  dom- 
inoes, we  must  now  proceed  to  give  a  few 
hints  to  the  lesser  hand. 

If,  holding  the  lesser  hand,  you  can  con- 
trive to  play  a  few  moves  at  first  without 
being  blocked,  you  ought  to  be  pretty  sure 
of  winning;  because,  by  that  time,  your 
hand  will  have  become  so  disproportionately 
small  that  your  opponent  will  have  some 
difficulty  in  preventing  you  from  playing  out 
without  blocking  himself.  This,  therefore, 
must  be  one  of  your  main  objects. 

If  the  game  goes  pretty  equal,  bring  out 
your  strong  suits.  Wherever  you  are  short 
of  a  particular  suit,  if  you  find  that  many  of 
that  number  have  already  been  played,  you 
need  not  fear  that  your  adversary  will  be 
able  to  block  you  in  regard  to  it,  for  you 
will,  of  course,  infer  that  they  are  as  scarce 
in  his  hand  as  in  your  own.  Endeavor  to 
bring  these  rules  to  bear,  reserving  to  your 
discretion  as  to  whether  you  should  in  any 
wise  depart  from  them,  or  use  such  modi- 
fications as  the  contingencies  of  the  moment 
require. 

THE    MATADORE    GAME 

This  is  a  foreign  game,  and  each  player 
takes  only  three  dominoes.  You  can  o«ly 
play  when  your  domino,  added  to  the  one 
previously  played,  would  make  seven.  Those 
dominoes  which  themselves  make  that  num- 
ber are  termed  "matadores,"  and  may  be 
played  at  any  time,  regardless  of  the  num- 
bers played  to.  The  double  blank  is  also  a 
matadore.  The  matadores,  therefore,  are 
four  in  number,  viz. :  6 — i,  5 — 2,  4 — 3,  o — o. 

The  highest  domino  leads,  and  if  the  next 
player  can  not  go,  he  must  draw  from  the 


GAMES   OF   SKILL 


475 


heap  until  he  can.  He  must  cease,  however, 
to  draw  when  there  are  only  two  dominoes 
left.  He  who  plays  out  first  wins,  and  if 
the  game  is  blocked,  he  who  holds  the  least 
number  of  pips  counts  those  held  by  his  op- 
ponent, and  scores  them  to  his  own  game. 
The  number  of  points  constituting  the  game 
is  subject  to  agreement;  it  varies  from  26 
to  loo. 

MAXIMS    FOR    PLAYING   THE    MAT- 
ADORE    GAME 

This  game  differs  widely  from  any  of  the 
other  varieties  of  dominoes.  The  element  of 
chance  is  more  largely  introduced.  The 
player  who  happens  to  obtain  more  mata- 
dores  than  the  other  is  almost  certain  of 
winning,  provided  the  parties  be  pretty  even- 
ly balanced  in  skill  and  experience. 

The  blanks  are  very  valuable  at  this  game 
— the  double  blank  being  the  most  valuable 
of  all  the  matadores.  It  is  impossible  to 
make  a  seven  against  a  blank,  so  that  if  you 
hold  blanks  you  may  easily  block  the  game 
and  count. 

When  you  have  the  worst  of  the  game, 
and  indeed  at  other  times  as  well,  guard 
against  your  adversary's  blanks,  and  prevent 
him  from  making  them;  which  you  may  do 
by  playing  only  those  dominoes  which  fit 
with  the  blanks  already  down. 

Never  play  a  blank  at  the  pose  unless  you 
have  a  matadore  or  a  corresponding  blank. 

Keep  back  your  double  blank  till  your  op- 
ponent makes  it  blanks  all;  you  can  then 
force  him  to  play  a  matadore,  or  compel  him 
to  draw  till  he  obtains  one.  It  is  better  to 
have  .a  mixed  hand. 

DOMINO    POOL 

This  game  is  played  either  by  partners  or 
by  separate  players.  If  played  singly  by 
three  or  four  players,  each  must  draw  a 
domino,  and  he  who  draws  the  highest  num- 
ber ot  pips  but  one  sits  on  the  left  of  him 
who  draws  the  highest,  the  next  highest  to 
the  left  of  the  second,  and  so  on.  If  the 
game  is  played  by  partners,  the  two  lowest 
are  partners  and  the  two  highest.  The  part- 
ners must  sit  opposite  to  each  other.  The 
players  must  draw  afresh  at  each  game,  and 
the  stake  to  be  played  for,  called  the  "pool," 
must  be  placed  on  the  table. 

Each  player  takes  five  dominoes,  and  he 
who  holds  the  highest  leads.  When  one 
player  can  not  go,  the  next  in  turn  plays, 
and  so  on.  The  maxims  given  in  reference 
to  the  English  game  apply  equally  to  this. 

The  game  is  scored  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  When  one  player  has  played  out,  the  one 
keeping  the  score  counts  the  number  of  pips 


on  each  player's  remaining  dominoes,  and 
puts  down  the  number  under  each  of  their 
names  or  initials  respectively.  The  same  is 
done  if  a  player  can  not  go.  When  the 
number  of  any  one  player  reaches  40,  50, 
or  loo,  or  any  limit  previously  agreed  upon, 
he  is  out  of  the  game ;  but  he  comes  in  again 
by  what  is  called  "starring."  In  other 
words,  he  must  pay  over  again  the  amount 
he  originally  put  into  the  pool.  The  method 
of  "starring"  is  the  same  as  at  billiards, 
from  which  the  game  is  taken.  He  who 
"stars"  recommences  at  the  number  which 
the  player  holds  who  is  in  the  worst  posi- 
tion. Suppose,  for  example,  there  were 
three  players — one  at  20,  one  at  40,  and  the 
other  at  6b,  100  being  up,  the  player  who 
"stars"  must  recommence  at  6b.  He  can 
only  "star"  once,  and  that  must  be  at  the 
time  he  is  out.  Each  player  has  the  option 
of  "starring,"  except  the  last  two,  who  must 
divide  the  pool,  or  they  may  agree  to  play 
it  out.  Still,  unless  an  agreement  to  play 
out  is  made  beforehand,  the  last  two  must 
divide. 

INSTRUCTIONS   FOR   PLAYING 
DOMINO    POOL 

When  this  game  is  played  by  separate 
players,  and  one  becomes  greatly  ahead,  the 
other  three  can  combine,  so  as  to  render  his 
chance  of  winning  uncertain.  The  necessity 
of  this  combination  is  clear.  If  he  is  al- 
lowed to  win,  the  competition  for  that  game 
is  over;  but  if,  by  combining,  the  other 
players  can  keep  him  back  a  little,  they  ob- 
tain for  themselves  a  better  chance  of  suc- 
cess. The  player  who  is  ahead  will  also  do 
his  best  to  throw  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the 
player  in  the  next  best  position,  as  he  be- 
comes a  dangerous  competitor.  The  two 
in  the  worst  position  will  in  like  manner 
combine  against  the  two  ahead.  The  neces- 
sity for  this  combination  does  not  arise  till 
the  game  is  somewhat  advanced,  as  at  the 
beginning  all  the  players  are  on  a  level ;  and 
the  relative  position  of  the  others  is  of  no 
moment  till  the  game  becomes  advanced.  It 
is  of  very  little  use  for  one  player  to  attempt 
to  stop  the  progress  of  another  who  is  too 
far  ahead,  unless  the  others  combine  with 
him.  If,  through  ignorance  or  anything  else, 
they  continue  to  play  for  their  own  hands, 
you  must  do  likewise.  Although,  if  you  at- 
tempted by  yourself  to  stop  the  player  who 
was  ahead  of  you,  you  might  succeed,  that 
success  might  be  purchased  at  the  risk  of 
your  own  chance  in  the  game.  As  in  this 
game  you  have  only  five  dominoes  out  of 
twenty,  your  power  of  influencing  the  game 
is  very  much  diminished,  and  there  is  not 


476 


GAMES    OF   SKILL 


quite  so  much  scope  for  the  exercise  of  your 
judgment  as  in  other  single  games  where 
you  hold  six  dominoes  out  of  twelve.  Your 
opponents  are  sure  to  hold  some  of  the  re- 
maining numbers  in  which  you  are  strong; 
so  that  the  injury  you  can  in  other  games 
inflict  by  having  a  preponderance  of  a  par- 
ticular number  will  be  greatly  diminished 
here.  Therefore  it  is  scarcely  worth  your 
while  endeavoring  to  retard  your  opponent's 
game  when  you  have  three  of  a  number,  un- 
less some  of  that  number  have  already  been 
played;  because,  if  you  keep  those  numbers 
until  you  are  called  upon  to  play  them,  you 
will  do  infinitely  more  toward  crippling  their 
game  than  if  you  were  to  lead  from  them. 
On  the  other  hand,  should  you  hold  more 
than  three  of  a  particular  number,  do  not 
wait  for  this  chance,  but  lead  it  on  the  first 
opportunity.  If  you  find  that  you  and  one 
of  the  other  players  hold  nearly  all  of  a  par- 
ticular number,  combine  with  him,  in  order 
to  exhaust  the  hands  of  the  other  two.  In 
doing  this  you  are  of  course  only  studying 
your  own  interest.  It  is  better  to  adopt  this 
plan  when  you  have  reason  to  believe  you 
are  already  on  the  safe  side.  If  you  hold 
one  or  two  doubles,  with  duplicates  of  either, 
retain  the  latter  until  you  first  get  rid  of 
the  doubles ;  but  if  you  hold  three  or  four 
duplicates  along  with  a  double,  play  the 
duplicates  at  once,  as  you  will  be  able  by 
your  own  hand  to  force  the  double  at  any 
time.  If  you  are  short  in  any  particular 
number,  get  rid  of  your  heavy  dominoes  as 
quickly  as  possible.  In  playing  off  you  may 
lead  with  a  light  domino,  if  you  hold  one 
or  more  of  the  number ;  but  if  not,  you  must 
lead  a  higher  domino,  in  order  to  diminish 
the  number  of  pips  in  your  hand.  If  you 
hold  a  heavy  hand  with  high  doubles,  or 
a  hand  which  admits  of  little  or  no  variety, 
or  without  any  particular  preponderance, 
you  must  play  a  safe  game,  and  sustain  as 
little  loss  as  you  possibly  can  under  the  cir- 
cumstances. Endeavor  to  balance  the  infe- 
riority of  your  hand  by  drawing  the  other 
players  along  with  you. 

When  there  are  only  three  players  left, 
and  one  is  greatly  ahead,  while  another  has 
starred,  it  should  be  the  object  of  the  third 
player  to  prolong  the  game  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, as  he  still  has  a  chance  to  star. 

When  two  players  are  in  advance,  the  two 
behind  must  avoid  embarrassing  each  other 
in  their  combinations  against  the  other  two. 
It  is  better  for  them  to  use  their  joint  ef- 
forts against  one  at  a  time,  as  the  attack,  if 
'concentrated  in  that  way,  would  be  stronger 
and  more  effectual.  Should  one  of  the  ad- 
vanced players  get  embarrassed,  endeavor 


to  embarrass  him  still  more,  for  you  may 
be  sure  his  competitor  will  not  assist  him. 

It  will  be  perfectly  understood,  however, 
that,  in  playing  with  partners,  the  object  of 
each  partner  will  be  to  play  as  much  as  pos- 
sible into  his  partner's  hands  and  to  cripple 
his  opponents.  If  it  is  your  lead  and  you 
have  a  good  hand,  you  must  try  and  win 
with  it,  regardless  of  your  partner's  position. 
So,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  your  part- 
ner's down,  and  you  have  a  bad  hand,  you 
must  be  content  to  sacrifice  your  own  chance 
in  order  to  increase  his.  In  the  partner's 
game  it  is  generally  good  play  to  lead  from 
a  strong  suit,  for,  as  this  is  a  generally  un- 
derstood rule,  your  partner  will  accept  the 
hint,  and  will  not  fail  to  "return  your  lead," 
or,  in  other  words,  to  play  into  your  hands 
as  much  as  possible.  If  you  hold  some 
doubles,  with  others  of  the  same  number, 
you  may — contrary  to  the  single  game — play 
the  latter  first  if  it  suits  your  hand,  as  your 
partner  will  be  sure  to  assist  in  getting  out 
your  doubles. 

We  might  continue  these  directions  and 
hints  ad  infinitwn,  but  experience,  after  all, 
is  the  best  teacher;  and — recommending  the 
learner  to  practice  assiduously  and  play 
carefully — we  dismiss  this  portion  of  our 
subject. 

THE   WHIST    GAME 

This  game  resembles  in  some  points  the 
game  of  cards  from  which  it  takes  its  name. 
It  is  played  by  four  persons — two  partners 
on  each  side.  The  partners,  as  usual,  sit 
opposite  to  each  other.  The  whole  of  the 
dominoes  are  taken — seven  by  each  player. 

It  is  best  to  lead  from  your  strongest 
suit.  By  this  and  such  other  indications  you 
will  enable  your  partner  to  form  an  opinion 
as  to  your  hand,  by  which  he  will  be  guided 
very  much  in  his  play,  and  as  the  game 
proceeds  each  must  tax  his  recollection  as 
to  who  played  such  and  such  a  domino,  and 
how  the  game  stood  at  that  particular  time, 
so  as  to  form  a  judgment  as  to  the  motive 
of  such  play,  etc.  The  general  instructions 
given  in  the  previous  pages  will  apply  in 
great  measure  to  this  game,  particularly 
those  given  in  reference  to  the  Pool  Game. 

THE    FOUR    GAME 

In  this  game,  which  is  played  by  four  per- 
sons, each  player  takes  seven  dominoes ;  and 
he  who  plays  out  first,  or,  if  the  game  be- 
comes blocked,  holds  the  least  number  of 
pips,  wins  the  hand,  and  draws  a  certain 
stake  from  the  other  three. 

Very  little  in  the  way  of  instruction  is  re- 


GAMES    OF   SKILL 


quired  in  this  game.  If  you  have  the  pose, 
you  should  play  out  as  far  as  possible,  and 
then  endeavor  to  block  the  game. 

Endeavor  to  keep  your  hand  even,  so  as 
to  be  ready  at  any  number,  or  (and  in  this 
you  must  be  guided  by  the  nature  of  your 
hand)  play  to  keep  your  strongest  suit  in 
hand  until  those  of  the  same  suit  held  by 
other  players  are  out.  By  this  means  you 
may  oftentimes  be  able  to  play  out  or  shut 
the  game,  as  you  find  most  expedient. 

SEBASTOPOL    GAME 

This  game  is  played  by  four  players,  each 
taking  seven  dominoes.  The  player  holding 
the  double  six  plays  it,  and  takes  the  lead. 
Each  player  must  play  a  six  to  it.  He  who 
can  not  loses  the  turn.  The  dominoes  are 
played  in  the  form  of  a  cross  the  first 
round,  after  which  the  players  alternately 
play  at  either  of  the  four  ends.  He  who 
has  the  last  domino,  or,  in  the  event  of  more 
than  one  player  being  left  with  dominoes 
when  the  game  is  shut,  he  who  holds  the 


greatest    number    of   pips,    pays    a    certain 
amount  to  the  winners. 

Endeavor  to  get  rid  of  your  heavy  domi- 
noes, and  put  obstacles  in  the  way  of  your 
adversaries  running  out. 

TIDDLE-A-WINK    GAME 

This  is  a  very  amusing  game,  and  suit- 
able for  a  round  party. 

If  six  or  more  play,  each  takes  three  dom- 
inoes. The  6 — 6  is  then  called  for,  as  in  the 
French  game,  and  the  person  holding  it 
leads  with  it.  If  it  is  not  out,  the  next 
highest  double  is  called  forth,  and  so  on 
downward  until  a  start  is  made. 

In  this  game,  he  who  plays  a  double,  either 
at  the  lead  or  at  any  other  part  of  the  game, 
is  entitled  to  play  again  if  he  can — thus 
obtaining  two  turns  instead  of  one.  The 
game  then  proceeds  in  the  ordinary  way, 
and  he  who  plays  out  first  cries  "Tiddle-a- 
wink !"  having  won.  In  the  event  of  the 
game  being  blocked,  he  who  holds  the  low- 
est number  of  pips  wins. 


PARLOR   MAGIC 


THE  ability  to  perform  successfully  even  the  simplest  tricks  included 
under  the  general  head  of  magic  is  an  art  that  must  be  carefully 
learned  and  practiced.  It  includes  not  only  the  knowledge  of  how 
a  thing  is  done,  but  also  the  knowledge  of  how  to  do  it  yourself.  As  we 
progress  in  this  world,  we  learn  that  these  two  things,  which  very  many 
people  suppose  to  be  identical,  are  as  far  apart  as  good  and  evil,  or  as  East 
and  West.  In  no  branch  of  art  and  science  do  we  need  the  lesson  more 
than  in  what  is  known  as  "magic,"  or  sleight-of-hand. 

In  the  following  treatise  only  such  tricks  will  be  noticed  as  are  of  a 
nature  suitable  for  production,  without  complicated  apparatus,  and,  as  far 
as  possible,  require  very  little  practice.  The  expression,  "little  practice," 
however,  is  strictly  relative:  there  is  no  "royal  road"  to  mystic  knowledge. 
A  celebrated  magician,  being  asked  for  three  rules  to  apply  to  magic,  re- 
plied: "First,  practice;  second,  practice;  third,  practice."  Another  rule 
of  importance  is  never  to  tell  your  audience  beforehand  what  you  are 
about  to  do.-  Forewarned  is  forearmed.  Even  expert  magicians  are  de- 
ceived by  a  new  trick;  not  knowing  what  is  to  be  done,  they  can  not  tell 
where  to  watch,  being,  therefore,  as  much  mystified  at  its  completion 
as  the  merest  layman  would  be. 

Every  trick  should  be  clothed,  as  it  were,  with  appropriate  talk,  called 
by  magicians  "patter."  This  should  not  be  too  lengthy;  only  long  enough 
to  explain  the  point  of  the  trick,  and  to  hold  the  interest  of  the  audience. 
The  performer  should  carefully  cultivate  a  smooth  and  finished  manner, 
which  is  a  large  part  of  the  science  of  misdirection,  which  is  the  real  foun- 
dation of  all  sleight-of-hand. 

By  misdirection,  it  will  be  understood,  is  intended  the  art  of  causing 
the  audience  to  look  at  the  wrong  place,  when  the  critical  point  of  a  trick 
is  reached.  To  this  end,  the  performer  should  practice  using  the  hands 
without  looking  at  them;  since  the  attention  of  an  audience  will  always 
follow  the  performer's  eyes.  If  he  himself  watches  his  hands,  while  mak- 
ing any  movement  he  does  not  wish  the  spectators  to  see,  they  will  infal- 
libly look  at  his  hands  also.  So  far  as  is  possible,  arrange  your  programme 
so  that  one  trick  will  logically  follow  another.  Furthermore,  rehearse 
each  trick  carefully  before  performing  it  at  all. 

(478) 


PARLOR   MAGIC 


479 


SIMPLE      TRICKS     WITH      CARDS 


A  FEW  preliminary  hints  are  necessary 
in    order    to    enable    an    amateur    to 
perform  the  tricks  he  attempts  with  effect 
and  success. 

A  conjurer  should  always  be  able  to 
"palm"  well.  That  is  done  by  holding  a 
coin  in  the  fingers,  and  by  a  quick  move- 
ment passing  it  into  the  middle  or  palm  of 
the  hand,  and,  by  contracting  the  muscles 
on  each  side  of  the  hand,  to  retain  it  there, 
making  the  hand  appear  open  and  as  though 
nothing  were  in  it.  After  a  little  practice 
this  will  become  comparatively  easy,  but 
it  will  require  the  exercise  of  great  per- 
severance in  order  to  become  perfect.  The 
pains,  however,  will  be  well  bestowed,  as 
this  is  one  of  the  principal  means  by  which 
prestidigitators  deceive  their  audiences. 

MAKING   THE   PASS 

In  many  of  the  tricks  with  cards  it  is 
necessary  to  "make  the  pass,"  as  it  is 
termed,  which  is  a  very  neat  and  simple 
movement.  The  operator  shows  a  card, 
which  he  wishes  his  audience  to  believe 
he  can  change  by  simply  using  the  mysteri- 
ous words  "Presto,  begone !"  While,  how- 
ever, he  is  saying  these  words,  he  gives  a 


Right  hand. 


Bottom. 


Little  finger. 


sharp  blow  on  the  pack  he  holds  in  his 
hand,  and  at  the  same  time  slips  the  card 
under  the  pack  and  takes  off  the  top  one, 
or  vice  versa.  Practice,  in  this  as  in  other 
matters,  will  impart  great  dexterity  to  the 
operator;  and,  as  the  hand  can  be  trained 
to  move  more  quickly  than  the  eye  can  see, 
he  will  be  able  to  go  through  the  move- 
ment without  it  being  perceived  by  his 
audience. 

The  following  mode  of  "making  the  pass" 
should  be  well  studied:  Hold  the  pack  of 
cards  in  your  left  hand  so  that  the  palm 
of  your  hand  may  be  under  the  cards ;  place 


the  thumb  of  that  hand  on  one  side  of  the 
pack,  and  the  first,  second,  and  third  fingers 
on  the  other  side,  and  your  little  finger  be- 
tween those  cards  that  are  to  be  brought  to 
the  top  and  the  rest  of  the  pack.  Then  place 
your  right  hand  over  the  card  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  thumb  may  be  at  5,  the 
forefinger  at  6,  and  the  other  fingers  at  7, 
as  in  the  above  figure : 

The  hands  and  the  two  portions  of  the 
pack  being  thus  disposed,  you  draw  off  the 
lower  cards  confined  by  the  little  finger  and 
the  other  parts  of  the  right  Hand,  and  place 
them  with  an  imperceptibly  quick  motion 
on  top  of  the  pack. 

But  before  you  attempt  any  of  the  tricks 
that  depend  upon  "making  the  pass"  you 
must  have  great  practice,  and  be  able  to 
perform  it  so  dexterously  and  expeditiously 
that  the  eye  can  not  detect  the  movement 
of  the  hand,  or  you  may,  instead  of  de- 
ceiving others,  expose  yourself. 

FORCING   A    CARD 

In  card  tricks  it  is  frequently  necessary 
to  "force  a  card,"  by  which  you  compel  a 
person  to  take  such  a  card  as  you  think 
fit,  while  he  imagines  he  is  taking  one  at 
haphazard.  The  following  is,  perhaps,  the 
best  method  of  performing  this  trick: 

Ascertain  quietly,  or  while  you  are  amus- 
ing yourself  with  the  cards,  what  the  card 
is  which  you  are  to  force;  but  either  keep 
it  in  sight,  or  place  the  little  finger  of  your 
left  hand,  in  which  you  have  the  cards, 
upon  it.  Next,  desire  a  person  to  select  a 
card  from  the  pack,  for  which  purpose  you 
must  open  them  quickly  from  left  to  right, 
spreading  the  cards  backward  and  forward 
so  as  to  perplex  him  in  making  his  choice, 
and  when  you  see  him  about  to  take  one, 
open  the  pack  until  you  come  to  the  one 
you  intend  him  to  take,  and  just  at  the 
moment  his  fingers  are  touching  the  pack 
let  its  corner  project  invitingly  a  little  for- 
ward in  front  of  the  others.  This  will 
seem  so  fair  that  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten 
he  will  take  the  one  so  offered,  unless  he  is 
himself  aware  of  the  secret  of  forcing. 
Having  by  this  method  forced  your  card, 
you  request  him  to  examine  it,  and  then 
give  him  the  pack  to  shuffle,  which  he  may 
do  as  often  as  he  likes,  for  you  are  of 
course  always  aware  what  card  he  has 
taken.  A  perfect  acquaintance  with  the 


480 


PARLOR    MAGIC 


art  of  forcing  is  indispensably  necessary 
before  you  attempt  any  of  the  more  diffi- 
cult card  tricks. 

TO  TELL  A  CARD  BY  SMELLING  IT 

A  very  clever  trick,  and  one  which  never 
fails  to  excite  astonishment  at  an  evening 
party,  is  to  select  all  the  court  cards  when 
blindfolded ;  but  before  commencing  it,  you 
must  take  one  of  the  party  into  your  con- 
fidence, and  get  him  to  assist  you.  When 
all  is  arranged,  you  may  talk  of  the  strong 
sense  of  smell  and  touch  which  blind  peo- 
ple are  said  to  possess,  and  state  that  you 
could,  when  blindfolded,  distinguish  the 
court  cards  from  the  rest,  and  profess  your 
willingness  to  attempt  it.  The  process  is 
this :  After  you  have  satisfied  the  company 
that  your  eyes  are  tightly  bound,  take  the 
pack  in  your  hands,  and  holding  up  one 
of  the  cards  in  view  of  the  whole  company, 
feel  the  face  of  it  with  your  fingers.  If  it 
is  a  court  card,  your  confederate,  who 
should  be  seated  near  to  you,  must  tread 
on  your  toe.  You  then  proclaim  that  it 
is  a  court  card,  and  proceed  to  the  next. 
Should  you  then  turn  up  a  common  card 
your  confederate  takes  no  notice  of  it,  and 
you  inform  the  company  accordingly;  and 
so  on  until  you  have  convinced  the  com- 
pany that  you  really  possess  the  extraor- 
dinary power  to  which  you  laid  claim. 

TO    CHANGE   A    CARD    BY   WORD 
OF   COMMAND 

It  at  first  sight  seems  singular  that  any 
one  should  be  able  even  to  appear  to  change 
a  card  by  word  of  command;  yet  it  can 
easily  be  done,  and  under  different  titles, 
and  with  slight  variations,  the  trick  is  con- 
stantly performed  in  public.  To  do  it,  you 
must  have  two  cards  alike  in  the  pack — 
say,  for  example,  a  duplicate  of  the  king 
of  spades.  Place  one  next  to  the  bottom 
card,  which  we  will  suppose  to  be  the  seven 
of  hearts,  and  the  other  at  the  top;  shuffle 
the  cards  without  displacing  these  three, 
and  then  show  one  of  the  company  that  the 
bottom  card  is  the  seven  of  hearts.  This 
card  you  dexterously  slip  aside  with  your 
finger,  so  that  it  may  not  be  perceived,  and 
taking  the  king  of  spades  from  the  bottom, 
which  the  person  supposes  to  be  the  seven 
of  hearts,  lay  it  on  the  table,  telling  him  to 
cover  it  with  his  hand.  Shuffle  the  cards 
again  without  displacing  the  first  and  last 
cards,  and  shifting  the  other  king  of  spades 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  show  it  to  an- 
other person.  You  then  contrive  to  remove 
the  king  of  spades  in  the  same  manner  as 


before,  and  taking  the  bottom  card,  which 
will  then  be  the  seven  of  hearts,  but  which 
the  company  will  still  suppose  to  be  the 
king  of  spades,  you  lay  that  also  on  the 
table,  and  tell  the  second  person  to  cover  it 
with  his  hand.  You  then  command  the 
cards  to  change  places,  and  when  the  two 
parties  take  off  their  hands,  they  will  see, 
to  their  great  astonishment,  that  your  com- 
mands are  obeyed. 

"TWIN  CARD"  TRICK 

Another  trick  performed  by  means  of 
"twin,"  or  duplicate,  cards,  as  in  the  pre- 
vious case,  is  to  show  the  same  card  appar- 
ently on  the  top  and  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pack.  One  of  these  duplicate  cards  may  be 
easily  obtained;  in  fact,  the  pattern  card, 
which  accompanies  every  pack,  may  be  made 
available  for  that  purpose.  Let  us  suppose, 
then,  for  a  moment,  that  you  have  a  dupli- 
cate of  the  queen  of  clubs.  You  place  both 
of  them  at  the  bottom  of  the  pack,  and 
make  believe  to  shuffle  them,  taking  care, 
however,  that  these  two  keep  their  places. 
Then  lay  the  pack  upon  the  table,  draw  out 
the  bottom  card,  show  it,  and  place  it  on 
the  top.  You  then  command  the  top  card 
to  pass  to  the  bottom,  and,  on  the  pack 
being  turned  up,  the  company  will  see  with 
surprise  that  the  card  which  they  had  just 
seen  placed  upon  the  top  is  now  at  the 
bottom. 

THE  VANISHING   CARD 

Another  good  trick  is  thus  performed: 
Divide  the  pack,  placing  one-half  in  the 
palm  of  the  left  hand,  face  downward;  and, 
taking  the  remainder  of  the  pack  in  the 
right  hand,  hold  them  between  the  thumb 
and  first  three  fingers,  taking  care  to  plact 
the  cards  upright,  so  that  the  edges  of  those 
in  your  right  hand  may  rest  upon  the  back 
of  those  in  the  left,  thus  forming  a  right 
angle  with  them.  In  this  way  the  four 
fingers  of  the  left  hand  touch  the  last  of 
the  upright  cards  in  your  right  hand.  It 
is  necessary  that  the  cards  should  be  placed 
in  this  position,  and  that  once  being  at- 
tained, the  rest  of  the  trick  is  easy.  These 
preliminaries  having  been  gone  through,  one 
of  the  company,  at  your  request,  examines 
the  top  card  of  the  half-pack  that  rests  in 
the  palm  of  your  left  hand,  and  then  re- 
places it  Having  done  this,  you  request 
him  to  look  at  it  again,  and,  to  his  astonish- 
ment, it  will  have  vanished,  and  another 
card  will  appear  in  its  place.  In  order  to 
accomplish  this,  having  assumed  the  posi- 
tion already  described,  you  must  damp  the 


PARLOR    MAGIC 


481 


tips  of  the  four  fingers  that  rest  against  the 
last  card  of  the  upright  set  in  your  right 
hand.  When  the  person  who  has  chosen 
a  card  replaces  it,  you  must  raise  the  up- 
right cards  in  your  right  hand  very  quickly, 
and  the  card  will  then  adhere  to  the  damped 
fingers  of  you*  left  hand.  As  you  raise 
the  upright  cards,  you  must  close  your  left 
hand  skilfully,  and  you  will  thereby  place 
the  last  of  the  upright  cards — which,  as  we 
have  explained,  adheres  to  the  fingers  of 
your  left  hand — upon  the  top  of  the  cards 
in  the  palm  of  your  left  hand,  and  when 
you  request  the  person  who  first  examined 
it  to  look  at  it  again,  he  Will  observe  that 
it  has  been  changed.  Rapidity  and  manual 
dexterity  are  required  for  the  performance 
of  this  capital  sleight-of-hand  trick. 

TO  SEND  A  CARD  THROUGH  THE 
TABLE 

Request  one  of  the  company  to  draw  a 
card  from  the  pack,  examine  it,  and  then 
return  it.  Then  make  the  pass — or,  if  you 
can  not  make  the  pass,  make  use  of  the 
long  card — and  bring  the  card  chosen  to  the 
top  of  the  pack,  and  shuffle  by  means  of 
any  of  the  false  shuffles  before  described, 
without  losing  sight  of  the  card.  After 
shuffling  the  pack  several  times,  bring  the 
card  to  the  top  again.  Then  place  the  pack 
on  the  table,  about  two  inches  from  the 
edge  near  which  you  are  sitting,  and  hav- 
ing previously  slightly  dampened  the  back 
of  your  right  hand,  you  strike  the  pack  a 
sharp  blow,  and  the  card  will  adhere  to  it. 
You  then  put  your  right  hand  very  rapidly 
underneath  the  table,  and  taking  off  with 
your  left  hand  the  card  which  has  stuck  to 
your  right  hand,  you  show  it  to  your  au- 
dience, who  will  at  once  recognize  in  it 
the  card  that  was  drawn  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  trick.  You  must  be  careful 
while  performing  this  trick  not  to  allow 
any  of  the  spectators  to  get  behind  or  at 
the  side  of  the  table,  but  keep  them  directly 
in  front,  otherwise  the  illusion  would  be 
discovered. 

TO  KNOCK  ALL  THE  CARDS  FROM 

A  PERSON'S  HAND  EXCEPT 

THE  CHOSEN  ONE 

With  a  little  care  a  novice  may  easily 
learn  this  trick.  It  is  not  new,  and  is  called 
by  some  the  "Nerve  Trick."  Force  a  card, 
and  request  the  person  who  has  taken  it  to 
return  it  to  the  pack  and  shuffle  the  cards. 
Then  look  at  the  card  yourself,  and  place 
the  card  chosen  at  the  bottom  of  the  pack. 


Cut  them  in  two,  and  give  him  the  half 
containing  his  card  at  the  bottom,  and  re- 
quest him  to  hold  it  just  at  the  corner  be-< 
tween  his  finger  and  his  thumb.  After  tell- 
ing him  to  hold  them  tight,  strike  them 
sharply,  and  they  will  all  fall  to  the  ground 
except  the  bottom  one,  which  is  the  card 
he  has  chosen.  An  improvement  in  this 
trick  is  to  put  the  chosen  card  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pack  and  turn  the  face  upward,  so 
that  when  you  strike,  the  card  remaining 
will  stare  the  spectators  in  the  face. 

TO  TELL  THE  NAME  OF  A  CARD 
THOUGHT  OF 

One  of  the  company  must,  at  your  re- 
quest, draw  seven  or  eight  cards  promiscu- 
ously from  the  pack,  and  select  one  from 
among  them  as  the  card  he  desires  to  think 
of.  He  then  returns  them  to  the  pack,  and 
you,  either  by  shuffling  or  in  any  other  way 
which  will  not  be  noticed,  contrive  to  pass 
the  whole  of  them  to  the  bottom  of  the 
pack.  You  then  take  five  or  six  cards  off 
the  top  of  the  pack,  and  throw  them  on  the 
table  face  upward,  asking  if  the  card  thought 
of  is  among  them.  While  the  person  is  ex- 
amining them  you  secretly  take  one  card 
from  the  bottom  of  the  pack  and  place  it 
on  the  top;  and  when  he  tells  you  that  the 
card  he  thought  of  is  not  in  the  first  parcel, 
throw  him  five  or  six  more,  including  the 
card  you  have  just  taken  from  the  bottom 
— the  denomination  and  suit  of  which  it  is 
presumed  you  have  taken  the  opportunity  to 
ascertain — so  that  should  he  say  that  his 
card  is  in  the  second  parcel,  you  will  at 
once  know  which  card  is  indicated,  and  in 
order  to  "bring  it  to  light,"  you  may  make 
use  either  of  the  two  foregoing  tricks,  or 
any  other  you  think  proper. 

TO  TELL  THE  NAMES  OF  ALL  THE 
CARDS  BY  THEIR  WEIGHTS 

The  pack  having  been  cut  and  shuffled  to 
the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  audience,  the 
operator  commences  by  stating  that  he  un- 
dertakes, by  poising  each  card  for  a  moment 
on  his  fingers,  to  tell  not  only  the  color, 
but  the  suit  and  number  of  spots,  and,  if  a 
court  card,  whether  it  be  king,  queen,  or 
knave.  For  the  accomplishment  of  this 
most  amusing  trick  we  recommend  the  fol- 
lowing directions :  You  must  have  two 
packs  of  cards  exactly  alike.  One  of  them 
we  will  suppose  to  have  been  in  use  during 
the  evening  for  the  performance  of  your 
tricks ;  but  in  addition  to  this  you  must 
have  a  second  pack  in  your  pocket,  which  you 
must  take  care  to  arrange  in  the  order  here- 


482 


PARLOR    MAGIC 


inafter  described.  Previous  to  commencing 
the  trick  you  must  take  the  opportunity  of 
exchanging  these  two  packs,  and  bringing 
into  use  the  prepared  pack.  This  must  be 
done  in  such  a  manner  that  your  audience 
will  believe  that  the  pack  you  introduce  is 
the  same  as  the  one  you  have  been  using 
all  the  evening,  which  they  know  has  been 
well  shuffled.  The  order  in  which  the  pack 
must  be  arranged  will  be  best  ascertained 
by  committing  the  following  lines — the 
words  in  italics  forming  the  key: 
Eight  kings  threa-ten'd  to  save, 
Eight,  king,  three,  ten,  two,  seven, 
Nine  fair  ladies  for  one  sick  knave, 
Nine,  five,  queen,  four,  ace,  six,  knave. 
These  lines  thoroughly  committed  to 
memory  will  be  of  material  assistance. 
The  alliterative  resemblance  will  in  every 
instance  be  a  sufficient  guide  to  the  card 
indicated.  The  order  in  which  the  suits 
should  otherwise  be  committed  to  memory 
— viz.,  hearts,  spades,  diamonds,  clubs.  Hav- 
ing sorted  your  cards  in  accordance  with 
the  above  directions,  your  pack  is  "pre- 
pared" and  ready  for  use;  and  when  you 
have  successfully  completed  the  exchange, 
you  bring  forward  your  prepared  pack,  and 
hand  it  round  to  be  cut.  The  pack  may 
be  cut  as  often  as  the  audience  pleases,  but 
always  whist  fashion — i.e.,  the  lower  half 
of  the  pack  must  be  placed  upon  the  upper 
at  each  cut.  You  now  only  want  to  know 
the  top  card,  and  you  will  then  have  a 
clew  to  the  rest.  You  therefore  take  off 
the  top  card,  and  holding  it  between  your- 
self and  the  light,  you  see  what  it  is,  saying 
at  the  same  time,  by  way  of  apology,  that 
this  is  the  old  way  of  performing  the  trick, 
but  that  it  is  now  superseded.  Having  once 
ascertained  what  the  first  is,  which,  for  ex- 
ample, we  will  suppose  to  be  the  king  of 
diamonds,  you  then  take  the  next  card  on 
your  finger,  and  poise  it  for  a  moment,  as 
if  you  were  going  through  a  process  of 
mental  calculation.  This  pause  will  give 
you  time  to  repeat  to  yourself  the  two  lines 
given  by  which  means  you  will  know  what 
card  comes  next.  Thus :  "Eight  kings  threa- 
ten'd  to,"  etc. ;  it  will  be  seen  that  the  three 
comes  next. 

THE  QUEEN'S  DIG   FOR    DIAMONDS 

Taking  the  pack  in  your  hands,  you  sep- 
arate from  it  the  four  kings,  queens,  knaves, 
and  aces,  and  also  four  common  cards  of 
each  suit.  Then  laying  the  four  queens,  face 
upward,  in  a  row  on  the  table,  you  com- 
mence telling  your  story  somewhat  after 
this  fashion: 


"These  four  queens  set  out  to  seek  for 
diamonds.  [Here  you  place  any  four  cards 
of  the  diamond  suit  half  over  the  queens.] 
As  they  intend  to  dig  for  diamonds,  they 
each  take  a  spade.  [Here  lay  four  common 
spades  half  over  the  diamonds.]  The  kings, 
their  husbands,  aware  of  the  risk  they  run, 
send  a  guard  of  honor  to  protect  them. 
[Place  the  four  aces  half  over  the  spades.] 
But  fearing  the  guard  of  honor  might  neg- 
lect their  duty,  the  kings  resolve  to  set  out 
themselves.  [Here  lay  the  four  kings  half 
over  the  four  aces.}  Now,  there  were  four 
robbers,  who,  being  apprised  of  the  queens' 
intentions,  determined  to  waylay  and  rob 
them  as  they  returned  with  the  diamonds 
in  their  possession.  [Lay  the  four  knaves 
half  over  the  four  kings.]  Each  of  these 
four  robbers  armed  himself  with  a  club  [lay 
out  four  clubs  half  over  the  knaves] ;  and  as 
they  do  not  know  how  the  queens  may  be 
protected,  it  is  necessary  that  each  should 
carry  a  stout  heart."  [Lay  out  four  hearts 
half  over  the  knaves.] 

You  have  now  exhausted  the  whole  of 
the  cards  with  which  you  commenced  the 
game,  and  have  placed  them  in  four  col- 
umns. You  take  the  cards  in  the  first  of 
these  columns,  and  pack  them  together,  be- 
ginning at  your  left  hand,  and  keeping  them 
in  the  order  in  which  you  laid  them  out. 
Having  done  this,  you  place  them  on  the 
table,  face  downward.  You  pack  up  the 
second  column  in  like  manner,  lay  them  on 
the  first,  and  so  on  with  the  other  two. 

The  pack  is  then  handed  to  the  company, 
who  cut  them  as  often  as  they  choose,  pro- 
vided always  that  they  cut  whist  fashion. 
That  done,  you  may  give  them  what  is 
termed  a  shuffle-cut;  that  is,  you  appear  to 
shuffle  them,  but  in  reality  only  give  them 
a  quick  succession  of  cuts,  taking  care  that 
when  you  are  done  a  card  of  the  heart  suit 
remains  at  the  bottom. 

You  then  begin  to  lay  them  out  again  as 
you  did  in  the  first  instance,  and  it  will  be 
found  that  all  the  cards  will  come  in  their 
proper  order. 

MYSTERIOUS    DISAPPEARANCE    OF 
THE  KNAVE  OF  SPADES 

Fixing  your  eye  upon  the  stoutest-looking 
man  in  the  room,  you  ask  him  if  he  can 
hold  a  card  tightly.  Of  course  he  will  an- 
swer in  the  affirmative;  but  if  he  should 
not,  you  will  have  no  difficulty  in  finding 
one  who  does.  You  then  desire  him  to 
stand  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and  hold- 
ing up  the  pack  of  cards,  you  show  him  the 
bottom  one,  and  request  him  to  state  what 


PARLOR   MAGIC 


483 


card  it  is.  He  will  tell  you  that  it  is  the 
knave  of  spades.  You  then  tell  him  to  hold 
the  card  tightly  and  look  up  at  the  ceiling. 
While  he  is  looking  up  you  ask  him  if  he 
recollects  his  card;  and  if  he  answer,  as  he 
will  be  sure  to  do,  the  knave  of  spades,  you 
will  reply  that  he  must  have  made  a  mis- 
take, for  if  he  look  at  the  card  he  will  find 
it  to  be  the  knave  of  hearts,  which  will  be 
the  case.  Then  handing  him  the  pack,  you 
tell  him  that  if  he  will  look  over  it,  he  will 
find  his  knave  of  spades  somewhere  in  the 
middle  of  the  pack. 

This  trick  is  extremely  simple  and  easy 
of  accomplishment.  You  procure  an  extra 
knave  of  spades,  and  cut  it  in  half,  keeping 


the  upper  part,  and  throwing  away  the 
lower.  Before  showing  the  bottom  of  the 
pack  to  the  company,  get  the  knave  of  hearts 
to  the  bottom,  and  lay  over  it,  unperceived 
by  the  company,  your  half  knave  of  spades; 
and  under  pretence  of  holding  the  pack  very 
tight,  you  put  your  thumb  across  the  mid- 
dle, so  that  the  joining  may  not  be  seen, 
the  legs  of  the  two  knaves  being  so  similar 
that  detection  is  impossible.  You  then  give 
him  the  lower  part  of  the  knave  of  hearts 
to  hold,  and  when  he  has  drawn  the  card 
away  hold  your  hands  so  that  the  faces  of 
the  cards  will  be  turned  toward  the  floor. 
As  early  as  possible  you  take  an  oppor- 
tunity of  removing  the  half  knave. 


SLEIGHT-OF-HAND  WITH   SIMPLE  APPARATUS 


A  CHEAP  WAY   OF   BEING   GEN- 
EROUS 

YOU  take  a  little  common  white  or  bees' 
wax,  and  stick  it  on  your  thumb.  Then, 
speaking  to  a  bystander,  you  show  him 
a  dime,  and  tell  him  you  will  put  the 
same  into  his  hand;  press  it  down  upon  tHe 
palm  of  his  hand  with  your  waxed  thumb, 
talking  to  him  the  while,  and  looking  him 
in  the  face.  Suddenly  take  away  your 
thumb,  and  the  coin  will  adhere  to  it;  then 
close  his  hand,  and  he  will  be  under  the 
impression  that  he  holds  the  dime,  as 
the  sensation  caused  by  the  pressing  still 
remains.  You  may  tefl  him  he  is  at  liberty 
to  keep  the  dime;  but  on  opening  his  hand 
to  look  at  it  he  will  find,  to  his  astonish- 
ment, that  it  is  gone. 

THE  FAMOUS  MOUNTEBANK 
TRICK 

In  the  days  when  merry-andrews  and 
mountebanks  met  with  a  hearty  welcome  on 
every  village  green,  no  conjuring  trick 
was  more  popular  than  this;  yet  there 
are  few  that  can  be  performed  with  less 
difficulty.  You  first  of  all  procure  a  long 
strip  of  paper,  or  several  smaller  strips 
pasted  together,  two  or  three  inches  wide. 
Color  the  edges  red  and  blue,  and  roll  up 
the  paper  like  a  roll  of  ribbon.  Before 
doing  so,  however,  securely  paste  a  small 
piece  of  cotton  at  the  end  you  begin  to  roll. 
Then,  when  the  proper  time  has  arrived, 
you  take  hold  of  this  cotton,  and  begin  to 
pull  out  a  long  roll  which  very  much  re- 
sembles "a  barber's  pole."  In  order  to  per- 
form this  trick  with  good  effect,  have  be- 


fore you  some  paper  shavings,  which  may 
easily  be  procured  at  any  bookbinder's,  and 
commence  to  appear  to  eat  them.  The 
chewed  paper  can  be  removed  each  time  a 
fresh  handful  is  put  into  the  mouth;  and 
when  the  proper  time  and  opportunity  have 
arrived,  put  the  roll  into  the  mouth,  and 
pull  the  bit  of  cotton,  when  a  long  roll 
comes  out,  as  before  described,  to  the  as- 
tonishment of  the  audience. 

A  more  elegant  but  similar  feat  is  the 
following,  which  we  will  style 

BRINGING    COLORED    RIBBONS 
FROM    THE    MOUTH 

Heap  a  quantity  of  finely  carded  cotton 
wool  upon  a  plate,  which  place  before  you. 
At  the  bottom  of  this  lint,  and  concealed 
from  the  company,  you  should  have  several 
narrow  strips  of  colored  ribbons,  wound 
tightly  into  one  roll,  so  as  to  occupy  but 
little  space.  Now  begin  to  appear  to  eat 
the  lint  by  putting  a  handful  in  your  mouth. 
The  first  handful  can  easily  be  removed  and 
returned  to  the  plate  unobserved  while  the 
second  is  being  "crammed  in."  In  doing 
this,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  all  the 
lint,  but  to  leave  sufficient  to  conceal  the 
roll.  At  the  last  handful,  take  up  the  roll 
and  push  it  into  your  mouth  without  any 
lint;  then  appear  to  have  had  enough,  and 
look  in  a  very  distressed  state,  as  if  you 
were  full  to  suffocation;  then  put  your 
hands  up  to  your  mouth,  get  hold  of  the 
end  of  the  riBbon,  and  draw,  hand  over 
hand,  yards  of  ribbon  as  if  from  your  stom- 
ach. The  slower  this  is  done,  the  better 
the  effert.  When  one  ribbon  is  off  the  roll 
your  tongue  will  assist  you  in  pushing  an- 


484 


PARLOR    MAGIC 


other  end  ready  for  the  hand.  You  will 
find  you  need  not  wet  or  damage  the  ribbons 
in  the  least.  This  is  a  trick  which  is  fre- 
quently performed  by  one  of  the  cleverest 
conjurers  of  the  day. 

CATCHING   MONEY    FROM  THE  AIR 

The  following  trick,  which  tells  wonder- 
fully well  when  skilfully  performed,  is  a 
great  favorite  with  one  of  our  best-known 
conjurers.  So  far  as  we  are  aware,  it  has 
not  before  been  published.  Have  in  readi- 
ness any  number  of  silver  coins,  say  thirty- 
four;  place  all  of  them  in  the  left  hand, 
with  the  exception  of  four,  which  you  must 
palm  into  the  right  hand.  Then,  obtaining 
a  hat  from  the  audience,  you  quietly  put 
the  left  hand  with  the  silver  inside;  and 
while  playfully  asking  if  it  is  a  new  hat,  or 
with  some  such  remark  for  the  purpose  of 
diverting  attention,  loose  the  silver,  and  at 
the  same  time  take  hold  of  the  brim  with 
the  left  hand,  and  hold  it  still  so  as  not 
to  shake  the  silver.  Now  address  the  au- 
dience, and  inform  them  that  you  are  going 
to  "catch  money  from  the  air."  Ask  some 
person  to  name  any  number  of  coins  up 
to  ten,  say  eight.  In  the  same  way  you 
go  on  asking  various  persons,  and  adding 
the  numbers  aloud  till  the  total  number 
named  is  nearly  thirty;  then  looking  round 
as  though  some  one  had  spoken  another 
number,  and  knowing  that  you  have  only 
thirty-four  coins,  you  must  appear  to  have 
heard  the  number  called  which,  with  what 
has  already  been  given,  will  make  thirty- 
four;  say  the  last  number  you  added  made 
twenty-eight,  then,  as  though  you  had  heard 
some  one  say  six,  "and  twenty-eight  and 
six  make  thirty-four — Thank  you,  I  think 
we  have  sufficient."  Then,  with  the  four 
coins  palmed  in  your  right  hand,  make  a 
catch  at  the  air,  when  they  will  chink. 
Look  at  them,  and  pretend  to  throw  them 
into  the  hat,  but  instead  of  doing  so  palm 
them  again;  but,  in  order  to  satisfy  your 
audience  that  you  really  threw  them  into 
the  hat,  you  must,  when  in  the  act  of  palm- 
ing, hit  the  brim  of  the  hat  with  the  wrist 
of  the  right  hand,  which  will  make  the  coins 
in  the  hat  chink  as  if  they  had  just  fallen 
from  the  right  hand.  Having  repeated  this 
process  several  times,  say,  "I  suppose  we 
have  sufficient,"  empty  them  out  on  to  a 
plate,  and  let  one  of  the  audience  count 
them.  It  will  be  found  that  there  are  only 
thirty,  but  the  number  which  you  were  to 
catch  was  thirty-four.  You  will  therefore 
say,  "Well,  we  are  four  short ;  I  must  catch 
just  four,  neither  more  nor  less."  Then, 


still  having  four  coins  palmed  in  your  right 
hand,  you  catch  again,  and  open  your  hands, 
saying  to  the  audience,  "Here  they  are." 

THE    DISAPPEARING   QUARTER 

This  is  a  very  mystifying  trick,  yet  one 
of  the  simplest  to  perform.  Secure  an  old- 
fashioned  whiskey  glass,  a  thick  one  with 
the  outside  of  the  lower  half  or  third  heav- 
ily chased  The  inside  of  the  bottom  of 
the  glass  should  be  about  the  size  of  a 
twenty-five  cent  piece.  Go  to  an  optician 
and  get  him  to  cut  you  a  piece  of  glass  of 
a  circumference  that  will  just  fit  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  whiskey  glass.  Appear  before 
the  spectators  with  a  handkerchief  thrown 
over  your  left  sleeve,  the  whiskey  glass  in 
your  left  hand,  and  the  glass  disk  con- 
cealed in  the  palm  of  your  right  hand. 
From  a  pitcher  or  decanter  pour  a  little 
water  into  the  glass  and  set  it  on  the  table. 
Ask  one  of  the  company  to  step  forward. 
Tell  him  that  you  wish  him  to  supply  you 
with  a  quarter,  first  marking  it  so  that  he 
can  identify  it  Then  take  the  quarter  in 
your  right  thumb  and  finger,  holding  it  up 
that  all  may  see.  Ask  the  man  who  sup- 
plied the  quarter  to  take  the  whiskey  glass 
in  his  left  hand. 

Holding  the  quarter  in  sight  of  the  audi- 
ence, take  the  handkerchief  with  your  left 
hand  and  place  the  middle  of  it  over  your 
right  thumb  and  finger.  To  all  appearances 
you  take  the  quarter  up  in  the  middle  of 
the  handkerchief,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
you  take  the  glass  disk  instead,  allowing 
the  marked  quarter  to  fall  into  your  palm. 
Now  you  hand  the  handkerchief  to  the  man 
who  has  loaned  you  the  quarter,  asking  him 
to  take  it  with  his  right  hand  and  hold  it 
over  the  whiskey  glass.  You  ask  him  to 
hold  the  quarter  by  the  rim,  and  he  is 
sure,  of  course,  that  he  thus  holds  the  coin. 
Back  away  ten  or  fifteen  feet,  telling  him 
that  when  you  give  the  word  he  is  to  let 
go  of  the  coin.  When  sufficiently  far  from 
your  dupe,  exclaim :  "One,  two,  three. 
Drop  it!"  He  lets  go  of  the  "coin,"  which 
falls  into  the  glass  with  a  noise  that  every 
one  in  the  room  hears.  Ask  him  to  remove 
the  handkerchief,  and  he  will  be  amazed  to 
discover  that  there  is  no  quarter  in  the 
glass,  though  he  knows  very  well  that  he 
dropped  it  there.  Next  direct  him  to  ex- 
amine the  handkerchief.  This  performance, 
of  course,  throws  no  light  on  the  mystery 
of  the  coin's  disappearance.  Even  if  he  were 
to  pour  the  water  out  of  the  whiskey  glass, 
the  force  of  suction  would  keep  the  glass 
disk  in  place  at  the  bottom  of  the  glass. 


PARLOR   MAGIC 


485 


Suddenly,  without  having  gone  near  your 
dupe,  hold  up  the  quarter,  let  every  one  see 
it,  and  then  ask  your  dupe  whether  he  can 
identify  it. 

Do  not  repeat  this  trick,  but  proceed  im- 
mediately to  something  else.  It  will  be 
understood,  now,  why  the  whiskey  glass 
must  be  a  thick  one,  in  order  to  conceal 
the  fact,  after  the  trick  has  been  performed, 
that  the  glass  has  really  a  double  bottom. 

THE   FLYING  QUARTER 

This  is  a  purely  sleight-of-hand  trick,  but 
it  does  not  require  much  practice  to  be 
able  to  do  it  well  and  cleverly.  Take  a 
quarter  between  the  forefinger  and  thumb 
of  the  right  hand;  then,  by  a  rapid  twist 
of  the  fingers,  twirl  the  coin  by  the  same 
motion  that  you  would  use  to  spin  a  tee- 
totum. At  the  same  time  rapidly  close 
your  hand,  and  the  coin  will  disappear  up 
your  coat  sleeve.  You  may  now  open  your 
hand,  and,  much  to  the  astonishment  of 
your  audience,  the  coin  will  not  be  there. 
This  capital  trick  may  be  varied  in  a  hun- 
dred ways.  One  plan  is  to  take  three  quar- 
ters, and  concealing  one  in  the  palm  of 
your  left  hand,  place  one  of  the  others  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right 
hand,  and  the  third  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  of  the  left  hand.  Then  give  the 
coin  in  the  right  hand  the  twist  already 
described,  and  closing  both  hands  quickly 
it  will  disappear  up  your  sleeve,  and  the 
left  hand  on  being  unclosed  will  be  found 
to  contain  two  quarters.  Thus  you  will 
make  the  surprised  spectators  believe  that 
you  conjured  the  coin  from  your  right  hand 
to  the  left. 


The  following  very  clever  trick  was  a 
favorite  with  M.  Houdin,  and  was  per- 
formed by  him  at  St.  James's  Theatre, 
where  it  drew  forth  a  good  deal  of  ad- 
miration. When  known,  however,  it  ap- 
pears like  a  great  many  other  tricks,  ex- 
tremely simple  and  easy. 

Procure  two  or  three  large  plumes  or 
feathers,  or  a  lot  tied  together.  Take  off 
your  coat,  and  hold  one  lot  in  each  hand, 
so  that  the  plumes  will  lie  in  a  parallel 
line  with  the  arms.  Put  your  coat  on 
again,  and  press  the  feathers  into  small 
compass.  Ask  some  one  to  lend  you  a 
large  silk  handkerchief,  throw  it  over  one 
hand  and  part  of  the  arm,  and  with  the 
other  quickly  draw  the  feathers  from  that 
arm.  The  plumes,  being  released  from 
their  imprisonment,  will  spread  out  and 


resume  their  bulky  appearance,  and  the  on- 
lookers will  be  completely  baffled  as  to 
where  they  could  have  come  from.  Then 
repeat  the  process  with  the  other  arm. 

THE    BORROWED   QUARTER    IN. 
THE   WORSTED   BALL 

This  easily  performed  trick  should  be  in 
the  repertoire  of  every  amateur  magician. 
A  large  ball  of  worsted  is  obtained,  and  a 
marked  quarter  having  been  borrowed  from 
the  audience,  the  worsted  is  unwound,  and 
out  falls  the  quarter,  which  but  a  moment 
before  was  supposed  to  be  in  the  hands  of 
the  operator.  It  is  done  in  this  way:  Pro- 
cure a  few  skeins  of  thick  worsted;  next, 
a  piece  of  tin  in  the  shape  of  a  flat  tube> 
large  enough  for  the  coin  to  pass  through, 
and  about  four  inches  long.  Then  wind  the 
worsted  on  one  end  of  the  tube  to  a  good- 
sized  ball,  having  a  quarter  of  your  own 
in  your  right  hand.  You  may  now  show 
the  trick.  Place  the  worsted  anywhere  out 
of  sight,  borrow  a  marked  quarter,  and 
taking  it  in  your  left  hand,  you  put  the  one 
in  your  right  hand  on  the  end  of  the  table 
furthest  from  the  company.  While  so  doing, 
drop  the  marked  quarter  into  the  tube,  pull 
the  tube  out,  and  wind  a  little  more  worsted 
on  in  order  to  conceal  the  hole.  Then  put 
the  ball  into  a  tumbler,  and  taking  the 
quarter  you  left  on  the  table,  show  it  to 
the  company  (who  will  imagine  it  to  be  the 
borrowed  quarter),  and  say  "Presto!  fly! 
pass!"  Give  the  end  of  the  ball  to  one  of 
the  audience  and  request  him  to  unwind  it, 
and  on  that  being  done  the  money  will  fall 
out. 

THE   INK   AND    FISH    TRICK 

This  trick,  originally  introduced  by  M* 
Houdin,  has  been  performed  by  every  wiz- 
ard since.  A  large  goblet  is  placed  on  the 
table,  containing  apparently  several  pints 
of  ink.  A  small  quantity  of  ink  is  taken 
out  with  a  ladle,  and  being  poured  out  into 
a  plate,  is  handed  round  to  the  company 
to  satisfy  them  that  it  is  really  ink.  A 
handkerchief  is  then  covered  over  the  gob- 
let, and  upon  being  instantly  withdrawn, 
reveals  the  glass  now  full  of  water,  ill 
which  swim  gold  and  silver  fish.  The  trick1 
is  thus  performed :  A  black  silk  lining  is 
placed  inside  the  goblet,  and  kept  in  its 
place  by  a  wire  ring.  It  thus  forms  a  bag 
without  a  bottom,  as  it  were,  and  when 
wet  adheres  close  to  the  glass  in  which  are 
the  water  and  the  fish.  The  next  part  of 
the  deception  is  the  ladle,  which  must  be 
capable  of  containing  as  much  ink  as  will 


PARLOR   MAGIC 


induce  the  audience  to  believe  that  it  was 
got  from  the  goblet  before  them.  The  ink 
must  be  concealed  in  the  handle  of  the 
ladle,  so  that  when  it  is  lying  on  the  table 
it  will  not  be  perceived;  but  on  being  ele- 
vated, it  must  run  into  the  ladle  through  a 
small  aperture  made  for  the  purpose.  The 
black  silk  is  easily  withdrawn  by  the  thumb 
and  finger  at  the  time  the  handkerchief  is 
removed.  It  must  be  concealed  within  the 
folds  of  the  handkerchief. 

SILVER    CHANGED    TO    GOLD— FLY- 
ING   MONEY 

Before  commencing  this  trick  you  must 
provide  yourself  with  two  quarters  and  a 
half  eagle,  and  one  of  the  quarters  must  be 
concealed  in  the  right  hand.  Lay  the  other 
quarter  and  the  half  eagle  on  the  table,  in 
full  view  of  the  audience.  Now  ask  for 
two  handkerchiefs,  then  take  the  half  eagle 
up  and  pretend  to  roll  it  in  one  of  the 
handkerchiefs;  but  instead  of  that  roll  up 
the  quarter,  which  you  had  concealed  in 
the  right  hand,  and  retain  the  half  eagle. 
Then  give  the  handkerchief  to  one  of  the 
company  to  hold.  Now  take  the  quarter 
off  the  table,  and  pretend  to  roll  that  up  in 
the  second  handkerchief,  but  put  up  the 
half  eagle  instead.  Give  this  handkerchief 
to  a  second  person  and  bid  him  "hold  it 
tight,"  while  you  command  the  half  eagle 
and  the  quarter  to  change  places.  On  the 
handkerchiefs  being  opened,  the  coins  will 
appear  to  have  obeyed  your  command. 

THE  "TWENTY  CENTS"  TRICK 

This  trick  may  be  performed  with  any 
number  of  either  quarters,  half  eagles,  or 
half  dollars ;  but,  following  the  traditional 
rule,  we  will  suppose  that  you  borrow  at 
random  twenty  cents  from  the  company  and 
display  them  on  a  plate,  having  previously 
concealed  five  other  cents  in  your  left  hand. 
You  take  the  cents  from  the  plate  into  the 
right  hand,  mix  them  with  the  concealed 
five,  and  then  give  them  to  one  of  the  com- 
pany to  hold.  You  then  ask  the  possessor 
to  return  five  to  you,  which  he  will  do,  under 
the  supposition  that  he  only  retains  fifteen, 
while  in  reality  he  retains  twenty.  You 
must  now  have  another  cent  palmed  in  your 
right  hand,  so  that  when  you  give  the  five 
cents  to  another  person  to  hold,  you  add 
one  to  the  number,  and  in  reality  put  six 
into  his  hands.  You  then  ask  him,  as  in 
the  previous  case  to  return  one  to  you,  re- 
minding him,  as  you  receive  it,  that  he  has 
only  four  left.  Then  pretending  to  put  the 
cent  you  have  just  received  into  your  left 


hand,  you  strike  the  left  hand  with  your 
magic  wand,  and  bid  the  coin  you  are  sup- 
posed to  be  holding  to  fly  into  the  closed 
hand  of  the  person  holding  five,  or,  as  he 
supposes,  four  cents.  On  unclosing  his  hand 
he  will  find  it  to  contain  five  cents,  and  he 
will  believe  that  you  transferred  one  of 
them  thither.  Now,  taking  the  five  cents, 
you  must  dexterously  pass  them  into  the 
left  hand,  and  bid  them  fly  into  the  closed 
hand  of  the  person  holding  the  supposed 
fifteen;  and  he,  in  like  manner,  will  be  as- 
tonished to  find,  on  unclosing  his  hand,  that 
it  contains  twenty  cents  instead  of,  as  he 
supposed,  fifteen. 

THE    MYSTERIOUS    BAG 

Mr.  Philippe,  when  appearing  before  his 
wonder-struck  audiences,  used  to  excite  the 
most  profound  amazement  by  means  of  a 
mysterious  bag,  from  which  he  produced 
nearly  every  conceivable  thing,  from  a 
mouse-trap  to  a  four-post  bedstead;  and 
its  capacity  was  so  prodigious,  that  it  swal- 
lowed even  more  than  it  produced.  Sim- 
ilar but  less  pretentious  is  the  one  which 
we  give  under  the  title  of  "The  Mysterious 
Bag."  Make  two  bags,  each  about  a  foot 
long  and  six  inches  wide,  of  some  dark  ma- 
terial, and  sew  them  together  at  the  edge, 
so  that  one  may  be  inside  the  other.  Next 
make  a  number  of  pockets,  each  with  a 
cover  to  it,  which  may  be  fastened  down  by 
a  slight  elastic  band.  Place  these  about 
two  inches  apart,  between  the  two  bags, 
sewing  one  side  of  the  pocket  to  one  bag 
and  the  other  side  to  the  other.  Make  slits 
through  both  bags  about  an  inch  long,  just 
above  the  pockets,  so  that  you  can  put  your 
hand  in  the  bags ;  and  by  inserting  your 
thumb  and  finger  through  these  slits  you 
may  obtain  entrance  to  the  pockets,  and 
bring  out  of  them  whatever  they  contain. 
It  is,  of  course,  necessary  that  a  variety  of 
articles  should  be  put  in  the  pockets.  Be- 
fore commencing  the  trick  you  may  turn 
the  bag  inside  out  any  number  of  times,  so 
that  your  audience  may  conclude  that  it  is 
quite  empty.  You  can  then  cause  to  appear 
or  disappear  any  number  of  articles  of  a 
light  nature,  much  to  the  amusement  of 
your  audience. 

TO    MAKE   A    DIME    DISAPPEAR    AT 
COMMAND 

This  simple  and  well-known  but  often 
amusing  trick  enables  the  operator  to  cause 
a  small  coin  to  disappear  after  it  has  been 
wrapped  up  in  a  handkerchief.  Borrow  a 
dime  or  a  small  coin,  or  use  one  of  your 


PARLOR   MAGIC 


487 


own,  and  secretly  place  a  small  piece  of 
soft  wax  on  one  side  of  it;  then  spread  a 
pocket-handkerchief  on  a  table,  and  taking 
up  a  coin,  show  it  to  your  audience,  being 
very  careful  not  to  expose  the  side  that  has 
the  wax  on  it.  Having  done  this,  place  the 
coin  in  the  centre  of  the  handkerchief,  so 
that  the  wax  side  will  adhere.  Then  bring 
the  corner  of  the  handkerchief  over,  and 
completely  hide  the  coin  from  the  view  of 
the  spectators.  All  this  must  be  carefully 
done,  or  the  company  will  perceive  the  wax 
on  the  back  of  the  coin.  You  must  now 
press  very  hard  on  the  coin  with  your 
thumb,  in  order  to  make  it  adhere.  When 
you  have  done  this,  fold  over  successively 
the  other  corners,  repeating  the  operation  a 
second  time,  and  leaving  the  fourth  corner 
open.  Then  take  hold  of  the  handkerchief 
with  both  hands  at  the  open  part,  and  slid- 
ing your  finger  along  the  edge  of  the  same, 
it  will  become  unfolded,  and  the  coin  ad- 
hering to  the  corner  of  the  handkerchief 
will,  of  course,  come  into  your  right  hand; 
then  detach  the  coin,  shake  out  the  hand- 
kerchief, and  to  the  great  astonishment  of 
the  company  the  coin  will  have  disappeared. 
In  order  to  convince  your  audience  that 
the  coin  is  still  in  the  handkerchief  after 
you  have  wrapped  it  up,  you  can  drop  it  on 
the  table,  when  it  will  sound. 

THE   TWO    KINGS 

This  trick  produces  both  merriment  and 
mystification,  it  is  to  be  performed  while 
a  friendly  party  is  seated  around  a  table. 
If  you  are  fortunate  enough  to  be  a  mar- 
ried man  your  wife  may  serve  as  your  con- 
federate; otherwise  any  one  of  your  friends 
whom  you  have  trained  sufficiently  well  will 
answer.  Run  through  the  pack  of  cards, 
selecting  the  king  of  spades  and  the  king  of 
clubs,  explaining  that  you  do  this  because 
they  are  both  black,  and  that  this  fact  will 
save  confusion.  Now,  after  shuffling  the 
remaining  cards  of  the  pack,  divide  them 
into  two  approximately  even  packs,  placing 
each  face  down  on  the  table.  Throw  also 
the  two  black  kings  face  down.  Now,  ris- 
ing, say:  "I  am  going  to  take  one  of  these 
packs  in  my  left  hand  [suiting  the  action 
to  the  word],  and  in  my  right  hand  I  will 
take  one  of  the  kings,  which,  as  you  will 
see,  is  the  king  of  spades.  Pardon  me  for 
turning  my  back,  I  wish  to  shuffle  the  king 
of  spades  [if  that  happens  to  be  the  one  of 
the  two]  most  thoroughly  into  this  pack." 
Turn  your  back  and  shuffle,  taking  plenty 
of  time  about  it.  While  your  back  is  turned 
your  confederate,  with  a  sly  wink  at  your 


audience,  takes  the  top  card  off  the  remain- 
ing pack  and  places  it  on  the  table,  in  the 
same  place  where  you  have  left  the  inverted 
king  of  clubs  lying,  placing  the  king  of 
clubs  on  top  of  the  inverted  pack.  When 
you  have  finished  shuffling  and  turn  back 
you  will  probably  see  a  good  deal  of  poorly 
suppressed  merriment  on  the  faces  of  your 
audience.  Pretend  not  to  see  this,  but,  lay- 
ing down  the  pack  that  you  have  just  shuf- 
fled, pick  up  the  other  pack  in  the  left  hand, 
and  in  the  right  the  card  that  has  been 
substituted  by  your  confederate  for  the  king 
of  clubs.  Seating  yourself  at  the  table,  pick 
up  that  substituted  card,  saying  to  the  spec- 
tators :  "I  have  in  my  right  hand,  as  you 
will  see,  the  king  of  clubs."  Of  course  they 
will  see  that  you  have  nothing  of  the  sort, 
and  probably  some  one  will  break  out  into 
uncontrollable  merriment  at  thought  of  the 
"sell"  that  is  being  played  upon  you.  If 
this  should  happen,  merely  say:  "Oh,  don't 
worry.  I  have  performed  this  feat  hundreds 
of  times,  and  have  never  yet  failed  in  it." 
This  is  likely  to  produce  a  general  roar  of 
laughter,  your  confederate  being  the  only 
one  who  seems  able  to  keep  a  straight,  de- 
mure face.  If  you  are  laughed  at  by  all 
hands,  pretend  to  be  annoyed  at  their  want 
of  confidence  in  your  skill,  and  say,  hur- 
riedly, again  holding  up  the  substituted  card : 
"This  king  of  clubs  [more  laughter  from 
your  audience]  I  am  going  to  place  in  the 
middle  of  the  second  pack."  Do  so,  and, 
retaining  that  second  pack  in  your  hand, 
face  down,  seat  yourself  behind  the  table, 
pick  up  the  first  pack,  containing  the  king 
of  spades,  and  place  that  face  down,  on  top 
of  the  other  pack,  keeping  the  two  packs 
separate  by  the  sly  insertion  of  your  little 
finger  between  them.  The  end  of  the  com- 
bined pack  that  shows  through  your  hand 
to  the  audience  will  appear  to  be  closed, 
and  no  one  will  detect  the  fact  that  at  the 
other  end  the  two  packs  are  separated 
by  your  little  finger.  Now  begin  dealing  off 
the  top  of  the  first  pack,  saying:  "The  first 
black  king  that  I  bring  up  will  be,  of  course, 
the  king  of  spades.  Wonderful  as  it  may 
seem,  the  very  next  card  to  it  will  be  the 
king  of  clubs."  [More  giggles  from  some 
of  the  spectators,  who  realize  how  nicely 
you  are  being  fooled.]  Turning  the  cards 
off,  quite  slowly,  and  one  at  a  time,  laying 
them  face  upward,  you  finally  turn  up  the 
king  of  spades.  "Ah,  here  is  the  king  of 
spades,"  you  exclaim,  "and  the  next  card, 
of  course,  will  be  the  king  of  clubs."  At 
the  same  time  you  carelessly  flip  up  the  cor- 
ner of  the  next  card,  allowing  those  opposite 
to  you  to  see  that  the  next  card  is  not  the 


188 


PARLOR   MAGIC 


king  of  clubs.  There  will  be  renewed  mer- 
riment, at  which  you  look  intensely  aston- 
ished, and  somewhat  indignant,  also  remark- 
ing, protestingly :  "But  I  know  that  the  next 
card  is  the  king  of  clubs.  I  tell  you  I  have 
never  failed  in  this  trick  yet."  Some  one 
in  the  party  will  want  to  make  a  wager  that 
the  next  card  turned  up  will  not  be  the  king 
of  clubs.  Calmly  accept  the  wager,  and  as 
many  more  as  are  offered.  While  talking, 
let  your  two  hands  fall  carelessly  below  the 
edge  of  the  table  for  an  instant,  still  look- 
ing into  the  eyes  of  your  tormentors.  In- 
stantly "slip"  the  packs  separated  by  your 
little  finger,  and  change  their  positions,  so 
that  the  lower  pack,  with  the  king  of  clubs 
uppermost,  will  now  be  on  top.  Raise  your 
left  hand  above  the  table  again,  taking 
pains  to  do  it  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to 
arouse  suspicion.  As  soon  as  the  fun  and 
wagers  are  over  with,  lay  the  pack  on  the 
table,  face  down  as  before,  and  say:  "Will 
some  one  else  kindly  take  off  the  next  card 
and  show  the  company  what  it  is?"  Some 
one  will  turn  the  card  amid  roars  of 
laughter,  which  will  suddenly  change  to 
looks  of  amazement,  when  it  is  discovered 
that  the  next  card  really  is  the  king  of 
clubs.  It  will  speedily  dawn  upon  all  that 
your  confederate  has  duped  them,  and  the 
confederate  will  probably  have  to  beat  a 
hasty,  laughing  retreat.  Of  course,  you  can 
not  honorably  collect  the  wagers. 

THE    TRAVERSING    RING 

Provide  yourself  with  a  silk  handkerchief 
and  a  small  ring.  With  a  needleful  of  silk, 
doubled,  sew  the  ring  to  the  middle  of  the 
handkerchief,  but  let  it  be  suspended  by  the 
silk  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  bottom 
of  the  handkerchief.  When  the  handker- 
chief is  held  up  by  the  two  corners,  the  ring 
must  always  hang  on  the  side  facing  the 
conjurer.  The  handkerchief  may  now  be 
crumpled  up  to  "show  all  fair."  Obtain  a 
ring  from  one  of  the  company,  and  retain 
it  in  the  hand  with  which  you  receive  it, 
but  pretend  to  pass  it  to  the  other.  Then 
pretend  to  wrap  it  up  in  the  handkerchief, 
and  taking  hold  of  the  other  ring  through 
the  folds,  request  some  one  to  hold  it.  Ask 
them  if  they  can  feel  it,  and  as  soon  as  they 
are  satisfied  that  this  is  the  identical  ring 
which  you  borrowed,  you  put  a  plate  on  the 
table,  and  request  the  person  holding  the 
handkerchief  to  place  both  it  and  the  ring 
on  the  plate.  You  then  inform  the  com- 
pany that  you  will  cause  the.  ring  to  pass 
through  the  plate  and  table  into  a  little 
box,  which  you  show  round,  and  which  you 


will  place  under  the  table.  You  can  easily 
slip  the  ring  in  as  you  are  doing  so.  Then 
partly  unwrap  the  handkerchief,  so  that  the 
ring  will  chink  upon  the  plate,  and  with 
the  words,  "Quick!  change  1  begone!"  or 
some  expression  of  similar  import,  take  the 
handkerchief  by  two  corners,  and  put  it  in 
your  pocket,  saying,  "It  is  now  in  the  box." 
You  then  request  some  one  to  pick  it  up 
and  take  out  the  ring. 

THE   COOKING    HAT 

Have  cakes  or  pudding  previously  made, 
and  procure  a  jar  or  doctor's  gallipot,  and 
a  tin  pot,  made  straight  all  the  way  up, 
with  the  bottom  half  way  down,  so  that 
both  ends  contain  exactly  the  same  quan- 
tity. The  ready-made  pancakes  are  pre- 
viously put  into  the  one  end  of  this  pot, 
which  must  be  dexterously  slipped  into  the 
hat.  Then  take  some  milk,  flour,  eggs,  etc., 
and  mix  them  up  in  the  jar.  Having  done 
so,  deliberately  pour  the  mixture  into  the 
hat,  taking  care  that  the  pot  previously  de- 
posited there  receives  it.  Put  the  jar  down 
into  the  hat,  press  it  on  the  tin  pot,  which 
exactly  fits  inside  the  jar,  and  brings  away 
the  pot  containing  the  mixture,  leaving  the 
pancakes,  which  you  pretend  to  fry  over  the 
candle,  using  the  hat  as  a  frying-pan.  Then 
turn  out  the  pudding  or  pancakes,  show  that 
the  hat  remains  unsoiled,  and  restore  it  to 
its  owner. 

AN    AVIARY    IN    A    HAT 

This  excellent  but  well-known  trick  re- 
quires the  assistance  of  a  confederate.  A 
hat  is  borrowed  as  before  from  one  of  the 
audience,  and  turned  round  and  round  to 
show  there  is  nothing  in  it.  It  is  then  laid 
on  the  operator's  table,  behind  a  vase  or 
some  other  bulky  article;  after  which,  as  if 
a  new  idea  had  occurred  to  you,  perform 
some  other  trick,  during  which  the  confed- 
erate removes  the  borrowed  hat,  substitut- 
ing one  previously  prepared.  This  substi- 
tuted hat  is  filled  with  small  pigeons,  placed 
in  a  bag  with  a  whalebone  or  an  elastic 
mouth,  which  fits  the  inside  of  the  hat.  The 
bag  containing  the  birds  is  covered  with  a 
piece  of  cloth,  with  a  slit  in  the  top.  The 
operator,  taking  up  the  hat,  puts  his  hands 
through  the  slit,  and  takes  out  the  birds 
one  by  one,  till  all  are  free.  The  hat  is 
then  placed  on  the  table,  for  the  ostensible 
purpose  of  cleaning  it  before  handing  it 
back,  and  the  confederate  again  changes  the 
hats,  having  in  the  interim  fitted  the  bor- 
rowed hat  with  a  bag  similar  to  the  other, 
and  also  filled  with  pigeons.  This  having 


PARLOR   MAGIC 


489 


been  done,  you  call  out  to  your  confederate, 
and  request  him,  so  that  all  your  audience 
may  hear,  to  "Take  the  gentleman's  hat 
away,  and  clean  it."  He  takes  it  up,  and 
peeps  into  it,  saying,  "You  have  not  let  all 
the  birds  away,"  upon  which,  to  the  sur- 
prise and  amusement  of  the  spectators,  you 
produce  another  lot  of  birds  as  before.  In 
brushing  the  hat  previous  to  restoring  it  to 
the  owner,  the  bag  may  be  adroitly  removed. 

A  BANK-NOTE  CONCEALED  IN  A 
CANDLE 

Ask  some  one  to  lend  you  a  bank-note,  and 
to  notice  the  number,  etc.  You  then  walk 
up  to  the  screen  behind  which  your  confed- 
erate is  concealed,  pass  the  note  to  him, 
and  take  a  wax  or  composite  candle.  Then 
turning  to  the  audience,  you  ask  one  of 
them — a  boy  would  be  preferred — to  step 
up  on  the  platform.  At  your  request  he 
must  cut  the  candle  into  four  equal  parts. 
You  then  take  three  of  them,  and  say  you 
will  perform  the  trick  by  means  of  them, 
passing  the  fourth  piece  to  the  other  end 
of  the  table,  where  your  confederate  has 
already  rolled  up  the  note  in  a  very  small 
compass,  and  thrust  it  into  a  hollow  bit 
of  candle,  previously  made  ready.  You  take 
up  this  piece,  and,  concealing  it  in  your 
hand,  you  walk  up  to  the  boy,  and  appear 
accidentally  to  knock,  one  of  the  bits  of 
candle  out  of  his  hand,  and  while  you  are 
stooping  to  pick  it  up  off  the  floor,  you 
change  it  for  the  bit  which  contains  the 
note.  You  then  place  it  on  the  table,  and 
say  to  the  audience,  "Which  piece  shall  I 
take— right  or  left?"  If  they  select  the  one 
which  contains  the  note,  ask  the  boy  to  cut 
it  carefully  through  the  middle,  and  to  mind 
that  he  does  not  cut  the  note.  When  he 
has  made  a  slight  incision,  tell  him  to  break 
it,  when  the  note  will  be  found  in  the  mid- 
dle. If  the  audience  select  the  piece  which 
does  not  contain  the  note,  you  throw  it 
aside,  and  say  that  the  note  will  be  found 
in  the  remaining  piece.  When  this  is  done 
with  tact,  the  audience  will  naturally  be- 
lieve that  they  have  really  had  the  privilege 
of  choosing. 

THE   DOLL   TRICK 

The  Doll  Trick,  although  common  in 
England  and  at  every  fair  throughout  the 
United  States,  is  without  exception  one  of 
the  best  sleight-of-hand  tricks  that  was  ever 
performed,  and  must  not  be  omitted  here. 

The  conjurer  produces  a  wooden  painted 
doll,  about  six  inches  long;  he  then  places 
it  in  a  bag  of  very  dark  material,  and  tells 
his  story.  "The  little  traveler,  ladies  and 


gentlemen,  you  see  before  you  is  a  won- 
derful little  man  who  has  been  all  over  the 
world;  but  as  he  has  grown  older  he  has 
become  very  nervous.  One  evening  lately, 
at  a  small  cabaret  in  the  south  of  France, 
he  was  stating  how  nervous  he  was  and 
how  much  he  dreaded  being  robbed,  when 
a  Jew  who  sat  in  a  corner  of  the  room 
undertook  to  impart  to  him  the  means  of 
making  himself  invisible  at  any  moment, 
for  a  sum  to  be  agreed  upon.  The  bar- 
gain was  struck,  the  money  paid,  and  the 
Jew  placed  at  his  disposal  a  small  skull- 
cap, which,  as  soon  as  it  was  placed  upon 
his  head,  rendered  him  at  once  invisible ; 
and  I  will  now  show  you,  ladies  and  gen- 
tlemen, the  power  possessed  by  this  cap." 
The  doll  is  then  introduced  into  the  bag, 
which  has  a  small  opening  at  the  smaller 
end  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  the  doll's 
head  passing  through  it.  When  the  head 
has  been  shown,  the  lower  part  of  the  bag 
is  turned  over  the  doll  and  its  body  shown, 
"so  that  there  can  be  no  deception !"  The 
conjurer  then  says  (still  holding  the  head 
above  the  top  of  the  bag),  "I  will  now  show 
you  the  wonderful  cap  by  which  the  old 
gentleman  is  at  once  rendered  invisible;" 
and  producing  it  from  his  pocket,  he  places 
it  upon  the  head  of  the  doll  for  a  moment, 
and  then  removes  it;  the  head  then  disap- 
pears in  the  bag,  which  is  then  turned  in- 
side out,  and  no  trace  of  the  doll  can  be 
perceived,  though  the  bag  be  thrown  on  the 
floor,  stamped  upon,  etc. 

And  now  for  the  secret  and  the  method 
of  performing  this  really  surprising  though 
very  simple  trick.  The  head  is  removable 
and  only  fastened  to  the  neck  by  a  peg  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  long;  the  bag  or 
dress  is  made  full  at  the  bottom,  i.e.,  about 
the  size  of  a  hat,  and  has  an  opening  at 
the  top  just  large  enough  to  allow  the  doll's 
head  to  pass  through  it;  at  the  lower  edge 
of  this  bag  must  be  made  a  small  pocket, 
just  large  enough  to  contain  easily  the  doll, 
and  on  the  outside  of  the  bag  must  be  a 
red  streak,  by  way  of  ornament,  coming 
from  the  top  directly  down  to  the  pocket, 
so  that  it  may  be  seen  exactly  where  the 
pocket  is.  This  side  of  the  bag  must  be 
held  nearest  to  the  performer. 

In  performing  the  trick  the  doll  is  in- 
troduced at  the  bottom  of  the  'bag,  and 
passed  upward  until  the  head  is  shown 
through  the  opening  at  the  top;  and  when 
the  performer  says,  "I  will  now  show  you 
the  cap,"  he,  holding  the  head  of  the  doll 
in  his  left  hand,  quickly  passes  the  body 
into  his  pocket,  where  he  has  the  cap,  which 
he  produces,  leaving  the  body  in  its  place. 


490 


PARLOR    MAGIC 


He  then  for  a  moment  places  the  cap  on  the 
doll's  head,  and  replaces  it  in  his  pocket; 
then  placing  his  right  hand  in  the  bag,  he 
slowly  draws  down  the  head,  which  he  slips 
into  the  small  pocket  in  the  bag,  and  shows 
his  hand  open  and  empty.  He  then  catches 
hold  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  bag  at  the 
pocket,  holding,  of  course,  the  head  of  the 
doll  in  his  hand,  and  strikes  the  bag  against 
the  table,  ground,  etc.,  and  says,  "I  told  you 
the  old  gentleman  would  become  invisible." 
He  then  says,  "I  will  try  to  bring  him  back 
again;"  and  introducing  his  hand  into  the 
bag,  he  takes  the  head  from  the  pocket  and 
shows  it  through  the  opening  at  the  top  of 
the  bag,  and  retaining  it  in  his  hand,  he 
throws  the  bag  on  the  floor  and  tramples 
upon  it. 

If  well  done,  we  consider  this  trick,  though 
common,  one  of  the  best  that  is  performed. 
It  will  be  as  well  to  have  two  dolls  made 
exactly  alike,  one  with  the  head  fixed,  to 
be  handed  round,  and  the  other  with  the 
movable  head  to  be  used  in  the  trick. 
We  sometimes  use  a  pocketless  dress,  and 
"palm"  the  head. 

TO  PASS  A  DIME  THROUGH  A 
TABLE 

This  trick,  like  the  preceding  one,  is  very 
amusing,  and  if  well,  and  what  we  may  call 
cleanly,  done,  is  really  very  astonishing. 
The  conjurer,  seating  himself  at  a  table, 
borrows  two  articles  of  any  kind  sufficiently 
small  to  be  concealed  in  the  hands;  these  he 
places  on  the  edge  of  the  table  before  him, 
and  says,  "I  take  this  one,  as  you  see,  in  my 
right  hand,  and  hold  it  at  arm's  length,  and 
the  other  I  take  in  my  left  hand — my  hands 
never  meet.  I  now  place  my  left  hand  un- 
der the  table  and  my  right  hand  above  it, 
and  upon  my  giving  the  word  'Pass !'  the 
dime  which  you  saw  me  take  in  my  right 
hand  will  pass  through  the  table  to  the  ball 
of  cotton  in  my  left,  which  you  see  is  the 
case." 

This  trick  is  very  easy  of  accomplishment, 
if  but  a  little  time  and  patience  be  bestowed 
upon  it.  The  dime,  piece  of  India-rubber, 
or  any  other  small  article  must  be  placed 
on  the  edge  of  the  table,  and  the  fingers 
must  be  placed  over  it  exactly  the  same 
way  as  if  it  were  really  desired  to  take  it 
in  the  hand ;  but  instead  of  doing  so  the 
fingers  merely  push  it  over  the  edge  of  the 
table,  and,  the  knees  of  the  performer  being 
closed,  it  falls  into  his  lap.  It  is  then  picked 
up  with  the  left  hand,  and  the  right  hand 
being  brought  sharply  upon  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  table,  the  dime  appears  to  have 
passed  through  it. 


THE    CUP   AND    CENT 

This  too,  if  well  performed,  is  a  most  as- 
tounding trick.  Three  coins  of  one  cent 
each  are  shown,  and  a  small  cap  or  cup. 
The  cents  are  thrown  on  the  table,  picked 
up  again,  arranged  one  on  the  other,  and 
the  cap  placed  over  them.  A  hat  is  then 
introduced,  and  shown  to  be  empty;  this  is 
then  held  in  the  left  hand  under  the  table, 
the  cap  removed  with  the  right  hand,  the 
cents  shown  and  recovered.  The  conjurer 
then  says,  "Pass !".  when  the  cents  are  heard 
to  fall  in  the  hat;  the  cap  on  the  table  is 
raised,  and  they  are  gone,  and  in  their  place 
a  small  die  or  three-cent  piece  appears.  The 
cents  are  then  taken  in  the  left  hand,  held 
under  the  table,  and  commanded  to  pass; 
and  on  raising  the  cap  they  again  appear 
beneath  it. 

This  trick  is  very  simple  though  ingen- 
ious, and  the  solution  of  it  is  as  follows. 
The  cap  is  of  leather  or  any  similar  stiff 
material,  and  made  to  fit  over  three  coins  of 
one  cent  each  easily;  and.  the  "trick"  cents 
are  six  riveted  together,  the  upper  one  being 
entire,  but  the  other  five  being  turned  out, 
leaving  nothing  but  their  outer  rims.  Three 
coins  of  one  cent  each  are  shown,  as  also 
the  cap;  and  after  showing  the  cents,  while 
gathering  them  in  the  hand,  "palm"  them 
and  place  the  "trick"  cents  (inside  of  which 
is  the  die)  on  the  table,  and  cover  them 
with  the  cap.  Then  taking  the  hat  in  the 
left  hand,  command  the  cents  to  pass,  and 
at  the  word  drop  the  genuine  cents  into  the 
hat,  at  the  same  time  raising  the  cap  on 
the  table,  and  by  pinching  the  sides  of  it 
rather  tightly  the  "trick"  cents  are  raised 
with  it,  and  the  die  or  three  cent-piece  ap- 
pears then  covering  the  die  or  three  cent- 
pieces  with  the  cap  and  the  "trick"  cents 
concealed  in  it,  show  the  genuine  cents  in 
the  hat,  and  command  them  to  return;  and 
holding  the  genuine  cents  in  the  left  hand, 
lift  the  cap,  and  the  cents  again  appear. 
Then  taking  the  cap  in  the  right  hand, 
adroitly  drop  the  "trick"  cents  into  it 
and  tender  the  cap  for  scrutiny. 

The  tablecloth  should  be  a  thick  and  soft 
one,  to  prevent  the  spectators  from  hearing 
the  die  fall  as  the  "trick"  cents  are  placed 
on  the  table. 

THE   SHOWER    OF   SUGARPLUMS 

This  is  a  capital  finale  to  an  evening's 
amusement,  particularly  with  young  chil- 
dren. A  small  bag,  capable  of  holding 
about  a  pint,  must  be  made  of  a  piece  of 
figured  calico,  of  a  conical  shape,  but  open 
at  the  bottom  or  larger  end,  on  each  side 


PARLOR   MAGIC 


491 


of  which  must  be  inserted  a  flat  thin  piece 
of  whalebone;  at  the  upper  or  smaller  end 
must  be  a  small  hook  made  of  wire — a 
lady's  hairpin  will  answer  the  purpose  per- 
fectly. The  trick  is  performed  in  this  way: 

The  bottom  of  the  bag  must  be  opened 
by  pressing  the  opposite  ends  of  the  two 
pieces  of  whalebone,  when,  of  course,  they 
will  bend  and  divide,  and  the  bag  must 
then  be  filled  with  sugarplums,  care  being 
taken  to  put  the  small  bonbons  at  the  top 
of  the  bag,  and  the  large  ones  at  the  bottom 
next  the  whalebone,  which  will  prevent  the 
small  ones  from  falling  out  The  bag  when 
filled  must  on  the  first  opportunity  be  sus- 
pended by  its  hook  at  the  back  of  a  chair 
having  a  stuffed  back,  so  that  it  can  not 
be  seen. 

When  the  trick  is  to  be  performed,  a 
large  handkerchief  must  be  shown,  with  a 
request  that  it  may  be  examined.  It  is 
then  laid  over  the  back  of  the  chair.  A 
little  girl  must  then  be  asked  if  she  is  afraid 
of  being  out  in  the  rain,  and  on  her  answer- 
ing in  the  negative  she  must  be  requested 
to  kneel  down  in  the  middle  of  the  room. 
The  performer  must  then  place  his  left 
hand  on  the  handkerchief,  and  feeling  the 
hook  which  supports  the  bag,  he  raises  it 
with  the  handkerchief,  and  holds  it  above 
the  little  girl's  head;  then  passing  his  right 
hand  from  the  fourth  finger  and  thumb  of 
the  left  hand  which  hold  the  handkerchief 
and  bag,  downward,  he  can  easily  feel  the 
bottom  of  the  bag,  and  on  pressing  the  op- 
posite ends  of  the  whalebone,  they  bend 
and  open,  and  the  contents  of  the  bag  of 
course  fall  out  in  a  shower,  and  a  general 
scramble  among  the  children  takes  place. 

THE  VANISHING  DIME 

Take  a  sheet  of  absolutely  fresh  Manila 
paper  that  has  not  been  creased  or  punc- 
tured. The  size  of  this  sheet  should  be  at 
least  12  by  18  inches,  and  the  paper  should 
be  .  rather  heavy.  Next  take  a  goblet  of 
cylindrical  shape.  Cut  a  piece  of  the  same 
kind  of  Manila  paper  into  a  square  a  little 
larger  than  the  mouth  of  the  glass.  Deli- 
cately apply  a  very  little  mucilage  all  around 
the  rim  of  the  glass,  taking  care  not  to  let 
any  of  it  get  on  the  sides.  Now  press  the 
mouth  of  the  glass  firmly  against  the  small 
square  of  paper,  causing  the  paper  to  ad- 
here to  the  rim  of  the  glass.  After  a  min- 
ute take  a  sharp-pointed  penknife  and  trim 
the  paper  closely  around  the  rim  until  the 
paper  that  adheres  to  the  mouth  of  the 
glass  just  covers  the  mouth,  with  no  pro- 
jecting edges  or  points.  Take  another  piece 


of  Manila  paper  and  fold  it  into  a  long 
cylinder  that  will  j  ust  fit  over  the  inverted 
glass.  Close  the  top  of  this  paper  cylinder 
by  folding  it  over.  Place  the  large  sheet 
of  Manila  paper  on  the  table.  On  one  edge 
of  the  sheet  of  paper  place  the  glass,  in- 
verted, and  no  one,  looking  through  the 
glass,  will  detect  the  fact  that  there  is  a 
thickness  of  paper  glued  to  the  mouth  of 
the  glass.  Borrow  a  dime  from  one  of  the 
company.  Place  this  upon  the  sheet  of 
Manila  paper,  and  next  hand  the  paper  cyl- 
inder to  the  spectators  to  inspect.  Taking 
back  the  cylinder,  place  it  over  the  glass. 
Now,  lifting  glass  and  cylinder  together, 
place  the  glass  over  the  dime.  Call  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  in  so  doing  you  are 
not  touching  the  dime,  which,  as  every  one 
will  know,  must  now  be  under  the  glass. 
Lift  the  cylinder  from  over  the  glass,  and 
the  spectators,  looking  through  the  glass, 
will  be  puzzled  at  observing  that  the  dime 
no  longer  appears  to  be  there.  Almost  im- 
mediately replace  the  cylinder  over  the  glass, 
lifting  both,  and  the  dime  is  there  where 
the  spectators  last  saw  it.  Of  course,  while 
the  glass  is  over  the  dime,  the  paper  glued 
to  the  mouth  of  the  glass  prevents  its  being 
seen. 

Repeat  this  trick  two  or  three  times  quick- 
ly, and  then  remove  the  apparatus,  proceed- 
ing to  some  other  trick.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  the  performer  must  not  allow 
any  one  to  lift  the  glass  to  examine  it,  or 
the  trick  will  be  at  once  comprehended 
Preventing  curious  spectators  from  exam- 
ining parts  of  your  apparatus  that  you  do 
not  wish  them  to  see  is  one  of  the  arts  of 
a  sleight-of-hand  performer,  and  is  born  of 
tact. 

THE   PENKNIFE   AND   QUARTER 
TRICK 

This  is  a  most  ingenious  trick,  and  is 
done  in  this  way.  Mounting  a  table,  stick 
the  penknife  by  its  point  into  the  ceiling, 
but  only  sufficiently  to  support  it.  Then 
after  a  deal  of  examination  of  its  position, 
etc.,  place  a  piece  of  brown  paper  on  the 
floor,  on  which  put  the  quarter,  and  then 
say  you  will  undertake  to  place  the  quarter 
so  exactly  under  it  that,  when  dislodged, 
the  knife  shall  fall  upon  it.  When  wonder 
is  excited,  and  it  is  declared  to  be  impos- 
sible, call  for  a  glass  of  water ;  then  mount- 
ing on  the  table,  dip  the  penknife  in  the 
water  and  withdraw  the  glass;  a  drop  of 
water  will  soon  fall  on  the  paper,  and  on 
that  very  spot  place  the  quarter.  You  then 
strike  the  ceiling  with  your  fist,  when  the 


492 


PARLOR   MAGIC 


knife  will  fall,  of  course,  on  the  quarter. 
The  knife  chosen  for  the  purpose  should 
be  one  having  rather  a  heavy  pointed  han- 
dle, as  the  drop  of  water  will  then  fall  from 
the  most  central  point. 

TO  PRODUCE  A  CANNON-BALL 
FROM  A  HAT 

A  ball  must  be  turned  out  of  any  kind  of 
soft  light  wood,  and  must  have  a  hole  bored 
in  it  large  enough  to  admit  the  middle  fin- 
ger, and  it  should  be  painted  black.  The 
trick  is  performed  in  this  way:  On  the 
front  of  the  conjuring  table,  i.e.,  the  side 
next  the  spectators,  should  be  placed  a  few 
layers  of  books,  high  enough  to  conceal 
from  view  the  ball  or  any  other  apparatus 
with  which  it  is  intended  to  perform.  On 
the  side  of  the  books  next  the  performer 
the  ball  should  be  placed,  with  the  hole  in 
it  toward  him.  The  hat  should  be  placed  on 
the  books  on  its  side  on  the  left-hand  end 
of  the  table,  with  its  crown  next  the  spec- 
tators. When  the  trick  is  to  be  performed 
the  hat  should  be  shown  to  be  entirely 
empty,  and  then  returned  to  its  position 
on  the  books;  then,  having  placed  a  hat- 


brush  or  silk  handkerchief  at  the  right 
hand  of  the  table,  say,  "This  trick  can  not 
be  performed  unless  the  hat  is  perfectly 
smooth,"  and  while  leaning  to  the  right  to 
reach  the  brush  or  handkerchief,  which  di- 
verts attention  to  that  end  of  the  table,  the 
middle  finger  of  the  left  hand  must  be 
placed  in  the  hole  in  tfie  ball,  which  is 
thus  slipped  into  the  hat,  which  must  then 
be  carefully  brushed  and  held  crown  upper- 
most. The  brush  should  then  be  put  down, 
and  the  right  thumb  placed  on  the  rim  of 
the  hat,  with  the  fingers  extended  uuder- 
neath  so  as  to  support  the  ball  in  the  hat, 
and  the  left  hand  should  then  be  placed  in 
the  same  position,  and  the  hat,  with  the 
ball  in  it,  carried  and  placed  upon  another 
table.  A  small  ball  must  then  be  produced, 
and  a  boy  asked  if  he  thinks  he  can  hold 
it  in  his  mouth,  and  told  to  try.  The  ball 
is  then  taken  in  the  right  hand,  pretended 
to  be  thrown  against  the  hat,  "palmed,"  and 
concealed  in  the  pocket.  The  boy  should 
then  be  asked  if  he  will  again  take  the  ball 
in  his  mouth,  and  while  opening  it  the 
cannon-ball  is  suddenly  taken  from  under 
the  hat  and  placed  in  front  of  his  face. 


ETIQUETTE 


ETIQUETTE  may  be  defined  as  the  minor  morality  of  life.  Its  laws, 
like  all  other  social  laws,  are  the  accumulated  results  of  the  wisdom 
and  experience  of  many  generations.  They  form  a  code  with 
which  every  educated  person  is  bound  to  be  acquainted.  The  word, 
etiquette,  is  from  the  French,  and  means,  in  brief,  a  ceremonial,  also 
something  that  is  "labeled,"  or  designated.  Properly  understood,  it  is  as 
necessary  to  the  well-being  of  people  as  are  the  greater  questions  of  be- 
havior, commonly  included  under  the  head  of  morality.  If  a  man  does 
an  immoral  thing — something  that  injures  both  himself  and  others — he  is 
very  properly  avoided  by  all  who  know  of  it.  Similarly,  if  he  pays  no 
heed  to  the  minor  amenities  of  life,  if  he  ignores  the  rules  of  custom  that 
indicate  what  is  due  to  others  in  the  way  of  treatment,  respect,  and  considera- 
tion, he  is  justly  considered  uncouth  and  boorish.  To  be  sure,  customs 
differ  among  the  various  nations,  and  what  is  considered  perfectly  polite 
in  one  country  is  the  essence  of  rudeness  in  another.  Thus,  in  Japan,  it 
is  said,  that  in  visiting  a  man  at  his  house,  it  is  considered  a  breach  of  all 
laws  to  take  any  notice  whatever  of  his  wife  or  other  female  relatives — 
unless  the  host  sees  fit  to  present  them..  Such  foreign  customs  need  not  be 
considered  until  one  goes  abroad.  "While  we  are  in  Rome  we  behave  as 
the  Romans  do,"  and,  if  we  wish  to  stand  well  with  our  fellows,  we  must 
know  "what  is  done." 


INTRODUCTIONS 

rO  introduce  persons  who  are  mutually 
unknown  is  to  undertake  a  serious 
responsibility,  and  to  certify  to  each  the 
respectability  of  the  other.  Never  under- 
take this  responsibility  without,  in  the  first 
place,  asking  yourself  whether  the  persons 
are  likely  to  be  agreeable  to  each  other; 
nor,  in  the  second  place,  without  ascertain- 
ing whether  it  will  be  acceptable  to  both 
parties  to  become  acquainted. 

Always   introduce   the   gentleman   to  the 
lady — never  the  lady  to  the  gentleman.  The 


chivalry  of  etiquette  assumes  that  the  lady 
is  invariably  the  superior  in  right  of  her 
sex,  and  that  the  gentleman  is  honored  in 
the  introduction. 

Never  present  a  gentleman  to  a  lady  with- 
out first  asking  her  permission  to  do  so. 

When  you  are  introduced  to  a  gentle- 
man, never  offer  your  hand.  When  intro- 
duced, persons  limit  their  recognition  of 
each  other  to  a  bow. 
,  Persons  who  have  met  at  the  house  of  a 
mutual  friend  without  being  introduced 
should  not  bow  if  they  afterward  meet  else- 

(493)  32 


494 


ETIQUETTE 


where.  A  bow  implies  acquaintance;  and 
persons  who  have  not  been  introduced  are 
not  formally  acquainted.  This  rule  is  only 
general,  however,  and  people  may  act  as 
they  feel  inclined. 

If  you  are  walking  with  one  friend,  and 
presently  meet  with,  or  are  joined  by,  a 
second,  do  not  commit  the  too  frequent 
error  of  there  and  then  introducing  them 
to  each  other. 

In  your  own  house  you  have  the  right  to 
introduce  two  visitors,  who  may  be  stran- 
gers, at  your  own  discretion,  whether  they 
care  to  continue  the  acquaintance  or  not. 
If  you  consider  such  persons  qualified  to  be 
equally  your  friends  you  are  justified  in 
so  doing.  A  good  rule,  however,  is  not 
to  bring  people  together  deliberately  who 
would  certainly  be  uncongenial. 

There  are  some  exceptions  to  the  eti- 
quette of  introduction.  At  a  ball,  or  evening 
party  where  there  is  dancing,  the  mistress 
of  the  house  may  introduce  any  gentleman 
to  any  lady  without  first  asking  the  lady's 
permission.  But  she  should  first  ascertain 
whether  the  lady  is  willing  to  dance;  and 
this  out  of  consideration  for  the  gentleman, 
who  may  otherwise  be  refused.  No  man 
likes  to  be  refused  the  hand  of  a  lady, 
though  it  be  only  for  a  quadrille. 

A  sister  may  present  her  brother,  or  a 
mother  her  son,  without  any  kind  of  pre- 
liminary. 

Friends  may  introduce  friends  at  the 
house  of  a  mutual  acquaintance;  but,  as  a 
rule,  it  is  better  to  be  introduced  by  the 
mistress  of  the  house.  Such  an  introduc- 
tion carries  more  authority  with  it 

Introductions  at  evening  parties  are  now 
almost  wholly  dispensed  with.  Persons 
who  meet  at  a  friend's  house  are  ostensibly 
upon  an  equality,  and  pay  a  bad  compli- 
ment to  the  host  by  appearing  suspicious 
and  formal.  Some  old-fashioned  country 
hosts  still  persevere  in  introducing  each 
new-comer  to  all  the  assembled  guests.  It 
is  a  custom  that  can  not  be  too  soon  abol- 
ished, and  one  that  places  the  last  unfortu- 
nate visitor  in  a  singularly  awkward  posi- 
tion. All  that  she  can  do  is  to  make  a  semi- 
circular courtesy,  like  a  concert  singer  be- 
fore an  audience,  and  bear  the  general  gaze 
with  as  much  composure  as  possible. 

An  introduction  given  at  a  ball  for  the 
mere  purpose  of  conducting  a  lady  through 
8  dance  does  not  give  the  gentleman  any 
right  to  bow  to  her  on  a  future  occasion. 
If  he  commits  this  error,  she  may  remem- 
ber that  she  is  not  bound  to  see,  or  return, 
hit  salutation. 


LETTERS   OF   INTRODUCTION 

Do  not  lightly  give  or  promise  letters 
of  introduction.  Always  remember  that 
when  you  give  a  letter  of  introduction  you 
lay  yourself  under  an  obligation  to  the 
friend  to  whom  it  is  addressed.  Always 
ask  yourself  whether  the  person  introduced 
will  be  an  acceptable  acquaintance  to  the 
friend  addressed  in  your  letter.  If  the 
stranger  is  in  any  way  unsuitable  in  habits 
or  temperament,  you  inflict  an  annoyance 
on  your  friend  instead  of  a  pleasure.  In 
questions  of  introduction  never  oblige  one 
friend  to  the  discomfort  of  another. 

Those  to  whom  letters  of  introduction 
have  been  given  should  send  them  to  the 
person  to  whom  they  are  addressed,  and  in- 
close a  card.  Avoid  delivering  a  letter  of 
introduction  in  person.  It  places  you  in  the 
most  undignified  position  imaginable,  and 
compels  you  to  wait  while  it  is  being  read, 
like  a  servant  who  has  been  told  to  wait 
for  an  answer. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  stranger  sends 
you  a  letter  of  introduction  and  her  card, 
you  are  bound  by  the  laws  of  politeness  and 
hospitality,  not  only  to  call  at  the  earliest 
opportunity,  but  to  follow  up  that  attention 
with  others,  as  may  seem  suitable. 

A  letter  of  introduction  should  be  given 
unsealed,  not  alone  because  your  friend 
may  wish  to  know  what  you  have  said  of 
him  or  her,  but  also  as  a  guarantee  of  your 
own  good  faith.  As  you  should  never  give 
such  a  letter  unless  you  can  speak  highly 
of  the  bearer,  this  rule  of  etiquette  is  easy 
to  observe.  By  requesting  your  friend  to 
fasten  the  envelope  before  forwarding  the 
letter  to  its  destination,  you  tacitly  give 
permission  to  inspect  its  contents. 

VISITING,  MORNING  CALLS,  CARDS 

A  "morning"  visit  should  be  paid  be^ 
tween  the  hours  of  2  and  4  P.M.  in  winter, 
and  2  and  $  in  summer. 

Visits  of  ceremony  should  be  short.  Even 
if  the  conversation  should  become  ani- 
mated, beware  of  letting  your  call  exceed 
half  an  hour's  length.  It  is  always  better 
to  let  your  friends  regret  rather  than  desire 
your  withdrawal. 

On  returning  visits  of  ceremony  you  may, 
without  impoliteness,  leave  your  card  at 
the  door  without  going  in.  Do  not  fail, 
however,  to  inquire  if  the  family  be  well. 

Should  there  be  daughters  or  sisters  re- 
siding with  the  lady  upon  whom  you  make 
a  first  call,  or  a  call  after  an  entertainment 
at  the  house,  a  card  is  left  for  each,  and  at 
departure  a  card  for  the  host 


ETIQUETTE 


495 


Under  other  conditions  cards  are  no 
longer  left  for  each  member  of  the  family. 
A  married  woman  making  the  first  call  of 
the  season  leaves  her  husband's  card  and 
her  own;  thereafter  she  leaves  two  of  her 
husband's. 

Unless  when  returning  thanks  for  "kind 
inquiries,"  or  announcing  your  arrival  in, 
or  departure  from,  town,  it  is  not  consid- 
ered respectful  to  send  round  cards  by  a 
servant. 

Leave-taking  cards  have  P.  P.  C.  (pour 
prendre  conge)  written  in  the  corner. 
Some  use  P.  D.  A.  (pour  dire  adieu). 

The  visiting  cards  of  gentlemen  are  half 
the  size  of  those  used  by  ladies. 

Autographic  facsimiles  for  visiting  cards 
are  affectations  in  any  persons  but  those 
who  are  personally  remarkable  for  talent, 
and  whose  autographs,  or  facsimiles  of 
them,  would  be  prized  as  curiosities. 

Visits  of  condolence  are  paid  within  the 
week  after  the  event  which  occasions  them. 
Personal  visits  of  this  kind  are  made  by 
relations  and  very  intimate  friends  only. 
Acquaintances  should  leave  cards  with  nar- 
row mourning  borders. 

On  the  first  occasion  when  you  are  re- 
ceived by  the  family  after  the  death  of  one 
of  its  members,  it  is  etiquette  to  wear 
slight  mourning. 

When  a  gentleman  makes  a  morning  call, 
he  should  never  leave  his  hat  or  riding- 
whip  in  the  hall,  but  should  take  both  into 
the  room.  To  do  otherwise  would  be  to 
make  himself  too  much  at  home.  The  hat, 
however,  must  never  be  laid  on  a  table, 
piano,  or  any  article  of  furniture;  it  should 
be  held  gracefully  in  the  hand.  If  you  are 
compelled  to  lay  it  aside  put  it  on  the  floor. 

Umbrellas  should  invariably  be  left  in 
the  hall. 

Never  take  favorite  dogs  into  a  drawing- 
room  when  you  make  a  morning  call.  Their 
feet  may  be  dusty,  or  they  may  bark  at  the 
sight  of  strangers,  or,  being  of  too  friendly 
a  disposition,  may  take  the  liberty  of  lying 
on  a  lady's  gown,  or  jumping  on  the  sofas 
and  easy-chairs.  Where  your  friend  has  a 
favorite  cat  already  established  before  the 
fire,  a  battle  may  ensue,  and  one  or  both  of 
the  pets  be  seriously  hurt.  Besides,  many 
persons  have  a  constitutional  antipathy  to 
dogs,  and  others  never  allow  their  own  to 
be  seen  in  the  sitting-rooms.  For  all  or 
any  of  these  reasons  a  visitor  has  no  right 
to  inflict  upon  his  friend  the  society  of  his 
dog  as  well  as  of  himself. 

Neither  is  it  well  for  a  mother  to  take 
young  children  with  her  when  she  pays 


morning  visits;  their  presence,  unless  they 
are  unusually  well  trained,  can  only  be  pro- 
ductive of  anxiety  to  both  yourself  and 
your  hostess.  She,  while  striving  to  amuse 
them,  or  to  appear  interested  in  them,  is 
secretly  anxious  for  the  fate  of  her  album, 
or  the  ornaments  on  her  etaghe;  while  the 
mother  is  trembling  lest  her  children  should 
say  or  do  something  objectionable. 

If,  when  you  call  upon  a  lady,  you  meet 
a  lady  visitor  in  her  drawing-room,  you 
should  rise  when  that  lady  takes  her  leave. 

If  other  visitors  are  announced,  and  you 
have  already  remained  as  long  as  courtesy 
requires,  wait  till  they  are  seated,  and  then 
rise  from  your  chair,  take  leave  of  your 
hostess,  and  bow  politely  to  the  newly  ar- 
rived guests.  You  will,  perhaps,  be  urged 
to  remain,  but,  having  once  risen,  it  is  al- 
ways best  to  go.  There  is  always  a  certain 
air  of  gaucherie  in  resuming  your  seat  and 
repeating  the  ceremony  of  leave-taking. 

If  you  have  occasion  to  look  at  your  watch 
during  a  call,  ask  permission  to  do  so,  and 
apologize  for  it  on  the  plea  of  other  ap- 
pointments. 

In  receiving  morning  visitors,  it  is  not 
necessary  that  a  lady  should  lay  aside  the 
employment  in  which  she  may  be  engaged, 
particularly  if  it  consists  of  light  or  orna- 
mental needlework.  Politeness,  however, 
requires  that  music,  drawing,  or  any  occu- 
pation which  would  completely  engross  the 
attention,  be  at  once  abandoned. 

You  need  not  advance  to  receive  visitors 
when  announced,  unless  they  are  persons 
to  whom  you  are  desirous  of  testifying  par- 
ticular attention.  It  is  sufficient  if  a  lady 
rises  to  receive  her  visitors,  moves  forward 
a  single  step  to  shake  hands  with  them,  and 
remains  standing  till  they  are  seated. 

When  your  visitors  rise  to  take  leave  you 
should  rise  also,  and  remain  standing  till 
they  have  quite  left  the  room. 

A  lady  should  dress  well,  but  not  too 
richly,  when  she  pays  a  morning  visit. 

CONVERSATION 

Let  your  conversation  be  adapted  as  skil- 
fully as  may  be  to  your  company.  Some 
men  make  a  point  of  talking  common- 
places to  all  ladies  alike,  as  if  a  woman 
could  only  be  a  trifler.  Others,  on  the  con- 
trary, seem  to  forget  in  what  respects  the 
education  of  a  lady  differs  from  that  of  a 
gentleman,  and  commit  the  opposite  error 
of  conversing  on  topics  with  which  ladies 
are  seldom  acquainted.  A  woman  of  sense 
has  as  much  right  to  be  annoyed  by  the 
one,  as  a  lady  of  ordinary  education  by  the 


496 


ETIQUETTE 


other.  You  can  not  pay  a  finer  compliment 
to  a  woman  of  refinement  and  esprit  than 
by  leading  the  conversation  into  such  a 
channel  as  may  mark  your  appreciation  of 
her  superior  attainments. 

In  talking  with  persons  of  ordinary  edu- 
cation, avoid  political,  scientific,  or  com- 
mercial topics,  and  choose  only  such  sub- 
jects as  are  likely  to  be  of  interest  to  them. 

Do  not  use  a  classical  quotation  in  the 
presence  of  ladies  without  apologizing  for 
or  translating  it.  Even  this  should  only 
be  done  when  no  other  phrase  would  so 
aptly  express  your  meaning.  Whether  in 
the  presence  of  ladies  or  gentlemen,  much 
display  of  learning  is  pedantic  and  out  of 
place. 

There  is  a  certain  distinct  but  subdued 
tone  of  voice  which  is  peculiar  to  only  well- 
bred  persons.  A  loud  voice  is  both  dis- 
agreeable and  vulgar.  It  is  better  to  err 
by  the  use  of  too  low  rather  than  too  loud 
a  tone. 

Remember  that  all  "slang"  is  vulgar. 

Do  not  pun.  Puns,  unless  they  rise  to 
the  rank  of  witticisms,  are  to  be  scrupu- 
lously avoided. 

Long  arguments  in  general  company, 
however  entertaining  to  the  disputants,  are 
tiresome  to  the  last  dsgree  to  all  others. 
You  should  always  endeavor  to  prevent  the 
conversation  from  dwelling  too  long  upon 
one  topic. 

Religion  is  a  topic  which  should  never 
be  introduced  in  society.  It  is  the  one  sub- 
ject on  which  persons  are  most  likely  to 
differ  and  least  able  to  preserve  temper. 

Never  interrupt  a  person  who  is  speaking. 

It  is  considered  extremely  ill-bred  when 
two  persons  whisper  in  society,  or  con- 
verse in  a  language  with  which  all  present 
are  not  familiar.  If  you  have  private  mat- 
ters to  discuss,  you  should  appoint  a  proper 
time  and  place  to  do  so,  without  paying 
others  the  ill  compliment  of  excluding  them 
from  your  conversation. 

If  a  foreigner  be  one  of  the  guests  at  a 
small  party,  and  does  not  understand  En- 
glish sufficiently  to  follow  what  is  said, 
good-breeding  demands  that  the  conversa- 
tion shall  b«  carried  on  in  his  own  lan- 
guage. If  at  a  dinner-party,  the  same  rule 
applies  to  those  at  his  end  of  the  table. 

If  upon  the  entrance  of  a  visitor  you 
carry  on  the  thread  of  a  previous  conver- 
sation, you  should  briefly  recapitulate  to 
him  what  has  been  said  before  he  arrived. 

Always  look,  but  never  stare,  at  those 
with  whom  you  converse. 

In   order  to   meet   the  general   needs  of 


conversation  in  society,  it  is  necessary  that 
a  man  should  be  well  acquainted  with  the 
current  news  and  historical  events  of  at 
least  the  last  few  years. 

Never  talk  upon  subjects  of  which  you 
know  nothing,  unless  it  be  for  the  purpose 
of  acquiring  information.  Many  young 
men  imagine  that  because  they  frequent 
exhibitions  and  operas  they  are  qualified 
judges  of  art.  No  mistake  is  more  egregious 
or  universal. 

Those  who  introduce  anecdotes  into  their 
conversation  are  warned  that  these  should 
invariably  be  "short,  witty,  eloquent,  new, 
and  not  far-fetched." 

Scandal  is  the  least  excusable  of  all  con- 
versational vulgarities. 

In  order  to  talk  well  three  conditions  are 
indispensable,  namely,  tact,  a  good  mem- 
ory, and  a  fair  education. 

Remember  that  people  take  more  interest 
in  their  own  affairs  than  in  anything  else 
which  you  can  name.  If  you  wish  your 
conversation  to  be  thoroughly  agreeable, 
lead  a  mother  to  talk  of  her  children,  a 
young  lady  of  her  last  ball,  an  author  of 
his  forthcoming  book ;  or  an  artist  of  his 
exhibition  picture.  Having  furnished  the 
topic,  you  need  only  listen ;  and  you  are 
sure  to  be  thought  not  only  agreeable,  but 
thoroughly  sensible  and  well-informed. 

Be  careful,  however,  on  the  other  hand, 
not  always  to  make  a  point  of  talking  to 
persons  upon  general  matters  relating  to 
their  profession.  To  show  an  interest  in 
their  immediate  concerns  is  flattering;  but 
to  converse  with  them  too  much  about 
their  own  art  looks  as  if  you  thought  them 
ignorant  of  other  topics. 

To  listen  well  is  almost  as  great  an  art 
as  to  talk  well.  It  is  not  enough  only  to 
listen.  You  must  endeavor  to  seem  inter- 
ested in  the  conversation  of  others. 

Do  not  be  always  witty,  even  though  you 
should  be  so  happily  gifted  as  to  need  the 
caution.  To  outshine  others  on  every  occa- 
sion is  the  surest  road  to  unpopularity. 

ON  THE  STREET 
A  well-bred  man  must  entertain  no  re- 
spect for  the  brim  of  his  hat.  "A  bow," 
says  La  Fontaine,  "is  a  note  drawn  at 
sight."  You  are  bound  to  acknowledge  it 
immediately,  and  to  the  full  amount.  True 
politeness  demands  that  the  hat  should  be 
quite  lifted  from  the  head. 

On  meeting  friends  with  whom  you  are 
likely  to  shake  hands  remove  your  hat  with 
the  left  hand  in  order  to  leave  the  right 
hand  free. 


497 


If  you  meet  a  lady  in  the  street  whom 
you  are  sufficiently  intimate  to  address,  do 
not  stop  her,  but  turn  round  and  walk  be- 
side her  in  whichever  direction  she  is  going. 
When  you  have  said  all  that  you  wish  to 
say,  you  can  take  your  leave. 

If  you  meet  a  lady  with  whom  you  are 
not  particularly  well  acquainted,  wait  for 
her  recognition  before  you  venture  to  bow 
to  her. 

In  bowing  to  a  lady  whom  you  are  not 
going  to  address,  lift  your  hat  with  that 
hand  which  is  furthest  from  her.  For  in- 
stance, if  you  pass  her  on  the  right  side,  use 
your  left  hand;  if  on  the  left,  use  your 
right. 

If  you  are  on  horseback  and  wish  to  con- 
verse with  a  lady  who  is  on  foot,  you  must 
dismount  and  lead  your  horse,  so  as  not  to 
give  her  the  fatigue  of  looking  up  to  your 
level.  Neither  should  you  subject  her  to 
the  impropriety  of  carrying  on  a  conversa- 
tion in  a  tone  necessarily  louder  than  is 
sanctioned  in  public  by  the  laws  of  good 
breeding. 

When  you  meet  friends  or  acquaintances 
in  the  streets,  at  the  exhibitions,  or  any 
public  places,  take  care  not  to  pronounce 
their  names  so  loudly  as.  to  attract  the  at- 
tention of  the  passers-by.  Never  call 
across  the  street;  and  never  carry  on  a  dia- 
logue in  a  public  vehicle  unless  your  in- 
terlocutor occupies  the  seat  beside  your 
own. 

In  walking  with  a  lady,  take  charge  of 
any  small  parcel,  parasol,  or  book  with 
which  she  may  be  encumbered. 

RIDING    AND    DRIVING 

In  riding,  as  in  walking,  give  the  lady  the 
wall. 

If  you  assist  a  lady  to  mount,  hold  your 
hand  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the 
ground  that  she  may  place  her  foot  in  it. 
As  she  springs,  you  aid  her  by  the  impetus 
of  your  hand.  In  doing  this,  it  is  always 
better  to  agree  upon  a  signal,  that  her 
spring  and  your  assistance  may  come  at 
the  same  moment. 

For  this  purpose  there  is  no  better  form 
than  the  old  dueling  one  of  "one,  two, 
three." 

When  the  lady  is  in  the  saddle,  it  is  your 
place  to  find  the  stirrup  for  her,  and  guide 
her  left  foot  to  it.  When  this  is  done,  she 
rises  in  her  seat  and  you  assist  her  to  draw 
her  habit  straight. 

Even  when  a  groom  is  present,  it  is  more 
polite  for  the  gentleman  himself  to  perform 
this  office  for  his  fair  companion;  as  it 


would  be  more  polite  for  him  to  hand  her 
a  chair  than  to  have  it  handed  by  a  servant. 

If  the  lady  be  light,  you  must  take  care 
not  to  give  her  too  much  impetus  in  mount- 
ing. We  have  known  a  lady  nearly  thrown 
over  her  horse  by  a  misplaced  zeal  of  this 
kind. 

If  a  gate  has  to  be  opened,  we  need  hardly 
observe  that  it  is  your  place  to  hold  it  open 
till  the  lady  has  passed  through. 

In  driving,  a  gentleman  places  himself 
with  his  back  to  the  horses,  and  leaves  the 
best  seat  for  the  ladies. 

When  the  carriage  stops,  the  gentleman 
should  alight  first,  in  order  to  assist  the 
lady. 

To  get  in  and  out  of  a  carriage  grace- 
fully is  a  simple  but  important  accomplish- 
ment. If  there  is  but  one  step,  and  you  are 
going  to  take  your  seat  facing  the  horses, 
put  your  left  foot  on  the  step,  and  enter 
the  carriage  with  your  right  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  drop  at  once  -into  your  seat. 
If  you  are  about  to  sit  with  your  back 
to  the  horses,  reverse  the  process.  As  you 
step  into  the  carriage,  be  careful  to  keep 
your  back  toward  the  seat  you  are  about  to 
occupy,  so  as  to  avoid  the  awkwardness  of 
turning  when  you  are  once  in. 

A  gentleman  can  not  be  too  careful  to 
avoid  stepping  on  ladies'  dresses  when  he 
gets  in  or  out  of  a  carriage.  He  should 
also  beware  of  shutting  them  in  with  the 
door. 

DRESS    FOR   WOMEN 

To  dress  well  requires  taste,  good  sense, 
and  refinement.  It  may  almost  be  classed 
as  one  of  the  fine  arts,  and  is  certainly 
one  of  those  arts  the  cultivation  of  which 
is  indispensable  to  any  person  moving  in 
society.  Very  clever  women  are  too  fre- 
quently indifferent  to  the  graces  of  the 
toilette ;  and  women  who  wish  to  be  thought 
clever  affect  indifference.  In  the  one  case 
it  is  an  error,  and  in  the  other  a  folly 
It  is  not  enough  that  a  woman  should  be 
clever,  or  well-educated,  or  well-born.  To 
take  her  due  place  in  society,  she  must 
know  how  to  enter  a  room,  how  to  per- 
form a  graceful  salutation,  and  how  to 
dress.  Of  these  three  important  qualifica- 
tions, the  most  important,  because  the  most 
observed,  is  the  latter. 

Let  your  style  of  dress  always  be  ap- 
propriate to  the  hour  of  the  day.  To  dress 
too  finely  in  the  morning,  or  to  be  seen 
in  a  morning  dress  in  the  evening,  are 
equally  vulgar  and  out  of  place. 

Light  and  inexpensive  materials  are  fittest 


498 


ETIQUETTE 


for  morning  wear;  dark  silk  dresses  for  the 
promenade  or  carriage ;  and  low  dresses  of 
rich  or  transparent  stuffs  for  the  dinner  and 
ball.  A  young  lady  can  not  dress  with  too 
much  simplicity  in  the  early  part  of  the 
day.  A  morning  dress  of  some  simple  ma- 
terial, and  delicate  whole  color,  with  col- 
lar and  cuffs  of  spotless  linen,  is,  perhaps, 
the  most  becoming  and  elegant  of  morning 
toilettes. 

Never  dress  very  richly  or  showily  in  the 
street.  It  attracts  attention  of  no  enviable 
kind,  and  is  looked  upon  as  a  want  of  good 
breeding.  In  the  carriage  a  lady  may  dress 
as  elegantly  as  she  pleases.  With  respect 
to  ballroom  toilettes,  its  fashions  are  so 
variable,  that  statements  which  are  true  of 
it  to-day  may  be  false  a  month  hence. 

Rich  colors  harmonize  with  rich  brunette 
complexions  and  dark  hair.  Delicate  col- 
ors are  the  most  suitable  for  delicate  and 
fragile  styles  of  beauty.  Very  young  ladies 
are  never  so  suitably  attired  as  in  white. 
Ladies  who  dance  should  wear  dresses  of 
light  and  diaphanous  materials,  such  as 
tulle,  gauze,  crape,  net,  etc.,  over  colored 
silk  slips.  Silk  dresses  are  not  suitable  for 
dancing.  A  married  lady  who  dances  only 
a  few  quadrilles  may  wear  a  decollete  silk 
dress  with  propriety. 

Very  stout  persons  should  never  wear 
white.  It  has  the  effect  of  adding  to  the 
bulk  of  the  figure. 

Black  and  scarlet,  or  black  and  violet, 
are  worn  in  mourning. 

However  fashionable  it  may  be  to  wear 
very  long  dresses,  those  ladies  who  go  to 
a  ball  with  the  intention  of  dancing,  and 
enjoying  the  dance,  should  cause  their 
dresses  tc  be  made  short  enough  to  clear 
the  ground.  It  is  better  to  accept  this 
slight  deviation  from  fashion  than  to  ap- 
pear for  three  parts  of  the  evening  in  a 
torn  and  pinned-up  skirt. 

Well-made  shoes,  whatever  their  color  or 
material,  and  faultless  gloves,  are  indis- 
pensable to  the  effect  of  a  ballroom  toilette. 

Jewelry  hi  the  ballroom  is  a  matter  of 
taste.  Beautiful  flowers  are  the  loveliest 
ornaments  that  a  lady  can  wear  on  these 
occasions. 

At  small  dinner  parties,  low  dresses  are 
not  so  indispensable  as  they  were  held  to 
be  some  years  since.  High  dresses  of  trans- 
parent materials,  and  low  bodices  with 
fichus  of  lace,  are  considered  sufficiently 
full  dress  on  these  occasions.  At  large 
dinners  only  the  fullest  dress  is  appro- 
priate. 

Very  young  ladies  should  wear  but  little 


jewelry.  Pearls  are  deemed  most  appropri- 
ate for  the  young  and  unmarried. 

Diamonds,  pearls,  rubies,  and  all  trans- 
parent precious  stones,  belong  to  evening 
dress,  and  should  on  no  account  be  worn 
before  dinner.  In  the  morning  let  your 
rings  be  of  the  more  simple  and  massive 
kind ;  wear  no  bracelets ;  and  limit  your 
jewelry  to  a  good  brooch,  gold  chain,  and 
watch.  Your  diamonds  and  pearls  would 
be  as  much  out  of  place  during  the  morning 
as  a  low  dress,  or  a  wreath. 

It  is  well  to  remember  in  the  choice  of 
jewelry  that  mere  costliness  is  not  always 
the  test  of  value;  and  that  an  exquisite 
work  of  art,  such  as  a  fine  cameo,  or  a 
natural  rarity,  such  as  black  pearl,  is  a 
more  distingue  possession  than  a  large  bril- 
liant which  any  rich  and  tasteless  vulgarian 
can  buy  as  easily  as  yourself.  Of  all  pre- 
cious stones,  the  opal  is  one  of  the  most 
lovely  and  least  commonplace.  No  vulgar 
woman  purchases  an  opal.  She  invariably 
prefers  the  more  showy  ruby,  emerald,  or 
sapphire. 

A  true  gentlewoman  is  always  faultlessly 
neat.  No  richness  of  toilette  in  the  after- 
noon, no  diamonds  in  the  evening,  can  atone 
for  unbrushed  hair,  a  soiled  collar,  or  un- 
tidy slippers  at  breakfast. 

Never  be  seen  in  the  street  without  gloves. 
Your  gloves  should  fit  to  the  last  degree 
of  perfection. 

In  these  days  of  public  baths  and  uni- 
versal progress,  we  trust  that  it  is  unnec- 
essary to  do  more  than  hint  at  the  neces- 
sity of  the  most  fastidious  personal  cleanli- 
ness. The  hair,  the  teeth,  the  nails,  should 
be  faultlessly  kept;  and  a  muslin  dress  that 
has  been  worn  once  too  often,  a  dingy 
pocket-handkerchief,  or  a  soiled  pair  of 
light  gloves,  are  things  to  be  scrupulously 
avoided  by  any  young  lady  who  is  ambi- 
tious of  preserving  the  exterior  of  a  gentle- 
woman. 

Your  shoes  and  gloves  should  always  be 
faultless. 

Perfumes  should  be  used  only  in  the  even- 
ing, and  then  in  moderation.  Let  your  per- 
fumes be  of  the  most  delicate  and  rechercht 
kind.  Nothing  is  more  vulgar  than  a  coarse, 
ordinary  scent;  and  of  all  coarse,  ordinary 
scents,  the  most  objectionable  are  musk  and 
patchouli. 

Finally,  every  lady  should  remember  that 
to  dress  well  is  a  duty  which  she  owes  to 
society;  but  that  to  make  it  her  idol  is  to 
commit  something  worse  than  a  folly.  Fash- 
ion is  made  for  woman;  not  woman  for 
fashion. 


ETIQUETTE 


499 


DRESS    FOR    MEN 

A  gentleman  should  always  be  so  well 
dressed  that  his  dress  shall  never  be  ob- 
served at  all.  Does  this  sound  like  an 
enigma?  It  is  not  meant  for  one.  It  only 
implies  that  perfect  simplicity  is  perfect 
elegance,  and  that  the  true  test  of  taste  in 
the  toilet  of  a  gentleman  is  its  entire  har- 
mony, unobtrusiveness,  and  becomingness. 
If  any  friend  should  say  to  you,  "What  a 
handsome  waistcoat  you  have  on!"  you  may 
depend  that  a  less  handsome  waistcoat  would 
be  in  better  taste.  If  you  hear  it  said  that 
Mr.  So-and-So  wears  superb  jewelry,  you 
may  conclude  beforehand  that  he  wears  too 
much.  Display,  in  short,  is  ever  to  be 
avoided,  especially  in  matters  of  dress.  The 
toilette  is  the  domain  of  the  fair  sex.  Let  a 
wise  man  leave  its  graces  and  luxuries  to 
his  wife,  daughters,  or  sisters,  and  seek  to 
be  himself  appreciated  for  something  of 
higher  worth  than  the  stud  in  his  shirt  or 
the  trinkets  on  his  chain. 

To  be  too  much  in  the  fashion  is  as  vul- 
gar as  to  be  too  far  behind  it.  No  really 
well-bred  man  follows  every  new  cut  that 
he  sees  in  his  tailor's  fashion-book. 

In  the  morning  wear  frock  coats,  double- 
breasted  waistcoats,  and  trousers  of  light  or 
dark  colors,  according  to  the  season. 

In  the  evening,  though  only  in  the  bosom 
of  your  own  family,  wear  only  black,  and 
be  as  scrupulous  to  put  on  a  dress  coat  as 
if  you  expected  visitors.  If  you  have  sons, 
bring  them  up  to  do  the  same.  It  is  the 
observance  of  these  minor  trifles  in  domes- 
tic etiquette  which  marks  the  true  gentle- 
man. 

For  evening  parties,  dinner  parties,  and 
balls,  wear  a  black  dress  coat,  black  trousers, 
black  silk  or  cloth  waistcoat,  white  cravat, 
white  or  gray  kid  gloves,  and  thin  patent 
leather  shoes.  A  black  cravat  may  be  worn 
in  full  dress,  but  is  not  so  elegant  as  a 
white  one. 

Let  your  jewelry  be  of  the  best,  but  the 
least  gaudy  description,  and  wear  it  very 
sparingly.  A  single  stud,  a  gold  watch 
and  guard,  and  one  handsome  ring,  are  as 
many  ornaments  as  a  gentleman  can  wear 
with  propriety. 

For  a  ring,  the  gentleman  of  fine  taste 
would  prefer  a  precious  antique  intaglio  to 
the  handsomest  diamond  or  ruby  that  could 
be  bought. 

Unless  you  are  a  snuff-taker,  never  carry 
any  but  a  white  pocket-handkerchief . 

If  in  the  morning  you  wear  a  long  cravat, 
fastened  by  a  pin,  be  careful  to  avoid  what 
may  be  called  alliteration  of  color.  We  have 


seen  a  turquoise  pin  worn  in  a  violet-colored 
cravat,  and  the  effect  was  frightful.  Choose, 
if  possible,  complementary  colors,  and  their 
secondaries.  For  instance,  if  the  stone  in  t 
your  pin  be  a  turquoise,  wear  it  with  brown, 
or  crimson  mixed  with  black,  or  black  and 
orange;  if  a  ruby,  contrast  it  with  shades 
of  green.  The  same  rule  holds  good  with 
regard  to  the  mixture  and  contrast  of  col- 
ors in  your  waistcoat  and  cravat.  Thus,  a 
buff  waistcoat  and  a  blue  tie,  or  brown  and 
blue,  or  brown  and  green,  or  brown  and 
magenta,  green  and  magenta,  green  and 
mauve,  are  all  good  arrangements  of  color. 
Colored  shirts  ma"  be  worn  in  the  morn- 
ing ;  but  they  should  be  small  in  pattern  and 
quiet  in  color. 

MORNING  AND    EVENING  PARTIES 

The  morning  party  is  a  modern  invention. 
It  was  unknown  to  our  fathers  and  mothers, 
and  even  to  ourselves  till  quite  lately.  A 
morning  party  is  given  during  the  months 
of  June,  July,  August,  September,  and  some- 
times October.  It  begins  about  four  o'clock 
and  ends  about  seven,  and  the  entertain- 
ment consists  for  the  most  part  of  conver- 
sation, music,  and  (if  there  be  a  garden) 
croquet,  lawn  tennis,  etc.  The  refreshments 
are  given  in  the  form  of  a  dejeuner  a  la 
fourchette.  Receptions  are  held  during  the 
winter  season. 

Elegant  morning  dress,  general  good  man- 
ners, and  some  acquaintance  with  the  topics 
of  the  day  and  the  games  above  named,  are 
all  the  qualifications  especially  necessary  to 
make  you  agreeable  at  a  morning  party,  and 
"At  Homes" ;  music  and  elocution  at  re- 
ceptions. 

An  evening  party  begins  about  nine 
o'clock  P.M.,  and  ends  about  midnight,  or 
somewhat  later.  Good  breeding  neither  de- 
mands that  you  should  present  yourself  at 
the  commencement,  nor  remain  till  the  close 
of  the  evening.  You  come  and  go  as  may 
be  most  convenient  to  you,  and  by  these 
means  are  at  liberty,  during  the  height  of 
the  season  when  evening  parties  are  nu- 
merous, to  present  yourself  at  two  or  three 
houses  during  a  single  evening. 

When  your  name  is  announced,  look  for 
the  lady  of  the  house,  and  pay  your  respects 
to  her  before  you  even  seem  to  see  any 
other  of  your  friends  who  may  be  in  the 
room.  At  very  large  and  fashionable  re- 
ceptions, the  hostess  is  generally  to  be 
found  near  the  door.  Should  you,  however, 
find  yourself  separated  by  a  dense  crowd  of 
guests,  you  are  at  liberty  to  recognize  those 
who  are  near  you,  and  those  whom  you  en- 


600 


ETIQUETTE 


counter  as  you  make  your  way  slowly 
through  the  throng. 

If  you  are  at  the  house  of  a  new  ac- 
quaintance and  find  yourself  among  entire 
strangers,  remember  that  by  so  meeting  un- 
der one  roof  you  are  all  in  a  certain  sense 
made  known  to  one  another,  and  should, 
therefore,  converse  freely,  as  equals.  To 
shrink  away  to  a  side-table  and  affect  to  be 
absorbed  in  some  album  or  illustrated  work ; 
or,  if  you  find  one  unlucky  acquaintance  in 
the  room,  to  fasten  upon  her  or  him,  like  a 
drowning  man  clinging  to  a  spar,  are  gau- 
cheries  which  no  shyness  can  excuse. 

At  an  evening  party  do  not  remain  too 
long  in  one  spot.  To  be  afraid  to  move 
from  one  drawing-room  to  another  is  the 
sure  sign  of  a  neophyte  in  society. 

If  you  have  occasion  to  use  your  hand- 
kerchief, do  so  as  noiselessly  as  possible. 
To  blow  your  nose  as  if  it  were  a  trom- 
bone, or  to  turn  your  head  aside  when 
using  your  handkerchief,  are  vulgarities 
scrupulously  to  be  avoided. 

Never  stand  upon  the  hearth  with  your 
back  to  the  fire  or  stove,  either  in  a  friend's 
house  or  your  own. 

Never  offer  any  one  the  chair  from  which 
you  have  just  risen,  unless  there  be  no 
other  disengaged. 

If,  when  supper  is  announced,  no  lady  has 
been  specially  placed  under  your  care  by 
the  hostess,  offer  your  arm  to  whichever 
lady  you  may  have  last  conversed  with. 

If  you  possess  any  musical  accomplish- 
ments, do  not  wait  to  be  pressed  and  en- 
treated by  your  hostess,  but  comply  imme- 
diately when  she  pays  you  the  compliment 
of  inviting  you  to  play  or  sing.  Remember, 
however,  that  only  the  lady  of  the  house 
has  the  right  to  ask  you.  If  others  do  so, 
you  can  put  them  off  in  some  polite  way; 
but  must  not  comply  till  the  hostess  herself 
invites  you. 

Be  scrupulous  to  observe  silence  when  any 
of  the  company  are  playing  or  singing.  Re- 
member that  they  are  doing  this  for  the 
amusement  of  the  rest;  and  that  to  talk  at 
such  a  time  is  as  ill-bred  as  if  you  were 
to  turn  your  back  upon  a  person  who  was 
talking  to  you  and  begin  a  conversation  with 
some  one  else. 

If  you  are  yourself  the  performer,  bear 
in  mind  that  in  music,  as  in  speech,  "brevity 
is  the  soul  of  wit."  Two  verses  of  a  song, 
or  four  pages  of  a  piece,  are  at  all  times 
enough  to  give  pleasure.  If  your  audience 
desire  more  they  will  ask  for  it;  and  it  is 
infinitely  more  flattering  to  be  encored  than 
to  receive  the  thanks  of  your  hearers,  not 


so  much  in  gratitude  for  what  you  have 
given  them,  but  in  relief  that  you  have  left 
off.  You  should  try  to  suit  your  music, 
like  your  conversation,  to  your  company. 
A  solo  of  Beethoven's  would  be  as  much 
out  of  place  in  some  circles  as  a  comic  song 
at  a  Quaker's  meeting.  To  those  who  only 
care  for  the  light  popularities  of  the  season, 
give  Verdi,  Suppe,  Sullivan,  or  Offenbach, 
To  connoisseurs,  if  you  perform  well  enough 
to  venture,  give  such  music  as  will  be  likely 
to  meet  the  exigencies  of  a  fine  taste. 
Above  all,  attempt  nothing  that  you  can  not 
execute  with  ease  and  precision. 

If  you  sing  comic  songs  be  careful  that 
they  are  of  the  most  unexceptionable  kind, 
and  likely  to  offend  neither  the  tastes  nor 
prejudices  of  the  society  in  which  you  find 
yourself. 

If  the  party  be  of  a  small  and  social  kind, 
and  those  games  called  by  the  French  les 
jeux  innocents  are  proposed,  do  not  object 
to  join  in  them  when  invited.  It  may  be 
that  they  demand  some  slight  exercise  of 
wit  and  readiness,  and  that  you  do  not  feel 
yourself  calculated  to  shine  in  them ;  but  it 
is  better  to  seem  dull  than  disagreeable,  and 
those  who  are  obliging  can  always  find 
some  clever  neighbor  to  assist  them  in  the 
moment  of  need.  The  game  of  "conse- 
quences" is  one  which  unfortunately  gives 
too  much  scope  to  liberty  of  expression. 
If  you  join  in  this  game,  we  can  not  too 
earnestly  enjoin  you  never  to  write  down 
one  word  which  the  most  pure-minded 
woman  present  might  not  read  aloud  with- 
out a  blush.  Jests  of  an  equivocal  char- 
acter are  not  only  vulgar,  but  contemptible. 

Impromptu  charades  are  frequently  or- 
ganized at  friendly  parties.  Unless  you  have 
really  some  talent  for  acting  and  some  readi- 
ness of  speech,  you  should  remember  that 
you  only  put  others  out  and  expose  your 
own  inability  by  taking  part  in  these  enter- 
tainments. Of  course,  if  your  help  is  really 
needed  and  you  would  disoblige  by  refus- 
ing, you  must  do  your  best,  and  by  doing 
it  as  quietly  and  coolly  as  possible,  avoid  be- 
ing awkward  or  ridiculous. 

Should  an  impromptu  polka  or  quadrille 
be  got  up  after  supper  at  a  party  where  no 
dancing  was  intended,  be  sure  not  to  omit 
putting  on  gloves  before  you  stand  up.  It 
is  well  always  to  have  a  pair  of  white  gloves 
in  your  pocket  in  case  of  need;  but  even 
black  are  better  under  these  circumstances - 
than  none. 

Even  though  you  may  take  no  pleasure 
in  cards,  some  knowledge  of  the  etiquette 
and  rules  belonging  to  the  games  most  m 


ETIQUETTE 


501 


vogue  is  necessary  to  you  in  society.  If  a 
fourth  hand  is  wanted  at  euchre,  or  if  the 
rest  of  the  company  sit  down  to  a  round 
game,  you  would  be  deemed  guilty  of  an  im- 
politeness if  you  refused  to  join. 

The  games  most  commonly  played  in  so- 
ciety are  euchre,  bridge,  draw-poker,  and 
whist. 

Never  let  even  politeness  induce  you  to 
play  for  high  stakes.  Etiquette  is  the  minor 
morality  of  life;  but  it  never  should  be  al- 
lowed to  outweigh  the  higher  code  of  right 
and  wrong. 

In  retiring  from  a  crowded  party  it  is 
unnecessary  that  you  should  seek  out  the 
hostess  for  the  purpose  of  bidding  her  a 
formal  good-night.  By  doing  this  you  would, 
perhaps,  remind  others  that  it  was  getting 
late,  and  cause  the  party  to  break  up.  If 
you  meet  the  lady  of  the  house  on  your 
way  to  the  drawing-room  door,  take  your 
leave  of  her  as  unobtrusively  as  possible, 
and  slip  away  without  attracting  the  atten- 
tion of  her  other  guests. 

ETIQUETTE   OF   THE    BALLROOM 

On  entering  the  ballroom,  the  visitor 
should  at  once  seek  the  lady  of  the  house, 
and  pay  his  respects  to  her.  Having  done 
this,  he  may  exchange  salutations  with  such 
friends  and  acquaintances  as  may  be  in  the 
room. 

If  the  ball  be  a  public  one,  and  a  gentle- 
man desires  to  dance  with  any  lady  to 
whom  he  is  a  stranger,  he  must-  apply  to  a 
member  of  the  floor  committee  for  an  intro- 
duction. 

Even  at  private  balls,  no  gentleman  can 
invite  a  lady  to  dance  without  a  previous 
introduction.  This  introduction  should  be 
effected  through  the  lady  of  the  house  or  a 
member  of  her  family. 

No  lady  should  accept  an  invitation  to 
dance  from  a  gentleman  to  whom  she  has 
not  been  introduced.  In  case  any  gentle- 
man should  commit  the  error  of  so  inviting 
her,  she  should  not  excuse  herself  on  the 
plea  of  a  previous  engagement  or  of  fatigue, 
as  to  do  so  would  imply  that  she  did  not 
herself  attach  due  importance  to  the  neces- 
sary ceremony  of  introduction.  Her  best 
reply  would  be  to  the  effect  that  she  would 
have  much  pleasure  in  accepting  his  invita- 
tion if  he  would  procure  an  introduction 
to  her.  This  observation  may  be  taken  as 
applying  only  to  public  balls.  At  a  private 
party  the  host  and  hostess  are  sufficient 
guarantees  for  the  respectability  of  their 
guests;  and  although  a  gentleman  would 
show  a  singular  want  of  knowledge  of  the 


laws  of  society  in  acting  as  we  have  sup- 
posed, the  lady  who  should  reply  to  him  as 
if  he  were  merely  an  impertinent  stranger 
in  a  public  assembly-room  would  be  imply- 
ing an  affront  to  her  entertainers.  The 
mere  fact  of  being  assembled  together  under 
the  roof  of  a  mutual  friend  is  in  itself  a 
kind  of  general  introduction  of  the  guests 
to  each  other. 

To  attempt  to  dance  without  a  knowledge 
of  dancing  is  not  only  to  make  one's  self 
ridiculous,  but  one's  partner  also.  No  lady 
or  gentleman  has  a  right  to  place  a  partner 
in  this  absurd  position. 

Never  forget  a  ballroom  engagement.  To 
do  so  is  to  commit  an  unpardonable  offence 
against  good  breeding. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  a  lady  or  gen- 
tleman should  be  acquainted  with  the  steps 
in  order  to  walk  gracefully  and  easily 
through  a  quadrille.  An  easy  carriage  and 
a  knowledge  of  the  figure  is  all  that  is 
requisite.  A  round  dance,  however,  should 
on  no  account  be  attempted  without  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  the  steps  and  some  pre- 
vious practice. 

No  person  who  has  not  a  good  ear  for 
time  and  tune  need  hope  to  dance  well. 

At  the  conclusion  of  a  dance  the  gentle- 
man bows  to  his  partner,  and  either  prom- 
enades with  her  round  the  room  or  takes 
her  to  a  seat.  Where  a  room  is  set  apart 
for  refreshments  he  offers  to  conduct  her 
thither.  At  a  public  ball  no  gentleman 
would,  of  course,  permit  a  lady  to  pay  for 
refreshments.  Good  taste  forbids  that  a 
lady  and  gentleman  should  dance  too  fre- 
quently together  at  either  a  public  or  private  ' 
ball.  Engaged  persons  should  be  careful  not 
to  commit  this  conspicuous  solecism. 

If  a  lady  happens  to  forget  a  previous  en- 
gagement, and  stands  up  with  another  part- 
ner, the  gentleman  whom  she  has  thus 
slighted  is  bound  to  believe  that  she  has 
acted  from  mere  inadvertence,  and  should 
by  no  means  suffer  his  pride  to  master  his 
good  temper.  To  cause  a  disagreeable  scene 
in  a  private  ballroom  is  to  affront  your  host 
and  hostess,  and  to  make  yourself  absurd. 
In  a  public  room  it  is  no  less  reprehensible. 

Always  remember  that  good  breeding  and 
good  temper  (or  the  appearance  of  good 
temper)  are  inseparably  connected. 

Young  gentlemen  are  earnestly  advised 
not  to  limit  their  conversation  to  remarks 
on  the  weather  and  the  heat  of  the  room. 
It  is  to  a  certain  extent  incumbent  on  them 
to  do  something  more  than  dance  when  they 
invite  a  lady  to  join  a  quadrille.  If  it  be 
only  upon  the  news  of  the  day,  a  gentleman 


502 


ETIQUETTE 


should  be  able  to  afford  at  least  three  or 
four  observations  to  his  partner  in  the  course 
of  a  long  half  hour. 

Gentlemen  who  dance  can  not  be  too 
careful  not  to  injure  the  dresses  of  the 
ladies  who  do  them  the  honor  to  stand  up 
with  them.  The  young  men  of  the  present 
day  are  singularly  careless  in  this  respect, 
and  when  they  have  torn  a  lady's  delicate 
skirt  appear  to  think  the  mischief  they 
have  done  scarcely  worth  the  trouble  of 
an  apology. 

A  gentleman  conducts  his  last  partner  to 
the  supper-room,  and  having  waited  upon 
her  while  there  reconducts  her  to  the  ball- 
room. 

Never  attempt  to  take  a  place  in  a  dance 
which  has  been  previously  engaged.' 

A  thoughtful  hostess  will  never  introduce 
a  bad  dancer  to  a  good  one,  because  she  has 
no  right  to  punish  one  friend  in  order  to 
oblige  another. 

It  is  not  customary  for  married  persons 
to  dance  too  often  together  in  society. 

THE    DINNER-PARTY 

To  be  acquainted  with  every  detail  of  the 
etiquette  pertaining  to  this  subject  is  of  the 
highest  importance  to  every  lady.  Ease, 
savoir-faire,  and  good-breeding  are  nowhere 
more  indispensable  than  at  the  dinner-table, 
and  the  absence  of  them  is  nowhere  more 
apparent.  How  to  eat  soup  and  what  to 
do  with  a  cherry-stone  are  weighty  consid- 
erations when  taken  as  the  index  of  social 
status;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that 
a  young  woman  who  elected  to  take  claret 
with  her  fish,  or  ate  peas  with  her  knife, 
would  justly  risk  the  punishment  of  being 
banished  from  good  society. 

An  invitation  to  dinner  should  be  replied 
to  immediately,  and  unequivocally  accepted 
or  declined.  Once  accepted,  nothing  but  an 
event  of  the  last  importance  should  cause 
you  to  fail  in  your  engagement. 

To  be  exactly  punctual  is  the  strictest  po- 
liteness on  these  occasions.  If  you  are  too 
early,  you  are  in  the  way;  if  too  late  you 
spoil  the  dinner,  annoy  the  hostess,  and  are 
hated  by  the  rest  of  the  guests.  Some  au- 
thorities are  even  of  opinion  that  in  the 
question  of  a  dinner-party  "never"  is  better 
than  "late" ;  and  one  author  has  gone  so  far 
as  to  say,  "if  you  do  not  reach  the  house 
till  dinner  is  served,  you  had  better  retire, 
and  send  an  apology,  and  not  interrupt  the 
harmony  of  the  courses  by  awkward  ex- 
cuses and  cold  acceptance." 

When  the  party  is  assembled,  the  mistress 
or  master  of  the  house  will  name  to  each 


gentleman  the  lady  whom  he  is  to  conduct 
to  the  table. 

The  lady  who  is  the  greatest  stranger 
should  be  taken  down  by  the  master  of  the 
house,  and  the  gentleman  who  is  the  great- 
est stranger  should  conduct  the  hostess. 
Married  ladies  take  precedence  of  single 
ladies,  elder  ladies  of  younger  ones,  and  so 
forth. 

When  dinner  is  announced,  the  host  of- 
fers his  arm  to  the  lady  of  most  distinction, 
invites  the  rest  to  follow  by  a  few  words 
or  a  bow,  and  leads  the  way.  The  lady  of 
the  house  should  then  follow  with  the  gen- 
tleman who  is  most  entitled  to  that  honor, 
and  the  visitors  follow  in  the  order  that  the 
master  of  the  house  has  previously  ar- 
ranged. The  lady  of  the  house  frequently 
remains,  however,  till  the  last,  that  she  may 
see  her  guests  go  down  in  their  prescribed 
order;  but  the  plan  is  not  a  convenient  one. 
It  is  much  better  that  the  hostess  should 
be  in  her  place  as  the  guests  enter  the 
dining-room,  in  order  that  she  may  indicate 
their  seats  to  them  as  they  come  in,  and 
not  find  them  all  crowded  together  in  un- 
certainty when  she  arrives.  If  cards  with 
names  are  on  the  table  seek  that  of  the  lady 
whom  you  have  taken  to  dinner. 

The  number  of  guests  at  a  dinner-party 
should  always  be  determined  by  the  size  of 
the  table.  When  the  party  is  too  small,  con- 
versation flags,  and  a  general  air  of  desola- 
tion pervades  the  table.  When  they  are  too 
many,  every  one  is  inconvenienced.  A  space 
of  two  feet  should  be  allowed  to  each  per- 
son. It  is  well  to  arrang^  a  party  in  such 
wise  that  the  number  of  ladies  and  gentle- 
men shall  be  equal. 

The  lady  of  the  house  takes  the  head  of 
the  table.  The  gentleman  who  led  her 
down  to  dinner  occupies  the  seat  on  her 
right  hand,  and  the  gentleman  next  in  or- 
der of  precedence  that  on  her  left.  The 
master  of  the  house  takes  the  foot  of  the 
table.  The  lady  whom  he  escorted  sits  on 
his  right  hand,  and  the  lady  next  in  order 
of  precedence  on  his  left. 

The  gentlemen  who  support  the  lady  of 
the  house  should  offer  to  relieve  her  of  the 
duties  of  hostess.  Many  ladies  are  well 
pleased  thus  to  delegate  the  difficulties  of 
carving,  and  all  gentlemen  who  accept  in- 
vitations to  dinner  should  be  prepared  to 
render  such  assistance  when  called  upon. 
To  offer  to  carve  a  dish,  and  then  perform 
the  office  unskilfully,  is  an  unpardonable 
gaucherie.  Every  gentleman  should  carve, 
and  carve  well. 

As  soon  as  you  are  seated  at  table,  re- 


ETIQUETTE 


503 


move  your  gloves,  place  your  table  napkin 
across  your  knees,  and  remove  the  roll 
which  you  find  probably  within  it  to  the 
left  side  of  your  plate. 

The  soup  should  be  placed  on  the  table 

first.     All  well-ordered  dinners  begin  with 

soup,  whether  in  summer  or  winter.     The 

'    lady  of  the  house  should  help  it,  and  send 

'     it  round  without  asking  each  individual  in 

turn.     It  is  as  much  an  understood  thing 

as  the  bread  beside  each  plate,  and  those 

who  do  not  choose  it  are  always  at  liberty 

to   leave    it   untasted. 

In  eating  soup,  remember  always  to  take 
it  from  the  side  of  the  spoon,  and  to  make 
no  sound  in  doing  so. 

If  the  servants  do  not  go  round  with  wine, 
the  gentlemen  should  help  the  ladies  and 
themselves  to  sherry  or  sauterne  imme- 
diately after  the  soup. 

You  should  never  ask  for  a  second  sup- 
ply of  either  soup  or  fish ;  it  delays  the  next 
course,  and  keeps  the  table  waiting. 

Never  offer  to  "assist"  your  neighbors  to 
this  or  that  dish.  The  word  is  inexpres- 
sibly vulgar — all  the  more  vulgar  for  its  af- 
fectation of  elegance.  "Shall  I  send  you 
some  mutton  ?"  or  "may  I  help  you  to  can- 
vas back?"  is  better  chosen  and  better 
bred. 

As  a  general  rule,  it  is  better  not  to  ask 
your  guests  if  they  will  partake  of  the 
dishes,  but  to  send  the  plates  round,  and 
let  them  accept  or  decline  them  as  they 
please.  At  very  large  dinners  it  is  some- 
times customary  to  distribute  little  lists  of 
the  order  of  the  dishes  at  intervals  along 
the  table.  It  must  be  confessed  that  this 
gives  somewhat  the  air  of  a  dinner  at  a 
hotel ;  but  it  has  the  advantage  of  enabling 
the  visitors  to  select  their  fare,  and,  as 
"forewarned  is  forearmed,"  to  keep  a  cor- 
ner, as  the  children  say,  for  their  favorite 
dishes. 

As  soon  as  you  are  helped,  begin  to  eat; 
or,  if  the  viands  are  too  hot  for  your  palate, 
take  up  your  knife  and  fork  and  appear  to 
begin.  To  wait  for  others  is  now  not  only 
old-fashioned,  but  ill-bred. 

Never  offer  to  pass  on  the  plate  to  which 
you  have  been  helped. 

If  you  are  asked  to  take  wine,  it  is  polite 
to  select  the  same  as  that  which  your  inter- 
locutor is  drinking.  If  you  invite  a  lady  to 
take  wine,  you  should  ask  her  which  she 
•will  prefer,  and  then  take  the  same  yourself. 
Should  you,  however,  for  any  reason  prefer 
some  other  vintage,  you  can  take  it  by  cour- 
teously requesting  her  permission. 

The  habit  of  taking  wine  with  each  other 


has  almost  wholly  gone  out  of  fashion.  A 
gentleman  may  ask  the  lady  whom  he  con- 
ducted down  to  dinner,  or  he  may  ask  the 
lady  of  the  house  to  take  wine  with  him. 
But  even  these  last  remnants  of  the  old  cus- 
tom are  fast  falling  into  disuse. 

Unless  you  are  a  total  abstainer,  it  is 
extremely  uncivil  to  decline  taking  wine  if 
you  are  invited  to  do  so.  In  accepting,  you 
have  only  to  pour  a  little  fresh  wine  into 
your  glass,  look  at  the  person  who  invited 
you,  bow  slightly,  and  take  a  sip  from  the 
glass. 

It  is  particularly  ill-bred  to  empty  your 
glass  on  these  occasions. 

Certain  wines  are  taken  with  certain 
dishes,  by  old-established  custom — as  sherry 
or  sauterne,  with  soup  and  fish;  hock  and 
claret,  with  roast  meat ;  punch  with  turtle ; 
champagne  is  served  with  fish,  and  the 
glasses  refilled  through  the  meal;  port  with 
venison;  port  or  burgundy  with  game; 
sparkling  wines  between  the  roast  and  the 
confectionery ;  madeira  with  sweets ;  port 
with  cheese;  and  for  dessert,  port,  tokay, 
madeira,  and  sherry.  Red  wines  should 
never  be  iced,  even  in  summer. 

If  the  servants  do  not  go  round  with  the 
wine  (which  is  by  far  the  best  custom),  the 
gentlemen  at  a  dinner  table  should  take  upon 
themselves  the  office  of  helping  those  ladies 
who  sit  near  them.  Ladies  take  more  wine 
in  the  present  day  than  they  did  fifty  years 
ago,  and  gentlemen  should  remember  this, 
and  offer  it  frequently.  Ladies  can  not  very 
well  ask  for  wine,  but  they  can  always  de- 
cline it.  At  all  events  they  do  not  like  to 
be  neglected,  or  to  see  gentlemen  liber- 
ally helping  themselves,  without  observing 
whether  their  fair  neighbors'  glasses  are 
full  or  empty. 

Instead  of  cooling  their  wines  in  the  ice- 
pail,  some  hosts  introduce  clear  ice  upon 
the  table,  broken  up  in  small  lumps,  to  be 
put  inside  the  glasses.  This  can  not  be  too 
strictly  reprehended.  Melting  ice  can  but 
weaken  the  quality  and  flavor  of  the  wine. 
Those  who  decire  to  drink  wine  and  water 
can  ask  for  iced  water  if  they  choose;  but 
it  savors  too  much  of  economy  on  the  part 
of  a  host  to  insinuate  the  ice  inside  the 
glasses  of  his  guests  when  the  wine  could 
be  more  effectually  iced  outside  the  bottle. 

Be  careful  to  know  the  shapes  of  the 
various  kinds  of  wineglasses  commonly  in 
use,  in  order  that  you  may  never  put  for- 
ward one  for  another.  High  and  narrow, 
and  •  very  broad  and  shallow  glasses,  are 
used  for  champagne;  large,  goblet-shaped 
glasses  for  burgundy  and  claret;  ordinary 


604 


ETIQUETTE 


wineglasses  for  sherry  and  madeira;  green 
glasses  for  hock;  and  somewhat  large,  bell- 
shaped  glasses  for  port. 

Port,  sherry,  and  madeira  are  decanted. 
Hocks  and  champagnes  appear  in  their  na- 
tive bottles.  Claret  and  burgundy  are  poured 
from  the  bottles. 

In  helping  soup,  fish,  or  any  other  dish, 
remember  that  to  overfill  a  plate  is  as  bad 
as  to  supply  it  too  scantily. 

Silver  fish-knives  will  now  always  be  met 
with  at  the  best  tables ;  but  where  there  are 
none,  a  piece  of  crust  should  be  taken  in 
the  left  hand,  and  the  fork  in  the  right. 
There  is  no  exception  to  this  rule  in  eating 
fish. 

We  presume  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  re- 
mind the  reader  that  he  is  never,  under  any 
circumstances,  to  convey  his  knife  to  his 
mouth.  Peas  are  eaten  with  the  fork ;  tarts, 
curry,  and  puddings  of  all  kinds  with  the 
jpoon. 

Always  help  fish  with  a  fish-slice,  and 
tarts  and  puddings  with  a  spoon,  or,  if  nec- 
essary, a  spoon  and  fork. 

Asparagus  must  be  helped  with  the  as- 
paragus-tongs. 

In  eating  asparagus,  it  is  well  to  observe 
what  others  do,  and  act  accordingly.  Some 
very  well-bred  people  eat  it  with  the  fingers ; 
others  cut  off  the  heads  and  convey  them  to 
the  mouth  upon  the  fork.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  say  which  is  the  more  correct. 

In  eating  stone  fruit,  such  as  cherries, 
damsons,  etc.,  the  same  rule  had  better  be 
observed.  Some  put  the  stones  out  from 
the  mouth  into  a  spoon,  and  so  convey  them 
to  the  plate.  Others  cover  the  lips  with 
the  hand,  drop  them  unseen  into  the  palm, 
and  so  deposit  them  on  the  side  of  the 
plate.  In  our  own  opinion,  the  latter  is  the 
better  way,  as  it  effectually  conceals  the 
return  of  the  stones,  which  is  certainly  the 
point  of  highest  importance.  Of  one  thing 
we  may  be  sure,  and  that  is  that  they  must 
never  be  dropped  from  the  mouth  to  the 
plate. 

In  helping  sauce,  always  pour  it  on  the 
side  of  the  plate. 

A  silver  knife  and  fork  should  be  placed 
to  each  guest  at  dessert. 

If  you  are  asked  to  prepare  fruit  for  a 
lady,  be  careful  to  do  so  by  means  of  the 
silver  knife  and  fork  only,  and  never  to 
touch  it  with  your  fingers. 

It  is  wise  never  to  partake  of  any  dish 
without  knowing  of  what  ingredients  it  is 
composed.  You  can  always  ask  the  servant 
who  hands  it  to  you,  and  you  thereby  avoid 
all  danger  of  having  *o  commit  the  impo- 


liteness of  leaving  it,  and  showing  that  you    > 
do  not  approve  of  it. 

Never  speak  while  you  have  anything  in 
your  mouth. 

Be  careful  never  to  taste  soups  or  pud- 
dings till  you  are  sure  they  are  sufficiently 
cool ;  as,  by  disregarding  this  caution,  you 
may  be  compelled  to  swallow  what  is  dan- 
gerously hot,  or  be  driven  to  the  unpardon- 
able alternative  of  returning  it  to  your  plate.  ' 

When  eating  or  drinking,  avoid  every  kind 
of  audible  testimony  to  the  fact. 

Finger-glasses,  containing  water  slightly 
warmed  and  perfumed,  are  placed  to  each 
person  at  dessert.  In  these  you  may  dip  the 
tips  of  your  fingers,  wiping  them  afterward 
on  your  table-napkin.  If  the  finger-glass 
and  doily  are  placed  on  your  dessert-plate, 
you  should  immediately  remove  the  doily 
to  the  left  of  your  plate,  and  place  the  finger- 
glass  upon  it.  By  these  means  you  leave 
the  right  for  the  wineglasses. 

If  you  should  unfortunately  overturn  or 
break  anything,  do  not  apologize  for  it. 
You  can  show  your  regret  in  your  face,  but 
it  is  not  well-bred  to  put  it  into  words. 

Should  you  injure  a  lady's  dress,  apolo- 
gize amply,  and  assist  her,  if  possible,  to  re- 
move all  traces  of  the  damage. 

To  abstain  from  taking  the  last  piece  on 
the  dish,  or  the  last  glass  of  wine  in  the 
decanter,  only  because  it  is  the  last,  is 
highly  ill-bred.  It  implies  a  fear  that  the 
vacancy  can  not  be  supplied,  and  almost 
conveys  an  affront  to  your  host. 

Coffee  and  liqueurs  should  be  handed 
round  when  the  dessert  has  been  about  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  on  the  table.  After  this, 
the  ladies  generally  retire. 

Should  no  servant  be  present  to  do  so, 
the  gentleman  who  is  nearest  the  door  should 
hold  it  for  the  ladies  to  pass  through. 

When  the  ladies  are  leaving  the  dining- 
room,  the  gentlemen  all  rise  in  their  places, 
and  do  not  resume  their  seats  till  the  last 
lady  is  gone. 

To  sit  long  in  the  dining-room  after  the 
ladies  l.ave  retired  is  to  pay  a  bad  compli- 
ment to  the  hostess  and  her  fair  visitors; 
and  it  is  still  worse  to  rejoin  them  with 
a  flushed  face  and  impaired  powers  of 
thought.  A  refined  gentleman  is  always 
temperate. 

In  summing  up  the  little  duties  and  laws 
of  the  table,  a  popular  author  has  said  that 
"the  chief  matter  of  consideration  at  the 
dinner-table — as,  indeed,  everywhere  else  in 
the  life  of  a  gentleman — is  to  be  perfectly 
composed  and  at  his  ease.  He  speaks  de- 
liberately; he  performs  the  most  important 


ETIQUETTE 


505 


act  of  the  day  as  if  he  were  performing  the 
most  ordinary.  Yet  there  is  no  appearance 
of  trifling  or  want  of  gravity  in  his  manner, 
he  maintains  the  dignity  which  is  so  becom- 
ing on  so  vital  an  occasion.  He  performs 
all  the  ceremonies,  yet  in  the  style  of  one 
who  performs  no  ceremonies  at  all.  He  goes 
through  all  the  complicated  duties  of  the 
scene  as  if  he  were  'to  the  manner  born.' " 
To  the  giver  of  a  dinner  we  have  but  one 
or  two  remarks  to  offer.  If  he  be  a  bache- 
lor, he  had  better'  give  his  dinner  at  a  good 
hotel.  If  a  married  man,  he  will,  we  pre- 
sume, enter  into  council  with  his  wife  and 
his  cook.  In  any  case,  however,  he  should 
always  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  his  duty  to 
entertain  his  friends  in  the  best  manner  that 
his  means  permit;  and  that  this  is  the  least 
he  can  do  to  recompense  them  for  the  ex- 
penditure of  time  and  money  which  they 
incur  in  accepting  his  invitation. 

To  those  ladies  who  have  houses  and 
servants  at  command,  we  have  one  or  two 
remarks  to  offer.  Every  housekeeper  should 
be  acquainted  with  the  routine  of  a  dinner 
and  the  etiquette  of  a  dinner-table.  No  lady 
should  be  utterly  dependent  on  the  taste 
and  judgment  of  her  cook.  Though  she 
need  not  know  how  to  dress  a  dish,  she 
should  be  able  to  judge  of  it  when  served. 
The  mistress  of  the  house,  in  short,  should 
be  to  a  cook  what  a  publisher  is  to  his 
authors — that  is  to  say,  competent  to  form 
a  judgment  upon  their  works,  though  him- 
self incapable  of  writing  even  a  magazine 
article. 

If  you  wish  to  have  a  good  dinner,  and 
do  not  know  in  what  manner  to  set  about 
it,  you  will  do  wisely  to  order  it  from  some 
first-rate  restaurateur.  By  these  means  you 
ensure  the  best  cookery  and  a  faultless 
carte. 

Bear  in  mind  that  it  is  your  duty  to  en- 
tertain your  friends  in  the  best  manner  that 
your  means  permit.  This  is  the  least  you 
can  do  to  recompense  them  for  the  expen- 
diture of  time  and  money  which  they  incur 
in  accepting  your  invitation. 

"To  invite  a  friend  to  dinner,"  says  Brillat 
Savarin,  "is  to  become  responsible  for  his 
happiness  so  long  as  he  is  under  your 
roof." 

A  dinner,  to  be  excellent,  need  not  con- 
sist of  a  great  variety  of  dishes ;  but  every- 
thing should  be  of  the  best,  and  the  cookery 
should  be  perfect.  That  which  should  be 
cool  should  be  cool  as  ice ;  that  which  should 
be  hot  should  be  smoking;  the  attendance 
should  be  rapid  and  noiseless;  the  guests 
well  assorted ;  the  wines  of  the  best  quality ; 


the  host  attentive  and  courteous;  the  room 
well  lighted,  and  the  time  punctual. 

Every  dinner  should  begin  with  soup,  be 
followed  by  fish,  and  include  some  kind  of 
game.  "The  soup  is  to  the  dinner,"  we  are 
told  by  Grisnod  de  la  Regniere,  "what  the 
portico  is  to  a  building,  or  the  overture  to 
an  opera." 

To  this  aphorism  we  may  be  permitted  to 
add  that  a  chasse  of  cognac  or  cura<joa  at 
the  close  of  a  dinner  is  like  the  epilogue  at 
the  end  of  a  comedy. 

Never  reprove  or  give  directions  to  your 
servants  before  guests.  If  a  dish  is  not 
placed  precisely  where  you  would  have 
wished  it  to  stand,  or  the  order  of  a  course 
is  reversed,  let  the  error  pass  unobserved 
by  yourself,  and  you  may  depend  that  it  will 
be  unnoticed  by  others. 

The  duties  of  hostess  at  a  dinner-party 
are  not  onerous ;  but  they  demand  tact  and 
good  breeding,  grace  of  bearing,  and  self- 
possession  of  no  ordinary  degree.  She  does 
not  often  carve.  She  has  no  active  duties 
to  perform;  but  she  must  neglect  nothing, 
forget  nothing,  put  all  her  guests  at  their 
ease,  encourage  the  timid,  draw  out  the  si- 
lent, and  pay  every  possible  attention  to 
the  requirements  of  each  and  all  around 
her.  No  accident  must  ruffle  her  temper. 
No  disappointment  must  embarrass  her. 
She  must  see  her  old  china  broken  without 
a  sigh,  and  her  best  glass  shattered  with  a 
smile. 

The  lady  of  the  house  should  never  send 
away  her  plate,  or  appear  to  have  done  eat- 
ing, till  all  her  guests  have  finished. 

VISITING,  BREAKFAST,  LUNCH- 
EON, ETC. 

A  visitor  is  bound  by  the  laws  of  social 
intercourse  to  conform  in  all  respects  to 
the  habits  of  the  house.  In  order  to  do  this 
effectually,  she  should  inquire,  or  cause  her 
personal  servant  to  inquire,  what  those  hab- 
its are.  To  keep  your  friend's  breakfast  on 
the  table  till  a  late  hour;  to  delay  the  din- 
ner by  want  of  punctuality;  to  accept  other 
invitations,  and  treat  his  house  as  if  it 
were  merely  a  hotel  to  be  slept  in;  or  to 
keep  the  family  up  till  unwonted  hours,  are 
alike  evidences  of  a  want  of  good  feeling 
and  good  breeding. 

At  breakfast  and  lunch  absolute  punctu- 
ality is  not  imperative ;  but  a  visitor  should 
avoid  being  always  the  last  to  appear  at 
table. 

No  order  of  precedence  is  observed  at 
either  breakfast  or  luncheon.  Persons  take 


ETIQUETTE 


their  seats  as  they  come  inland,  having 
exchanged  their  morning  salutations,  begin 
to  eat  without  waiting  for  the  rest  of  the 
party. 

If  letters  are  delivered  to  you  at  breakfast 
or  luncheon,  you  may  read  them  by  asking 
permission  from  the  lady  who  presides  at 
the  urn. 

Always  hold  yourself  at  the  disposal  of 
those  in  whose  house  you  are  visiting.  If 
they  propose  to  ride,  drive,  walk,  or  other- 
wise occupy  the  day,  you  may  take  it  for 
granted  that  these  plans  are  made  with  ref- 
erence to  your  enjoyment.  You  should, 
therefore,  receive  them  with  cheerfulness, 
enter  into  them  with  alacrity,  and  do  your 
best  to  seem  pleased,  and  be  pleased,  by  the 
efforts  which  your  friends  make  to  enter- 
tain you. 

You  should  never  take  a  book  from  the 
library  to  your  own  room  without  request- 
ing permission  to  borrow  it.  When  it  is 
lent,  you  should  take  every  care  that  it  sus- 
tains no  injury  while  in  your  possession, 
and  should  cover  it,  if  necessary. 

A  guest  should  endeavor  to  amuse  her- 
self as  much  as  possible,  and  not  be  contin- 
ually dependent  on  her  hosts  for  entertain- 
ment. She  should  remember  that,  however 
welcome  she  may  be,  she  is  not  always 
wanted. 

A  visitor  should  avoid  giving  unnecessary 
trouble  to  the  servants  of  the  house. 

The  signal  for  retiring  to  rest  is  generally 
given  by  the  appearance  of  the  servant  with 
wine,  water,  and  biscuits,  where  a  late  din- 
ner hour  is  observed  and  suppers  are  not 
the  custom.  This  is  the  last  refreshment 
of  the  evening,  and  the  visitor  will  do  well 
to  rise  and  wish  good-night  shortly  after  it 
has  been  partaken  of  by  the  family!. 

GENERAL    HINTS 

Do  not  frequently  repeat  the  name  of  the 
person  with  whom  you  are  conversing.  It 
implies  either  the  extreme  of  hauteur  or 
familiarity. 

Never  speak  of  absent  persons  by  only 
their  Christian  or  surnames;  but  always  as 
Mr.  ,  or  Mrs.  .  Above  all  never 


name  anybody  by  the  first  letter  of  his 
name.  Married  people  are  sometimes  guilty 
of  this  flagrant  offence  against  taste. 

Look  at  those  who  address  you. 

Never  boast  of  your  birth,  your  money, 
your  grand  friends,  or  anything  that  is 
yours.  If  you  have  traveled,  do  not  intro- 
duce that  information  into  your  conversa- 
tion at  every  opportunity.  Any  one  can 
travel  with  money  and  leisure.  The  real 
distinction  is  to  come  home  with  enlarged 
views,  improved  tastes,  and  a  mind  free 
from  prejudice. 

If  you  present  a  book  to  a  friend  do  not 
write  his  or  her  name  in  it  unless  requested. 
You  have  no  right  to  presume  that  it  will 
be  rendered  any  the  more  valuable  for  that 
addition,  and  you  ought  not  to  conclude  be- 
forehand that  your  gift  will  be  accepted. 

Never  undervalue  the  gift  which  you  are 
yourself  offering;  you  have  no  business  to 
offer  it  if  it  is  valueless.  Neither  say  that 
you  do  not  want  it  yourself  nor  that  you 
should  throw  it  away  if  it  were  not  ac- 
cepted, etc.  Such  apologies  would  be  in- 
sults if  true,  and  mean  nothing  if  false. 

No  compliment  that  bears  insincerity  on 
the  face  of  it  is  a  compliment  at  all. 

Presents  made  by  a  married  lady  to  a 
gentleman  can  only  be  offered  in  the  joint 
names  of  her  husband  and  herself. 

Married  ladies  may  occasionally  accept 
presents  from  gentlemen  who  visit  fre- 
quently at  their  houses,  and  who  desire  to 
show  their  sense  of  the  hospitality  which 
they  receive  there. 

Acknowledge  the  receipt  of  a  present 
without  delay. 

Address  a  foreigner  by  his  name  in  full, 
as  Monsieur  de  Vigny — never  as  Monsieur 
only.  In  speaking  of  him,  give  him  his 
title,  if  he  has  one.  Foreign  noblemen  are 
addressed  viva  voce  as  Monsieur.  In  speak- 
ing of  a  foreign  nobleman  before  his  face, 
say  Monsieur  le  Comte,  or  Monsieur  le 
Marquis.  In  his  absence,  say  Monsieur  le 
Comte  de  Vigny. 

Converse  with  a  foreigner  in  his  own 
language.  If  not  competent  to  do  so,  apolo- 
gize, and  beg  permission  to  speak  English. 


ETIQUETTE 


507 


BRIEF  RULES  OF  ETIQUETTE  FOR  EVERY  ONE 


INTRODUCTIONS 

Shaking  hands  after  an  introduction  has 
taken  place  is  merely  optional,  not  neces- 
sary. 

A  friend  visiting  at  your  house  must  be 
introduced  to  all  callers,  who  are  bound  to 
continue  the  acquaintance  as  long  as  the 
friend  is  your  guest. 

A  gentleman  must  always  raise  his  hat,  if 
introduced  in  the  street,  to  either  lady  or 
gentleman. 

Letters  of  introduction  to  and  from  busi- 
ness men,  for  business  purposes,  may  be  de- 
livered by  the  bearers  in  person,  and  eti- 
quette does  not  require  the  receiver  to 
entertain  the  person  introduced  as  the  pri- 
vate friend  of  the  writer. 

AT   A   BALL 

If  a  gentleman  escort  a  lady  to  a  ball,  he 
should  call  for  her  at  the  appointed  hour,  in 
a  carriage,  and  send  a  bouquet  early  in  the 
day.  Upon  arriving  at  the  house  where  the 
ball  is  held,  escort  your  charge  to  the  dress- 
ing-room door.  She  may  or  may  not  dance 
the  first  dance  with  you.  Ask  her.  You  must 
see  that  she  gets  her  supper,  and  offer  to 
leave  the  ball  at  any  hour  that  she  may  be 
desirous  of  so  doing. 

No  gentleman  should  wait  for  the  start 
of  the  music  to  engage  a  partner. 

"May  I  have  the  pleasure  of  the  waltz 
or  quadrille  with  you,"  is  all  that  a  gentle- 
man need  say  on  introduction.  If  the  lady 
says  yes,  he  asks  permission  to  write  his 
name  on  her  card. 

Always  give  your  arm  to  a  lady  in  cross- 
ing a  ball-room. 

Do  not  feel  slighted  if  your  fair  com- 
panion does  not  invite  you  to  enter  her  home 
on  returning  from  the  ball.  If  she  does  in- 
vite you,  decline. 

AT  HOMES,  RECEPTIONS,  PARTIES 

Parties  in  cities  consist  of — at  homes,  re- 
ceptions, conversaziones,  private  concerts, 
private  theatricals,  soirees,  dramatic  tea- 
parties,  matinees,  or  a  gathering  of  people. 

Tn  the  country,  the  indoor  parties  com- 
prise small  dancing-parties,  tea-parties,  and 
conversaziones ;  but  the  outdoor  occasions 
are  of  much  greater  number  and  variety; 
lawn-tennis  parties,  croquet,  sailing,  and 
boating  parties,  picnics,  private  fetes,  berry- 


ing parties,  nutting  parties,  May  festivals, 
Fourth  of  July  festivals,  anything  for  a 
day  spent  in  outdoor  frolic. 

For  "Receptions"  and  "At  Homes"  and 
conversaziones  invitations  should  be  sent 
out  a  week  beforehand. 

At  a  reception  you  have  music  and  sing- 
ing, perhaps  recitations.  Light  refresh- 
ments are  served,  and  the  hostess  makes 
the  most  of  her  rooms  in  display,  etc. 

Gentlemen  should  take  elderly  ladies  in  to 
refreshments. 

Let  amateur  performers  learn  something 
off  by  heart.  Being  provided  with  notes  is 
not  stylish. 

Let  no  person  offer  to  turn  over  the  leaves 
of  a  music  book  for  a  performer  unless  he 
or  she  can  read  music  rapidly. 

If  you  play  an  accompaniment,  show  off 
the  singer,  not  yourself. 

If  you  get  up  private  theatricals,  secure 
the  best  amateur  talent. 

Be  punctual  at  lawn-tennis  and  croquet 
parties. 

Gentlemen  at  picnics  must  turn  into  wait- 
ers for  the  nonce,  and  look  to  the  appetites 
of  the  ladies. 

SALUTATIONS 

Do  not  insult  by  offering  two  fingers  when 
shaking  hands. 

Remove  your  right  hand  glove  in  the 
street;  retain  it  in  the  house. 

Do  not  wring  off  the  wrist  of  the  person 
with  whom  you  shake  hands. 

The  lady  recognizes  the  gentleman  first 
by  bowing.  The  gentleman  must  wait  till 
he  is  bowed  to  by  the  lady. 

When  a  lady  is  desirous  of  ending  a  con- 
versation in  the  street  she  should  bow  slight- 
ly, and  the  gentleman  must  instantly  take 
his  leave. 

If  the  lady  "proceeds  upon  her  way"  with- 
out breaking  up  conversation,  then  the  gentle- 
man is  bound  to  join  her  in  the  promenade. 

At  home,  the  lady  extends  her  hand  to 
every  guest. 

A  gentleman  is  at  liberty  to  bow  to  a  lady 
seated  at  a  window,  but  if  he  is  in  the  win- 
dow he  is  not  to  bow  to  a  lady  in  the  street. 

The  gentleman  never  offers  to  shake 
hands  with  the  lady.  It  is  her  prerogative 
to  stretch  forth  her  hand  to  his. 

A  gentleman  may  at  all  times  bow  to  a 
lady  he  may  meet  on  a  stairway,  even  if  not 


608 


ETIQUETTE 


acquainted.  If  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs,  he 
must  bow,  pass  her  and  ascend  before  her. 
If  at  the  head  of  the  stairs,  he  must  bow, 
and  wait  for  her  to  precede  him  in  the 
descent. 

If  a  gentleman  is  walking  with  a  friend, 
and  the  friend  bows  to  a  lady,  he  is  bound 
to  bow,  although  he  may  be  unacquainted 
with  the  lady. 

DINNER 

Gentlemen  should  stand  behind  their  re- 
spective chairs  until  all  the  ladies  are  seated, 
and  then  take  their,  own  seats.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  their  chairs  do  not  stand  upon 
the  dresses  of  the  ladies  beside  them. 

Always  say  "Thank  you"  to  the  servant  or 
waiter;  never  say  merely  "Thanks." 

Never  decline  wine  by  clapping  your  hand 
on  top  of  your  glass. 

Do  not  eat  ravenously. 

Do  not  smack  the  lips. 

Never  take  a  long,  deep  breath  after  you 
finish  eating,  as  if  you  were  weary. 

Make  no  noises  in  your  mouth  or  throat. 

Do  not  suck  your  teeth  or  roll  your  tongue 
around  the  outside  of  your  gums. 

Never  put  your  knife  into  your  mouth. 
It  is  an  antiquated  custom,  and  brands  one 
as  not  "up  to  date." 

Do  not  pick  your  teeth,  or  plunge  your 
finger  into  your  mouth. 

Do  not  spit  out  fish-bones  upon  your  plate. 

Never  take  the  bones  of  fowl  or  birds 
up  in  your  fingers  to  gnaw  or  suck  them. 
Remove  the  meat  with  your  knife,  and  con- 
vey it  to  your  mouth  with  your  fork.  Do 
not  polish  or  scrape  the  bone. 

Wipe  your  finger-tips  upon  the  table  nap- 
kin. 

Do  not  use  the  tablecloth  to  wipe  your 
mouth. 

Do  not  either  praise  or  dispraise  what  is 
placed  before  you. 

Do  not  drink  or  speak  when  you  have  any- 
thing in  your  mouth. 

When  you  are  helped  begin  to  eat. 

Never  watch  the  dishes  as  they  are  un- 
covered, or  cry  out  when  you  perceive  some- 
thing dainty. 

Do  not  attempt  to  tuck  your  napkin,  bib- 
fashion,  into  your  shirt  collar.  Unfold  it 
partially  and  place  it  in  your  lap,  covering 
your  knees.  A  lady  may  slip  a  corner  under 
her  belt  if  there  is  danger  of  its  falling 
upon  her  dress. 

Do  not  talk  loudly.  Do  not  whisper.  Do 
not  laugh  too  loudly. 

Use  the  table  articles,  such  as  spoon,  bul  - 
ter-knife,  etc.,  etc. 


Never  clean  your  plate.  Leave  something 
on  it. 

Never  attempt  to  propose  a  toast  or  sen- 
timent, at  all  events,  till  the  dessert  is  well 
over.  We  have  seen  men  attempt  this  be- 
fore the  roasts  appeared.  It  brands  one  as 
unaccustomed  to  society. 

Take  chablis  or  hock  with  your  oysters  or 
clams. 

Take  sherry  with  your  soup. 

Take  champagne  with  the  entrees. 

Take  Burgundy  with  game. 

Take  port  with  cheese. 

Take  claret,  if  you  wish  it,  after  dessert. 

Take  a  liqueur  after  coffee. 

Never  spit  the  skins  of  grapes,  the  stones 
or  pips  of  fruits.  Receive  them  in  your 
spoon,  or  concealed  in  your  hand,  and  place 
them  upon  the  edge  of  your  plate. 

Do  not  play  with  your  fingers  upon  the 
table. 

Do  not  play  with  your  knife  and  fork, 
fidget  with  your  salt-cellar,  balance  your 
spoon  on  your  tumbler,  or  make  pills  of 
your  bread. 

Do  not  mix  up  the  various  articles  of  food 
upon  your  plate. 

Never  overload  your  fork  or  spoon. 

Do  not  illustrate  your  anecdotes  by  plans 
drawn  upon  the  table  with  your  nail. 

Do  not  stretch  your  feet  under  the 
table,  so  as  to  touch  those  of  your  opposite 
neighbor. 

Do  not  tilt  your  chair. 

Endeavor  to  take  an  easy  position  at 
table,  neither  pressing  too  closely  up  to  it, 
nor  yet  so  far  away  as  to  risk  depositing 
your  food  upon  the  floor. 

Give  your  neighbor  as  much  elbow  room 
as  possible. 

If  the  dinner  is  for  gentlemen  guests 
alone,  and  the  lady  of  the  house  presides, 
her  duties  are  over  when  she  rises  after 
dessert.  The  gentlemen  do  not  expect  to 
see  her  again.  Cigars  may  be  served  with 
the  coffee,  and  then  the  servants  may  retire. 

In  case  of  a  stag  party,  like  this,  the  lady 
of  the  house  is  much  better  away.  Then  the 
oldest  friend  of  the  host  takes  her  seat. 

» 

FUNERALS 

Do  not  speak  loudly  in  the  house  of 
mourning.  Do  not  ask  to  see  the  members 
of  the  bereaved  family.  Invitations  are 
sometimes  printed,  and  in  this  form : 

You  are  respectfully  invited  to  attend  the 
funeral  of  Mr.  John  Smith  on  Friday,  June  28, 
1901,  at  9  o'clock  a.  m.,  from  his  late  residence, 
148  West  68th  street.  To  proceed  to  Cypress 
Grove  Cemetery. 


ETIQUETTE 


509 


If  the  services  are  at  church,  the  correct 
form  is : 

You  are  respectfully  invited  to  attend  the  fu- 
neral of  Mr.  John  Smith,  from  the  Church  of  the 
Nativity,  Madison  Avenue,  on  Friday,  June  28th, 
at  9  o'clock  a.  m.  To  proceed  to  Cypress  Grove 
Cemetery. 

No  further  notice  need  be  sent  if  the  invi- 
tation is  given  through  the  newspapers. 

Do  not  go  to  the  house  of  your  dead 
friend  until  the  hour  named.  The  last  mo- 
ments are  indeed  precious  to  the  grief- 
stricken  relatives. 

The  clergyman  leaves  the  house  first,  and 
enters  the  carriage  that  leads  the  procession ; 
the  hearse  comes  next;  then  come  the  rela- 
tives. 

Do  not  salute  the  relatives. 

The  master  of  the  ceremonies  assists  at 
the  carriages,  also  at  the  church. 

Hats  must  be  removed  as  the  casket 
passes  from  the  hearse  to  the  church,  and 
from  the  church  to  the  hearse,  and  a  double 
line  formed. 

Wear  black  clothes,  or  as  near  to  that 
color  as  may  be. 

Send  flowers  only  on  the  morning  of  the 
funeral. 

Pall-bearers  must  be  the  immediate 
friends  of  the  deceased. 

Leave  cards  for  the  family  of  the  de- 
ceased during  the  week  following  the  obse- 
quies. The  proper  person  to  purchase 
mourning  is  the  nearest  lady  friend  of  the 
family. 

HOTELS 

Ladies  traveling  alone  will  request  the 
escort  of  a  waiter  from  the  dining-room 
door  to  the  table. 

Ladies  will  make  up  their  minds  quickly 
as  to  what  dishes  they  propose  to  order. 

Ladies  will  accept  table  civilities  from 
gentlemen,  such  as  passing  salt,  etc. 

The  piano  of  the  hotel  is  public  property, 
but  a  lady  should  be  careful  about  monopo- 
lizing it. 

Ladies  will  not  linger  in  the  hall,  and  will 
avoid  the  public  entrance. 

Recognition  across  the  dining-room  is  not 
required. 

AMUSEMEN'TS 

Gentlemen  will  always  invite  another  lady 
to  accompany  a  young  lady  in  taking  her  for 
the  first  time  to  a  place  of  amusement. 

Give  the  ladies  as  long  a  notice  as  possible. 

A  lady  does  not  bow  across  a  theatre,  a 
gentleman  does. 

No  lady  stares  round  a  theatre  with  an 
opera-glass. 


During  the  performance  speak  in  a  low 
tone. 

The  gentleman  walks  before  the  lady 
until  he  reaches  the  seat,  then  he  bows  her 
into  her  seat. 

Never  leave  the  lady  alone. 

Never  stand  in  the  way  of  others  in  pic- 
ture galleries. 

It  is  permissible  for  a  gentleman  to  join 
ladies  for  a  moment  or  two  between  the 
acts. 

Be  careful  to  enter  a  place  of  amusement 
as  quietly  and  unostentatiously  as  possible. 

Never  laugh  loudly,  and  if  you  applaud 
do  so  earnestly,  but  not  too  energetically. 
Never  use  the  feet  in  applauding. 

BY    BOAT    AND    RAIL 

Ladies  will  not  permit  their  escorts  to 
enter  any  apartment  reserved  for  ladies 
only. 

Ladies  traveling  alone  should  consult 
conductors  or  captains.  Ladies  will  thank 
gentlemen  who  raise  or  lower  windows, 
coldly,  but  politely. 

If  a  person  crushes  or  crowds  you,  and 
apologizes,  accept  the  apology  by  a  slight 
bow. 

Gentlemen  escorts  must  pay  the  most 
delicate  and  earnest  care  to  the  lady  or 
ladies  under  their  care.  The  attention  must 
be  unremitting. 

Courtesies  in  traveling  are  always  en 
regie,  but  there  must  be  no  attempt  at  fa- 
miliarity. 

Gentlemen  will  commence  conversations. 

Gentlemen  will  assist  ladies  to  alight  from 
the  cars. 

A  gentleman  may  offer  to  escort  a  lady 
to  the  refreshment  saloon. 

THE   STREET 

Ladies  bow  first  to  gentlemen.  The  gen- 
tleman so  saluted  lifts  his  hat  and  bows. 

Gentlemen  will  offer  to  carry  parcels  for 
ladies. 

Gentlemen  do  not  smoke  when  walking 
with  ladies. 

Candy  or  bananas,  or  other  food,  should 
not  be  eaten  in  the  street.  Above  all,  never 
eat  peanuts  in  public  places. 

Ladies  and  old  gentlemen  are  given  the 
portion  of  the  sidewalk  next  to  the  houses. 

Ladies  should  not  walk  too  rapidly. 

Ladies  may  accept  umbrella  assistance 
from  male  friends  and  acquaintances,  but 
from  strangers  never. 

In  crossing  through  a  narrow  place,  or 
across  a  plank,  or  indoors,  the  lady  goes 

33 


610 


ETIQUETTE 


A  gentleman  may  assist  a  lady  to  cross  a 
puddle  or  across  a  crowded  street. 

A  gentleman  should  never  let  a  lady  stand 
in  a  railway  car,  a  street  car,  a  stage,  or  a 
ferry-boat,  if  he  has  a  seat  to  offer  her. 

A  gentleman  will  pass  a  lady's  fare  in  a 
•street  car  or  stage. 

No  lady  will  salute  across  a  street. 

A  very  stiff  bow  gives  the  "cut." 

Young  people  must  wait  for  recognition 
from  their  elders. 

Gentlemen  will  open  store,  and  all  other 
doors  for  ladies  to  pass,  lifting  hat  at  same 
time. 

Do  not  bow  from  a  store  to  a  person  in 
the  street 

VISITS 

"You'll  come  and  see  me  some  time,"  is 
no  invitation.  Remember  this,  and  do  not 
feel  hurt  if  the  person  so  "invited"  never 
comes. 

If  you  are  asked  by  letter  to  make  a  visit, 
reply  at  once. 

If  you  are  asked  to  visit  friends  for  any 
period,  write  at  once  and  name  the  time 
most  convenient  to  yourself. 

Hosts  should  always  have  a  guest  room, 
and  special  care  should  be  given  to  it.  It 
should  be  warmed  in  winter  and  cooled  in 
summer.  Its  comforts  should  be  made  a 
study. 

Hosts  should  either  meet  or  send  to  the 
depot  for  their  guests.  The  baggage  should 
be  looked  after,  and  any  trouble  spared  the 
person  invited. 

If  the  guest  arrives  in  the  morning,  spe- 
cial breakfast  should  be  prepared ;  if  at 
night,  special  supper.  If  the  guest  is  deli- 


cate or  a  late  riser,  special  meals  should  be 
prepared. 

Guests  will  conform  as  much  as  possible 
to  the  habits  of  their  hosts. 

Hosts  will  amuse  their  guests  as  much  as 
possible,  by  entertainments,  by  taking  them 
to  places  of  interest,  and  by  introductions 
to  entertaining  people. 

The  hostess  need  not  appear  between 
breakfast  and  luncheon.  She  has  her  house- 
hold duties  to  attend  to. 

No  guest  will  make  an  outside  engage- 
ment without  consulting  the  host. 

Hosts  will  accept  no  invitations  that  do 
not  include  their  guests. 

Guests  should  bring  their  own  writing  ma- 
terials, sewing  materials,  wools,  etc.  Ladies 
may  volunteer  to  assist  the  hostess  in  sew- 
ing, etc. 

Guests  may  use  the  servants  as  if  they 
were  their  own,  but  always  in  reason. 

If  a  guest  injures  anything  in  the  house 
at  which  he  or  she  may  be  stopping,  such 
as  a  glass  bowl,  a  painting,  etc.,  he  or 
she  will  repair  the  loss  by  sending  an  ar- 
ticle similar  to  that  which  has  been  injured. 

Gentlemen  may  send  gifts  of  flowers,  can- 
dies, bonbons,  etc. ;  and  guests  may  always 
present  the  baby  with  a  gift. 

Do  not  open  any  letters  delivered  to  you 
in  the  presence  of  your  host  and  hostess 
without  saying,  "Have  I  your  permission?" 
Hosts  will  do  the  same  toward  their  guests. 

No  lady  guest  pays  for  anything,  car- 
riage, boat,  car,  or  refreshments. 

Hosts,  when  their  guests  are  about  to 
leave,  will  see  that  the  baggage  is  cared  for, 
and  will  leave  the  guest  at  the  depot  or 
boat. 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE 
YOUR  HEALTH 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  principle  of  all  efforts  to  improve  and 
preserve  health  has  been  thus  stated :  "Man,  as  an  organized 
being,  is  subject  to  organic  laws,  as  much  as  the  inanimate  bodies 
which  surround  him  are  to  laws  mechanical  and  chemical;  and  we  can 
as  little  escape  the  consequences  of  neglect  or  violation  of  those  natural 
laws,  which  affect  organic  life  through  the  air  we  breathe,  the  food  we 
eat,  and  the  exercise  we  take,  as  a  stone  projected  from  the  hand,  or 
a  shot  from  the  mouth  of  a  cannon,  can  place  itself  beyond  the  bounds 
of  gravitation."  It  may  be  added,  that  "all  human  science,  all  the  arts 
of  civilized  man,  consist  of  discoveries  made  by  us  of  the  laws  impressed 
upon  nature  by  the  Author  of  the  universe,  and  the  applications  of  those 
laws  to  the  conditions — which  are  laws  also — in  which  man  and  the  par- 
ticular bodies  and  substances  around  him  are  placed;  nor,  it  is  manifest, 
should  any  science  concern  us  more  than  that  which  relates  to  the  con- 
ditions on  which  organic  life  is  held  by  each  individual." 

The  leading  conditions  essential  to  health  may  be  thus  enumerated : 
i.  A  constant  supply  of  pure  air;  2.  A  sufficiency  of  nourishing  food, 
rightly  taken;  3.  Cleanliness;  4.  A  sufficiency  of  exercise  to  the  various 
organs  of  the  system;  5.  A  right  temperature;  6.  A  sufficiency  of  cheerful 
and  innocent  enjoyments;  and,  7.  Exemption  from  harassing  cares. 


OUTLINES  OF  THE  LAWS  OF  HEALTH 


AIR   AND    ITS    USES 

THE  common  air  is  a  fluid  composed 
mainly  of  two  gases,  in  certain  pro- 
portions ;  namely,  oxygen  as  twenty  and 
nitrogen  as  eighty  parts  in  a  hundred, 
with  a  very  minute  addition  of  carbonic 
acid  gas.  Such  is  air  in  its  pure  and  right 
state,  in  which  we  require  it  for  respira- 
tion. When  it  is  loaded  with  any  admix- 
ture of  a  different  kind,  or  its  natural  pro- 


portions are  in  any  way  deranged,  it  can 
not  be  breathed  without  producing  injurious 
results.  The  lungs  of  a  healthy  full-grown 
man  will  inhale  twenty  cubic  inches  of  air 
at  every  inspiration,  and  he  will  use  no 
less  than  fifty-seven  hogsheads  in  twenty- 
four  hours. 

Various  circumstances  tend  to  surround 
us  at  times  with  vitiated  air,  and  must 
accordingly  be  guarded  against.  That  first 

(511) 


612 


HOW   TO   PRESERVE   YOUR    HEALTH 


is  the  miasma  or  noxious  quality  imparted 
to  the  air  in  certain  districts  by  stagnant 
water  and  decaying  vegetable  matter.  Being 
a  subtle  poison,  it  acts  on  the  human  sys- 
tem to  produce  fevers  and  other  epidemics. 

Putrid  matter  of  all  kinds  is  another 
conspicuous  source  of  noxious  effluvia — 
the  filth  collected  in  ill-regulated  towns, 
ill-managed  drains,  collections  of  decaying 
animal  substances — all  these  vitiate  the  at- 
mosphere and  generate  disease. 

A  human  being  tends  to  vitiate  the  at- 
mosphere for  himself,  by  the  effect  pro- 
duced on  the  air  he  breathes.  On  passing 
into  the  lungs,  the  oxygen,  forming  the 
lesser  ingredient  of  the  air,  enters  into 
combination  with  the  carbon  of  the  venous 
blood  (or  the  blood  in  the  veins,  which 
has  already  performed  its  round  through 
the  body)  ;  about  two-fifths  of  the  oxygen 
being  abstracted,  the  remaining  three-fifths 
being  expired,  along  with  the  nitrogen 
nearly  as  it  was  before.  In  place  of  the 
oxygen  consumed,  there  is  expired  an  equal 
volume  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  results 
from  the  combination  just  described.  Now, 
carbonic  acid  gas,  in  a  larger  proportion 
than  is  found  in  the  atmosphere,  is  noxious. 
The  volume  expired  by  the  lungs,  if  free 
to  mingle  with  the  air  at  large,  will  do 
no  harm;  but,  if  breathed  out  into  a  close 
room,  it  will  poison  the  air.  If  an  in- 
dividual be  shut  up  in  an  air-tight  box, 
each  breath  he  emits  throws  a  certain 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas  into  the  air 
within  the  box;  so  vitiating  it  at  every 
successive  expiration  that  at  length  the 
oxygen  is  exhausted  and  is  insufficient  to 
support  life.  He  would  then  be  sensible 
of  a  great  difficulty  in  breathing,  and  in  a 
little  time  longer  he  would  die. 

Most  living  rooms  are  not  strictly  close, 
but  in  ordinary  apartments  where  human 
beings  are  assembled,  the  air  often  becomes 
considerably  vitiated.  In  such  situations 
there  can  not  be  a  sufficiently  copious  sup- 
ply of  oxygen  to  make  up  for  what  has 
been  consumed,  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
constantly  accumulates.  This  is  particu- 
larly the  case  in  bedrooms,  theatres, 
churches,  and  schools. 

Perhaps  it  is  in  bedrooms  that  most 
harm  is  done.  They  are  generally  smaller 
than  other  rooms,  and  are  usually  kept 
close  during  the  whole  night.  The  result 
of  sleeping  in  such  a  room  is  very  injuri- 
ous. A  common  fire,  from  the  draught 
which  it  produces,  is  very  serviceable  in 
ventilating  a  room,  but  it  is  at  best  a  de- 
fective means.  The  draught  which  it 


creates  generally  sweeps  along  near  the 
floor  between  the  door  and  the  fire,  leaving 
all  above  the  level  of  the  chimney-piece 
unpurified.  Yet  scarcely  any  other  arrange- 
ment is  anywhere  made  for  the  purpose  of 
changing  the  air  in  ordinary  rooms. 

FOOD   AND    NUTRITION 

The  second  requisite  for  the  preservation 
of  health  is  a  sufficiency  of  nutritious  food. 

Organic  bodies,  in  which  are  included 
vegetables  as  well  as  animals,  are  consti- 
tuted upon  the  principle  of  a  continual 
waste  of  substance  supplied  by  continual 
nutrition. 

The  Nutritive  System  of  animals,  from 
the  humblest  to  the  highest,  comprehends 
an  alimentary  tube  or  cavity,  into  which 
food  is  received,  and  from  which,  after  un- 
dergoing certain  changes,  it  is  diffused 
throughout  the  whole  structure.  This  tube, 
and  the  other  apparatus  connected  with  the 
taking  of  food,  show,  in  different  animals, 
varieties  of  structure,  all  in  conformity  with 
the  quality  and  amount  of  food  which  the 
particular  animals  are  designed  to  take. 

Some  animals  are  formed  to  live  upon 
vegetable  substances  alone;  others  are  cal- 
culated to  live  upon  the  flesh  of  other  ani- 
mals. Herbivorous  animals,  as  the  former 
are  called,  have  generally  a  long  and  com- 
plicated alimentary  tube,  because  the  nu- 
tritious part  of  such  food,  being  compara- 
tively small  in  proportion  to  the  whole 
bulk,  requires  a  greater  space  in  which  to 
be  extracted  and  absorbed  into  the  system. 
The  sheep,  for  example,  has  a  series  of 
intestines  twenty-seven  times  the  length  of 
its  body.  For  the  opposite  reasons  carnivor- 
ous or  flesh-devouring  animals  and  the  ra- 
pacious birds  have  generally  a  short  intes- 
tinal canal.  The  former  class  of  animals 
are  furnished  with  teeth  calculated  by  their 
broad  and  flat  surfaces,  as  well  as  by  the 
lateral  movement  of  the  jaws  in  which 
they  are  set,  to  mince  down  the  herbage 
and  grain  eaten  by  them.  But  the  car- 
nivorous animals,  with  wide-opening  jaws, 
have  long  and  sharp  fangs  to  seize  and 
tear  their  prey.  These  peculiarities  of 
structure  mark  sufficiently  the  designs  of 
nature  with  respect  to  the  kinds  of  food 
required  by  the  two  different  classes  of 
animals  for  their  support. 

The  human  intestinal  canal  being  of  me- 
dium length,  and  the  human  teeth  being  a 
mixture  of  the  two  kinds,  it  necessarily 
follows  that  man  was  designed  to  eat  both 
vegetable,  and  animal  food.  As  no  animal 
can  live  comfortably  except  in  conformity 


HOW   TO    PRESERVE   YOUR   HEALTH 


513 


with  the  laws  of  its  constitution,  it  follows 
that  man  will  not  thrive  unless  with  a 
mixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  food.  The 
followers  of  Pythagoras  argued,  from  the 
cruelty  of  putting  animals  to  death,  that 
it  was  proper  to  live  on  vegetables  alone, 
and  many  eccentric  persons  of  modern  times 
have  acted  upon  this  rule  But  the  ordi- 
nances of  Nature  speak  a  different  language ; 
and,  if  we  have  any  faith  in  these,  we  can 
not  for  a  moment  doubt  that  a  mixture  of 
animal  food  is  necessary  for  our  well-being. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  can  not  dispense 
with  vegetable  food  without  injurious  con- 
sequences. In  that  case  we  place  in  a  me- 
dium alimentary  canal -a  kind  of  food  which 
is  calculated  for  a  short  one,  thus  violating 
an  arrangement  of  the  most  important  na- 
ture. A  balance  between  the  two  kinds  of 
food  is  what  we  should  observe,  if  we 
would  desire  to  live  a  natural  and  conse- 
quently healthy  life. 

RULES  CONNECTED  WITH   EATING 

In  order  fully  to  understand  how  to  eat, 
what  to  eat,  and  how  to  conduct  ourselves 
after  eating,  it  is  necessary  that  we  should 
be  acquainted  in  some  measure  with  the 
process  of  nutrition. 

Food,  on  being  received  into  the  mouth, 
has  two  processes  to  undergo,  both  very 
necessary  to  digestion.  It  has  to  be  mas- 
ticated, or  chewed  down,  and  also  to  re- 
ceive an  admixture  of  saliva.  Unless  food 
be  well  broken  down  or  masticated,  and 
also  well  mixed  up  with  the  salivary  fluid, 
it  will  be  difficult  to  digest.  The  stomach 
is  then  called  upon  to  do,  besides  its  own 
proper  duty,  that  which  properly  belongs 
to  the  teeth  and  saliva,  and  is  thus  over- 
burdened and  embarrassed.  The  pains  of 
indigestion  are  the  immediate  consequence, 
and  other  injuries  follow  on  the  persistent 
habit. 

It  is  therefore  to  be  concluded  that  a 
deliberate  mastication  of  our  food  is  con- 
ducive to  health,  and  that  fast  eating  is 
injurious,  and  sometimes  even  dangerous. 

The  food,  having  been  properly  masti- 
cated, is,  by  the  action  of  the  tongue,  thrown 
into  the  gullet.  It  then  descends  into  the 
stomach,  being  urged  along  by  the  con- 
tractions and  motions  of  the  muscles  lin- 
ing this  canal.  The  stomach  may  be  .con- 
sidered as  an  expansion  of  the  gullet,  and 
is  a  membranous  pouch  or  bag,  very  sim- 
ilar in  shape  to  a  bagpipe.  It  has  two 
openings,  one  by  which  the  food  enters,  the 
other  by  which  it  passes  out.  Into  the 


greater  curvature  of  this  bag  the  gullet 
enters;  and  at  the  other  end,  opening  into 
the  adjoining  portion  of  the  canal,  the 
half-digested  mass  is  next  propelled. 

When  food  has  been  introduced,  the  two 
orifices  close,  and  the  mass,  already  satu- 
rated with  saliva,  and  so  broken  down  as 
to  expose  all  its  particles  to  the  action  of 
the  gastric  juice,  is  now  submitted  to  the 
action  of  a  fluid,  which  is  freely  secreted 
by  the  vessels  of  the  stomach.  The  most 
remarkable  quality  of  this  juice  is  its  solv- 
ent power,  which  is  prodigious. 

The  process  of  digestion  in  the  stomach 
is  generally  completed  in  from  half  an 
hour  to  two  or  three  hours ;  according  to 
the  nature  and  volume  of  the  food  taken, 
and  the  mastication  and  insalivation  it  has 
undergone. 

It  is  thus  converted  into  a  soft,  gray, 
pulpy  mass,  called  chyme,  which,  by  the 
muscular  contraction  of  the  stomach,  is 
urged  on  into  the  adjoining  part  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  called  the  duodenum. 

In  the  duodenum,  it  is  intimately  mixed 
with  bile  and  pancreatic  juice;  also  with 
a  fluid  secreted  by  the  mucous  follicles  of 
the  intestine  itself,  and  undergoes  a  change 
in  its  appearance;  assuming  a  yellow  color 
and  bitter  taste,  owing  to  the  predominance 
of  bile.  Its  character  varies  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  food  that  has  been  taken. 

The  chyme,  having  undergone  the  changes 
described,  is  urged  onward  by  the  peri- 
staltic motion  of  the  intestines.  This  curi- 
ous motion  is  caused  by  the  contraction  of 
the  muscular  coat  of  the  intestinal  canal, 
and  one  of  the  principal  uses  ascribed  to 
the  bile  is  that  of  stimulating  this  motion. 
If  the  peristaltic  motion  be  diminished, 
owing  to  a  deficiency  of  bile,  then  the 
progress  of  digestion  is  retarded,  and  the 
body  becomes  constipated.  In  such  cases, 
calomel,  the  blue  pill,  and  other  medicines, 
are  administered  for  the  purpose  of  stimu- 
lating the  liver  to  secrete  the  biliary  fluid 
that  it  may  quicken  by  its  stimulating  prop- 
erties the  peristaltic  action.  But  this  is 
not  the  only  use  of  the  bile;  it  also  assists 
in  separating  the  nutritious  from  the  non- 
nutritious  portion  of  the  alimentary  mass; 
the  former  being  termed  chyle.  The 
chyme  thus  mixed  with  chyle  arrives  in  the 
small  intestines,  on  the  walls  of  which  a 
series  of  exquisitely  delicate  vessels  ramify 
in  every  direction.  These  absorb  or  take 
up  the  chyle,  leaving  the  rest  of  the  mass 
to  be  ejected  from  the  body.  The  chyle 
is  then  carried  into  little  bodies  of  glands, 
where  h.  is  still  further  elaborated,  acquir- 


514 


HOW   TO    PRESERVE   YOUR    HEALTH 


ing  additional  nutritious  properties;  after 
which,  corresponding  vessels,  emerging  from 
these  glands,  carry  along  the  fluid  to  a 
comparatively  large  vessel,  called  the  tho- 
racic duct,  which  ascends  in  the  abdomen 
along  the  side  of  the  backbone,  and  pours 
it  into  that  side  of  the  heart  to  which  the 
blood  that  has  already  circulated  through 
the  body  returns.  Here  it  is  intimately 
mixed  with  the  blood,  and  is  propelled  into 
the  lungs,  where  it  undergoes,  from  expos- 
ure to  the  action  of  the  air  breathed,  the 
changes  necessary  to  render  it  again  fit  for 
circulation.  In  the  lungs,  therefore,  the 
process  of  digestion  is  completed;  the  blood 
has  now  acquired  those  nutrient  properties 
from  which  it  secretes  the  new  particles  of 
matter  adapted  to  supply  the  waste  of  the 
different  textures  of  the  body. 

When  food  is  received  into  the  stomach, 
the  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice  immedi- 
ately commences ;  and  when  a  full  meal 
has  been  taken,  this  secretion  generally 
lasts  for  about  an  hour.  It  is  a  law  of 
vital  action,  that  when  any  living  organ 
is  called  into  play,  there  is  immediately  an 
increased  flow  of  blood  and  nervous  energy 
toward  it.  The  stomach,  while  secreting 
its  fluid,  displays  this  phenomenon,  and  the 
consequence  is,  that  the  blood  and  nervous 
energy  are  called  away  from  other  organs. 
This  is  the  cause  of  that  chilliness  at  the 
extremities  which  we  often  feel  after  eat- 
ing heartily.  So  great  is  the  demand  which 
the  stomach  thus  makes  upon  the  rest  of  the 
system,  that,  for  some  time  after  a  meal, 
we  are  not  in  condition  for  strong  exercise 
of  any  kind.  Both  body  and  mind  are  inac- 
tive and  languid,  simply  because  that  which 
supports  muscular  and  mental  activity  is 
concentrated  for  the  time  upon  the  organs 
of  digestion.  This  is  an  arrangement  of 
nature  which  a  regard  to  health  requires 
should  not  be  interfered  with.  We  should 
indulge  in  the  muscular  and  mental  repose 
which  is  demanded:  and  this  should  last 
for  not  much  less  than  an  -iiour  after  every 
meal.  In  that  time  the  secretion  of  gastric 
juice  is  nearly  finished;  the  new  nutriment 
begins  to  tell  upon  the  general  circulation; 
and  we  are  again  fit  for  active  exertion. 

Strong  exercise  or  mental  application 
during  or  immediately  after  a  meal  diverts 
the  flow  of  blood  to  the  stomach,  and  the 
process  of  digestion  is  necessarily  retarded 
or  stopped.  Confusion  is  introduced  into 
the  system,  and  a  tendency  to  the  terrible 
calamity  of  dyspepsia  is  established. 

For  the  same  reason  that  repose  is  re- 
quired after  a  meal,  it  is  necessary,  in 


some  measure,  for  a  little  while  before. 
At  the  moment  when  we  have  concluded 
a  severe  muscular  task,  such,  for  example, 
as  a  long  walk,  the  flow  of  nervous  en- 
ergy and  of  circulation  is  strongly  directed 
to  the  muscular  system.  It  requires  some 
time  to  allow  this  flow  to  stop  and  sub- 
side; and,  till  this  takes  place,  it  is  not 
proper  to  bring  the  stomach  into  exercise, 
as  the  demand  it  makes  when  filled  would 
not  in  that  case  be  answered.  Just  so,  if 
we  be  engaged  in  close  mental  application, 
the  nervous  energy  and"  circulation  being 
in  that  case  directed  to  the  brain,  it  is 
not  right  all  at  once  to  call  another  and 
distant  organ  into  play;  some  time  is  re- 
quired to  allow  of  the  energy  and  circula- 
tion being  prepared  to  take  the  new  direc- 
tion. It  may,  therefore,  be  laid  down  as 
a  maxim,  that  a  short  period  of  repose, 
or  at  least  of  very  light  occupation,  should 
be  allowed  before  every  meal. 

PROPER    KINDS    OF    FOOD 

It  has  been  shown*  by  a  reference  to  the 
structure  of  the  human  intestinal  canal, 
that  our  food  is  designed  to  be  a  mixture 
of  animal  and  vegetable  substances. 

Inquiries  with  respect  to  the  comparative 
digestibility  of  different  kinds  of  food  are 
perhaps  chiefly  of  consequence  to  those  in 
whom  health  has  already  been  lost  To 
the  sound  and  healthy  it  is  comparatively 
of  little  consequence  what  kind  of  food  is 
taken,  provided  that  some  variation  is  ob- 
served, and  no  excess  committed  as  to 
quantity.  Within  the  range  of  fish,  flesh, 
and  fowl,  there  is  ample  scope  for  a  safe 
choice.  Almost  all  the  familiar  aliments, 
if  plainly  dressed,  will  digest  in  from  two 
to  four  hours,  and  prove  perfectly  health- 
ful. One  rule  with  respect  to  animal  foods 
is  that,  the  more  minute  and  tender  the 
fibre  may  be,  the  more  digestible  is  it.  They 
contain  more  nutriment  in  a  given  bulk 
than  vegetable  matters,  and  hence  need  a 
smaller  length  of  intestine  to  digest  them. 
It  is  worthy  of  notice,  however,  that  be- 
tween the  chyle  produced  from  animal  and 
that  from  vegetable  food,  no  essential  dis- 
tinction can  be  observed. 

Tendon,  suet,  and  oily  matters  in  general, 
are  considerably  less  digestible  than  the  or- 
dinary fibre;  and  should  be  taken  sparingly. 
Pickling,  from  its  effects  in  hardening  the 
fibre,  diminishes  the  digestibility  of  meat. 
Dressed  shell-fish,  cheese,  and  some  other 
animal  foods  are  avoided  by  many  as  not 
sufficiently  digestible. 


HOW   TO    PRESERVE   YOUR   HEALTH 


515 


Farinaceous  foods  of  all  kinds — wheat, 
oaten,  and  barley  bread,  oaten  porridge, 
sago,  arrow-root,  tapioca,  and  potatoes — 
are  highly  suitable  to  the  human  constitu- 
tion. They  generally  require  under  two 
hours  for  digestion,  or  about  half  the  time 
of  a  full  mixed  meal.  Green  vegetables  and 
fruit,  however,  softened  by  dressing,  are 
less  digestible,  and  less  healthy  as  a  diet. 
One  important  consideration  here  occurs. 
There  is  need  for  a  certain  bulk  in  our 
ordinary  food.  Receiving  nutriment  in  a 
condensed  form  and  in  a  small  space  will 
not  serve  the  purpose.  This  is  because  the 
organs  of  digestion  are  calculated  for  re- 
ceiving our  food  nearly  in  the  condition  in 
which  nature  presents  it;  namely,  in  a  con- 
siderable bulk  in  proportion  to  its  nutri- 
tious properties. 

QUANTITY    OF    FOOD— NUMBER 
AND  TIMES  OF  MEALS 

With  respect  to  the  amount  of  food  neces- 
sary for  health,  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down 
any  rule,  as  different  quantities  are  safe 
with  different  individuals,  according  to  sex, 
age,  activity  of  life,  and  some  other  con- 
ditions. 

The  number  and  times  of  meals  are  other 
questions  as  yet  undetermined.  As  the  di- 
gestion of  a  meal  rarely  requires  more  than 
four  hours,  and  the  waking  part  of  a  day  is 
about  sixteen,  it  seems  unavoidable  that 
at  least  three  meals  be  taken,  though  it  may 
be  proper  that  one,  if  not  two  of  these,  be 
comparatively  light.  Breakfast,  dinner,  and 
tea  as  a  light  meal,  may  be  considered  as 
a  safe,  if  not  a  very  accurate,  prescription 
for  the  daily  food  of  a  healthy  person. 
Certainly  four  good  meals  a  day  is  too 
much. 

The  interval  between  rising  and  break- 
fast ought  not  to  be  great,  and  no  severe 
exercise  or  task-work  of  any  kind  should 
be  undergone  during  this  interval.  There 
is  a  general  prepossession  to  the  contrary, 
arising  probably  from  the  feeling  of  free- 
dom and  lightness  which  most  people  feel 
at  that  period  of  the  day,  and  which  seems 
to  them  as  indicating  a  preparedness  for 
exertion.  But  this  feeling,  perhaps,  only 
arises  from  a  sense  of  relief  from  that 
oppression  of  food  under  which  much  of 
the  rest  of  the  day  is  spent.  It  is  quite 
inconsistent  with  all  we  know  of  physiology 
to  suppose  that  the  body  is  capable  of  much 
exertion  when  the  stomach  has  been  for 
several  hours  quite  empty.  Many  persons 
take  long  walks  before  breakfast,  under  the 


impression  that  they  were  doing  something 
extremely  favorable  to  health.  Others  go 
through  three  hours  of  mental  task-work 
at  the  same  period,  believing  that  they  were 
gaining  so  much  time.  But  the  only  ob- 
servable result  is  to  subtract  from  the 
powers  of  exertion  in  the  middle  and  lat- 
ter part  of  the  day.  In  so  far  as  the  prac- 
tice is  contrary  to  nature,  it  likewise,  of 
course,  produces  permanent  injury.  Only  a 
very  short  saunter  in  the  open  air,  or  a 
very  brief  application  to  work,  can  be  safely 
indulged  in  before  breakfast. 

With  regard  to  the  time  for  either  break- 
fast or  dinner,  nothing  can  be  said  with 
scientific  authority. 

VARIETY  OF  FOOD 

A  judicious  variation  in  food  is  both 
useful  and  important.  Some  aliments,  such 
as  bread,  can  not  be  varied.  But,  apart 
from  one  or  two  articles,  a  certain  varia- 
tion of  rotation  is  much  to  be  desired,  and 
will  prove  favorable  to  health.  There  would 
be  a  benefit  both  from  a  daily  variation  of 
food  and  eating  of  more  than  one  dish  at 
a  meal,  if  moderation  were  in  both  cases 
to  be  strictly  observed,  for  the  relish  to  be 
thus  obtained  is  useful  as  promotive  of  the 
flow  of  nervous  energy  to  the  stomach, 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  cheerful- 
ness is  useful.  The  policy  which  would 
make  food  in  any  way  unpleasant  to  the 
taste,  is  a  most  mistaken  one;  for  to  eat 
with  languor,  or  against  inclination,  or 
with  any  degree  of  disgust,  is  to  lose 
much  of  the  benefit  of  eating.  On  the  other 
hand,  to  cook  dishes  highly,  and  provoke 
appetite  by  artificial  means,  are  equally 
reprehensible.  Propriety  lies  in  the  mean 
between  the  two  extremes. 

REGARDING    BEVERAGES 

The  body  containing  a  vast  amount  of 
fluids,  which  are  undergoing  a  perpetual 
waste,  there  is  a  necessity  for  an  occasional 
supply  of  liquor  of  some  kind,  as  well  as 
of  solid  food.  It  remains  to  be  considered 
what  is  required  in  the  character  or  nature 
of  this  liquor,  to  make  it  serve  the  end 
consistently  with  the  preservation  of  health. 

When  the  digestion  is  good  and  the  sys- 
tem in  full  vigor,  the  bodily  energy  is  eas- 
ily sustained  by  nutritious  food,  and  "arti- 
ficial stimulant  only  increases  the  wasting 
of  the  natural  strength."  All  physicians 
concur  in  representing  ardent  liquors  as 
unfavorable  to  the  health  of  the  healthy, 
and,  in  excess,  highly  injurious.  Even  the 


516 


HOW   TO    PRESERVE   YOUR    HEALTH 


specious  defence,  which  has  been  set  up 
for  their  use,  on  the  ground  that  they  would 
not  have  been  given  to  man  if  they  had 
not  been  designed  for  general  use,  has 
been  shown  to  be  ill-founded,  seeing  that 
vinous  fermentation,  from  which  they  are 
derived,  is  not  a  healthy  condition  of  vege- 
table matter,  but  a  stage  in  its  progress 
to  decay.  Upon  the  whole,  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  these  liquors  are  deleteri- 
ous in  our  ordinary  healthy  condition;  and 
that  simple  water,  toast  water,  whey,  gin- 
ger beer,  or  lemonade,  would  be  preferable 
(the  first  being  the  most  natural  and  the 
best  of  all),  if  we  could  only  consent  to 
deny  ourselves  further  indulgence. 

CLEANLINESS 

To  keep  the  body  in  a  cleanly  condition 
is  the  third  important  requisite  for  health. 
This  becomes  necessary  in  consequence  of 
a  very  important  process  which  is  con- 
stantly going  on  near  and  upon  the  surface 
of  the  body. 

The  process  in  question  is  that  of  per- 
spiration. The  matter  here  concerned  is  a 
watery  secretion  produced  by  glands  near 
the  surface  of  the  body,  and  sent  up  through 
the  skin  by  channels  imperceptibly  minute 
and  wonderfully  numerous.  From  one  to 
two  pounds  of  this  secretion  is  believed  to 
exude  through  these  channels,  or  pores,  in 
the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  being  in 
fact  the  chief  form  taken  by  what  is  called 
the  waste  of  the  system,  the  remainder 
passing  off  by  the  bowels,  kidneys,  and 
lungs.  To  promote  the  egress  of  this  fluid 
is  of  great  consequence  to  health;  for  when 
it  is  suppressed,  disease  falls  upon  some 
of  the  other  organs  concerned  in  the  dis- 
charge of  waste. 

One  of  the  most  notable  checks  which 
perspiration  experiences  is  that  produced 
by  a  current  of  cold  air  upon  the  skin, 
in  which  case  the  pores  instantly  contract 
and  close,  and  the  individual  is  seized  with 
some  ailment  either  in  one  of  the  other 
organs  of  waste,  whichever  is  in  him  the 
weakest,  or  in  the  internal  lining  of  some 
part  of  the  body,  all  of  which  is  sympa- 
thetic with  the  condition  of  the  skin.  A 
result  of  the  nature  of  that  last  described 
is  usually  recognized  as  a  cold  or  catarrh. 
We  are  not  at  present  called  on  particu- 
larly to  notice  such  effects  of  checked  per- 
spiration, but  others  of  a  less  immediately 
hurtful  or  dangerous  nature. 

The  fluid  alluded  to  is  composed,  besides 
water,  of  certain  salts  and  animal  matters, 


which,  being  solid,  do  not  pass  aw'ay  in 
vapor,  as  does  the  watery  part  of  the  com- 
pound, but  rest  on  the  surface  where  they 
have  been  discharged.  There,  if  not  re- 
moved by  some  artificial  means,  they  form 
a  layer  of  hard  stuff,  and  unavoidably  im- 
pede the  egress  of  the  current  perspiration 
By  cleanliness  is  merely  meant  the  taking 
proper  means  to  prevent  this  or  any  other 
matter  accumulating  on  the  surface,  to  the 
production  of  certain  hurtful  consequences. 
Washing  is  the  best  means  of  attaining 
this  end;  and,  accordingly,  it  is  well  to 
wash  or  bathe  the  body  very  frequently. 
Many  leave  by  far  the  greater  part  of  their 
bodies  unwashed,  except,  perhaps,  on  rare 
occasions,  thinking  it  enough  if  the  parts 
exposed  to  common  view  be  in  decent  trim. 
If  the  object  of  cleaning  were  solely  to 
preserve  fair  appearances,  this  might  be 
sufficient;  but  the  great  end,  it  must  be 
clearly  seen,  is  to  keep  the  skin  in  a  fit 
state  for  its  peculiar  and  very  important 
functions.  Frequent  change  of  the  clothing 
next  to  the  skin  is  of  course  a  great  aid 
to  cleanliness,  and  may  be  esteemed  as 
a  substitute  for  bathing,  seeing  that  the 
clothes  absorb  much  of  the  impurities,  and, 
when  changed,  may  be  said  to  carry  these 
off.  But  still  this  will  not  serve  the  end 
nearly  so  well  as  frequent  ablution  of  the 
whole  person.  Any  one  will  be  convinced 
of  this  who  goes  into  a  bath  and  uses  the 
flesh-brush  in  cleansing  his  body.  The 
quantity  of  scurf  and  impurity  which  he 
will  then  remove,  even  from  a  body  which 
has  changes  of  linen  once  a  day,  will  sur- 
prise him. 

MUSCULAR  EXERCISE 

With  regard  to  bodily  exercise,  it  is  to 
be  observed,  in  the  first  place,  that  we  have 
no  fewer  than  four  hundred  muscles,  each 
designed  to  serve  some  particular  end  in 
locomotion  or  in  operating  upon  external 
objects.  A  sound  state  of  body  depends 
very  much  upon  each  of  these  muscles 
being  brought  into  action  in  proper  cir- 
cumstances and  to  a  suitable  extent.  There 
is  even  a  law  operating  within  a  certain 
range,  by  which  each  muscle  will  gain  in 
strength  and  soundness  by  being  brought 
into  a  proper  degree  of  activity. 

The  process  of  waste  and  renovation  may 
be  said  to  be  always  going  on  in  the  body, 
but  it  does  not  go  on  with  permanent  steadi- 
ness unless  the  muscular  system  be  exer- 
cised. Whenever  one  of  the  organs  is  put 
into  exertion,  this  process  becomes  active, 


HOW   TO    PRESERVE   YOUR   HEALTH 


517 


and  the  two  operations  of  which  it  con- 
sists maintain  a  due  proportion  to  each 
other.  A  greater  flow  of  blood  and  of 
nervous  energy  is  sent  to  the  organ,  and 
continues  as  long  as  it  is  kept  in  activity. 
When  one  state  of  action  follows  close 
upon  another,  the  renovating  part  of  the 
process  rather  exceeds  the  waste,  and  an 
accretion  of  new  substance,  as  well  as  an 
addition  of  fresh  power,  takes  place.  On 
the  contrary,  when  an  organ  is  little  exer- 
cised, the  process  of  renovation  goes  on 
languidly,  and  to  a  smaller  extent  than  that 
of  waste,  and  the  parts  consequently  be- 
come flabby,  shrunken,  and  weak.  Even 
the  bones  are  subject  to  the  same  laws. 
If  these  be  duly  exercised  in  their  business 
of  administering  to  motion,  the  vessels 
which  pervade  them  are  fed  -more  actively 
with  blood,  and  they  increase  in  dimen- 
sions, solidity,  and  strength.  If  they  be 
little  exercised,  the  stimulus  required  for 
the  supply  of  blood  to  them  becomes  in- 
sufficient; imperfect  nutrition  takes  place; 
and  the  consequences  are  debility,  softness, 
and  unfitness  for  their  office.  Bones  may 
be  so  much  softened  by  inaction,  as  to  be- 
come susceptible  of  being  cut  by  a  knife. 
In  a  smaller  degree,  the  same  cause  will 
produce  languor  and  bad  health. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  observe 
that  the  exercise  of  any  particular  limb 
does  little  besides  improving  the  strength 
of  that  limb ;  and  that,  in  order  to  increase 
our  general  strength,  the  whole  frame  must 
be  brought  into  exercise. 

In  order,  then,  to  maintain  in  a  sound 
state  the  energies  which  nature  has  given 
us,  and  still  more  particularly,  to  increase 
their  amount,  we  must  exercise  them.  If 
we  desire  to  have  a  strong  limb,  we  must 
exercise  that  limb ;  if  we  desire  that  the 
whole  of  our  frame  should  be  sound  and 
strong,  we  must  exercise  the  whole  of  our 
frame.  It  is  mainly  by  these  means  that 
health  and  strength  are  to  be  preserved 
and  improved. 

RULES  FOR   EXERCISE 

1.  In  order  that  exercise  may  be  truly 
advantageous,  the  parts  must  be  in  a  state 
of  sufficient  health  to  endure  the  exertion. 
In  no  case  must  exercise  be  carried  beyond 
what  the  parts  are  capable  of  bearing  with 
ease;   otherwise  a  loss  of  energy,   instead 
of  a  gain,  will  be  the  consequence. 

2.  Exercise,  to  be  efficacious,  even  in  a 
healthy  subject,  must  be  excited,  sustained, 
and  directed  by  that  nervous  stimulus  which 
gives  the  muscles  the  principal  part  of  their 


strength,   and  contributes   so   much  to  the 
nutrition  of  parts  in  a  state  of  activity. 

3.  The  waste  occasioned  by  exercise  must 
be  duly  replaced  by  food;  as,  if  there  be 
any  deficiency  in  that  important  requisite, 
the  blood  will  soon  cease  to  give  that  in- 
vigoration  to  the  parts  upon  which  in- 
creased health  and  strength  depend. 

KINDS   OF  BODILY   EXERCISE 

Exercise  is  usually  considered  as  of  two 
kinds — active  and  passive.  The  active  con- 
sists in  walking,  running,  leaping,  riding, 
fencing,  rowing,  skating,  swimming,  danc- 
ing, and  various  exercises,  such  as  those 
with  the  poles,  ropes,  etc.,  prescribed  in 
gymnastic  institutions.  The  passive  con- 
sists in  carriage-riding,  sailing,  friction, 
swinging,  etc. 

WALKING  is  perhaps  the  readiest  mode 
of  taking  exercise,  and  the  one  most  ex- 
tensively resorted  to.  If  it  brought  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  as  thoroughly  int<? 
exertion  as  the  lower,  it  would  be  perfect, 
for  it  is  gentle  and  safe  with  nearly  all 
except  the  much  debilitated.  To  render  it 
the  more  effectual  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  it  were  well  to  walk  at  all  times, 
when  convenient,  singly,  and  allow  the 
arms  and  trunk  free  play.  It  is  best  to  walk 
with  a  companion,  or  for  .some  definite  ob- 
ject, as  the  flow  of  nervous  energy  will  be 
by  these  means  promoted,  and  the  exercise 
be  rendered,  as  has  been  already  explained, 
the  more  serviceable. 

FENCING  is,  of  all  active  exercises,  the 
one  that  is  most  commendable,  inasmuch 
as  it  throws  open  the  chest,  and  at  the  same 
time  calls  into  action  the  muscles  both  of 
the  upper  and  lower  extremities.  Added 
to  this,  it  improves  very  much  the  carriage 
of  the  body;  for  which  reason  it  may  be 
reckoned  a  branch  of  polite  education. 

DANCING  is  exhilarating  and  healthful, 
and  seems  to  be  almost  the  only  active  ex- 
ercise which  the  despotic  laws  of  fashion 
permit  young  ladies  to  enjoy. 

RIDING  is  generally  classed  among  the 
passive  exercises,  but  in  reality  it  is  one 
which  involves  much  action  of  the  whole 
frame,  and  as  such  is  very  useful  for 
health.  Pursued  solitarily,  it  has  the  draw- 
back of  being  somewhat  dull;  but,  when 
two  or  three  ride  in  company,  a  sufficient 
flow  of  the  nervous  energy  may  be  ob- 
tained. 

The  amount  of  bodily  exercise  to  be 
taken  must  vary  according  to  the  habits, 
strength,  and  general  health  of  the  indi- 


618 


HOW   TO    PRESERVE    YOUR    HEALTH 


vicinal.  It  has  been  said  that  every  per- 
son should  take  at  least  two  hours'  exercise 
in  the  day,  and  this  may  be  regarded  as 
a  good  general  rule. 

MENTAL    EXERCISE 

The  laws  and  regulations  by  which  ex- 
ercise may  be  serviceable  to  the  physical 
system  hold  good  also  for  the  mental  facul- 
ties. The  brain  is  a  portion  of  the  animal 
system,  nourished  by  the  same  blood,  and 
regulated  by  the  same  vital  laws,  as  the 
muscles,  bones,  and  nerves.  As,  by  disuse, 
muscle  becomes  emaciated,  bones  soften, 
blood-vessels  are  obliterated,  and  nerves 
lose  their  natural  structure,  so,  by  disuse, 
the  brain  falls  out  of  its  proper  state,  and 
creates  misery  to  its  possessor;  and  as,  by 
over-exertion,  the  waste  of  the  animal  sys- 
tem exceeds  the  supply,  and  debility  and 
unsoundness  are  produced,  so,  by  over- 
exertion,  art  the  functions  of  the  brain 
liable  to  be  deranged  and  destroyed.  The 
processes  are  physiologically  the  same,  and 
the  effects  correspond  exactly.  The  mental 
powers  are  also  increased  in  magnitude  and 
energy  by  a  degree  of  exercise,  measured 
with  a  just  regard  to  their  ordinary  health 
and  native  or  acquired  capacities.  Cor- 
responding, moreover,  to  the  influence  which 
the  mind  has  in  giving  the  nervous  stimu- 
lus so  useful  in  bodily  exercise,  is  the  de- 
pendence of  the  mind  upon  the  body  for 
supplies  of  healthy  nutriment.  And,  in 
like  manner  with  the  bodily  functions,  each 
mental  faculty  is  only  to  be  strengthened 
by  the  exercise  of  itself  in  particular. 

It  should  be  universally  known,  that  the 
uses  of  the  intellectual  nature  are  not  to 
be  properly  realized  without  a  just  regard 
to  the  laws  of  that  perishable  frame  with 
which  it  is  connected ;  that,  in  cultivating 
the  mind,  we  must  neither  overtask  nor 
undertask  the  body,  neither  push  it  to  too 
great  a  speed,  nor  leave  it  neglected ;  and 
that,  notwithstanding  this  intimate  connec- 
tion and  mutual  dependence,  the  highest 
merits  on  the  part  of  the  mind  will  not 
compensate  for  muscles  mistreated  or  soothe 
a  nervous  system  which  severe  study  has 
tortured  into  insanity.  It  ought  to  be  im- 
pressed on  all,  that  to  spend  more  than  a 
moderate  number  of  hours  in  mental  ex- 
ercise diminishes  insensibly  the  powers  of 
future  application,  and  tends  to  abbreviate 
life;  that  no  mental  exercise  should  be 
attempted  immediately  after  meals,  as  the 
processes  of  thought  and  of  digestion  can 
not  be  safely  prosecuted  together;  and  that, 
without  a  due  share  of  exercise  to  the 


whole  of  the  mental  faculties,  there  can  be 
no  soundness  in  any,  while  the  whole  cor- 
poreal system  will  give  way  beneath  a 
severe  pressure  upon  any  one  in  particu- 
lar. These  are  truths  completely  estab- 
lished with  physiologists,  and  upon  which 
it  is  undeniable  that  a  great  portion  of 
human  happiness  depends. 

REPOSE    DEMANDED   BY   EXERCISE 

Exercise  demands  occasional  periods  of 
repose,  and,  in  particular,  that  a  certain 
part  of  every  twenty-four  hours  be  spent 
in  sleep.  After  having  been  engaged  in 
daily  occupations  for  fourteen  or  sixteen 
hours,  a  general  feeling  of  fatigue  is  in- 
duced; the  motions  of  the  body  become 
difficult,  the  senses  confused,  the  power  of 
volition  or  will  is  suspended,  and  the  rest 
of  the  mental  faculties,  becoming  more 
and  more  inactive,  sink  at  length  into  a 
state  of  unconsciousness.  The  sense  of 
sight  first  ceases  to  act,  by  the  closing  of 
the  eyelids ;  then  the  senses  of  taste  and 
smell  become  dormant;  and  then  those  of 
hearing  and  touch.  The  muscles,  also,  dis- 
pose themselves  with  a  certain  reference 
to  ease  of  position,  those  of  the  limbs  hav- 
ing grown  indolent  before  those  that  sup- 
port the  head,  and  those  that  support  the 
head  before  those  of  the  trunk.  In  pro- 
portion as  these  phenomena  proceed,  the 
respiration  becomes  slower  and  more  deep, 
the  circulation  diminishes  in  impetus,  the 
blood  proceeds  in  great  quantity  toward  the 
head,  and  all  the  functions  of  the  internal 
organs  become  retarded.  In  this  state, 
shut  out  as  it  were  from  the  external 
world,  the  mind  still  retains  its  wonted 
activity,  deprived,  however,  of  the  guidance 
of  judgment  and  the  power  of  distinct 
recollection;  in  consequence  of  which,  it 
does  not  perceive  the  monstrous  incongru- 
ities of  the  imagery  which  sweeps  before 
it,  and  takes  but  faint  cognizance  of  the 
time  which  elapses. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  an  axiom,  that 
the  more  uninterrupted  sleep  is,  the  more 
refreshing  and  salutary  will  be  its  effects ; 
for  during  this  period,  the  body  undoubt- 
edly acquires  an  accession  of  nervous  en- 
ergyf  which  restlessness,  however  induced, 
must  disturb ;  and  therefore  the  state  of 
the  body  before  going  to  sleep,  the  kind 
of  bed,  and  the  manner  of  clothing  require 
especial  attention.  As  the  functions  of 
the  body  are  performed  more  slowly  dur- 
ing our  sleeping  than  our  waking  hours, 
a  full  meal  or  supper,  taken  immediately 
before  going  to  bed,  imposes  a  load  on  the 


HOW   TO    PRESERVE   YOUR   HEALTH 


519 


stomach  which  it  is  not  in  a  condition  to 
digest,  and  the  unpleasant  consequence  of 
oppressive  and  harassing  dreams  is  almost 
certain  to  ensue.  When  the  sleeper  lies  on 
his  back,  the  heart  pressing,  while  pulsating, 
on  the  lungs,  gives  rise  to  a  sense  of  intol- 
erable oppression  on  the  chest,  which  seems 
to  bear  down  upon  the  whole  body,  so  that 
in  this  painful  state  not  a  muscle  will  obey 
the  impulse  of  the  will,  and  every  effort  to 
move  appears  to  be  altogether  unavailing. 
This  constitutes  incubus  or  nightmare;  and 
it  may  be  observed,  that,  as  acidity  on  the 
stomach,  or  indigestion,  gives  rise  to  such 
dreams,  so  all  dreams  of  this  disturbed 
character  are  converse  indications  of  in- 
digestion; for  which  reason  the  great 
physiologist  Haller  considered  dreaming 
to  be  a  symptom  of  disease. 

The  kind  of  bed  on  which  we  repose 
requires  attention.  Some  are  advocates  for 
soft,  others  for  hard  beds ;  hence  some  ac- 
custom themselves  to  featherbeds,  others 
to  mattresses.  The  only  difference  between 
a  soft  and  a  hard  bed  is  that  the  weight 
of  the  body  in  a  soft  bed  presses  on  a 
larger  surface  than  on  a  hard  bed,  and 
thereby  a  greater  degree  of  comfort  is  en- 
joyed. Parents  err  in  fancying  that  a  very 
hard  bed  contributes  to  harden  the  consti- 
tution of  their  children;  for  which  reason 
they  lay  them  down  on  mattresses,  or  beds 
with  boarded  bottoms.  A  bed  for  a  young 
child  can  not  be  too  soft,  provided  it  does 
not  sink  into  it  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
surrounding  pa-ts  of  the  bed  bend  over 
and  cover  the  body.  The  too  great  hard- 
ness of  beds,  says  Dr.  Darwin,  frequently 
proves  injurious  to  the  shape  of  infants, 
by  causing  them  to  rest  on  too  few  parts 
at  a  time;  it  also  causes  their  sleep  to  be 
uneasy  and  unrefreshing.  Whatever  be 
the  time  chosen  for  sleep,  it  is  evident  that 
no  person  can  with  impunity  convert  day 
into  night.  Eight  o'clock  for  children,  and 
eleven  for  adults,  may  be  recommended  as 
good  hours  for  retiring  to  rest.  It  is  well 
known  that  children  require  more  sleep 
than  adults ;  and  more  sleep  is  requisite 
in  winter  than  in  summer.  The  average 
duration  of  sleep  which  may  be  recom- 
mended for  adults  is  eight  hours;  but  much 
depends  upon  habit,  and  many  persons  re- 
quire only  six.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
observe,  that,  on  rising  in  the  morning, 
the  strictest  attention  should  be  paid  to 
washing  the  face,  neck  and  hands;  the 
mouth  and  teeth  should  also  be  well  cleansed. 


The  most  simple  powder  for  the  teeth  is 
finely  brayed  charcoal,  a  little  of  which 
will  clear  away  all  impurities,  and  preserve 
the  teeth.  On  leaving  the  bedroom,  the 
windows  should  be  opened,  and  the  clothes 
of  the  bed  turned  down,  in  order  that  the 
exhalations  of  the  body  during  sleep  may 
be  dissipated.  If,  instead  of  this,  the  bed 
be  made  immediately  after  we  have  risen, 
these  exhalations  are  again  folded  up  with 
the  clothes — a  practice  which  is  not  con- 
sonant either  with  cleanliness  or  health. 

TEMPERATURE 

The  fifth  important  requisite  for  health 
is  that  the  body  be  kept  in  a  temperature 
suitable  to  it. 

The  degree  of  heat  indicated  by  60° 
Fahrenheit,  or  that  of  a  temperate  sum- 
mer day,  is  what  the  human  body  finds 
agreeable,  when  in  a  state  of  inactivity. 

At  all  periods  of  life,  it  is  most  desirable 
to  avoid  exposure  to  very  low  tempera- 
tures, especially  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time.  To  sit  long  in  cold  schoolrooms, 
or  workrooms,  with  the  whole  body,  and 
especially  the  feet,  in  a  chilled  condition, 
is  very  unfavorable  to  the  health  of  young 
people. 

CLOTHING  should  be  in  proportion  to  the 
temperature  of  the  climate  and  the  season 
of  the  year;  and  where  there  are  such 
abrupt  transitions  from  heat  to  cold  as  in 
our  country,  it  is  not  safe  ever  to  go  very 
thinly  clad,  as  we  may  in  that  case  be  ex- 
posed to  a  sudden  chill  before  we  can 
effect  the  proper  change  of  dress.  The 
underclothing  should  be  invariably  of  flan- 
nel, which  is  remarkably  well  calculated 
to  preserve  uniformity  of  temperature,  as 
well  as  to  produce  a  healthy  irritation  in 
the  skin. 

WET  CLOTHES  applied  to  any  part  of  the 
body,  when  it  is  in  an  inactive  state,  have 
the  instantaneous  effect  of  reducing  the 
temperature,  this  being  an  unavoidable  ef- 
fect of  the  process  of  evaporation  which 
then  takes  place.  Hence,  it  is  extremely 
dangerous  to  sit  upon  damp  ground,  or  to 
remain  at  rest  for  a  single  minute  with 
wet  feet.  Dampness  in  the  dwelling  has 
the  same  effect,  and  is  equally  dangerous. 
The  chill  produced  by  the  evaporation  from 
the  wetted  surface  checks  the  perspiration 
and  sends  the  blood  inward  to  the  vital 
parts,  where  it  tends  to  produce  inflam- 
matory disease. 


GYMNASTICS  is  a  system  of  exercises  which  develop  and  invigorate 
the  body,  particularly  the  muscular  system.     If  properly  directed, 
gymnastics   will  enlarge  and   strengthen  the  various  muscles  of 
the  trMnk,  neck,  arms,  and  legs,  and  will  expand  the  chest  so  as  to  facili- 
tate the  play  of  the  lungs,  will  render  the  joints  supple,  and  will  impart  to 
the  person  grace,  ease,  and  steadiness  of  carriage,  combined  with  strength, 
elasticity,  and  quickness  of  movement;  but  an  injudicious  mode  of  exercise 
will  frequently  confirm  and  aggravate  those  physical  imperfections  for  which 
a  remedy  is  sought,  by  developing  the  muscular  system  unequally. 


OUTLINES     OF     SCIENTIFIC     GYMNASTICS 


WALKING,  RUNNING,  JUMPING,  ETC. 

IN  WALKING,  the  arms  should  move 
freely  by  the  side,  the  head  be  kept 
up,  the  stomach  in,  the  shoulders  back,  the 
feet  parallel  with  the  ground,  and  the  body 
resting  neither  on  the  toe  nor  heel,  but  on 
the  ball  of  the  foot. 

IN  RUNNING,  the  legs  should  not  be 
raised  too  hic;h;  the  arms  should  be  nearly 
still,  so  tha..  Bo  unnecessary  opposition  be 
given  to  the  air  by  useless  motions.  In 
swift  running  the  swing  of  the  arms  should 
be  from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow,  the 
forearm  being  kept  nearly  horizontal  with 
the  chest.  Running  in  a  circle  is  excellent 
exercise,  but  the  direction  should  be  changed 
occasionally,  so  that  both  sides  of  the 
ground  may  be  equally  worked;  as,  if  the 
ground  be  not  kept  fairly  level,  the  runners 
will  find  it  difficult  to  maintain  their  equilib- 
rium. 

JUMPING. — The  first  rule  is,  to  fall  on 
the  toes,  and  never  on  the  heels.  Bend 
the  knees,  that  the  calves  of  the  legs  may 
touch  the  thighs.  Swing  the  arms  forward 
when  taking  a  spring;  break  the  fall  with 
the  hands  if  necessary;  hold  the  breath, 
keep  the  body  forward,  come  to  the  ground 
with  both  feet  together,  and,  in  taking  the 
run,  let  your  steps  be  short,  and  increase 
in  quickness  as  you  approach  the  leap. 

LEAPING. — The  Long  Leap. — Make  a 
trench,  which  widens  gradually  from  one 
end  to  the  other,  so  that  the  breadth  of 
the  leap  may  be  increased  daily.  Keep  the 
feet  close  together,  and  take  your  spring 
(520) 


from  the  toes  of  one  foot,  which  should 
be  quickly  drawn  up  to  the  other,  and 
they  should  descend  at  the  same  instant; 
throw  the  arms  and  body  forward,  espe- 
cially in  descending.  Take  a  run  of  about 
twenty  paces. 

The  Deep  Leap. — This  is  performed  from 
the  top  of  a  wall,  or  a  flight  of  steps,  in- 
creasing the  depth  according  to  the  progress 
of  the  pupil.  The  body  should  be  bent  for- 
ward, the  feet  close  together,  and  the  hands 
ready  to  touch  the  ground  at  the  same 
time  with,  or  rather  before,  the  feet. 

The  High  Leap. — This  leap  can  best 
be  taken  over  a  light  fence  that  will  give 
way  in  the  event  of  its  being  touched  by 
the  feet.  It  may  be  taken  either  standing 
or  with  a  run:  for  the  former,  the  legs 
should  be  kept  together,  and  the  feet  and 
knees  raised  in  a  straight  direction;  for 
the  latter,  we  recommend  a  short  run,  and 
a  light  tripping  step,  gradually  quickened 
as  the  object  to  be  leaped  over  is  ap- 
proached. You  should  be  particularly  care- 
ful not  to  alight  on  your  heels,  but  rather 
on  the  toes  and  balls  of  the  feet. 

GYMNASTICS    WITH    APPARATUS 

Our  apparatus  will  consist  of  the  fol- 
lowing :  horizontal  bar,  hanging  bar,  parallel 
bars,  vaulting  horse,  ladder,  hanging  ropes, 
and  the  usual  et  ceteras. 

THE  HORIZONTAL  BAR  should  be  set  up 
as  follows :  If  intended  as  a  permanency, 
two  strong  posts  must  be  let  into  the  ground 
or  into  iron  sockets,  standing  seven  feet 


GYMNASTICS 


521 


apart  and  about  eight  feet  in  height;  these 
are  to  support  the  bar,  which  must  be 
made  to  shift  up  and  down  in  grooves  cut 
in  the  posts,  so  as  to  be  easily  adapted 
to  the  height  of  the  performer.  This  bar 
should  be  of  straight-grained  ash,  seven 
feet  between  the  uprights,  an  inch  and 
three-quarters  in  diameter,  perfectly  round, 
with  a  steel  core  an  inch  thick  running 


FIG.  i.— The  Horizontal  Bar. 

through  the  centre.  This  last  is  a  very 
important  point. 

If  there  be  no  steel  core,  then  the  bar 
must  be  reduced  at  least  one  foot  in  length 
and  increased  to  two  inches  diameter;  both 
of  which,  especially  the  latter,  as  making 
it  clumsy  to  the  grasp  of  an  ordinary  hand, 
will  detract  much  from  its  practical  value. 

The  bar  must  be  so  fastened  to  the  up- 
rights that  there  shall  be  no  unsteadiness 
or  vibration.  A  wabbly  bar  is  a  terrible 
nuisance,  and  is  apt  to  throw  one  out  of 
all  calculation  just  at  the  critical  point  of 
a  feat. 

If  for  private  use,  or  it  be  thought  de- 
sirable to  make  it  portable,  the  method  of 
construction  figured  in  our  cut  (Fig.  l) 
will  be  found  very  convenient  and  service- 
able, and,  what  is  more,  thoroughly  trust- 
worthy. 

THE  HANGING  BAR  must  be  very  care- 
fully constructed.  The  ropes  should  be  at- 
tached securely  to  a  good,  firm,  unyielding 
support,  about  fifteen  or  eighteen  feet  from 
the  ground — this  will  be  quite  sufficient 
height — and  the  bar,  which  should  be  about 
twenty-six  inches  long  by  one  and  a  quarter 
in  diameter,  with  a  steel  core  as  before, 
must  be  firmly  attached  to  the  ropes,  so 
as  to  afford  a  safe  hold.  Above  all  things, 
it  must  not  revolve  in  the  grasp.  The 
height  from  the  ground  must  be  regulated 
by  the  stature  of  the  performer. 


PARALLEL  BARS,  being  intended  for  the 
grasp  of  the  hands,  must  be  of  such  size 
and  shape  as  will  afford  the  best  grasp, 
and  their  height  and  distance  apart  must 
be  adapted  to  the  stature  of  those  for 
whose  use  they  are  intended. 

The  size  of  the  bars  is  especially  impor- 
tant: if  they  be  too  large  for  a  fair  grasp, 
not  only  is  the  hand  likely  to  slip  and  a 
heavy  fall  to  result,  but  there  is  great 
danger  to  the  wrist  and  thumb  of  serious 
sprains  or  dislocation.  Moreover,  when  a 
fair  grasp  is  impossible,  many  of  the  ex- 
ercises— most  of  them,  indeed — are  also  ipso 
facto  impossible,  and  thus  many  beginners 
are  disgusted  at  the  outset :  they  are  told 
to  begin  with  such  and  such  exercises,  as 
simple  preliminaries  to  others  more  ad- 
vanced ;  they  find  after  repeated  trials  that 
they  can  not  even  make  a  commencement, 
and  naturally  soon  give  up  the  whole  thing 
in  despair. 

For  ordinary  purposes,  that  is,  for  peo- 
ple not  of  exceptional  stature,  the  most 
useful  dimensions  are  these:  height  from 
the  ground,  four  feet  eight  inches ;  distance 
apart,  eighteen  inches,  or  nineteen  at  most; 
for  boys,  seventeen  or  even  sixteen  will  be 
sufficient.  The  length  should  not  be  less 
than  seven  feet,  and  the  bars  should  be 
round,  and  of  a  diameter  of  two  and  an 
eighth  inches. 

For  the  uprights  no  dimensions  need  be 
given :  all  that  is  needful  is  that  they  should 


FIG.  2.— The  Parallel  Bars. 

be  sufficiently  strong.  They  should  be  fitted 
into  a  stout  wooden  frame,  firmly  mortised 
together.  When  in  use,  this  frame  must 
be  fastened  to  the  floors  by  screws.  If 
required  for  a  playground,  or  any  place 
where  it  is  necessary  to  have  them  fixed, 
they  may  readily  be  secured  by  wooden 
stakes  or  wedges  driven  into  the  ground. 


522 


GYMNASTICS 


THE  VAULTING-HORSE  is  of  all  gymnastic 
apparatus  that  which  has  been  hitherto  most 
neglected. 

There  are  various  lengths  for  these  horses, 
but  the  one  you  will  find  to  be  the  most 
generally  useful  is  six  feet  long  and  about 
sixteen  inches  across  the  back.  It  is  cov- 
ered with  cowhide  all  over  and  evenly 
padded,  and  is  generally  made  with  one  end 
a  little  raised,  with  a  slight  bend  corre- 
sponding to  the  neck  of  the  animal  which 
is  its  prototype;  and  this  gives  some  form 
to  it,  and  is  useful  as  a  mark  where  to 
place  the  hands. 

There  are  two  pommels  placed  about  the 
centre,  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  movable, 
so  that  'the  horse  may  be  used  without 
them  if  required;  and  in  this  case  flush 
pommels,  level  with  the  back  of  the  horse, 
are  inserted  into  the  grooves. 

The  legs  must  be  made  to  slide  up  and 
down  after  the  manner  of  a  telescope,  so 


FIG.  3.— The  Vaulting-Horse. 

that  the  horse  may  be  used  at  heights 
varying  from  about  three  feet  six  inches 
to  six  feet. 

THE  LADDERS,  HANGING  ROPES,  and  so  on, 
we  need  not  describe.  There  are,  however, 
two  more  requisites  to  which  we  should 
wish  to  direct  attention.  One  is  -the  HAND- 
RINGS  :  two  ropes,  as  if  for  a  hanging 
bar,  but  terminating  instead  each  in  an 
iron  ring  covered  with  leather,  and  large 
enough  for  the  hand  to  grasp  comfortably. 
These  rings  are  made  of  various  shapes; 
but  that  which  we  recommend  as  the  most 
practically  useful  is  the  stirrup. 

One  other  requisite,  indispensable  for 
safety  in  first  essays  at  many  of  the  feats 
we  shall  describe,  is  the  LUNGERS,  so  called. 
This  is  a  strong  broad  leather  belt  to 
buckle  round  the  waist,  with  an  iron  ring 
or  eye  at  each  side.  To  these  eyes  are 


strongly  attached  ropes,  one  on  each  side, 
of  sufficient  strength  to  support  the  weight 


FIG.  4.— The  Lungers. 

of   the    wearer.      The    figure    will    indicate 
the  method  of  using  it.     (Fig.  4.) 

This  is  an  invaluable  safeguard  for 
novices,  and  enables  many  to  learn  quickly 
— simply  by  the  fearlessness  it  engenders — 
many  a  difficult  feat  which  they  would 
otherwise  never  dream  of  attempting. 

THE  HORIZONTAL  BAR. — So  much  for  the 
construction  of  an  apparatus ;  now  for  the 
use  to  be  made  of  it.  We  will  begin  with 
the  horizontal  bar. 

But  before  we  begin  it  must  first  be  put 
into  good  condition.  Most  likely  there  will 
be  a  little  grease  on  it  from  previous  prac- 
tice, which  it  is  highly  important  should 
be  removed  before  commencing.  This  is 
done  in  the  following  manner:  Take  a 
wet  cloth  (without  soap  or  soda,  as  any 
kind  of  alkali  will  raise  the  grain  of  the 
wood  and  make  it  rough),  and  rub  the 
bar  with  it;  then  get  a  few  feet  of  rope — 
thick  sash-line  is  the  best — give  it  one 
turn  round  the  bar,  and  taking  hold  of 
each  end,  rub  it  up  and  down,  gradually 
moving  it  from  one  end  to  the  other.  The 
friction  will  dry  the  wood,  remove  the 
grease  or  dirt,  and  put  on  a  good  surface. 

The  bar  being  now  in  good  condition, 
wash  your  hands  perfectly  clean,  and  you 
are  ready  to  commence.  You  will  find  that 
there  is  no  r'esin  required,  which  every 
gymnast  is  compelled  to  use  if  the  bar  is 
not  kept  in  good  order.  The  use  of  resin 
is  bad  for  various  reasons :  it  will  dirty 
your  hands,  and  if  you  have  not  practiced 
much  it  will  cause  blisters  sooner  than 
otherwise.  Sometimes  the  skin  even  of 
hard  hands  is  torn,  and  wounds  ensue, 
preventing  further  practice  for  some  time. 
But  if  you  are  obliged  to  use  resin,  do  it 
judiciously:  powder  a  little,  and  rub  only 
the  tips  of  the  fingers  in  it;  avoid,  above 
all  things,  getting  it  into  the  palm  of  the 


GYMNASTICS 


523 


hands,  as  it  will  make  them  stick  to  the 
bar,  and  it  is  also  very  likely  to  cause 
jerks  in  swinging,  and  the  grip  will  not 
be  so  certain  as  when  the  hands  move 
smoothly  round.  These  details  may  appear 
rather  tedious,  but  you  will  find  them  use- 
ful, as  they  apply  to  all  apparatus  where 
the  wood  is  handled. 

Now,  there  is  another  thing  you  must 
bear  in  mind,  and  that  is  the  way  in  which 
you  must  take  hold  of  the  bar. 

Some  say  that  you  should  take  hold  of 
it  as  you  would  a  handle,  with  the  thumb 
underneath ;  but  we  think  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  proper  way  is  the  same  as  that 
in  which  a  monkey  holds  the  branch  of  a 
tree — the  thumb  on  the  same  side  as  the 
fingers.  If  the  thumb  be  underneath,  in 
all  ordinary  swinging  exercises  it  has  a 
tendency  to  draw  the  fingers  off;  although 
in  some  few  slow  movements  it  may  be 
under,  yet,  as  a  rule,  it  is  better  above. 

Jump  up  at  the  bar,  and  hang  with  the 
hands,  the  body,  arms,  and  legs  perfectly 
straight,  and  the  feet  close  together. 

Now,  having  hold  of  the  bar  with  both 
hands,  draw  yourself  up  until  the  chin 
is  above  the  bar;  then  lower  the  body 
until  the  arms  are  quite  straight  again. 

Practice  this  exercise  as  often  as  you 
can  without  tiring,  or  until  you  can  per- 
form it  six  or  eight  times  in  succession, 
which  you  will  not  do  until  you  have 
practiced  for  some  little  time. 

Beginners  must  now  try  a  few  gentle 
exercises,  such  as  hanging  by  each  hand 
alternately,  the  other  close  to  the  side. 

Then  begin  to  walk  along  the  bar  by 
the  hands,  taking  alternate  steps  with  them, 
making  the  steps  as  equal  as  possible,  and 
keeping,  as  we  said  before,  the  legs  hang- 
ing quietly  down.  Go  in  this  manner  from 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


one    end    to    the    other,    then    reverse    the 
hands,  and  back  again. 

Now  draw  yourself  up,  with  your  chin 
above  the  bar,  as  in  Fig.  5,  and  repeat 
the  walk  in  this  position. 


Next  try  a  few  good  swings  backward 
and  forward  at  -arm's-length :  you  will  find 
that  you  will  swing  further  each  time,  un- 
til you  can  swing  your  body  almost  into 
a  horizontal  position. 

All  these  little  exercises  should  be  re- 
peated as  often  as  possible;  they  help  to 
strengthen  the  muscles,  and  accustom  the 
hands  to  the  feel  of  the  bar. 

To  GET  ON  THE  BAR. — Draw  yourself  up 
as  in  the  last  figure  (Fig.  5),  then  sud- 
denly drop  the  whole  of  the  right  side, 
raising  at  the  same  time  the  left  leg  and 
throwing  it  over  the  bar,  as  in  Fig.  6. 
Now  establish  a  good  swing  with  the  right 
leg,  and  you  will  bring  your  body  well 
over  the  bar,  when  a  sudden  exertion  of 
muscle  will  bring  you  sitting  in  the  atti- 
tude of  Fig.  7.  This  is  by  no  means  an 


FIG.  7. 

easy  thing  to  do  at  first;  but  persevere, 
and,  after  a  few  failures,  you  will  sud- 
denly find  you  have  succeeded :  once  ac- 
complished, it  will  come  easy  enough. 

At  first  you  will  find  it  hard  matter 
enough  to  get  your  legs  up  to  the  bar  at 
all.  Beginners  mostly  try  to  lift  the  toes 
without  bending  the  knees,  and,  of  course, 
find  it  beyond  their  powers.  Bring  your 
knees  up  to  your  chin,  doubling  your  feet 
well  into  your  body,  and  you  will  find  it 
come  easy  enough. 

There  is  another  method  of  getting  on 
to  the  bar,  by  bringing  the  leg  up  through 
the  hands,  and  with  one  good  swing  bring- 
ing yourself  roundly  up. 

You  may  try  either  of  these  methods, 
yet  nothing  but  continued  practice  will  en- 
able you  to  master  them;  still,  when  you 
shall  have  mastered  them,  and  can  get  on 
to  the  bar  in  a  respectable  manner,  you 
may  consider  you  are  making  some  prog- 
ress. 

THE  LEG-SWING. — Being  in  your  original 
position,  as  in  Fig.  7,  throw  your  right 
leg  as  far  behind  you  as  possible,  at  the 
same  time  slipping  the  other  leg  back- 


524 


GYMNASTICS 


ward,  and  catching  by  the  bend  of  the 
knee,  as  in  Fig.  8.  Then  throw  the  head 
back  with  a  good  swing  (keeping  the  arms 
straight),  and  you  will  thus  make  one 
turn  backward  round  the  bar. 

You  will  find  at  first  you  are  apt  to  make 
a  half-turn  too  much;  but  after  a  little 
practice  you  will  be  able  to  regulate  the 
first  swing  so  as  to  go  round  once,  and 
come  up  into  your  first  position  with  a 
good  balance. 

Next  try  two  or  three  turns  without 
stopping;  but  always  endeavor  to  finish 
above  the  bar,  as  at  starting.  It  is  bad 
to  stop  as  in  Fig.  9,  as  you  are  disabled 
for  the  next  exercise. 

For  the  forward  swing,  reverse  the  hands, 
keeping  the  whole  weight  of  the  body  on 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  10. 


FIG.  n. 


the  arms,  throw  the  head  well  to  the 
front,  and  with  one  plunge  forward — keep- 
ing tight  hold  with  the  hands,  and  the 
body  erect,  as  in  Fig.  10 — you  will  make 
one  forward  revolution  round  the  bar. 

After  some  practice,  you  will  be  able  to 
go  round  several  times  without  stopping. 

This  exercise  is  actually  easier  than  the 
former,  but  it  requires  more  confidence,  for 
the  want  of  which  you  are  apt  to  keep 
too  close  to  the  bar,  and  thus  you  do  not 
get  sufficient  swing  to  bring  you  up  again. 

Practice  both  these  exercises  with  right 
and  left  legs  alternately. 

SITTING  ON  THE  BAR. — Having  accom- 
plished the  backward  leg-swing,  we  will 
now  proceed  to  something  a  little  more 
difficult. 

You  will  now  get  on  to  the  bar  as  in 
Fig.  7,  with  leg  over;  now  try  to  balance 
yourself  in  this  position  without  holding 
by  your  hands ;  having  succeeded,  take 
hold  of  the  bar  with  both  hands  behind 
you,  and  pass  the  hanging  leg  over  the  bar 
into  a  sitting  position,  as  in  Fig.  n. 

Now   practice   a   few   different   balances 


while  sitting;   that  is,  with  the  bar  under 
different   parts  of  the   thigh. 
Try  to  sit  almost  straight,  and  again  with 


FIG.  12. 


FIG.  13. 


the  bar  just  within  the  angle  of  the  knee. 
This  must  be  done  without  touching  the 
bar  with  the  hands. 

THE  SiT-SwiNG. — This  is  so  called  from 
its  being  a  swing  performed  while  sitting 
on  the  bar,  and  we  will  commence  with 
the  backward  swing. 

The  "sit-swing"  is  somewhat  similar  to 
the  leg-swing,  but,  of  course,  more  difficult, 
as  in  the  latter  the  weight  of  the  body 
is  mostly  on  the  leg;  but  in  the  present 
exercise  the  whole  weight  is  thrown  upon 
the  arms,  therefore  requiring  more  strength. 
While  sitting  on  the  bar,  as  in  the  last 
figure,  but  holding  with  the  hands,  straighten 
the  arms,  and  let  them  support  a  great 
part  of  the  weight  of  the  body;  now  throw 
yourself  backward  with  a  good  swing,  still 
keeping  a  firm  hold  of  the  bar  with  both 
hands. 

Now,  the  object  of  this  movement  is  to 
go  quite  round  the  bar  in  the  swing,  and 
thus  make  one  complete  revolution,  which 
is  called  the  "sit-swing  backward" ;  but  of 
course  no  one  can  expect  to  accomplish 
this  feat  at  once. 

The  first  few  times  you  attempt  it,  you 
will  most  likely  find  yourself  hanging  with 
the  weight  of  the  body  beneath  the  bar, 
and  with  the  momentum  of  the  swing  gone. 
In  this  case,  all  you  can  do  is  to  let 
your  legs  pass  through  your  arms,  and  thus 
drop  on  to  the  ground ;  but  you  must  repeat 
the  movement  until  you  are  able  to  swing 
quite  round. 

The  way  to  practice  this  is,  to  swing 
about  three-quarters  round,  and  then  to 
come  back  into  the  sitting  posture  again. 
This  will  give  you  confidence,  and  after 
a  time  you  will  feel  yourself  able  to  go  all 
the  way  round,  and  to  come  up  into  your 
original  position. 

For  some  time  you  will  find  that  you 
will  come  up  in  rather  an  awkward  man- 
ner, without  having  swing  enough  to  bal- 


GYMNASTICS 


525 


ince  yourself,  and  therefore  you  will  fall 
forward  again;  in  which  case  you  must 
ie  prepared  to  let  go  with  the  hands,  and 
to  throw  yourself  off  the  bar  on  to  your 
feet;  or,  what  is  much  better,  to  have  some 
«ne  standing  in  front,  in  readiness  to  catch 
you  as  you  come  off. 

In  the  forward  sit-swing,  the  first  start 
is  the  principal  thing,  as  the  impetus  gained 
will  be  sufficient  to  bring  you  up  again. 
In  order  to  get  a  good  start,  you  must 
raise  the  body  as  far  away  from  the  bar 
as  possible,  supporting  the  whole  weight 
on  the  arms,  as  in  Fig.  14;  now  throw 
the  chest  out  and  the  head  back,  with  the 
legs  rather  straight,  then,  with  a  good  plunge 
forward,  keeping  the  arms  straight  as  in 
Fig-  IS>  y°u  will  £°  quite  round;  that  is 
to  say,  you  will  in  time,  for  you  must  not 
think  of  succeeding  at  first  in  any  of  these 
feats,  but  perseverance  will  soon  enable  you 
to  accomplish  them. 

You  will  find  in  practicing  this  exercise, 


FIG.  14. 


FIG.  15. 


that  some  of  your  strength  will  be  expended 
in  getting  on  to  the  bar  again  after  each 
failure.  We  will  now  show  you  a  very  good 
way  of  getting  into  the  sitting  position 
again,  while  hanging,  as  in  Fig.  9.  Straighten 
the  body  as  in  Fig.  15,  and  draw  your  cen- 
tre of  gravity  a  little  above  the  bar,  then, 
bending  the  body  again  slightly,  you  will 
roll  quite  over  so  as  to  come  into  a  sitting 
position  again.  This  movement  is  called 
the  "Plymouth." 

HANGING  BY  THE  LEGS. — Get  on  to  the 
bar  in  a  sitting  position,  and  then  throw 
yourself  off  backward,  as  for  a  sit-swing; 
but,  instead  of  going  round,  drop  the  body 
and  bend  your  knees,  and  thus  let  them 
catch  on  the  bar,  getting  a  firm  grip  with 
them,  at  the  same  time  letting  go  your 
hands  as  in  Fig.  16. 

A  young  beginner  should  practice  this 
on  a  low  bar,  so  that,  when  he  hangs  by 
the  legs,  his  hands  will  touch  the  ground; 
and  thus,  when  he  is  getting  tired  and  can 


not  raise  himself,  he  may  let  his  legs  drop, 
and  come  on  to  his  hands  on  the  floor 
safely.  He  may  then  get  on  to  the  bar 
again,  hanging  by  the  knees  as  before,  and 
practice  swinging  backward  and  forward 


FIG.  16. 


FIG.  17. 


as  high  as  he  can.  At  first  the  friction 
will  make  the  legs  a  little  sore,  but  the 
muscles  will  soon  harden  with  practice. 

There  are  a  few  other  leg  exercises  which 
may  be  practiced  with  advantage,  and  which 
will  afford  variety,  and  also  help  to  bring 
all  the  muscles  into  play. 

One  of  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  17,  where 
you  hang  on  the  bar  with  one  leg,  stretch- 
ing the  other  straight  out  with  the  toe 
against  the  under  side  of  the  bar,  and  the 
exercise  is  to  bend  the  body  up  and  down. 
This  should  be  done  with  right  and  left 
legs  alternately. 

A  performance  which  is  also  very  showy 
(although  we  should  not  advise  any  one 
to  attempt  it  without  very  good  nerve  and 
also  strength  in  the  legs),  is  the  standing 
balance  on  the  bar. 

This  may  be  practiced  on  a  bar  as  low 
as  you  like,  so  that  you  can  easily  jump 


FIG.  18.  FIG.  19. 

off;  but  of  course  it  looks  better  on  a  bar 
of  ordinary  height. 

While  sitting  on  the  bar,  lift  one  foot 
and  gradually  bring  it  on  to  the  bar,  as  in 
Fig.  18,  and  then  raise  yourself  up  stand- 
ing, as  in  Fig.  19,  a  feat  which,  of  course, 

34 


GYMNASTICS 


requires  great  strength  in  the  legs,  and  a 
good  command  of  balancing  power.  Now 
endeavor  to  walk  forward  and  backward 
by  shifting  the  feet;  and  if  you  lose  your 
baJance,  jump  off  the  bar  altogether,  with- 
out trying  to  recover  it,  and  get  up  again. 

VAULTING  OVER  THE  BAR  is  a  very  useful 
exercise,  and  quite  as  well  performed  on 
the  horizontal  bar  as  on  the  vaulting-horse, 
if  your  choice  of  apparatus  should  be  lim- 
ited. 

Try  it  first  on  a  bar  about  three  feet 
six  inches  from  the  ground,  and  gradually 
raise  it;  but  take  care  not  to  overtask 
your  powers  by  having  it  too  high  for  you, 
as  very  often,  when  young  gymnasts  find 
that  they  are  getting  on  respectably,  they 
are  very  apt  to  be  too  ambitious,  and  to 
attempt  heights  far  beyond  their  powers. 
About  four  feet  six  inches  is  a  fair  height 
for  a  person  about  five  feet  four  or  five 
to  begin  with.  Learn  to  clear  this  clean 
and  in  correct  style,  before  you  attempt 
anything  higher. 

As  vaulting  is  by  no  means  a  difficult 
feat,  to  look  well  it  should  be  done  in 


FIG.  20. 

good  style.  To  make  a  clean  vault,  the 
body  should  be  kept  as  straight  and  as 
far  away  from  the  bar  as  possible  (see 
Fig.  20),  and  should  be  practiced  right  and 
left  alike. 

No  careful  gymnast  need  ever  be  afraid 
of  injury  if  he  uses  his  brain  as  well  as 
his  body,  and  you  will  find  that,  if  a  mis- 
hap occurs,  it  is  generally  to  some  one 
who  attempts  exercises  without  taking  into 
consideration  in  what  different  positions 
he  may  come  off  the  apparatus ;  but  all 
these  exercises  may  be  gone  through  safely 
if  sufficient  precautions  are  taken  at  first. 

THE  PARALLEL  BARS. — You  may  com- 
mence with  the  parallel  bars,  as  in  the 
horizontal  bar,  with  the  simple  movements 
which  any  one  would  naturally  perform  up- 
on them ;  such  as  standing  between  them, 
and  with  a  spring  placing  a  hand  upon 
each,  and  thus  supporting  the  weight  of 
the  body. 

When  you  have  become  somewhat  used 


to  them  in  this  way,  commence  swinging 
backward  and  forward,  with  the  legs 
straight  down,  trying  to  go  higher  each 
time. 

Of  course,  if  you  have  practiced  on  the 
horizontal  bar,  the  preliminary  exercises 
will  be  mastered  at  once;  but  as  it  is 
possible  that  some  may  commence  on  the 
parallels,  we  give  this  short  description  of 
these  simple  movements. 

The  first  exercise  after  you  are  on  the 
bars  should  be 

THE  WALK. — This  is  very  simple,  being 
performed  by  jumping  up  and  placing  one 
hand  on  each  bar,  with  the  body  hanging 
suspended  between  them  as  before. 

Now  walk  along  the  bar  by  taking  steps 
with  the  arms,  making  them  as  evenly  and 
regularly  as  you  can,  keeping  the  head 
well  up,  and  the  body  perfectly  straight 

Walk  in  this  way  from  one  end  to  the 
other,  and  when  you  can  do  this  easily, 
walk  back  in  the  same  way,  without  turn- 
ing round.  Then  let  the  body  sink  down 
as  in  Fig.  21,  and  hop  from  one  end  to 
the  other  backward  and  forward.  This 
you  will  find  capital  practice  for  the  mus- 
cles of  the  arms,  although  rather  tiring  at 
first 

When  this  hopping  movement  is  done 
with  a  good  swing,  so  as  to  go  forward 
or  backward  some  considerable  distance, 
it  has  a  very  good  effect,  and  is  called 
"The  Grasshopper." 

VAULTING  MOVEMENTS  are  performed  by 
getting  up  between  the  bars  as  for  the 
walk,  placing  yourself  near  the  centre  of 
the  bars. 

Now  swing  backward  and  forward  until 
you  are  able  to  throw  both  legs  over  one 


FIG.  21. 


FIG. 


side   of   the   bars   in    front   of  you,   as   in 
Fig.  22. 

Now  with  another  swing  bring  them  back 
again,  and  throw  them  over  behind  you 
on  the  same  side  as  before.  (Fig.  23.) 


GYMNASTICS 


527 


All  these  exercises  should  be  performed 
with  the  body  as  straight  as  possible,  and 
when  done  neatly,  with  the  legs  close  to- 
gether, have  a  very  pretty  effect,  and  are 
very  good  practice. 

There  are  several  similar  movements,  such 
as  those  represented  in  Figs.  25  and  26, 
which  are  done  by  first  swinging  backward 
and  forward,  and  then  throwing  the  legs 
over  the  outside  of  the  bars  in  front,  one 
on  each  side ;  then  bending  back  a  little, 
and  bringing  the  legs  over  back  again  be- 
tween the  bars,  and  then,  without  stopping, 
throwing  them  over  again  behind  you,  one 
on  each  side  as  before.  This  you  should 
practice  until  you  can  repeat  it  several  times 
without  stopping. 

The    next    exercises    are    good    practice. 


FIG.  23. 


FIG.  24. 


Stand  between  the  bars,  and  place  the 
hands  on  the  under  side  of  them,  even 
with  the  shoulders,  then  gradually  raise 
the  legs  until  they  turn  over  and  bring 
the  body  into  an  inverted  position,  as  in 
Fig.  27;  then  continue  the  movement  right 
over,  until  you  are  hanging  as  in  the  posi- 
tion shown  in  Fig.  28. 

You  should  practice  this  until  you  can 
do  it  several  times  without  touching  the 
ground  with  the  feet,  and  you  will  find 
it  very  good  practice  for  the  front  and 


FIG.  25. 


FIG.  26. 


back  horizontal  movements,  previously  shown 
on  the  horizontal  bar. 

THE  PUMPING  MOVEMENT  is  one  of  the 
finest  exercises  for  developing  the  muscles 
of  the  chest.  You  must  first  practice  the 
swing  until  you  can  bring  yourself  up 


horizontally,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29;  then, 
by  bending  the  arms,  drop  the  body  into 
Fig.  30,  and  then  swing  round,  your  feet 


FIG.  27. 


FIG.  28. 


describing  a  semicircle,  and  come  up  again 
into  Fig.  31,  finishing  the  movement  by 
swinging  backward  again  in  the  same  man- 
ner into  Fig.  29,  as  on  commencing  the 
movement. 

THE  VAULTING  HORSE. — There  are  no  sim- 
ple preliminary  exercises  on  the  horse  but 
what  may  be  just  as  well  performed  on  the 
parallels;  and,  indeed,  such  is  the  simi- 
larity in  some  of  them  that  we  have  in- 
variably noticed  that  any  gymnast  who  is 
good  on  the  one  is  not  likely  to  be  a 
novice  on  the  other. 

For  this  reason  we  shall  endeavor  to 
make  as  much  variety  as  possible,  and 


FIG.  29. 


shall  therefore  not  describe  exercises  which 
may  be  as  well  gone  through  upon  the 
parallels,  but  only  give  those  which  have 
a  distinctive  character. 

Commence  by  jumping  on  to  the  horse, 
with  the  hands  one  on  each  of  the  pom- 
mels, and  supporting  the  whole  weight  of 
the  body;  the  legs  hanging  straight  down. 

Now  bring  one  leg  over  the  body  of 
the  horse  in  between  the  pommels,  as  in 
Fig.  32;  then  bring  it  back  again  with- 
out touching  the  horse  with  the  foot,  and 
pass  the  other  leg  through  in  the  same 
manner. 

Now  try  and  change  the  legs  simultane- 
ously; that  is,  while  the  one  is  being* 
brought  back,  pass  the  other  through  for- 
ward; the  body,  of  course,  still  supported 
by  the  arms. 


528 


GYMNASTICS 


THE  LEG-SPRING  is  the  next  exercise, 
and  is  performed  in  the  following  manner: 

Get  on  to  the  horse  as  in  Fig.  3,  and 
then  bring  both  legs  up  on  to  the  back  in 
a  kneeling  position,  as  in  Fig.  33;  then, 
while  the  body  is  thus  gathered,  give  a 
good  spring  up,  throwing  up  the  arms  as 
in  Fig.  34,  and  you  will  come  over  to  th.1 
other  side  on  to  your  feet  on  the  ground. 

If  you  are  nervous  in  attemp1-"^;  his 
at  first,  get  the  assistance  of  sonr>  on,  to 
hold  your  hand,  and  you  will  accomplish 
it  without  much  difficulty. 

The  next  exercise  must  be  practiced  at 
first  with  the  horse  as  low  as  possible,  and 


FIG.  30. 


the  jumping-board  placed  about  a  foot  from 
the   horse. 

JUMPING  THROUGH  THE  HANDS. — Take  a 
short  run,  and  jump  on  to  the  board  with 
both  feet  down  at  once,  flat-footed.  Place 
your  hands  one  on  each  pommel,  spring 
up,  and  pass  the  legs  through  the  hands, 
as  in  Fig.  35,  shooting  them  out  in  front 
of  you  over  the  horse,  so  as  to  come  neatly 
down  on  the  other  side.  Of  course  you 
must  measure  your  distance,  so  that  you 


FIG.  31. 


FIG.  3». 


may  rise  high  enough  while  passing  over 
for  the  back  to  clear  the  top  of  the  horse. 
Another  form  of  this  exercise  is  to  jump 
over  the  horse  with  the  legs  outside  the 
hands,  and  is  performed  in  a  similar  man- 
ner to  the  last,  but  is  rather  more  difficult, 
as  you  will  need  a  much  greater  spring 
to  raise  yourself  sufficiently  high  to  pass 
clear  over;  and  you  must  also  take  care 
to  let  go  with  the  hands  at  the  proper 


moment,    when   in   the   position   shown   ia 
Fig.  36. 

If  you  retain  your  hold  of  the  pommel*' 


FIG.  33. 


FIG.  34. 


too  long,  you  will  lose  command  of  your- 
self, and  they  will  have  a  tendency  to  pull 
you  back  and  cause  you  to  pitch  head  first 
on  to  the  ground;  but  when  you  commence 
to  practice  this  movement,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  some  one  standing  in  front,  to 
catch  you  in  case  your  feet  do  not  quite 
clear  the  top  of  the  horse,  more  especially 
if  it  should  be  at  all  too  high  for  you. 
SADDLE  VAULTING. — Get  on  to  the  horse 


F.G.  35. 


FIG.  36. 


as  in  Fig.  37,  sitting  across  as  in  a  saddle, 
but  behind  the  pommels ;  then,  bearing  the 
whole  weight  upon  the  arms,  throw  your 
legs  right  up,  and,  giving  yourself  a  kind 
of  twist,  describe  a  semicircle  with  them, 
and  bring  yourself  round  with  the  face  the 
other  way ;  your  hands  being  one  upon 
each  pommel,  your  course  will  naturally 
be  toward  the  one  which  holds  the  after- 
most. 
THE  LONG  FLY  is  a  very  fine  exercise 


FIG.  37. 

for  the  whole  of  the  body,  and  more  es- 
pecially  the   lower   extremities. 
You   commence   practice   for   this   move- 


GYMNASTICS 


529 


ment  by  placing  the  j  umping-board  about 
three  feet  from  the  largest  end  of  the 
horse,  then  with  a  run,  pitch  with  your 
hands  on  to  the  end,  as  in  Fig.  38. 

Now  move  the  board  a  little  further  off, 
and  repeat  the  movement;  and  thus  con- 
tinue the  exercise,  increasing  the  distance 
each  time,  until  you  can  pitch  on  to  the 
end  from  about  five  or  six  feet. 

Now  vary  this  movement  by  jumping 
from  different  distances,  and  pitching  on 
the  hands  first,  and  then  bringing  up  the 
feet  on  to  the  back  of  the  horse,  as  in 
Fig.  39- 
.  And  when  you  are  in  this  position,  pitch 


FIG.  38. 


with  the  hands  on  to  the  extreme  end  of 
the  horse,  and  go  over  as  at  "leapfrog." 

Having  now  sufficiently  practiced  these 
preliminaries,  place  the  board  about  a  foot 
from  the  end  of  the  horse  (having  first 
had  the  high  pommels  taken  out,  and  the 
flush  ones  substituted). 

Now  take  a  run  and  jump,  pitching  with 


FIG.  40. 


your  hands  on  the  first  pommel,  landing 
yourself  astride,  as  near  the  middle  of 
the  horse  as  possible ;  repeat  this  exercise, 
gradually  increasing  the  jump,  until  at 
last  you  clear  the  whole  length,  as  in  Fig. 
40,  coming  down  safely  on  the  ground  in 
front  of  the  horse. 

When  you  can  get  near  the  neck  and  are 
likely  to  come  right  over  in  a  few  more 
trials,  have  some  one  standing  in  front  to 
catch  you  in  case  you  do  not  quite  clear 
the  end,  and  come  instead  into  a  sitting 
position  on  the  neck  of  the  horse,  as  in 
this  case  the  sudden  stop  is  likely  to  throw 
you  over  head  forward  in  a  rather  ig- 


nominious   manner;    but    if    you    practice 
assiduously,    when    you    feel    that    you    can 


FIG.  42. 


do  it,  and  make  up  your  mind  for  it,  you 
are  almost  certain  to  clear  it. 

It  will,  of  course,  take  some  time  to 
master  this  thoroughly;  but  it  is  a  fine 
dashing  feat,  well  worth  the  trouble  of 
acquiring.  Only  don't  think  you  are  doing 
it  if  you  are  satisfied  to  pitch  short  and 
paddle  along  on  your  hands  for  the  rest 


FIG.  43. 

of  the  distance;  you  ought  to  'pitch  clear 
over  at  one  movement.  If  horses  of  vari- 
ous lengths  are  available,  they  will  prove 
of  immense  service  in  practicing  this  ex- 
ercise. 

HANGING  RINGS. — These  are  very  useful 
for  developing  the  muscles  of  the  arms  and 
shoulders.  We  have,  therefore,  found  room 
for  a  few  exercises  upon  them  as  a  guide 
to  the  young  gymnast,  who  will  find  little 
difficulty  in  supplementing  our  instructions 
with  exercises  of  his  own. 

Commence    by    drawing    yourself    up, .  as 


in    Fig.    41,    holding    one    ring    at    arm's- 
length,  and  the  other  close  to  the  body. 

Draw     in     the     outstretched     arm     and 
straighten    the    other,    and    repeat    this    as 


530 


GYMNASTICS 


often  as  you  like,  as  it  is  very  good  pre- 
liminary exercise  for  the  trapeze. 

Now,  from  this  position  gradually  spread 
the  arms  wide  apart,  suspending  the  body 
between  them,  as  in  Fig.  42,  and  then  let 
the  body  gradually  sink  down  until  you 
hang  straight  down  by  the  arms  again. 

There  are  many  other  strength  move- 
ments on  the  hand-rings,  but  you  will 
soon  find  them  out  for  yourself;  we  will, 
therefore,  pass  on  to  the  swinging  exercises. 

Commence  swinging  simply  backward 
and  forward,  increasing  your  momentum 


FIG.  45. 


by  drawing  yourself  up  by  contracting 
the  arms  as  you  ascend,  and  when  at  the 
highest,  lowering  your  body  with  a  drop, 
and  by  this  means  you  will  swing  higher 
each  time,  until  you  are  able  to'  bring 
your  arms  and  legs  straight  and  nearly 
into  a  horizontal  position,  as  in  Fig.  43. 

Also  swing  in  different  positions  in  or- 
der to  get  command  of  yourself  while 
swinging. 

Practice   by   drawing   the   legs    over   the 


FIG.  46. 


head  when  at  the  end  of  the  swing,  as  in 
Fig.  44,  passing  back  in  this  position  to 
the  other  end,  and  then  bringing  the  legs 
smartly  over,  and  shooting  them  straight 
out  (in  order  to  preserve  the  momentum), 
and  coming  back  all  straight  again  to  the 
starting  point.  Repeat  this  several  times, 
and  you  will  find  it  very  good  work  for 
the  muscles. 

Also  swing  with  the  hands  close  to  the 
groin,  and  the  arms  nearly  straight  by  the 
side,  and  supporting  the  body,  as  in  Fig. 
45 ;  keeping  yourself  from  pitching  your 
head  and  shoulders  too  much  forward,  at 
the  end  of  the  swing,  by  bending  the  arms 


and  projecting  the  legs,  as  in  Fig.  46, 
which  represents  the  bent  position  which 
you  assume  when  beginning  to  descend. 


FIG.  47- 

Another  variety  of  this  swing  is  shown 
in  Fig.  47,  where  the  body  is  kept  horizon- 
tal throughout. 

CLIMBING    LADDERS,    ROPES,    ETC. 

Climbing  the  rope  is  a  very  useful  exer- 
cise, which  snould  be  practiced  by  every 
one,  as  it  may  often  be  the  means  of  saving 
life  in  case  of  fire  or  shipwreck,  etc. 


FIG.  48. 


FIG.  49. 


We  mean  climbing  by  the  use  of  both  legs 
and  arms.  Fig.  48  shows  the  way  of  taking 
hold  of  the  rope,  and  Fig.  49  the  position 
when  climbing. 


FIG. 


FIG.  51. 


At  gymnastic  festivals,  some  of  the  com- 
petitors have  ascended  on  a  rope  in  this 


GYMNASTICS 


531 


way  to  the  height  of  upward  of  one  hun- 
dred feet. 

Another  method  is  by  holding  on  and 
raising  yourself  by  using  the  hands  only, 
but  this  is  more  difficult. 

Another  exercise  is  by  climbing  the 
knotted  rope,  and  also  one  with  short  cross- 
bars fixed  at  frequent  intervals. 

Climbing  the  pole,  either  fixed  or  hang- 
ing, as  in  Fig.  50,  only  varies  from  the  same 
exercise  on  the  rope  by  its  being  rather 
more  difficult  to  grasp,  from  being  thicker 
and  also  rigid. 

Climbing  ladders,  fixed  both  in  vertical 
jpid  horizontal  positions,  and  at  various 
angles,  furnishes  a  good  variety  of  ex- 
ercise for  the  arms,  and  is  very  easy  to 
commence  with.  Fig.  51  shows  an  exer- 
cise on  the  horizontal  ladder,  in  which  you 
hold  by  the  outside,  and  progress  by  mov- 


FIG.  52. 

ing  the  hands  forward  alternately.  Fig.  52 
represents  another  movement,  in  which  you 
walk  along  under  the  ladder,  increasing  the 
length  of  the  step  by  holding  the  rounds  at 
some  distance  apart,  the  intervening  ones 
being  passed.  Fig.  53  shows  one  of  the 
movements  upon  the  perpendicular  ladder, 
in  which  the  object  is  to  keep  the  arms  and 
legs  as  straight  as  possible  while  the  steps 


FIG.  53. 


are  taken.     Fig.   54  is  the  oblique  ladder, 
which  may  be  practiced  by  moving  both  up 
and   down  by  the   hands. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  there 


are   some   simple   rules   to  be   observed  in 
practicing. 

(i.)   Never  overtire  yourself  by  practice, 
as  that  will  do  more  harm  than  good.     (2.) 


FIG.  54. 

Be  careful  not  to  get  into  a  heat  without 
having  a  wrapper  handy  to  put  on  when  you 
leave  off;  and  do  not  practice  after  a  full 
meal.  (3.)  Dress  must  also  be  suitable,  as 
it  is  highly  important  to  have  all  the  limbs 
free  and  unfettered;  and  therefore  light 
and  loose  garments  and  gymnastic  shoes 
should  be  worn.  A  belt  may  be  used  by 
those  who  require  it,  but  it  is  not  indis- 
pensable. 

GYMNASTICS    WITHOUT    APPA- 
RATUS 

THE  THREE  CHAIRS. — Even  should  the 
young  gymnast  be  without  any  apparatus, 
he  can  train  his  body  in  various  ways,  so 
that  when  he  obtains  apparatus,  its  work 
will  be  half  done.  For  example,  he  may 
practice  the  "Three  Chairs"  exercise,  which 
will  strengthen  the  loins  immensely;  that 
being  just  the  portion  of  the  body  that  is 
least  exercised  in  the  artificial  life  of  the 
present  day. 

The  young  gymnast  should  take  three 
chairs,  and  set  them  in  a  row,  the  two  end- 
most  chairs  facing  each  other,  and  the  cen- 
tral one  set  sidewise.  They  should  be  just 
so  far  apart  that  the  back  of  the  head  and 
the  heels  rest  on  the  two  endmost  chairs, 
and  that  the  central  chair  supports  the  mid- 
dle of  the  body. 

Now  curve  the  body  a  little  upward,  so 
as  to  take  its  weight  off  the  centre  chair; 
take  the  chair  with  the  right  hand,  draw  it 
from  under  you,  pass  it  over  you  to  the 
other  side,  and  with  the  left  hand  replace 
it  under  your  body.  This  should  be  done 
several  times,  so  as  to  -pass  the  chair  from 
side  to  side. 


532 


GYMNASTICS 


The  easiest  way  of  learning  this  really 
useful  exercise  is  to  begin  by  putting  the 
head  and  nape  of  the  neck  on  one  chair,  and 
allowing  the  feet  to  reach  nearly  to  the 


The  Three  Chairs. 


middle  of  the  other.  This  will  greatly  take 
off  from  the  difficulty;  and  as  you  feel 
yourself  getting  stronger,  move  the  chairs 
gradually  apart,  so  that  at  last  you  lie 
exactly  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

KICKING  THE  CORK. — This  is  a  capital 
exercise,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being 
exceedingly  amusing.  Draw  two  lines  on 
the  ground  (like  a  JL  reversed),  one  at  right 
angles  to  the  other.  Place  your  right  foot 
with  the  heel  just  touching  the  cross-line 
of  the  J.,  and  the  foot  pointing  along  the 
upright  line.  Next,  put  your  left  foot 
in  front  of  the  right,  with  the  heel  just 
touching  its  toe,  and  then  place  the  right 
foot  in  advance  of  left  in  a  similar  man- 
ner. You  will  thus  make  three  short  steps, 
each  the  exact  length  of  your  foot. 

Exactly  in  front  of  the  advanced  foot, 
stand  a  common  wine  cork  upright. 

Now,  go  back  to  the  cross-line,  place 
your  left  heel  against  it  as  before,  and  with 
the  right  foot  try  to  kick  down  the  cork, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration,  without  losing 


Kicking  the  Cork. 

the  balance  of  the  body  or  allowing  the  left 
foot  to  touch  the  ground.  At  first  it  will 
be  found  utterly  impossible  to  do  so,  the 
toe  not  reaching  to  within  an  inch  of  it; 


but  a  little  practice  will  enable  the  young 
gymnast  to  perform  the  feat  without  very 
much  difficulty.  The  best  plan  is  to  reach 
forward  until  you  judge  that  your  foot  i» 
close  to  the  cork,  and  then,  with  a  slight 
sidewise  kick,  strike  at  the  cork,  and  bring 
yourself  again  to  the  upright  position. 

This  exercise  is  exceedingly  valuable  for 
strengthening  the  legs  and  giving  pliability 
to  the  whole  body. 

THE  STOOPING  STRETCH. — This  exercise 
does  for  the  arms  what  the  preceding  does 
for  the  legs.  Take  the  same  lines  as  be- 
fore, and  stand  with  both  toes  on  the  cross- 
line.  Now  throw  yourself  forward  on  your 
hands,  and  with  the  right  hand  make  a 
chalk-mark  on  the  floor  as  far  as  you  can 
stretch.  Having  done  this,  spring  up  to  the 
upright  position  by  means  of  the  left  arm, 
taking  care  not  to  move  the  toes  from  the 
cross-line.  Each  competitor  at  this  exer- 
cise tries  to  chalk  his  mark  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. 

When  this  exercise  is  first  attempted,  it 
seems  utterly  impossible  to  reach  to  any 


The  Stooping  Stretch. 


distance,  the  spring  of  the  left  arm  being 
found  insufficient  to  bring  the  body  upright 
again.  After  a  time,  however,  when  the 
muscles  of  the  arms  become  strengthened, 
the  player  finds  that  he  can  rapidly  extend 
the  length  of  stretch,  until  at  last  he  can 
throw  himself  nearly  flat  on  the  ground, 
and  yet  spring  up  again. 

In  order  to  strengthen  both  arms  equally, 
they  should  be  used  alternately. 

One  secret  in  performing  this  exercise  is 
to  chalk  the  mark  and  spring  back  as 
quickly  as  possible,  as  every  second  of 
time  takes  away  the  strength  of  the  sup- 
porting arm. 

STILTS. — There  are  various  forms  of  stilts 
and  modes  of  using  them.  Some,  such  as 
those  which  are  employed  by  professionals, 
are  strapped  to  the  ankles  and  have  no 
handles.-  These  should  not  be  tried  until 
the  young  gymnast  is  skilled  with  the  han- 
dle-stilts, as  a  fall  is  really  dangerous. 

Others  have  long  handles,  and  the  feet 
are  received  into  leathern  loops  nailed  on 
the  stilt;  but  by  far  the  best  are  those 
which,  like  the  stilts  represented  in  the  il- 


GYMNASTICS 


583 


lustration,  are  furnished  merely  with  two 
wooden  projections  on  which  the  feet  can 
rest. 

The  easiest  way  of  getting  on  the  stilts 
is  to  stand  with  the  back  against  the  wall, 


Stilts. 


and  take  the  handles  of  the  stilts  under  the 
arms,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Then 
place  the  right  foot  on  the  step  of  one  stilt, 
raise  youiself,  with  your  back  still  leaning 
against  the  wall,  and  then  place  the  left 
foot  on  the  step  of  the  other  stilt. 

Now  try  to  walk,  raising  each  stilt  al- 
ternately with  the  hands,  and  lifting  the 
foot  with  it.  A  very  short  time  wKl  get 
you  into  the  way  of  doing  this,  and  in  a 
few  days  you  ought  to  be  able  to  walk 
with  freedom. 

Having  obtained  some  degree  of  pro- 
ficiency, you  should  race  with  other  stilt- 
walkers,  ascend  and  descend  steps,  planks, 
or  stairs,  pirouette  on  one  stilt  holding  the 
other  above  your  head  and  then  replace  the 
feet  without  coming  to  the  ground,  and 
perform  similar  feats.  Accomplished  stilt- 
walkers  can  even  ascend  and  descend  lad- 
ders laid  at  a  considerable  slope. 

The  height  of  the  feet  from  the  ground 
rather  diminishes  than  adds  to  the  diffi- 


culty of  walking  on  stilts.  If  the  stilt- 
walker  should  feel  himself  losing  his  bal- 
ance, he  should  at  once  jump  to  the  ground, 
and  not  run  the  risk  of  damaging  himself 
by  trying  to  recover  his  balance.  After 
some  little  skill  has  been  attained,  the 
young  athlete  ought  to  be  able  to  get  on 
his  stilts  without  needing  the  support  of 
the  wall,  a  short  run  and  a  spring  being 
quite  enough  for  the  purpose. 

THE  WALL-SPRING. — A  very  good  pre- 
liminary exercise  is  that  which  is  called  the 
"wall-spring."  The  young  gymnast  stands 
at  some  little  distance  from  a  wall,  places 
his  right  hand  behind  his  back,  and  throws 
himself  against  the  wall,  supporting  him- 
self by  the  left  hand.  He  then  springs 
back  to  the  upright  position  without  mov- 
ing his  toes  from  the  spot  on  which  they 
had  been  placed.  This,  like  all  similar  ex- 
ercises, should  be  done  with  both  arms  al- 
ternately, and  the  gymnast  should  learn  to 
throw  the  strength  of  all  his  body,  as  well 
as  of  the  arms,  into  the  spring. 

An  explanation  of  the  Japanese  system 
of  athletics,  which  combines  with  it  the 
most  formidable  principles  of  self-defence, 
will  be  found  further  on  in  this  book. 


The  Wall  Spring. 


We  earnestly  recommend  every  reader  who 
wishes  not  only  to  gain  strength  and  physi- 
cal poise,  but  to  acquire  the  knack  of  pro- 
tecting himself  against  enemies  of  greater 
size  and  strength,  to  study  carefully,  the 
exposition  of  the  elements  of  jiu-jitsu. 


ACCORDING   to  some  authorities,   the  art  of  riding  had   best   be 
and  familiarity.     Others  hold  that  it  is  far  easier  to  teach  those 
learned  in  early  childhood,  in  order  to  give  the  necessary  ease 
who   begin   later,   since  there   are   then   no   bad   habits   to   be  overcome. 
In  either  case,  however,  the  requisite  confidence  and  readiness  at  meet- 
ing difficulties  and  managing  the  horse  can  only  be  acquired  by  constant 
practice  and  careful  training;  so  that  the  whole  question  is  one  of  the 
competency  of  the  teacher  and  the  intelligence  of  the  learner.     In  the 
following  treatise  the  essential  points  are  set  forth  with  sufficient  clear- 
ness to  enable  one  to  readily  understand  what  is  to  be  learned;  so  that, 
when  beginning  practical  training,  he  knows  what  he  is  expected  to  do. 
The  whole  secret  of  a  correct  position  on  the  horse  has  been  summed 
up  in  the  following  stanza : 

''Your  head  and  your  heart  keep  boldly  up; 
Your  hands  and  your  heels  keep  down ; 
Your  legs  keep  close  to  your  horse's  side ; 
And  your  elbows  keep  close  to  your  own." 

— CHEFNEY'S  Secret  of  Riding 

THE     ESSENTIALS    OF    CORRECT    RIDING 


MOUNTING.— When  about  to  mount, 
stand  before  the  left  shoulder  of  the 
horse,  hold  the  whip  in  the  left  hand  with 
the  lash  downward,  leave  the  curb-rein 
loose  on  the  neck,  and  take  the  snaffle- 
reins  at  their  centre,  between  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  with 
which  draw  them  up  evenly  between  the 
fore  and  third  fingers  of  the  left  hand  (the 
middle  or  longest  finger  dividing  them), 
until  they  are  sufficiently  tightened  for  you 
to  feel  the  bearing  of  the  horse's  mouth. 
Throw  the  loose  ends  over  the  middle 
joint  of  the  forefinger,  so  as  to  drop  down 
on  the  off-side  of  the  horse's  neck.  Then 
take  the  centre  of  the  curb-reins  between 
the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand, 
as  already  described,  and  allowing  them  to 
hang  more  slackened  than  the  snaffle-reins, 
separate  them  with  the  little  finger  of  the 
left  hand,  passing  the  loose  ends  up  the 
palm,  and  casting  them  to  the  off-side  over 
(634  v 


the  ends  of  the  snaffle-reins.  Take  with  the 
right  hand  a  lock  of  the  mane,  and  wind 
it  once  or  twice  round  the  left  thumb,  clos- 
ing the  hand  so  as  firmly  to  grasp  the  reins 
and  mane.  The  left  hand  may  now  be  rested 
on  the  neck  of  the  horse  near  to  the  withers, 
and  within  about  six  or  eight  inches  of  the 
pommel  of  the  saddle.  With  the  right 
hand,  hold  the  stirrup  until  the  left  foot 
is  placed  in  it ;  the  right  hand  should  now 
be  put  on  the  cantle,  the  body  raised  until 
the  feet  are  side  by  side,  and  both  knees 
press  the  saddle;  move  the  right  hand  from 
the  cantle  to  the  pommel,  and  throw  the 
right  leg  quickly,  but  not  hastily,  or  with 
a  jerk,  across  the  horse,  and  sink  easily 
(no  jerking  or  bumping)  into  the  saddle. 
By  turning  the  toe  of  the  boot  slightly  in- 
ward so  as  to  strike  the  right  stirrup  gently, 
the  movement  will  cause  it  to  swing  partly 
round ;  by  this  means  the  foot  obtains  pos- 
session of  it  without  the  aid  of  the  hand, 


RIDING 


535 


which  should  never  be  employed  when  the 
stirrups  are  lost;  after  a  little  practice  the 
stirrups  may  be  dropped  even  when  gal- 
loping, and  quickly  regained  by  striking 
both  toes  simultaneously  inward. 

Get  into  the  habit  of  making  your  horse 
stand  steady  during  and  immediately  after 
mounting.  When  an  animal  has  been  in 
careless  hands,  he  not  infrequently  tries  to 
move  off  immediately  he  feels  your  weight 
on  the  stirrup.  This  is  not  only  an  un- 
pleasant but  also  a  dangerous  proceeding, 
especially  when  a  lady  is  mounting.  It 
may  be  checked  by  keeping  the  reins  tight, 
and,  if  necessary,  using  the  curb-rein.  The 
horse  is  so  docile  an  animal,  though  a 
creature  of  habit,  that  it  can  easily  be 
taught  what  is  required  or  cured  of  its  de- 
fects, provided  only  that  its  master  is  pa- 
tient and  intelligent.  Thus,  when  mounted, 


A  Horse  Harnessed  for  Riding 

instead  of  immediately  starting  off  at  a  trot 
or  walk,  wait  a  few  seconds,  and  thus  teach 
your  horse  that  he  is  not  to  rush  away  imme- 
diately he  feels  your  weight  in  the  saddle. 

In  order  to  discover  the  proper  length  for 
your  stirrups,  sit  comfortably  down  on  your 
saddle,  keep  the  body  upright,  let  the  legs 
hang  loosely  at  first,  then  clasp  the  horse 
slightly  with  them,  turn  the  toe  in  and 
rather  up;  then  the  stirrup  ought  just  to 
support  the  foot.  Then  stand  up  in  the 
stirrups  with  the  legs  straight,  and  see 
whether  the  fork  will  clear  the  pommel  of 
the  saddle;  it  ought  just  to  do  so  if  the  stir- 
rups are  the  correct  length.  Having  once 
ascertained  what  is  the  correct  length  for 
the  stirrups,  you  should  measure  from 
finger-tip  to  armpit  the  length  from  the 
buckle  to  the  end  of  the  stirrups,  and  thus 
you  can  always  on  future  occasions  tell 
whether  any  alterations  are  required  before 
mounting. 


Being  now  seated  on  the  horse,  which 
we  will  suppose  is  a  quiet,  well-trained 
animal,  it  would  be  advisable  that  a  groom 


Mounting 

or  some  friend  should  lead  the  horse  for 
a  time,  in  order  that  you  may  get  accus- 
tomed to  the  motion  of  the  horse  and  to 
sitting  in  the  saddle. 

The  seat  in  the  saddle  should  be  ob- 
tained by  sitting  well  down,  leaning  rathev 
backward  than  forward,  and  grasping  the 
horse  with  a  tolerably  firm  grip  of  both 
legs.  There  are  two  seats  to  be  avoided, 
but  which  nearly  all  beginners  at  first  prac- 
tice :  one  is  leaning  forward  as  if  in  readi- 
ness to  go  over  the  horse's  head;  the  other 
is  sitting  on  the  saddle  as  though  it  were 
red-hot.  The  very  best  method  of  getting 
"shaken  down  in  the  saddle,"  as  the  term 
is,  is  to  quit  the  stirrups — that  is,  take  the 
feet  out  of  them — and  trot  round  and  round 
a  circle.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  hav- 
ing a  rope  attached  to  a  head-collar  on 
the  horse,  and  getting  this  rope  held  by 
an  attendant.  After  a  few  days  of  this 


A  Good  Seat 

kind  of  bumping,  you  learn  how  to  grasp 
with  the  legs,  so  that  you  scarcely  move 
from  thf  saddle,  and  you  do  not  then 


536 


RIDING 


adopt  the  dangerous  and  unsightly  prac- 
tice of  depending  mainly  on  the  stirrups 
for  your  equilibrium. 

During  the  time  you  are  "jogging"  in 
the  trot,  the  reins  should  be  held  one  in 
each  hand,  and  so  that  you  "feel"  gently  the 
horse's  mouth.  At  no  time  should  the  reins 
become  slack,  but  a  uniform  "feel"  should 
be  maintained.  A  horse  soon  becomes  ac- 
customed to  the  hand  of  its  rider,  and 
learns  to  obey  the  slightest  change.  Many 


Position  in  Riding 

horses,  especially  those  gifted  with  tender 
mouths,  will  become  restive,  or  will  rear, 
attempt  to  run  away,  etc.,  when  their 
riders  either  suddenly  slacken,  then  tighten 
the  reins,  or  in  other  ways  alter  their  hold 
upon  them. 

THE  TROT. — Having  passed  through  the 
process  of  being  shaken  down  in  the  sad- 
dle, we  may  then  take  our  stirrups  and 
learn  how  to  sit  down  in  the  saddle,  keep 
our  stirrups,  and  yet  not  to  rise  in  them 
when  the  horse  trots ;  after  which  we  may 
practice  rising  to  the  trot.  There  is  scarcely 
a  more  ridiculous  exhibition  than  that  of  a 
rider  working  laboriously  to  rise  to  his 
horse's  trot,  using  much  more  exertion 
than  the  animal  he  bestrides,  while  he 
works  his  arms  and  body  as  though  riding 
were  a  very  painful  matter.  The  very 
slightest  movement  of  the  instep  and  a 
spring  from  the  knee  is  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent the  bumping  produced  by  a  horse's 
trot;  and  the  skill  or  awkwardness  of  a 
rider  is  never  more  prominent  than  when 
his  horse  is  indulged  in  a  long  slashing  trot. 

THE  CANTER. — To  "raise  a  horse  into  a 
canter"  from  a  trot,  we  should  slightly  pull 
the  left  rein,  at  the  same  time  closing  the 
legs.  By  a  steady  hand  on  the  reins  we 
may  increase  or  decrease  the  speed  of  the 
horse,  or  again  reduce  his  pace  to  a  trot. 

Nothing  but  practice  and  instruction  will 
ever  give  a  rider  a  good  firm  seat  on  a 


horse;  but  at  the  same  time,  practice  alone 
may  produce  a  strong  seat  but  a  very  awk- 
ward one,  unless  the  defects  of  the  seat 
are  pointed  out  early. 

VICES     AND     THEIR     TREATMENT. — Having 

attained  a  certain  amount  of  skill  in  sit- 
ting on  a  horse  and  in  handling  the  reins, 
the  horseman  may  devote  his  attention 
to  certain  matters  which  are  not  unlikely 
to  happen  to  every  equestrian  performer. 
These  may  be  classed  under  the  head  of 
the  vices  of  the  horse,  and  are  principally 
as  follows :  running  away,  shying,  rearing, 
bucking,  and  refusing  to  move ;  kicking, 
biting,  and  stumbling. 

RUNNING  AWAY. — A  runaway  horse  is 
a  most  dangerous  animal,  and  for  an 
unskilled  rider  to  keep  such  a  creature  is 
not  advisable.  Many  so-called  runaway 
horses,  however,  are  merely  high-spirited 
animals  whose  former  riders  were  unable 
to  manage  them.  As  an  example :  we  pos- 
sessed for  three  years  a  horse  which  we 
regularly  hunted,  and  on  which  we  placed 
a  lady,  and  which  had  been  sold  because 
he  was  a  determined  runaway.  Only  once 
did  this  horse  run  away  with  us,  and  that 
was  in  consequence  of  the  reins  breaking. 
That  horses  do  run  away,  however,  is  a 
fact ;  and  we  will  now  consider  the  best 
means  of  dealing  with  this  vice. 

A  runaway  horse  is  usually  one  with  a 
very  hard  mouth,  which  is  unaffected  oy 


Position  on  a  Run 


any  amount  of  pulling  applied  merely  as 
a  dead  pull.  A  horse  is  stronger  than  a 
man,  and  therefore  to  pull  against  him  is 
useless. 

A  particular  kind  of  "bit"  is  requisite 
for  a  runaway  horse;  the  best  that  we  have 
found  being  E,  powerful  "Pelham."  The 
reins  should  be  very  stout,  so  as  to  afford 
a  firm  grasp,  with  no  fear  of  breaking. 
Stout  strong  reins  also  do  not  slip  through 
the  fingers  as  do  those  which  are  thin. 

We    will    now    suppose   that    a    rider    ts 


RIDING 


587 


seated  on  a  horse,  and  starts  for  a  canter 
on  a  nice  bit  of  turf.  His  horse,  probably 
fresh,  bounds  off,  and  the  rider  soon  finds 
the  animal  pays  no  attention  to  his  "Whoa, 
whoa,"  or  to  the  pull  at  the  reins.  A  bad 
rider  has  at  this  point  come  to  the  end  of 
his  expedients,  and  usually  does  nothing 
more  than  give  a  dead  pull  at  the  reins 
until  he  gets  cramp  in  his  arms  and  fin- 
gers, and  is  unable  to  use  them  effectively, 
when  he  is  at  the  mercy  of  his  horse. 
Some  riders  vary  the  "dead  pull"  by  saw- 
ing their  horses'  mouths  by  alternately  pull- 
ing the  right  and  left  rein.  This  some- 
times, but  rarely,  has  the  effect  of  stopping 
a  horse ;  the  common  result  being  that 
the  animal  throws  up  its  head,  changes  its 
feet  in  the  gallop,  but  still  goes  on,  probably 
with  a  temper  not  improved  by  the  fact  of 


An  Awkward  Position  on  a  Run 

its  mouth  bleeding  in  consequence  of  this 
ill  treatment. 

As  an  effectual  method  for  pulling  up  a 
runaway  horse  we  have  never  found  any 
equal  to  the  following: 

The  reins  being  very  strong,  and  the  bit 
a  "Pelham,"  or  one  which  will  not  slip 
through  a  horse's  mouth,  we  gather  the  reins 
short  up  in  the  left  hand,  so  short  that  the 
hand  is  pressed  against  the  horse's  mane; 
then  pass  the  right  hand  down  the  right 
rein  until  it  grasps  this  rein  within  a  few 
inches  of  the  bit;  with  a  firm  hold  pull  this 
round  toward  the  right  knee,  taking  care 
that  the  horse  does  not  snatch  the  rein  out 
of  your  hand,  as  he  will  try  •  to  do  if  he 
be  an  accomplished  runaway.  When  the 
horse's  head  is  thus  pulled  round  he  can 
not  gallop,  nor  can  he  do  more  than  twist 
round.  We  have  by  this  method  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  lever  pulling  round  the  horse's 
head  with  enormous  power. 

Against  this  plan  it  has  been  urged  that 
we  are  very  likely  to  throw  a  horse  down. 


Grant  this;  and  it  is  perhaps  the  less  of  the 
two  evils  that  we  throw  a  horse  down 
where  we  like,  selecting  a  soft  piece  of  turf, 
than  that  we  get  dashed  to  pieces  by  com- 
ing in  collision  with  a  carriage  or  cart,  a 
lamp-post,  or  railing,  or  slip  up  on  stone 
pavement,  etc.  But  in  answer  to  this  ob- 
jection we  can  say  that,  on  an  average, 
once  a  week  the  horse  we  before  mentioned 
tried  to  run  away  with  us,  but  we  invari- 
ably stopped  him  by  this  plan,  and  never, 
during  three  years,  did  we  ever  throw  him 
down.  Two  other  horses  that  we  rode  also 
on  one  or  two  occasions  tried  to  run  away, 
and  were  instantly  stopped  by  this  method ; 
thus  we  have  practical  proof  of  its  effi- 
cacy, against  the  theoretical  objection  urged 
against  it. 

To  a  bad  or  timid  rider,  or  even  to  one 
not  capable  of  dealing  with  it,  a  runaway 
horse  is  a  dangerous  possession ;  unless, 
therefore,  a  rider  is  well  skilled,  well 
nerved,  and  strong-armed,  our  advice  is, 
never  mount  a  known  runaway  horse. 

As,  however,  every  horse  may,  some  time 
or  other,  try  to  run  away,  the  preceding 
advice  should  not  be  neglected,  as  it  may 
save  a  fall,  a  broken  arm,  leg,  or  neck. 

SHYING. — Shying  is  a  very  common  prac- 
tice of  horses,  particularly  of  young  horses. 
It  may  arise  from  defective  sight,  or  from 
mere  frolic.  To  a  good  rider  it  is  of  no 
consequence,  but  to  a  bad  horseman  a  fall 
may  result.  After  a  brief  acquaintance 
with  an  animal,  we  can  tolerably  well  tell 
at  what  objects  he  usually  shies.  To  over- 
come this  practice  we  should  never  be  off 
our  guard,  but  should  ever  keep  a  watch 
on  our  horse's  ears.  When  we  notice  that 
he  suddenly  .raises  his  ears,  and  looks  at- 
tentively at  any  object,  it  is  probable  that 
he  may  shy.  To  avoid  such  a  result,  we 
should  endeavor  to  distract  the  animal's 
attention  by  patting  his  neck  and  speaking 
to  him,  a  slight  movement  of  the  reins  to 
arouse  him,  or  by  letting  the  whip  rest  on 
his  neck,  his  attention  may  be  withdrawn 
from  the  object  that  alarms  him.  A  brutal 
and  ignorant  horseman  usually  commences 
thrashing  his  horse  when  it  shies,  and  thus 
only  adds  to  its  fear,  and  causes  it  to  re- 
peat its  vice  with  double  effect. 

An  old  horseman  used  to  say  that  a. 
horse  never  could  surprise  him,  because  its 
ears  always  told  him  what  it  was  thinking 
of  doing.  There  is  much  truth  in  this  re- 
mark, as  every  one  accustomed  to  horses 
must  know,  and  those  unaccustomed  to  them 
may  learn. 

REARING. — Rearing   is    one    of   the    most 


538 


RIDING 


dangerous  and  incurable  of  vices;  it  may, 
however,  arise  from  a  harsh  use  of  the 
curb;  but  a  rearing  horse  may  at  any  time 
cause  his  rider's  death  by  falling  back  on 
him.  When  a  horse  rears  we  should  sit 
quietly  on  him,  and  well  forward.  A  rider 
without  a  firm  seat  may  lean  back,  holding 
on  to  the  reins,  and  will  thus  pull  the 
horse  over  on  him.  A  sharp  pair  of  spurs 
may  be  used  with  advantage  on  a  rearing 
horse,  but  the  reins  must  be  very  deli- 
cately handled — the  cause  of  rearing  being 
in  many  cases  due  to  that  abominable 
habit  of  bad  riders  of  continually  jerking 
their  horse's  mouth,  for  no  other  reason,- 
apparently,  than  that  they  are  themselves 
bad  riders. 

BUCK-JUMPING. — Bucking  is  an  endeavor 
to  unseat  a  rider,  and  consists  in  a  series 


Rearing 

of  bucks  in  the  air,  or  a  sort  of  rocking 
motion  produced  by  a  succession  of  jumps. 
The  horse  tries  to  get  its  head  down  be- 
tween its  legs,  arches  its  back,  and  springs 
several  times  from  the  ground.  There  is 
no  other  means  left  than  to  sit  the  horse 
through  its  performance,  which  generally 
takes  place  when  first  mounted,  after  which 
it  not  unusually  will  travel  quietly  all  day. 

REFUSING  TO  MOVE. — This  is  not  a  very 
common  vice,  except  with  a  horse  which 
has  been  cruelly  ill-used.  We  once  found 
a  horse  belonging  to  a  friend  which  pos- 
sessed this  vice,  and  we  cured  it  by  getting 
two  leather  straps,  like  handcuffs;  by  these 
we  fastened  the  horse's  forelegs  together 
so  that  it  could  not  move,  and  then  sat 
patiently  on  its  back.  In  about  ten  min- 
utes the  animal  got  tired  of  standing  still; 
but  we  determined  on  giving  it  a  lesson. 


so  we  kept  it  hobbled  for  fully  an  hour, 
after  which  it  at  once  moved  on.  On 
every  occasion  afterward,  either  the  exhi- 
bition of  these  handcuffs  or  the  attempt  to 
put  them  on,  at  once  was  received  as  a 
hint,  and  the  horse  was  ready  to  start  off. 

KICKING. — A  kicking  horse  is  always  dan- 
gerous; when,  however,  we  are  on  his 
back,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  he  can 
not  kick  with  both  hind  legs  while  his 
head  is  held  up.  We  should,  however,  be 
very  careful  how  we  allow  any  one  to  ap- 
proach him;  also  when  in  the  stable  great 
caution  is  requisite.  The  same  remarks 
apply  to  a  biting  horse;  it  is  better  at 
once  to  get  rid  of  such  a  brute,  for  we 
are  never  safe  from  his  vicious  habit. 

STUMBLING. — Stumbling  may  arise  from 
careless  riding  or  from  the  imperfect  form 
of  a  horse.  An  animal  which  in  its  walk 
or  trot  does  not  raise  its  feet  much  will 
usually  be  a  stumbler;  and  if  its  forefeet, 
when  they  come  to  the  ground,  are  not 
placed  in  advance  of  the  shoulder,  the 
horse  is  likely  to  be  a  dangerous  stumbler. 

Those  who  wish  to  become  adepts  in  re- 
gard to  horses  should,  when  the  opportu- 
nity offers,  study  the  form  and  action  of 
a  well-known  good  horse;  the  shape  of 
his  shoulders,  set  on  of  the  head,  and,  in 
fact,  every  peculiarity  should  be  noticed. 

There  is  no  indicator  equal  to  the  eyes 
and  the  ears  for  telling  the  character  of 
a  horse ;  the  eye  of  a  vicious  horse  never 
will  look  good-tempered,  nor  can  he  con- 
ceal its  vicious  look.  The  ears  of  a  play- 
ful horse  may,  to  the  inexperienced,  seem 
to  indicate  vice;  for  a  horse  that  is  play- 
ful, well  bred,  and  fond  of  its  master  or 
groom,  will  often  put  back  its  ears  and 
bite  at  its  manger  when  its  master  ap- 
proaches it ;  but  this  is  not  vice,  and  should 
not  be  misunderstood  for  such.  Experience 
in  this  respect  is  needed  to  prevent  mis- 
takes. 

The  bits  in  most  general  use  are  the 
Plain  Snaffle,  the  Curb,  the  Pelham,  and 
the  Hanoverian. 

The  snaffle  is  used  for  horses  with  good 
mouths,  and  may,  in  the  hands  of  a  skil- 
ful rider,  be  used  even  for  hard-mouthed, 
pulling  animals. 

The  curb  is  often  used  with  the  snaffle. 
It  is  more  powerful,  and  will  pull  up  most 
horses;  it  also  makes  a  horse  carry  his 
head  well,  and  is  a  favorite  bit  with  mili- 
tary riders. 

The  Pelham  bit  is  very  powerful,  and 
is  that  which  we  recommend  for  a  runaway 


RIDING 


539 


horse.  It  can  be  used  either  as  a  snaffle 
or  curb,  and  is  a  very  serviceable  bit. 

The  Hanoverian  bit  is  more  powerful 
even  than  the  Pelham,  but  can  not  be  used 
as  freely  or  like  a  snaffle.  It  is  very 
similar  to  the  curb,  the  mouthpiece  being 
bigger. 

When  a  rider  has  become  sufficiently 
skilled  to  sit  a  horse  well  during  its  trot 
and  canter,  it  is  not  improbable  that  he 
will  wish  to  try  a  leap  with  it,  or  he  may 


Varieties  oi  Bits:  a,  the  Snaffle;  b,  the  Pelham;  c,  the 
Hanoverian 

be  desirous  of  hunting.  Should  this  be  the 
case,  the  first  precaution  is  to  find  whether 
your  horse  can  leap. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a  horse  is  to 
know  how  to  do  anything  which  he  has 
not  been  taught  any  more  than  that  a  man 
should.  Some  horses  may  have  reached 
the  age  of  four  or  five  years,  and  have 
never  taken  a  leap;  they  don't  know  how 
to  do  it,  and  should  be  taught.  If  we  ride 
a  strange  horse  at  a  stile  or  stout  fence, 
we  may  very  probably  find  that  the  animal 
has  been  called  upon  to  perform  a  feat  as 
difficult  to  him  as  for  a  boy  to  leap  with 
a  pole,  when  he  has  never  before  attempted 
to  do  so. 

Remarking  upon  the  number  of  accidents 
that  annually  occur  in  consequence  of  fool- 
hardy conduct  with  firearms,  when  some 
boy  points  a  gun  at  his  friend,  and  says, 
"I'll  shoot  you !"  and  straightway  does  so, 
while  the  boy  shrieks,  "Oh  dear !  I  didn't 
know  it  was  loaded !"  a  veteran  sportsman 
once  recommended  us  "always  to  treat  a 
gun  as  if  it  were  loaded  and  on  full  cock, 
then  we  shall  never  have  an  accident" ;  so 
we  would  recommend  a  young  horseman  al- 
ways to  treat  a  horse  as  though  he  were 
likely  to  run  away,  likely  to  shy,  and  were 
unable  to  leap  a  stile  safely,  until  we  have 
personally  proved  the  contrary.  We  can 
easily  test  our  horse's  leaping  power  by 
trying  him  at  small  safe  fences ;  but  we 
must  bear  in  mind  that  many  good  horses 


will  often  refuse  a  leap  at  which  they  are 
not  ridden  in  a  determined  manner.  A 
horse  is  very  quick  at  finding  out  whether 
his  rider  really  means  to  ride  at  a  leap  or 
is  "just  a  little  nervous"  about  it;  and  as 
few  animals  care  to  exert  themselves  un- 
necessarily, the  horse  is  not  likely  to  take 
a  leap  unless  he  believes  his  rider  means  it. 

Many  horses  which  have  been  badly  rid- 
den, or  bullied  by  bad  riders,  have  bad 
tempers,  which  show  themselves  by  refusing 
leaps,  or  refusing  other  things.  A  good 
rider,  or  even  an  observant  person,  will 
soon  discover  what  irritates  his  horse,  and 
will  avoid  any  acts  which  produce  this 
effect. 

Horses  that  are  usually  ridden  vary  in 
age  from  about  four  years  to  seven  or 
eight.  Whenever  your  horse  commits  any 
fault,  bear  in  mind  that  he  is  not  so  old 
as  you  are,  and,  in  fact,  is  a  mere  child  in 
years;  treat  him  accordingly,  try  to  assist 
his  weaker  mental  powers  by  your  skill, 
and  you  will  always  find  him  a  good  and 
faithful  servant ;  bully  and  ill  treat  him, 
and  he  is  partially  your  enemy.  When 
once,  by  ill  treatrruent,  you  have  produced 
any  particular  vice  in  a  horse,  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  eradicate  it. 

The   age   of   a    horse   may   be   known   by 


Leaping 


his  teeth,  and  the  following  will  aid  the 
tyro  in  learning  how  to  discover  a  horse's 
age. 

When  a  colt  is  two  years  old,  its  teeth 
are  called  "milch  teeth,"  the  centre  of  which 
is  whitish. 

At  three  years  old  the  two  centre  milch 
teeth  are  displaced  by  two  which  are  called 
"permanent  teeth,"  and  are  distinguished  by 
being  broader,  larger,  and  in  the  centre 
upper  surface  having  dark  cavities. 


540 


RIDING 


When  a  horse  is  four  years  old  there 
will  be  four  instead  of  two  permanent 
teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  between  four 
and  five  years  old  the  tusks  begin  to  ap- 
pear in  males.  Up  to  four  years  old  a  male 
is  called  "a  colt,"  after  this  age  "a  horse." 

At  five  years  of  age  the  horse's  perma- 
nent teeth  are  complete,  and  the  age  after 
this  is  known  by  the  wearing  down  of  the 
cavities  of  the  permanent  teeth. 

At  six  years  old  the  dark  oval  mark  on 
the  centre  teeth  is  worn  down,  while  the 
cavities  in  the  other  teeth  are  more  filled 
Up.  The  tusks  of  the  horse  are  longer  than 
when  five  years  old,  but  are  still  sharp  and 
not  much  worn. 

At  seven  years  old  the  cavities  of  the 
second  pair  of  nippers  are  filled  up;  the 
tusks  are  blunted  by  wear,  and  are  longer 
than  formerly. 

At  eight  years  the  horse  is  sometimes 
said  "not  to  have  a  good  tooth  in  its  head," 
that  is,  the  corner  nippers  are  filled  up,  and 
the  age  teeth  are  nearly  all  alike,  the  tusks 
exhibit  greater  signs  of  wear  and  tear,  and 
are  very  blunt. 

CONCLUDING    REMARKS 

Be  kind  and  conciliatory  to  the  noble 
beast  that  bears  you,  and  never  show  the 
spirit  of  the  coward  by  acting  cruelly,  or 


with  unnecessary  severity,  toward  a  crea- 
ture so  docile,  so  intelligent,  and  so  useful 
as  the  horse.  Let  the  young  horseman  re- 
member that  this  creature  is  endowed  not 
only  with  strength  for  our  service,  and 
beauty  for  our  admiration,  but  with  nerves 
sensitive  to  pain,  and  a  nature  keenly  alive 
to  ill-usage.  To  a  kind  master,  a  good- 
tempered  horse  will  by  many  signs  show 
his  attachment,  which  will  increase  as  he 
becomes  better  acquainted  with  him. 

In  riding  continually  in  the  field,  as  in 
cavalry  work,  exploration,  or  cowboy's 
work,  the  horse  is  sure  to  be  worn  out 
unless  a  very  simple  precaution  is  ob- 
served. The  curry-comb  will  accomplish 
as  much,  or  more  than,  an  abundance  of 
good  feed.  In  the  United  States  Army 
regulations,  cavalry  and  artillery  horses  are 
required  to  be  curried  for  three-quarters  of 
an  hour  in  the  morning,  and  for  the  same 
length  of  time  before  dark.  This  represents 
no  more  than  the  amount  of  currying  requi- 
site to  keep  a  hard-worked  horse  in  con- 
dition. In  the  field  some  cavalry  leaders 
are  apt  to  neglect  currying  to  some  extent, 
but  military  history  shows  that  cavalry 
commanders  who  insist  upon  proper  curry- 
ing of  the  horses  are  able  to  march  their 
commands  much  greater  distances.  The  value 
of  the  curry-comb  can  not  be  overstated. 


i.  Muzzle  and  parts  about  the  muzzle;  2.  Gullet;  3.  Windpipe;  4.  Crest;  5.  Withers;  6.  Chest;  7.  Girth;  8.  Back. 
9.  Loins;  10.  Ilium  or  Hip;  n.  Croup;  12.  Haunch  or  Quarters;  13.  Thigh;  14.  Hock;  15.  Shank  or  Cannon;  16.  Few- 
lock-.  17.  Pastern;  18.  Shoulder-bone  or  Scapula;  19.  Elbow;  20.  Fore-arm;  21.  Knee;  32.  Coronet 


SWIMMING  is  the  art  of  keeping  the  body  afloat  and  propelling  it  by 
means  of  the  feet  and  hands.  The  swimming  of  man  is  artificial, 
but  as  the  specific  gravity  of  the  human  body  is  very  little  greater 
than  that  of  water,  it  can  be  floated  with  very  little  difficulty. 

Every  boy  should  be  taught  to  swim,  and  if  he  reads  the  following 
pages  and  abides  by  the  instructions,  he  can  easily  teach  himself. 

The  first  care  of  the  intending  swimmer  is,  of  course,  to  find  a  proper 
piece  of  water  in  which  to  learn  his  first  lessons.  The  very  best  water  that 
can  be  found  is  that  of  the  sea,  on  account  of  its  saltness  and  bitterness, 
whereby  two  great  advantages  are  obtained. 

The  first  advantage  is,  that,  on  account  of  the  salt  and  other  substances 
which  are  dissolved  in  it,  the  sea-water  is  so  much  heavier  than  fresh  that 
it  gives  more  support  to  the  body,  and  enables  the  beginner  to  float  much 
sooner  than  he  can  expect  to  do  in  fresh  water. 

The  other  advantage  is,  that  the  taste  of  the  sea-water  is  so  nauseous 
that  the  learner  takes  very  good  care  to  keep  his  lips  tightly  shut,  and  so 
does  not  commit  the  common  error  of  opening  the  mouth,  which  is  fatal  to 
all  swimming,  and  is  sure  to  dishearten  a  beginner  by  letting  water  get  down 
his  throat  and  half  choke  him. 


CONDITIONS  AND   METHODS  OF  SWIMMING 


AS  TO  PLACE,  there  is  nothing  better 
than  a  sloping  sandy  shore,  where  the 
tide  is  not  very  strong.  In  some  places 
the  tide  runs  with  such  a  force  that  if  the 
beginner  is  taken  off  his  legs  he  will  be 
carried  away,  or,  at  least,  he  will  have 
great  difficulty  in  regaining  his  feet. 

Take  a  special  care  of  the  holes,  for 
there  is  nothing  so  treacherous.  A  hole 
of  some  six  or  seven  inches  in  depth  and 
a  yard  in  diameter  looks  so  insignificant 
when  the  water  is  out  that  few  persons 
would  take  any  notice  of  it;  but,  when  a 
novice  is  in  the  water,  these  few  inches 
may  just  make  the  difference  between  safety 
and  death. 


On  sandy  shores  the  most  fertile  source 
of  holes  is  to  be  found  in  large  stones, 
which  sink  rather  deeply  into  the  sand. 
Around  these  the  water  courses  as  the  tides 
ebb  and  flow,  thus  cutting  a  channel.  Even 
when  the  stone  is  removed,  the  hole  will 
remain  unfilled  through  several  tides. 

The  next  best  place  for  learning  to  swim 
is  a  river  with  a  fine  sandy  bed,  clear  water, 
and  no  weeds. 

When  such  a  spot  has  been  found,  the 
next  care  is  to  examine  the  bed  of  the 
river  and  to  remove  very  carefully  every- 
thing that  might  hurt  the  feet.  If  bushes 
should  grow  on  the  banks,  look  out  care- 
fully for  broken  scraps  of  boughs,  which 

(541)  35 


642 


SWIMMING 


fall  into  the  stream,  become  saturated  with 
water,  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  become  fixed 
with  one  of  the  points  upward. 

If  human  habitations  should  be  near,  be- 
ware of  broken  glass  and  crockery ;  frag- 
ments of  which  are  generally  flung  into 
the  river,  and  will  inflict  most  dangerous 
wounds  if  trodden  on.  If  the  bed  of  the 
stream  should  be  in  the  least  muddy,  look 
out  for  shells,  which  lie  imbedded  nearly 
to  their  sharp  edges,  that  project  upward 
and  cut  the  feet  almost  as  badly  as  broken 
glass. 

Failing  sea  and  river,  a  pond  or  canal  is 
the  only  resource,  and  furnishes  the  very 
worst  kind  of  water.  The  bed  of  most 
ponds  is  studded  with  all  kinds  of  cutting 
and  piercing  objects,  which  are  thrown  in 
by  careless  boys,  and  remain  where  they 
fall.  Then,  the  bottom  is  almost  invariably 
muddy,  and  the  water  is  seldom  clean. 
Still,  bad  as  is  a  pond,  it  is  better  than 
nothing,  and  the  intending  swimmer  may 
console  himself  with  the  reflection  that  he 
is  doing  his  duty,  and  with  the  prospect 
of  swimming  in  the  sea  some  time  or  other. 

CONFIDENCE 

As  the  very  essence  of  swimming  lies  in 
confidence,  it  is  always  better  for  the 
learner  to  feel  secure  that  he  can  leave  the 
water  whenever  he  likes.  Therefore,  let 
him  take  a  light  rope  of  tolerable  length, 
tie  one  end  to  some  firm  object  on  the 
bank,  and  let  the  rest  of  the  rope  lie  in 
the  water.  "Manila"  is  the  best  kind  of 
rope  for  this  purpose,  because  it  is  so  light 
that  it  floats  on  the  surface  instead  of 
sinking,  as  is  the  case  with  an  ordinary 
hempen  rope. 

If  there  is  only  sand  on  the  shore,  the 
rope  can  be  moored  quite  firmly  by  tying 
it  to  the  middle  of  a  stout  stick,  burying 
the  stick  a  foot  or  so  in  the  sand,  and  fill- 
ing up  the  trench.  You  may  pull  till  you 
break  the  rope,  but  you  will  never  pull  the 
stick  out  of  its  place.  If  you  are  very  ner- 
vous, tie  two  sticks  in  the  shape  of  a  cross 
and  bury  them  in  like  manner. 

The  rope  need  not  be  a  large  one,  as  it 
will  not  have  to  sustain  the  whole  weight 
of  your  body,  and  it  will  be  found  that  a 
cord  as  thick  as  an  ordinary  washing-line 
will  answer  every  purpose. 

On  the  side  of  a  stream  or  pond,  tie  the 
rope  to  a  tree,  or  hammer  a  stake  in  the 
ground.  A  stick  eighteen  inches  in  length 
and  as  thick  as  an  ordinary  broomstick  is 
quite  large  enough.  Hammer  it  rather 


more  than  two-thirds  into  the  ground,  and 
let  it  lean  boldly  away  from  the  water's 
edge.  The  best  way  of  fixing  the  rope  to 
it  is  by  the  "clove  hitch." 

Now,  having  your  rope  in  your  hand,  go 
quietly  into  the  water  backward,  keeping 
your  face  toward  the  bank.  As  soon  as  you 
are  fairly  in  the  water,  duck  completely  be- 
neath the  surface.  Be  sure  that  you  really 
do  go  fairly  under  water,  for  there  is  noth- 
ing more  deceptive  than  the  feel  of  the 
water  to  a  novice.  He  dips  his  head,  as 
he  fancies,  at  least  a  foot  beneath  the  sur- 
face; he  feels  the  water  in  his  nose,  he 
hears  it  in  his  ears,  and  thinks  he  is  al- 
most at  the  bottom,  when,  in  reality  the 
back  of  his  head  is  quite  dry. 

The  best  way  of  "ducking"  easily  is  to 
put  the  left  hand  on  the  back  of  the  head, 


Diving 

hold  to  the  rope  with  the  right  hand,  and 
then  duck  until  the  left  hand  is  well  under 
water. 

The  learner  should  next  accustom  him- 
self to  the  new  element  by  moving  about 
as  much  as  possible,  walking  as  far  as  the 
rope  will  allow  him,  and  jumping  up  and 
down  so  as  to  learn  by  experience  the 
buoyancy  of  the  water. 

Perhaps  the  first  day  may  be  occupied 
by  this  preliminary  process,  and  on  the  sec- 
ond visit  the  real  business  may  begin. 

In  swimming,  as  in  most  other  pursuits, 
a  good  beginning  is  invaluable. 

Let  the  learner  bestow  a  little  care  on 
the  preliminaries,  and  he  will  have  no  bad 
habits  to  unteach  himself  afterward.  It  is 
quite  as  easy  to  learn  a  good  style  at  first 
as  a  bad  style,  although  the  novice  may  just 
at  the  beginning  fancy  that  he  could  do 
better  by  following  his  own  devices. 

The  first  great  object  is  to  feel  a  perfect 


SWIMMING 


543 


confidence  in  the  sustaining  power  of  the 
water,  and,  according  to  our  ideas,  the 
best  method  of  doing  so  is  by  learning  to 
float  on  the  back. 

FLOATING   ON    THE   BACK 

Take  care  that  the  cord  is  within  easy 
reach,  so  that  it  may  be  grasped  in  a  mo- 
ment, should  the  novice  become  nervous, 
as  he  is  rather  apt  to  do  just  at  first.  Take 
it  in  both  hands,  and  lay  yourself  very 
gently  in  the  water,  arching  the  spine  back- 
ward as  much  as  possible,  and  keeping  the 
legs  and  knees  perfectly  straight  and  stiff. 

Now  press  the  head  as  far  back  as  pos- 
sibly can  be  done,  and  try  to  force  the 
back  of  the  head  between  the  shoulder- 
blades.  You  can  practice  this  attitude  at 
home,  by  lying  on  two  chairs  and  seeing 
whether  your  attitude  corresponds  with 
that  which  is  given  in  the  illustration. 

When  you  have  thus  lain  in  the  water 
you  will  find  that  you  are  almost  entirely 
upheld  by  its  sustaining  power,  and  that 


Floating  on  the  Back 

only  a  very  little  weight  is  sustained  by  the 
rope.  On  reflection  you  will  also  discern 
that  the  only  weight  which  pulls  on  the 
rope  is  that  of  your  hands  and  arms,  which 
are  out  of  water,  and  which,  therefore,  act 
as  dead  weight. 

Indeed  you  might  just  as  well  lay  sev- 
eral iron  weights  of  a  pound  each  upon  your 
Cody,  for  the  hands  and  arms  are  much 
heavier  than  we  generally  fancy.  Just 
break  an  arm  or  a  leg,  and  you  will  find 
out  what  heavy  articles  they  are. 

Now  let  your  arms  sink  gradually  into 
the  water,  and  you  will  see  that  exactly  in 
proportion  as  they  sink,  so  much  weight  is 
taken  off  the  rope ;  and  if  you  have  only 
courage  to  put  them  entirely  under  water, 
and  to  loose  the  rope,  your  body  will  be 
supported  by  the  water  alone. 

SWIMMING   ON    THE   BACK 

There  are  many  modes  of  swimming  on 
the  back,  head  first ;  some  in  which  the 
hands  are  the  mcving  power,  others  in 


which  the  force  is  derived  from  the  legs, 
and  some  in  which  the  legs  and  arms  are 
both  exerted. 

To  practice  one  of  these  methods — viz., 
that  commonly  called  floating — you  should 
throw  your  head  gently  back,  as  before, 
bringing  your  feet  to  the  surface;  let  your 
arms  lie  in  the  water  close  to  your  sides, 
using  the  hands  in  the  same  manner  as 
when  sculling,  with  a  swift  pushing  mo- 
tion of  the  palms  toward  the  feet,  return- 
ing edgewise,  thumbs  first,  by  bending  the 
arms ;  and  pushing  again  toward  the  feet 
by  straightening  the  arms  close  to  the  sides. 
This  produces  a  very  rapid  progress  through 
the  water  and  may  be  continued  for  some 
time. 

Another  method  is  as  follows :  Throw 
yourself  round  on  your  back  without  stop- 
ping (which  may  be  done  with  a  swing  of 
the  body,  while  swimming  in  the  first  de- 
scribed method),  and  you  will  retain  part 
of  the  impetus  already  acquired.  Then 
throw  both  hands  out  of  the  water,  as  far 
as  you  can  reach,  in  the  direction  you  wish 
to  proceed,  entering  again  edgewise  beyond 
your  head,  and  describe  a  segment  of  a 
circle  in  the  water,  having  the  shoulders 
for  a  centre.  The  hands  on  appearing  again 
on  the  surface  below  the  hips  should  pass 
immediately  through .  the  air  for  another 
stroke.  This  mode  is  very  serviceable  when 
taken  with  cramp  or  symptoms  of  cramp, 
as  it  removes  the  stress  entirely  off  the 
muscles  of  the  leg.  It  may  be  gracefully 
varied  by  using  the  right  and  left  hands 
alternately. 

For  the  practice  of  a  third  method  the 
hands  and  arms  are  to  be  used  as  in  the 
last,  but  the  progress  should  be  aided  by 
the  lower  limbs  striking  out  with  vigor, 
after  having  been  drawn  up  to  the  body  by 
the  stroke  made  with  the  arms.  The  kick 
should  be  made  as  the  hands  pass  through 
the  air.  This  is  a  very  quick  manner  of 
swimming,  and  is  most  commonly  resorted 
to  for  relief  when  swimming  in  a  match. 

For  another  method,  lie  on  your  back 
with  your  arms  folded,  or  with  your  hands 
passed  over  your  shoulders  beneath  your 
neck,  or  floating  quietly  by  your  side,  draw- 
ing up  your  legs  toward  the  chest  as  high 
as  possible  and  then  striking  them  back- 
ward with  vigor,  which  will  cause  you  to 
make  considerable  progress  through  the 
water  without  using  the  arms  at  all.  When 
you  draw  up  your  feet  the  movement  is 
against  the  surface,  where  there  is  little 
resistance,  but,  when  you  strike  them  out, 
the  force  is  applied  in-  a  downward  direc- 


644 


SWIMMING 


tion  where  the  resistance  is  greatest.  The 
foregoing  method  is  useful  when  your  arms 
are  tired,  or  you  have  something  to  carry 
or  tow  after  you,  the  hands  being  perfectly 
free. 

Steering  the  course  is  easily  managed  by 
means  of  the  legs.  If  the  left  leg  is  al- 
lowed to  remain  still,  and  the  right  leg  is 
used,  the  body  is  driven  to  the  left,  and 
vice  versa  when  the  left  leg  is  used  and 
the  right  kept  quiet.  The  young  swimmer 
must  remember  that  when  he  brings  his  legs 
together  they  must  be  kept  quite  straight 
and  the  knees  stiff.  The  toes  should  also 
be  pointed,  so  as  to  offer  no  resistance  to 
the  water. 

Swimming  on  the  back  is  a  most  useful 
branch  of  the  art,  as  it  requires  compara- 
tively little  exertion  and  serves  to  rest  the 
arms  when  they  are  tired  with  the  ordi- 
nary mode  of  swimming.  All  swimmers 
who  have  to  traverse  a  considerable  distance 
always  turn  occasionally  on  the  back.  They 
even  in  this  position  allow  the  arms  to  lie 
by  the  sides  until  they  are  completely  rested, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  body  is  gently 
sent  through  the  water  by  the  legs. 

Let  swimming  on  the  back  be  perfectly 
learned,  and  practiced  continually,  so  that 
the  young  swimmer  may  always  feel  secure 
of  himself  when  he  is  in  that  position. 

The  feet  should  be  kept  about  twelve  or 
fourteen  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
water,  as,  if  they  are  kept  too  high,  the 
stroke  is  apt  to  drive  the  upper  part  of 
the  head  and  eyes  under  the  water. 

It  must  always  be  remarked  that  it  is 
impossible  to  arch  the  spine  too  much,  or 
to  press  the  head  too  far  between  the 
shoulders. 

SWIMMING   ON    THE   CHEST 

We  now  come  to  swimming  on  the  chest, 
which  is  the  mode  adopted  by  most  persons, 
and  which,  together  with  swimming  on  the 
back,  will  enable  the  learner  to  perform  al- 
most any  aquatic  feat. 

In  order  to  begin  with  confidence,  walk 
into  the  water  until  it  is  almost  as  high  as 
the  chest,  and  then  turn  toward  the  land, 
so  that  every  movement  may  carry  you 
from  the  deeper  to  the  shallower  water. 
Next  place  your  hands  in  front  of  the 
chest,  the  fingers  stiff  and  pressed  together, 
and  the  thumb  held  tightly  against  the  fore- 
finger. Do  not  press  the  palms  together, 
as  too  many  books  enjoin,  but  hold  the 
hands  with  the  thumbs  together,  the  palms 
downward  and  the  backs  upward. 

Now   lean   gently   forward  in  the   watex- 


pushing  your  hands  out  before  you  until 
the  arms  are  quite  straight,  and  just  be- 
fore your  feet  leave  the  bottom  give  a  little 
push  forward.  You  will  now  propel  your- 
self a  foot  or  two  toward  the  land.  Try 
how  long  you  can  float,  and  then  gently 
drop  the  feet  to  the  bottom.  Be  careful 
to  keep  the  head  well  back  and  the  spine 
arched. 

Repeat  this  seven  or  eight  times,  until 
you  have  gained  confidence  that  the  water 
will  support  you  for  a  few  seconds.  The 
accompanying  illustration  shows  the  proper 
attitude. 

Now  go  back  to  the  spot  whence  you 
started,  and  try  to  make  a  stroke.  Lay 
yourself  on  the  water  as  before,  but  when 
the  feet  leave  the  bottom  draw  them  up 
close  to  the  body,  and  then  kick  them  out 
quickly.  When  they  have  reached  their  full 
extent,  press  them  together  firmly,  keeping 
them  quite  straight  and  the  toes  pointed. 

This  movement  will  drive  you  onward 
for  a  short  distance,  and  when  you  feel 


Swimming  on  the  Cbest 

that  you  are  likely  to  sink,  drop  the  feet 
as  before.  Start  again  and  make  another 
stroke,  and  so  on  until  the  water  is  too 
shallow. 

At  first  you  will  hardly  gain  more  than 
an  inch  or  two  at  each  stroke;  but  after  a 
little  practice  you  will  gaia  more  and  more 
until  you  can  advance  three  or  four  feet 
without  putting  the  legs  to  the  ground.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  start  always  from  the 
same  spot,  and  to  try  in  how  few  strokes 
you  can  reach  the  land.  There  is  a  great 
interest  in  having  some  definite  object  in 
view,  and  one  gets  quite  excited  in  trying 
to  reduce  the  number  of  strokes. 

The  next  point  is  the  movement  of  the 
arms. 

In  reality  the  arms  are  more  valuable  in 
swimming  than  the  legs,  and  for  this  sim- 
ple reason :  any  one  who  has  the  use  of  his 
limbs  at  all  is  obliged  to  use  his  legs  daily, 
and  that  to  a  considerable  extent.  How- 
ever sedentary  he  may  be,  he  must  walk  up 
and  down  stairs  twice  at  least  in  the  day. 
He  must  walk  from  one  room  to  another. 


SWIMMING 


545 


He  must  get  into  and  out  of  his  carriage, 
and  walk  a  few  paces  to  his  office.  And 
in  all  these  little  walks  his  legs  have  to 
carry  the  weight  .of  his  body,  which,  to  set 
it  at  the  least  figure,  weighs  from  seventy 
to  ninety  pounds. 

THE    SIDE-STROKE 

There  is  no  stroke  that  enables  the  swim- 
mer to  last  so  long  as  this  does,  and  for 
this  reason :  instead  of  employing  both  arms 
and  legs  simultaneously  in  the  same  man- 
ner, the  side-stroke  employs  them  simulta- 
neously, but  in  different  manners ;  so  that 
when  the  swimmer  is  tired  of  exercising 
one  side  he  can  just  turn  over  and  proceed 
with  the  other,  the  change  of  action  rest- 
ing the  limbs  almost  as  much  as  actual  re- 
pose wowld  do. 

The  side-stroke  is  thus  managed :  the 
swimmer  lies  on  his  right  side,  stretching 
his  right  arm  out  as  far  as  he  can  reach, 
keeping  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  quite 
straight  and  the  hand  itself  held  edgewise, 
so  as  to  cut  the  water  like  a  shark's  fin. 
The  left  hand  is  placed  across  the  chest, 
with  the  back  against  the  right  breast,  and 
the  swimmer  is  then  ready  to  begin. 

He  commences  by  making  the  usual 
stroke  with  his  legs,  and  the  right  leg, 


being  undermost,  doing  the  greater  share 
of  the  work.  Before  the  impetus  gained 
by  the  stroke  is  quite  expended,  the  right 
arm  is  brought  round  with  a  broad  sweep, 
until  the  palm  of  the  hand  almost  touches 
the  right  thigh.  At  the  same  moment,  the 
left  hand  makes  a  similar  sweep,  but  is  car- 
ried backward  as  far  as  it  can  go. 

The   reader  will   see  that  the  hands  act 
directly  upon  the  water  like  the  blades  of 


The  Side-Stroke 

a   pair  of  oars,   and   do  not  waste  any  of 
their  power  by  oblique  action. 

In  ordinary  swimming  we  seldom  use  the 
left  arm,  but  allow  it  to  hang  quietly  in 
the  water,  so  that  it  may  be  perfectly  ready 
for  work  when  wanted.  Then,  after  some 
little  time  we  turn  round,  swim  on  the 
other  side  and  give  the  left  arm  its  fair 
share  of  labor. 


IN  a  certain  sense  it  is  true  that  each  nation — largely,  also,  each  period 
of  time — has  its  own  outdoor  game.  For  very  many  years  cricket 
and  football  have  been  popular  in  England,  whence  they  were  im- 
ported to  America;  golf  came  to  us  from  Scotland;  croquet,  probably, 
from  France;  tennis,  in  some  form,  has  been  played  in  England  for  sev- 
eral centuries.  Baseball  has  been  well  called  the  "national  game"  of  the 
United  States,  and  is  seldom  played  in  other  countries. 

As  for  polo,  it  was  originated  in  the  Far  East — in  India  or  Persia 
— perhaps  before  the  Christian  Era,  and  was  frequently  mentioned  by 
the  native  poets  and  historians  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  A.D., 
who  relate  many  remarkable  anecdotes  of  the  royal  and  noble  players 
of  the  period.  The  Persian  and  Hindu  name  was  chaugan;  the  Japanese 
name,  dakin,  meaning  "strike-ball";  the  present  name,  polo,  derives  from 
the  Thibetan  word,  pulu,  meaning  a  "ball  of  willow  wood."  The  game 
mentioned  as  "tennis"  m  the  "Arabian  Nights"  is  very  probably  polo. 

According  to  the  claims  of  some  writers,  polo  was  played  in  England 
several  centuries  ago,  under  the  name  "pala  maglia,"  which  is  used  by 
several  writers  and  travellers  of  the  period.  The  name  Pall  Mall,  so 
familiar  to  Londoners,  is  said  to  be  derived  from  this  game,  which  was 
formerly  played  at  the  place  so  designated.  A  somewhat  similar  game, 
called  "knappen,"  was  played  in  Wales  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, but  long  since  fell  into  disuse.  As  at  present  played  in  England 
and  America,  polo  is  a  comparatively  recent  importation,  having  been 
introduced  by  some  officers  of  the  loth  Hussars  at  Aldershot,  England, 
in  1869.  It  immediately  gained  great  popularity  among  the  English 
cavalry  regiments;  the  first  notable  match  between  contending  teams  hav- 
ing been  played  on  Hounslow  Heath,  in  June,  1870,  between  the  ist  Life 
Guards,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  officers  from  the  9th  Lancers  and  loth 
Hussars  on  the  other.  Since  that  time  the  popularity  of  the  game  has 
constantly  increased,  and  it  is  now  a  favorite  diversion  on  both  sides  of 
the  Atlantic. 

The  most  popular  outdoor  games  at  the  present  time  in  America  are 
golf,  tennis,  and  baseball,  the  two  former  having,  in  large  measure,  sup- 
planted croquet.  The  value  of  an  outdoor  game  as  a  means  of  exercise 
can  not  be  overrated.  Even  such  mild  exercise  as  is  found  in  golf  and 
croquet  is  most  beneficial  to  persons  of  sedentary  habits. 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


547 


RULES  FOR  THE  GAME  OF  POLO 


AMONG  the  indispensable  requirements 
for  a  good  game  of  polo,  we  may 
mention:  (i)  Players  who  are  expert  horse- 
men ;  (2)  thoroughly  trained  ponies,  capable 
of  good  speed  and  perfectly  under  the  con- 
trol of  their  riders;  (3)  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  game,  including  the  location 
of  goals,  the  duties  of  the  several  mem- 
bers of  the  team,  and  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  the  playing  qualities  of  each; 
(4)  expertness  begotten  of  constant  prac- 
tice in  hitting  the  ball,  both  back  and 
front,  on  either  side. 

Regarding  the  mounts  suitable  for  this 
game,  it  may  be  said  that  ponies — which 
term  indicates  small  breeds  of  horse,  some- 
what like  the  American  "mustang" — have 
been  found  more  suitable  than  horses  of 
ordinary  size;  not  only  from  the  fact  that 
they  are  light,  strong,  and  swift,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  size,  but  also  involve  a 
much  shorter  reach  to  the  ground,  a  most 
important  consideration  in  making  near- 
side strokes. 

RULES  FOR  PRACTICE. — In  practicing  for 
the  game  two  things  are  necessary — always 
assuming,  of  course,  that  the  would-be 
player  is  an  accomplished  horseman.  These 
are:  (i)  to  practice  the  four  fundamental 
strokes — the  straight- forward  back  and  front, 
and  the  near-side  back  and  front — and  (2) 
to  train  the  pony  to  respond  readily  to 
the  slightest  movement,  and  eventually  to 
understand  the  game  so  far  as  to  follow 
the  ball.  In  training  the  pony,  one  must 
practice  with  a  companion,  preferably  one 
of  his  own  team,  the  process  of  training 
and  the  things  to  be  taught  depending  on 
the  position  of  his  rider  in  the  team.  In 
learning  the  strokes,  however,  the  would-be 
polo  player  faces  a  much  more  difficult 
proposition.  In  the  first  place,  he  must 
learn  how  to  hit  the  ball,  both  when  lying 
on  the  ground  and  when  bowled  to  him 
by  a  companion.  This  is  by  no  manner 
of  means  easy,  and,  at  best,  requires  con- 
siderable careful  practice.  In  the  second 
place,  the  player  must  learn  to  hit  the  ball 
without  also  hitting  his  horse's  legs.  If 
he  is  not  thoroughly  beyond  this  form  of 
bungling,  he  will  frequently  run  the  risk 
of  injuring  his  mount  and  spoiling  his 
own  pleasure.  The  early  stages  of  prac- 
tice, therefore,  had  best  be  taken  on  a 
wooden  horse — somewhat  the  same  kind 
of  apparatus  as  is  used  in  gymnasiums — if 


also  of  the  same  height  as  your  polo  pony, 
which  is  generally  about  14  hands.  When 
the  novice  has  advanced  sufficiently  to 
avoid  hitting  the  legs  of  the  wooden  horse, 
when  aiming  at  balls  bowled  to  the  one 
side  or  the  other  by  his  companion,  he  may 
try  his  hand  on  the  live  mount.  One 
advantage  of  using  the  pony  in  practice, 
after  one  has  acquired  a  moderate  facility 
at  striking,  is  that  he  may  regulate  his 
distance  sufficiently  to  allow  him  to  take 
a  stroke  with  his  full  arm;  thus  gaining 
the  advantage  of  superior  force,  while 
avoiding  any  movements  liable  to  injure 
his  mount  or  break  his  stick. 

ESSENTIALS  OF  THE  GAME. — The  game  of 
polo  is  played  on  an  especially  arranged 
field  or  ground,  measuring,  according  to 
standard  requirements,  at  least  750  feet  in 
length  and  500  feet  in  width.  At  either 
end  of  this  ground  is  a  goal ;  each  team 
having  its  own  designated  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  game.  The  object  of  the  game, 
as  in  football,  is  to  make  a  goal  or  to 
send  the  ball  between  the  posts;  each  team 
endeavoring  to  carry  the  ball  toward  the 
opposite  end  of  the  field,  and  bending  every 
effort  to  accomplish  this  result.  In  this 
work,  each  man  on  the  team  has  his  own 
particular  part,  which  he  must  thoroughly 
understand  and  carefully  follow  out.  The 
game  is  not  an  indiscriminate  hitting  at 
the  ball,  at  any  and  every  time  it  comes 
within  reach,  nor  is  it  always  permissible 
for  one  player  to  make  the  movements 
perfectly  proper  for  another. 

As  has  been  well  remarked,  "polo  is  es- 
sentially a  game  of  combinations."  Thus, 
the  four  players  on  a  side  combine  into 
two  pairs;  Nos.  I  and  2  playing  together, 
and  Nos.  3  and  4  forming  another  com- 
bination. Each  player,  and  each  pair,  has 
particular  duties  assigned,  and  is  required 
to  devote  his  attention  to  performing  them. 
Whenever  it  is  possible,  the  two  players  of 
each  pair  should  practice  together  daily,  in 
order  that  each  may  become  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  play  of  the  other. 
Therefore,  as  we  shall  understand  pres- 
ently, the  assignment  of  ponies  usually  rec- 
ommended is,  as  follows:  the  most  reliable 
to  Nos.  3  and  4;  the  most  manageable  to 
No.  3;  the  fastest  to  Nos.  i  and  2.  In 
the  terminology  of  the  game,  Nos.  i  and 
2  are  called  "forwards"  and  No.  4  the 
"back" 


648 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


BEGINNING  THE  GAME. — In  beginning  the 
game  the  two  teams,  of  four  players  each, 
place  themselves  in  any  one  of  the  several 
recognized  arrangements — as  chosen  by 
their  respective  captains — on  either  side  of 
a  line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  the 
field  from  side  to  side.  The  ball  is  then 
thrown  down  by  the  umpire,  and  the  play 
begins  by  the  proper  player  on  either  side 
hitting  the  ball,  in  the  attempt  to  drive  it 
toward  the  goal,  and  is  continued  by  the 

5 00  feel  P   f 


v 

0 

8 


* 

2 


r 


500/eet 


Diagram  of  a  Polo  field,  showing  opposing  teams 
(each  member  designated  by  his  proper  number)  ar- 
ranged in  two  common  orders  on  either  side  of  the 
median  line.  The  umpire,  standing  at  -\-,  throws  in 
the  ball  along  the  line  drawn  between  the  two  teams 

other  players,  who  either  assist  him  in  this 
effort  or  use  recognized  tactics  to  prevent 
the  other  side  from  interfering,  or  from 
gaining  the  advantage.  One  of  the  most 
notable  methods  of  accomplishing  these 
ends  is  what  is  known  as  riding-off  or 
riding-out,  which  may  be  denned  as  the 
act  of  riding  up  to  a  player  of  the  op- 
posing team,  so  as  to  interpose  one's  own 
pony  between  him  and  the  ball,  in  order 


to  prevent  him  from  taking  possession  of  it, 
or  from  interfering  with  a  player  of  one's 
own  team  who  is  in  position  to  strike  it 
If,  however,  the  player  on  the  opposite  side 
is  already  "in  possession"  of  the  ball — 
which  is  to  say,  has  struck  it  and  is  fol- 
lowing up  his  advantage — he  may  not  be 
ridden  off.  In  riding  off,  the  two  ponies 
run  abreast,  or  side  by  side,  and  any  fair 
and  gentlemanly  force  is  permissible,  either 
to  change  your  opponent's  course,  or  to 
prevent  him  from  changing  yours.  No 
other  jostling  or  pushing  is  allowed,  how- 
ever, except  by  the  use  of  the  arm  from 
the  shoulder  to  the  elbow,  held  close 
against  the  body. 

THE  PLAYERS  AND  THEIR  DUTIES. — The 
object  of  arranging  the  teams  on  either 
side  of  the  line  through  which  the  ball 
is  thrown  by  the  umpire,  as  already  de- 
scribed, is  to  enable  the  proper  perform- 
ance of  duties  by  the  several  players. 
Briefly  explained,  the  duties  of  the  several 
players  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  from 
back  to  forward: 

No.  4. — It  is  the  duty  of  No.  4  to  pre- 
vent the  ball  from  passing  him,  and  to 
strike  it  back  to  his  own  No.  3.  The  duty 
of  No.  3  is  to  pass  the  ball  to  his  No.  2, 
and,  also,  to  support  No.  4  by  preventing 
players  on  the  opposite  team  from  inter- 
fering with  the  performance  of  his  duties. 
The  duties  of  No.  2  include  striking  the 
ball  toward  the  opposite  goal  posts  and 
following  it  up  until,  if  possible,  he  makes 
a  goal.  The  duties  of  No.  i  are  largely 
included  in  preventing  No.  4  of  the  oppos- 
ing team  from  hitting  the  ball  to  his  own 
forward.  The  duties  of  the  several  players 
are,  in  general,  fixed  and  determined  as 
here  specified,  although  Nos.  i  and  3  may, 
on  occasion,  perform  the  duties  of  No.  2, 
in  hitting  the  ball  forward  to  a  goal — No. 
2  being,  meantime,  occupied  in  riding  off 
the  opposing  Nos.  3  or  4,  as  will  be  pres- 
ently explained,  or  else  being  so  strongly 
harassed,  as  to  be  unable  to  discharge  his 
proper  functions. 

Provided  all  the  players  on  a  given  team 
are  equally  expert  in  their  own  parts,  No. 
4  is  nearly  the  most  important  member. 
His  duties  always  place  him,  as  his  name 
indicates,  as  the  rear  of  his  team,  so  that 
he  may  meet  the  ball  sent  toward  his 
goal  by  the  opposing  team,  and  pass  it 
forward  to  his  own  Nos.  3  and  2.  He 
may  assist  them,  in  attack,  to  make  a  goal 
by  doing  his  part  in  keeping  his  ball  for- 
ward. It  seldom  happens  that  he  is  called 
wxm  to  go  into  the  game,  carrying  the 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


549 


ball  forward  to  the  goal,  unless  his  own 
forwards  are  far  weaker  players  than  him- 
self. His  best  service  is  to  constantly 
maintain  his  proper  position  at  the  rear. 
One  especially  essential  thing  is  that  he 
should  ride  a  fast  pony  and  be  always 
alert  himself;  keeping  his  eye  constantly 
upon  the  ball.  As  a  rule,  he  should  hit  a 
back-hand  stroke;  since  he  can  thus  give 
the  ball  far  better  force  and  speed  than 
by  meeting  it  with  front  stroke,  and  is 
also  in  position  to  pursue  and  overtake  it 
Quickness  of  movement  and  force  in  hit- 
ting are  his  most  essential  qualities. 

No.  3. — The  duties  of  No.  3  render  him 
scarcely  second  in  importance,  since  he 
must  both  assist  his  own  No.  4  in  passing 
the  ball  forward,  and  also  protect  him,  in 
the  event  of  attack  from  one  of  the  oppo- 
site team.  Under  ordinary  circumstances, 
his  best  service  may  be  rendered  at  the 
rear,  where  he  may  perform  the  duties  of 
No.  4,  when  occasion  demands,  and  also 
meet  and  stop  the  ball.  He  should  be  a 
strong  hitter,  fully  practiced  in  striking  the 
ball  from  either  front  or  rear.  In  stop- 
ping the  ball  it  is  generally  found  best 
to  meet  it  back-handed,  and,  then  turning, 
to  send  it  forward  with  a  front  stroke. 
The  duties  of  No.  3  vary  slightly,  accord- 
ing as  his  team  is  in  attack  or  defence.  In 
the  former  case,  he  must  not  only  pass  the 
ball  forward,  but  also  be  ready  to  back  up 
his  own  No.  2,  by  "riding  the  chord  of  an 
arc,"  when  possible,  and  reaching  the  mov- 
ing ball  before  any  of  the  opposing  team. 
In  defence,  he  must  not  only  stop  and 
meet  the  ball  and  send  it  forward  to  his 
own  No.  2,  but  must  often  ride-off  the  No. 
2  of  the  opposing  team,  thus  preventing 
his  own  No.  4  from  being  harassed  by 
two  opponents  at  once.  Since  his  duties 
lead  him  to  assist  both  No.  2  and  No.  4, 
he  should  always  be  the  man  of  soundest 
judgment  on  the  team,  and  ride  the  most 
manageable  pony. 

No.  2. — In  a  well-trained  team,  playing 
a  game  in  strict  accord  with  the  rules,  No. 
2  is  virtually  the  real  playing  member; 
since  it  is  upon  him  devolves  the  duty  of 
sending  the  ball  through  the  opposite  goal 
posts.  For  the  performance  of  this  duty 
he  should  be  thoroughly  expert  at  hitting 
the  ball  on  a  run,  and  should  be  mounted 
on  a  pony  that  is  so  thoroughly  well 
trained  to  the  game,  as  not  to  "pull"  or 
race  away  too  fast  to  permit  an  effective 
stroke.  This  means  that,  while  his  pony 
should  be  capable  of  making  good  speed, 
he  should  be  so  thoroughly  under  control 


as  not  to  turn  the  game  into  a  race.  So 
far  as  his  qualifications  are  concerned,  No. 
2  must  (i)  constantly  bear  in  mind  the 
location  of  the  goal  posts  of  the  opposing 
team;  (2)  must  be  able  to  hit  the  ball 
without  being  obliged  to  first  stop  and 
"steady"  on  it,  thus  actually  checking  its 
forward  travel.  Since,  in  very  many  cases, 
No.  2  will  be  so  seriously  harassed  that 
he  can  not  make  the  goal  himself,  he  must 
be  prepared  to  strike  it  forward  on  a  run 
to  his  own  No.  I  or  No.  3,  who  may  be 
riding  on  a  chord  of  an  arc  to  meet  it, 
thus  allowing  either  of  them  to  perform 
his  duties  in  sending  the  ball  forward. 


Straightforward  Front  Stroke 

Were  it  not  that  the  duties  of  No.  2 
could,  on  such  occasions,  devolve  upon  No. 
i  or  No.  3,  a  large  part  of  very  many  polo 
games  would  be  merely  the  crowding  of 
No.  2.  Since,  also,  No.  2  is  frequently 
liable  to  be  ridden  off  by  the  opposing 
No.  3,  his  own  No.  I  and  No.  3  are  hardly 
in  position  to  assist  him  defensively.  He 
must  thus  be  ready  to  change  places  with 
No.  I  or  No.  3  whenever  required. 

If,  in  a  strongly  contested  game,  the  ball 
is  in  possession  of  No.  i  or  No.  3,  No.  2 
will  find  it  the  best  plan  not  to  attempt 
to  resume  it  himself,  unless  sure  of  his 
ability  to  make  a  goal.  In  «uch  an  emer- 


550 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


gency,  he  may  be  required  to  ride-off  the 
opposing  No.  3  or  No.  4.  In  fact,  in  de- 
fence, No.  2,  always  in  front  of  his  own 
team,  should  avail  himself  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  assist  his  own  man  by  riding-off 
the  opposing  No.  3  should  such  a  move- 
ment be  necessary. 

In  general,  the  proper  strokes  for  No.  2 
should  be  straight  forward,  and  not  on  the 
near  side.  He  may,  however,  on  occasion, 
hit  out  from  behind  to  meet  a  ball ;  thus 
sending  it  forward  to  his  own  Nos.  I  and 
3.  For  the  purpose  of  making  a  straight 
goal,  No.  2  should  constantly  bear  in  mind 
that  the  ball  must  be  kept  moving  on  a 


Straightforward  Back  Stroke 

line,  as  near  by  as  possible,  through  the 
centre  of  the  field.  To  this  end  he  should 
not  only  aim  to  drive  it  forward,  in  at- 
tack, but  also  to  drive  it  to  the  centre 
line,  whenever  the  opposing  team  has  suc- 
ceded  in  driving  it  to  the  one  side  or  the 
other.  If,  however,  he  has  succeeded  in 
driving  it  forward,  near  to  the  goal  posts, 
but  somewhat  to  one  side,  he  should  not 
attempt  to  cut  through  the  post  sidewise, 
but  should  strike  the  ball  back-hand  to 
his  own  No.  3,  whose  position  is  in  front 
of  the  goal,  ready  to  follow  up  the  ad- 
vantage. 

No.    i. — The   duties  of  the  man  playing 


No.  I  on  the  team  are  principally  those 
of  a  general  guard:  (i)  in  stopping  the 
ball  sent  toward  his  own  goal  by  the  op- 
posite team,  or  (2)  by  preventing  the  op- 
posite No.  4  from  performing  his  proper 
duties.  In  order  to  be  thoroughly  profi- 
cient in  performing  his  part  on  the  team, 
No.  i  must  have  (i)  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  play  of  his  own  No.  2,  with  whom 
it  is  desirable  that  he  should  practice,  as 
often  and  as  regularly  as  possible,  and  (2) 
he  should  be  mounted  on  the  best-trained 
pony  in  the  team.  His  pony  should  be 
trained  to  obey  the  rein  absolutely;  to  be 
able  to  start  and  stop  suddenly,  and  be 
easily  guided  in  riding-off  the  opposing 
No.  4,  whenever  necessary. 

In  interfering  with  the  No.  4  of  the  op- 
posing team,  No.  i  will  frequently  find  it 
impossible  to  ride  him  off.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, these  two  opposing  players  are  racing 
for  the  ball — the  opposing  No.  4  with  a 
view  to  protecting  his  own  goal,  and  our 
own  No.  i  with  a  view  to  preventing  it 
from  being  stopped — No.  I,  if  sufficiently 
near  to  No.  4,  may  prevent  him  from  stop- 
ping it  by  reaching  forward  and  "crooking 
his  stick."  In  the  act  of  crooking  an  ad- 
versary's stick,  the  standard  rule  must  be 
rigorously  observed ;  that  No.  I  must  be 
on  the  same  side  of  No.  4*3  pony  as  is  the 
ball,  or  in  a  straight  line  behind  him;  so 
that  his  stick  shall  pass  neither  under  nor 
over  his  adversary's  pony. 

In  addition  to  harassing  the  play  of  No. 
4  of  the  opposing  team,  No.  i  should  con- 
stantly watch  the  opposing  No.  3,  in  order 
to  prevent  him  from  hitting  the  ball.  Thus, 
if  the  opposing  No.  4  has  met  and  struck 
back  the  ball,  our  No.  i  may  ride  to  the 
rear,  in  order  to  prevent  the  opposing  No. 

3  from  striking  it;   striving,  if  possible,  to 
come  between  that  No.  3  and  the  ball. 

In  the  event  that  the  No.  4  of  the  op- 
posing team  should  miss  stopping  the  ball, 
or  should  hang  back,  it  is  the  duty  of 
No.  i  to  hit  past  him  for  a  goal,  leaving 
his  own  No.  2  to  ride  off  the  opposing  No. 

4  if   possible.     In   fact,    No.    i    has   many 
chances  of  making  a  goal. 

THE  AMERICAN  REGULATIONS. — While  the 
game  of  polo,  like  football,  cricket,  and 
several  other  athletic  sports,  is  played  un- 
der slightly  different  rules  in  England, 
America,  and  the  East,  it  is  not  necessary 
in  the  present  treatise  to  pass  very  far 
beyond  the  rules  observed  under  the  Amer- 
ican regulations.  According  to  these  rules, 
the  American  play  is  somewhat  simpler  and 
has  fewer  regulations  than  those  observed 


551 


in  other  countries.  However,  in  order  to 
play  a  perfectly  correct  game  it  is  necessary 
to  observe  but  three  things:  (i)  that  the 
real  object  of  the  game  is  to  land  the  ball 
beyond  and  between  the  goal  posts;  (2) 
that  each  player  should  thoroughly  under- 
stand his  own  duties  and  limitations,  also 
the  duties  and  limitations  of  the  other 
players  on  all  occasions;  that  each  player 
should  be  thoroughly  trained  and  prac- 
ticed in  performing  his  own  duties,  and 
should  be  mounted  on  a  pony  chosen  with 
regard  to  qualities  best  suited  to  the  part. 
In  these  respects  the  game  of  polo  is 
played,  with  reference  not  only  to  particu- 
lar combinations  of  players,  but  also  with 
reference  to  the  special  aptitude  of  each. 


Nearside  Front  Stroke 

Furthermore,  the  pony  to  be  mounted  by 
each  player  must  be  carefully  selected  and 
trained  to.  perform  the  particular  part  to 
which  he  is  assigned,  just  as  the  hounds 
in  a  pack  naturally  assume  the  places  and 
functions,  in  a  hunt,  for  which  innate 
qualities  best  adapt  them. 

(i.)  The  grounds  to  be  about  750  feet  long  by 
500  feet  wide,  with  a  ten-inch  guard  from  end  to 
end  on  the  side  only. 

(2.)  The  height  of  the  ponies  must  not  exceed 
14  hands  and  i  inch. 

(3.)  The  balls  to  be  of  bass  wood,  with  no  other 
covering  than  paint,  31-8  inches  in  diameter,  and 
not  to  exceed  5  ounces  in  weight.  Mallets  to  be 
such  as  are  approved  by  the  committee. 

(4.)  The  goal  posts  to  be  24  feet  apart,  and  light 
enough  to  break  if  collided  with. 

(5.)  Match  games  between  pairs  shall  be  two 
periods  of  fifteen  minutes  each,  actual  play.  Time 


between  goals  and  delays  not  counted;  two  minutes 
after  a  goal  has  been  made  and  five  minutes  be- 
tween periods  for  rest,  unless  otherwise  specified. 

(6.)  Match  games  between  teams  of  three  shall 
be  four  periods  of  fifteen  minutes  each,  actual  play. 
Time  between  goals  and  delays  not  counted;  two 
minutes  after  a  goal  has  been  made  and  five  min- 
utes between  periods  for  rest,  unless  otherwise 
specified. 

(7.)  Match  games  between  teams  of  four  shall 
be  three  periods  of  twenty  minutes  each,  actual 
play.  Time  between  goals  and  delays  not  counted; 
two  minutes  after  a  goal  has  been  made  and  ten 
minutes  between  the  periods  for  rest,  unless  other- 
wise specified. 

(8.)  Each  team  to  choose  an  umpire,  and,  if 
necessary,  the  two  umpires  to  appoint  a  referee, 
whose  decision  shall  be  final. 

(9.)  Each  team  should  have  a  substitute  in  read- 
iness to  play  when  a  match  is  on. 

(10.)  There  shall  be  a  captain  for  each  team, 
who  shall  have  the  direction  of  positions  and  plays 
of  his  men.  The  home  captain  shall  provide  two 
acceptable  goal  judges,  whose  decision  shall  be 
final  in  regard  to  goals  made  at  the  end  at  which 
he  may  be  placed. 

.  (i2.)  Only  players,  umpires,  and  referee  allowed 
upon  the  grounds  during  the  progress  of  the  game. 

(13.)  The  game  to  begin  when  the  ball  is  thrown 
between  the  contestants,  who  shall  be  in  line  fac- 
ing each  other  in  the  middle  of  the  field,  unless  it 
is  agreed  between  the  captains  to  charge.  The 
charge  to  be  from  a  line  30  feet  in  front  of  the 
goal-posts.  When  the  signal  to  charge  has  been 
given,  the  first  and  second  players  must  keep  to 
the  left  of  the  ball  until  it  has  been  hit. 

(14.)  It  is  forbidden  to  touch  an  adversary,  his 
pony,  or  his  mallet  with  the  hand  or  mallet  during 
play,  or  to  strike  the  ball  when  dismounted.  A 
player  should  not  put  his  stick  over  his  adversary's 
pony  either  in  front  or  behind.  In  "riding  off" 
or  "hustling,"  a  player  shall  not  push  or  strike 
with  his  arm  or  elbow. 

(15.)  When  the  game  is  resumed,  the  ball  shall 
be  thrown  between  the  players,  who  shall  be  lined 
up  at  the  point  at  which  the  ball  is  stopped.  But 
if  the  game  is  stopped  on  account  of  a  foul,  the 
ball  is  to  be  thrown  in  at  the  place  at  which  the 
foul  occurred. 

(16.)  When  the  limit  of  time  has  expired,  the 
game  must  continue  until  the  ball  goes  out  of 
bounds  or  a  goal  is  made,  and  such  overtime  shall 
not  be  counted. 

(17.)  In  event  of  a  tie  at  the  end  of  the  last 
period,  the  game  to  be  continued  until  one  side 
is  credited  with  a  goal  or  part  of  a  goal. 

(18.)  When  the  ball  goes  out  of  bounds  at  the 
sides,  it  must  be  thrown  in  from  the  place  at 
which  it  went  out,  by  the  referee  or  by  an  impar- 
tial person,  between  the  two  sides,  which  shall  be 
drawn  up  in  line  facing  each  other.  When  the 
ball  goes  out  ends,  the  side  defending  that  goal  is 
entitled  to  a  knock-out  from  the  point  at  which  it 
crossed  the  line.  When  the  player  having  the 
knock-out  causes  unnecessary  delay,  the  referee 
may  throw  a  ball  on  the  field  and  call  play.  No 
opponent  shall  come  within  50  feet  of  a  player 
having  the  knock-out  until  the  ball  has  been  hit 

(19.)  Whenever  a  player,  either  accidentally  or 
intentionally,  knocks  the  ball  behind  the  line  at 
the  end  at  which  the  goal  defended  by  his  side 
is  situated,  it  shall  be  deemed  a  safety  knock-out, 
and  shall  score  one-fourth  of  one  goal  against  such 
player's  side.  When  the  ball  is  caromed  out  or 
f "  .ked  out  by  a  pony,  it  shall  not  score  as  above. 


662 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


(ao.)  The  referee  shall  have  power  to  impose 
a  fine  not  exceeding  forty  dollars  on  any  team, 
or  member  of  a  team,  that  shall  fail  to  appear 
•within  a  reasonable  time  of  the  hour  named  for 
the  events  for  which  they  have  been  entered,  or 
for  any  misconduct  or  violation  of  the  rules  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  the  games,  and  shall  report 
the  same  in  writing  to  the  committee  for  enforce- 
ment. And  he  may  exclude  from  the  game  any 
dangerous  or  vicious  pony;  and  he  may  start  the 
game,  notwithstanding  the  absence  of  any  players, 
after  the  time  fixed. 

(21.)  A  player  requiring  a  mallet  during  the 
game  must  ride  to  the  end  or  side  line  to  procure 
one;  it  must  not  be  brought  on  the  field  to  him. 

(.22.)  The  referee  may  stop  the  game  at  any  time 
when  the  Ball  is  broken,  or  when  it  strikes  the  ref- 
eree, or  his  pony,  and  may  substitute  another  ball 
by  throwing  it  between  the  players  at  a  point  as 
near  as  possible  to  where  it  was  stopped. 

(23.)  A  ball  must  go  over  and  clear  of  the  line 
to  be  out,  and  over  and  clear  of  the  line  to  count 
a  goal.  When  a  ball  is  hit  above  the  top  of  the 
goal-posts,  but  in  the  opinion  of  the  referee 
'hrough,  it  shall  be  considered  a  goal. 


(24.)  Foul  riding  is  careless  and  dangerous 
horsemanship,  and  lack  of  consideration  for  the 
safety  of  others.  A  player  in  the  possession  of  the 
ball  has  the  right  of  way,  and  no  one  shall  cross 
him,  unless  at  such  a  distance  as  to  avoid  all  pos- 
sibility of  a  collision. 

(25.)  The  referee  may  suspend  a  player  for  the 
match  for  a  foul,  or  he  may  award  the  opposing 
side  a  half -goal. 

(26.)  When  a  player  is  replaced  by  a  substitute, 
he  can  not  return  to  the  team  the  same  day,  ex- 
cept to  take  the  place  of  a  player  who  is  incapaci- 
tated. In  any  change  of  players  after  the  game 
has  begun,  the  handicap  of  the  man  having  the 
highest  number  of  goals  shall  be  counted. 

(27.)  Any  member  of  the  committee  may  meas- 
ure ponies  (not  his  own)  and  issue  certificates, 
good  for  the  season  for  ponies  under  five  years  of 
age.  Ponies  five  years  old  or  over,  holding  such 
certificates,  need  not  be  measured  again. 


(34.)  No  dismounted  player  shall  be  allowed  in 
any  way  to  take  part  in  the  game  while  dis- 
mounted. 


GOLF 


GOLF  is  called  the  "Game  of  Kings," 
for  the  reason  that  Scottish  sovereigns 
are  believed  to  have  played  the  game,  in 
one  form  or  another,  since  Scotia  first  ex- 
isted Unlike  most  out-of-door  sports,  it 
can  not  be  played  under  cover — though,  of 
course,  some  of  the  shots  may  be  practiced 
in  such  a  place  as  a  riding  school.  Even 
here,  however,  the  ideal  conditions  of  this 
royal  game  do  not  exist,  for  the  real  golf 
field  is  a  meadow  covered  with  short  grass. 
This  field  should  be  as  near  the  sea  as  pos- 
sible, as  a  sandy  soil  is  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred. The  word  "links"  is  applied  to  the 
field  merely  because  in  Scotland  stretches 
of  meadow  and  sand  close  to  the  sea  are 
so  termed  in  the  vernacular. 

"Bunkers"  are  ordinary  depressions  in 
such  a  sandy  soil.  These  "bunkers"  are 
called  "hazards,"  although  any  obstacle, 
such  as  trees,  water,  roads,  high  grass, 
brush,  or  fences — or,  in  short,  anything  that 
interferes  with  the  effective  progress  of  the 
ball — is  known  by  that  general  term. 

The  course  consists  of  eighteen  holes, 
generally  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  circle. 
On  some  courses,  where  the  saving  of  land 
area  is  an  object,  the  holes  are  arranged  in 
circles,  one  within  the  other,  of  nine  holes 
each. 

The  idea  of  golf  is  to  put  the  ball— a 
small  one,  gutta-percha — into  the  holes  con- 
secutively, and  with  the  least  number  of 
strokes.  There  are  several  ways  of  play- 
ing the  game.  In  "singles,"  two  persons 


play  against  each  other,  each  having  a  ball. 
The  number  of  holes  made,  and  not  the 
number  of  strokes,  decides  the  victory.  In 
"foursomes,"  two  persons  play  against  two 
others.  Both  in  "singles"  and  "foursomes," 
each  side  has  its  own  ball.  In  "foursomes," 
"hole  play"  is  usual.  The  game  is  won  in 
either  by  the  player  or  the  side  that  wins 
more  holes  than  the  opponent,  each  hole 
being  won  by  the  player  or  side  that  makes 
it  in  the  least  number  of  strokes. 

There  is  another  form  of  the  game, 
known  as  "medal  play,"  in  which  the  win- 
ner is  the  one  who  makes  the  entire  round 
of  the  holes  in  the  least  number  of  strokes. 

When  beginning,  the  player  puts  a  little 
pat  of  sand  down  on  the  "teeing  ground," 
and  on  top  of  this  places  the  ball.  With 
the  appropriate  club  he  drives  the  sphere 
as  close  as  he  can  to  the  first  hole.  From 
whatever  point  at  which  the  ball  lands  he 
must  drive  it  with  one  of  his  clubs,  it  not 
being  permissible  to  touch  the  ball  with  his 
hands  until  it  has  gone  into  the  first  hole. 
This  latter  feat  having  been  accomplished, 
he  lifts  the  ball  from  the  hole  and  tees  it 
again,  preparatory  for  a  drive  to  the  sec- 
ond hole,  and  so  on  around  the  course. 
The  distance  between  holes  may  be  from 
TOO  to  500  yards,  to  suit  the  limits  of  the 
grounds  or  the  wishes  of  the  players. 

A  complete  outfit  of  clubs  consists  of 
nineteen,  though  many  excellent  players  do 
with  a  less  number.  The  complete  list, 
and  their  uses,  are  as  follows : 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


553 


(1)  The   Driver,   or   play   club,    is    used 
to  send  the  ball  from  the  tee,  or  wherever 
else  it  lies,  for  a  long  distance. 

(2)  The    Putter    is    required    for    short 
strokes.    It    has    a    short    shaft,    with    the 
head  nearly  at  right  angles. 

(3)  The   Cleek  is  the  longest  driver  of 
all  the  clubs,  with  metal  heads. 

(4)  The    Brassie    resembles    the    driver, 
but  has  a  brass  plate  and  is  used  for  play- 
ing  "through   the  green." 

(5)  The    Brassie    Niblic    has    a    smaller 
head  than  the  driver;  the  face  is  spooned 
back  and  the  sole  is  shod  with  brass.    This 
club   is   used  with  the  idea  of  raising  the 
ball   in  the  air   from  a  depression  in  the 
ground. 

(6)  The  Long  Spoon  has  the  same  kind 
of  head  as  the  brassie,  though  very  much 
spooned,  with  a  long  shaft. 

(7)  The   Mid   Spoon,   the   same  as  the 
preceding,  but  with  medium  length  of  shaft. 

(8)  The    Short    Spoon,    also   the   same, 
but    with    very    short    shaft. 

(9)  The   Driving  Iron,   of  deeper  blade 
than  the  cleek,   will  not  drive  as   far,  but 
will  send  the  ball  higher. 

(10)  The  Lofting  Iron,  very  much  like 
the  preceding,  but  will  send  the  ball  higher. 

(n)  The  Niblic,  for  getting  the  ball  out 
of  hazards,  very  heavy  and  with  a  small, 
rounded  head. 

(12)  The    Baffy. 

(13)  Bulger  Driver. 

(14)  Bulger   Brassie; 

(15)  Putting    Cleek. 

(16)  Driving  Cleek. 

(17)  Mashie. 

(18)  Gun   Metal.     Putter. 

(19)  Medium    Iron. 

The  best  length  of  a  single  drive  is 
about  175  yards,  and  one  of  200,  over 
average  ground,  is  considered  very  good. 
A  drive  of  280  yards  has  been  recorded 
in  Scotland. 

STYLE 

This  is  the  first  essential  for  a  beginner 
to  cultivate.  It  is  an  absolute  require- 
ment of  good  play,  and  can  be  acquired 
only  from  a  player  of  much  experience 
and  skill.  Suppose  you  are  ready  to  tee 
the  ball.  To  "sole"  the  ball  let  the  head 
lie  flat  on  the  ground,  with  the  face,  or 
part  of  the  club  that  is  intended  to  strike 
the  ball,  at  a  perfect  right  angle  to  the 
direction  in  which  you  mean  to  drive. 
Stand  parallel  to  the  line  of  the  ball's 
flight,  with  the  feet  in  line  with  each 


other.  The  feet  should  be  a  little  apart, 
and  about  equi-distant  from  a  line  drawn 
between  them  from  the  ball.  The  hands, 
both  grasping  the  club,  should  be  in  front 
of  the  body.  There  are  many  other  rules 
and  theories  as  to  how  to  stand,  and  how 
to  swing  the  club,  but  most  of  these  can 
be  learned  only  from  practice.  Experts 
state  that  mastery  of  the  art  of  swinging 
Indian  clubs  gives  the  beginner  a  quicker 
comprehension  of  the  principles  of  the  most 
correct  stroke  than  weeks  of  special  study. 

An  "Approach"  comprises  the  strokes 
that  are  necessary  to  drive  the  ball  to 
the  destined  hole.  It  is  in  this  line  of- 
work  that  the  skill  of  the  player  shows 
itself  to  best  advantage.  When  the  num- 
ber of  strokes  required  for  holing  counts 
on  the  score,  it  is  imperative  to  gain  each 
hole  with  the  least  number  of  separate 
plays.  Unless  peculiar  conditions  prevail, 
it  is  better  to  use  one  of  the  long  drivers 
until  the  player  has  the  ball  near  enough 
to  the  hole  for  him  to  call  a  different 
club  into  use. 

In  making  the  approach  and  in  selecting 
the  clubs  that  are  required  for  this  pur- 
pose one  must  consider  the  distance,  the 
necessity  for  elevating  the  ball,  and  the 
existence  or  non-existence  of  what  may 
prove  troublesome  hazards.  The  Three- 
quarter  stroke  (which  is  rarely  used  now 
on  account  of  the  introduction  of  iron 
clubs),  the  Halfshot  and  Stiff  Arm  Ap- 
proach are  fine  points  of  play  that  can  be 
picked  up  only  by  long  and  close  study 
of  the  work  of  the  best  players. 

PUTTING 

This  is  the  delicate  work  that  must  be 
done  when  the  player  has  the  ball  close 
to  the  destined  hole.  It  is  at  this  point 
of  the  game  that  the  greatest  care  in  the 
selection  of  the  clubs  must  be  made. 
After  the  player  has  calculated  his  shot, 
he  must  keep  his  eyes  on  the  ball  without 
glancing  at  the  hole  just  as  he  puts.  He 
must  be  careful  not  to  aim  too  long,  yet 
must  be  sure  to  reach  the  hole. 

After  the  beginner  has  mastered  the  first 
principles  of  the  "Approach,"  he  should 
then  acquire,  by  frequent  practice,  all  pos- 
sible experience  and  skill  in  putting. 

• 

ETIQUETTE  OF  THE   GAME 

On  the  field  there  are  many  rules  that 
the  player  must  observe  as  faithfully  as 
if  they  were  a  part  of  the  law  of  the 
state.  The  first  one  is  that  a  single 


654 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


player,  who  is  merely  practicing,  must 
withdraw  and  bide  his  time  whenever 
players  in  a  regular  match  desire  to  use 
the  links. 

During  the  making  of  any  stroke  no 
onlooker,  whether  player  or  spectator, 
should  move  or  speak. 

A  player  who  is  ready  to  use  a  tee 
must  wait  until  all  the  players  just  ahead 
of  him  have  made  their  second  strokes ; 
and  no  player  has  the  right  to  reach  the 
next  hole  until  the  players  ahead  of  him 
have  holed  and  gone  sufficiently  beyond 
him. 

Players  in  search  of  a  lost  ball,  how- 
ever, must  allow  players  in  other  games 
to  reach  and  pass  them. 

A  single,  threesome,  or  foursome  has  the 
right,  on  request,  to  pass  a  three-ball 
match.  A  match  that  is  playing  the  en- 
tire round  can  claim  the  right  to  pass  a 
match  playing  less  than  the  entire  course. 

When  a  player,  by  a  stroke,  displaces  a 
bit  of  the  turf,  he,  or  some  one  for  him, 
should  at  once  replace  it.  The  same  ap- 
plies to  a  hole  made  in  a  bunker. 

While  the  distances  between  the  holes 
may  vary  from  100  to  500  yards,  it  is 
not  by  any  means  necessary — and  is  sel- 
dom advisable — that  the  distances  between 
holes  be"  made  uniform.  It  is  a  general 
practice  to  gauge  the  distances  by  the  diffi- 
culties presented  in  the  surfaces  traversed. 

DEFINITIONS    OF    GOLF   TERMS 

ADDRESSING  THE  BALL. — The  player  plac- 
ing himself  in  position  for  a  stroke. 

BAFF. — Striking  the  ball  with  the  sole  of 
the  club-head  in  order  to  send  the  ball 
into  the  air. 

CADDIE. — The  one  who  carries  the  player's 
clubs,  and  who  usually  acts  as  an  adviser 
regarding  the  best  plays  to  be  made. 

CUP. — A  small  hole  made  by  the  stroke 
of  an  earlier  player. 

DEAD. — A  ball  lying  so  near  to  the  hole 
that  the  putt  is  a  certainty.  If  a  ball 
does  not  move  after  landing,  it  is  termed 
a  "dead  ball." 

FOG. — Tall   grass,   moss,  etc. 

FORE. — The  warning  shouted  to  any  per- 
son who  obstructs  the  desired  stroke. 

HANGING  BALL. — One  that  rests  on  a 
downward  slope. 

HEEL. — The  portion  of  the  head  of  a 
club  nearest  to  the  shaft.  Also  a  stroke 
at  the  ball  with  this  part  of  the  head. 


HOLE. — These  are  four  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  lined  with  iron.  On  the  first 
half  of  the  course  these  holes  are  marked 
with  white  flags,  and  on  the  cecond  with 
red  flags. 

HONOR. — The  privilege  of  playing  first 
from  the  tee. 

LOFT. — To   drive   the   ball   high   into   the 

air. 

LONG  ODDS. — When  the  player  needs  at 
least  a  stroke  more  than  his  opponent  to 
reach  the  hole. 

MISSING  THE  GLOBE. — Failure  to  hit  the 
ball.  This  is  counted  as  a  stroke. 

NOSE. — The  front  end  of  the  club-head, 
opposite  the  heel. 

ODDS. — Generally,  the  handicap  advantage 
that  a  good  player  gives  to  a  poorer  one. 
Sometimes  this  means  one  or  more  holes 
granted  at  the  start,  or  a  stroke  per  hole, 
or  more  than  one  stroke,  or  a  stroke  on 
every  alternate  hole.  Odds  at  golf,  as  in 
billiards  or  pool,  may  be  arranged  on  any 
scale  that  tends  to  equalize  skill  and  re- 
sults. The  term  "odds"  applies  also  when 
the  opponent  has  played  one  or  more 
strokes  than  the  player. 

PRESS. — The  endeavor  to  recover  lost 
ground  by  unusually  hard  hitting.  Avoid  it. 

RUB  ON  THE  GREEN. — Either  a  successful 
or  unsuccessful  knock  to  the  ball  involving 
no  penalty. 

STANCE. — The  position  of  the  player's 
feet  when  ready  for  a  stroke. 

STEAL. — The  holing  of  what  seems  to  be 
an  improbable  putt. 

STYMIE. — This  term  is  used  when  your 
adversary's  ball  is  in  line  with  your  own 
putt. 

SWIPE. — A   heavy   driving   stroke. 

TOP. — Hitting  the   ball   above   its   centre. 

LAYING    OUT    A    GOLF    GREEN 

Many  a  newly  organized  golf  club  has 
found  that  the  laying  out  of  a  green  as  it 
should  be  done  is  not  an  easy  matter. 
Much  time  and  money  are  wasted  by  the 
attempts  of  comparatively  inexperienced 
players  who  think — but  who  only  think — 
that  they  know  just  how  to  plan  a  green 
that  will  meet  all  the  requirements  of,  and 
furnish  all  the  fair  hazards  of,  this  kingly 
game. 

No  club  can  hope  to  get  a  fair  share  of 
enjoyment  out  of  the  sport,  or  to  attract 
visiting  enthusiasts  from  other  organiza- 


OUTDOOR  GAMES 


555 


tions,  unless  its  green  is  above  the  average 
in  excellence  of  arrangement. 

The  links  of  a  club  are  generally  placed 
in  the  charge  of  a  body  of  its  members 
known  as  the  Greens  Committee.  It  is 
a  duty  of  this  committee  to  keep  the 
grounds  at  the  highest  standard,  and  mem- 
bers should  hold  the  committee  to  strict 
accountability. 

When  the  members  of  the  committee  do 
not  thoroughly  understand  what  is  required 
of  them  they  should  consult  an  amateur 
of  acknowledged  high  standing  in  the  golf 
world.  When  the  finances  of  the  club  per- 
mit, it  is  far  better  to  communicate  with 
the  management  of  one  of  the  large  whole- 
sale sporting  goods  houses  that  supply  golf 
materials.  Every  such  house  is  certain  to 
have  in  its  employ  a  man  who  is  thoroughly 
experienced  in  the  proper  laying  out  of 
greens.  In  the  end,  it  will  be  found  cheaper 
to  make  use  of  his  services.  Nearly  all  of 
the  smaller  clubs  in  this  country  have  had 
the  initial  experience  of  laying  out  greens 
badly,  and  the  subsequent  experience  of 
having  to  pay  an  expert  more  than  his 
work  would  have  cost  in  the  first  place. 

Even  after  the  green  has  been  unexcep- 
tionably  arranged  there  is  still  much  work 
for  the  expert  to  do.  There  are  many 
more  things  needed  in  the  game  than  are 
dreamed  of  in  the  beginner's  philosophy. 
There  are  different  kinds  of  balls,  a  vast 
variety  of  clubs,  teeing  plates,  rubber  and 


paper  tees,  ball  cleaners,  golf  spikes,  badges 
for  caddies,  pocket  score  books  and  club 
score  books,  practicers,  golf  gloves,  caddie 
bags,  marking  disks,  direction  flags,  mark- 
ing flags,  and  so  on,  until  the  club  of  be- 
ginners is  bewildered  at  the  array  of  ar- 
ticles required  on  links  which  their  owners 
wish  to  have  considered  first-class. 

In  settling  all  these  perplexing  points 
the  expert  from  the  wholesale  house  will 
be  found  in  the  end  to  be  invaluable.  No 
new  club  can  do  better  than  to  have  such 
an  adviser  on  hand  for  a  week  or  ten  days. 

After  the  green  has  been  laid  out  in 
the  most  approved  fashion,  and  all  the 
really  necessary  paraphernalia  have  been 
bought,  the  club,  unless  it  includes  some 
exceptionally  fine  players  in  its  member- 
ship should  next  secure  the  services  of 
a  professional  teacher  of  the  game.  Good 
style  can  not  be  picked  up  from  mere  prac- 
tice and  experiment;  it  must  be  acquired 
from  those  who  already  possess  it. 

Nor  must  the  members  of  a  new  club, 
after  putting  themselves  in  the  hands  of 
a  skilled  teacher,  expect  to  begin  at  once 
to  play  the  complete  game.  A  competent 
teacher's  judgment  may  be  safely  followed, 
and,  except  in  the  cases  of  prodigies,  he 
prefers  to  devote  some  days  of  instruction 
first  of  all  to  such  seemingly  simple  mat- 
ters as  the  proper  way  to  stand,  the  proper 
way  to  address  the  ball,  and  the  simplest, 
most  effective  ways  of  making  the  strokes. 


RULES  FOR  PLAYING  CRICKET 


SINGLE   WICKET 

THE   BALL  must   weigh  not  less   than 
5^2  ounces,  nor  more  than  524  ounces. 
It  must  measure  not  less  than  9%  inches 
in  circumference. 

THE  BAT  must  not  exceed  4^2  inches  in 
the  widest  part;  it  must  not  be  more  than 
38  inches  in  length. 

THE  STUMPS  must  be  three  in  number, 
27  inches  out  of  the  ground;  the  bails  8 
inches  in  length;  the  stumps  of  equal  and 
sufficient  thickness  to  prevent  the  ball  from 
passing  through. 

THE  BOWLING-CREASE  must  be  in  a  line 
with  the  stumps,  6  feet  8  inches  in  length, 
the  stumps  in  the  centre,  with  a  return- 
crease  at  each  end  toward  the  bowler  at 
right  angles. 

THE  POPPING-CKEASE  must  be  4  feet  from 


the  wicket,  and  parallel  to  it;  unlimited  in 
length,  but  not  shorter  than  the  bowling- 
crease. 

THE  WICKETS  must  be  pitched  opposite 
to  each  other  by  the  umpires,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  22  yards. 

THE  BOWLER  shall  deliver  the  ball  with 
one  foot  on  the  round  behind  the  bowling- 
crease  and  within  the  return-crease,  and 
shall  bowl  four  balls  before  he  change 
wickets,  which  he  shall  be  permitted  to 
do  only  once  in  the  same  innings. 

The  ball  must  be  bowled.  If  thrown  or 
jerked,  it  is  "no  ball." 

If  the  bowler  shall  toss  the  ball  over  the 
striker's  head,  or  bowl  it  so  wide  that  in 
the  opinion  of  the  umpire  it  shall  not  be 
fairly  within  the  reach  of  the  batsman,  he 
shall  adjudge  one  run  to  the  party  re- 
ceiving the  innings,  which  shall  score 


556 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


"wide  ball."  But  if  the  batsman  shall  by 
any  manner  of  means  bring  himself  within 
reach  of  the  ball,  the  run  shall  not  be  ad- 
judged. 

If  the  bowler  deliver  a  "no  ball"  or  a 
"wide  ball,"  the  striker  shall  be  allowed  as 
many  runs  as  he  can  get,  and  he  shall  not 
be  put  out,  except  by  running  out.  In  the 
event  of  no  run  being  obtained  by  any 
other  means,  then  one  run  shall  be  added 
to  the  score  of  no  balls,  or  wide  balls, 
as  the  case  may  be.  All  runs  obtained  for 
wide  balls  to  be  scored  for  wide  balls.  If 
the  ball  shall  first  touch  any  part  of  the 
striker's  dress  or  person,  except  his  hands, 
the  umpire  shall  call  "leg-bye." 

At  the  beginning  of  each  innings  the  um- 
pire shall  call  "Play!"  From  that  time  to 
the  end  of  each  innings  no  trial  ball  shall 
be  allowed  to  any  bowler. 

THE  STRIKER  is  OUT  (i)  if  either  of  the 
bails  be  bowled  off;  (2)  if  a  stump  be 
bowled  out  of  the  ground;  (3)  if  the 
ball,  from  the  stroke  of  the  bat  or  hand 
be  held  before  it  touch  the  ground,  al- 
though it  be  hugged  to  the  body  of  the 
catcher;  (4)  if,  in  striking,  or  any  other 
time  while  the  ball  shall  be  in  play,  both 
his  feet  shall  be  over  the  popping-crease 
and  his  wicket  put  down,  except  his  bat 
•be  grounded  within  it;  (5)  if,  in  striking 
at  the  ball,  he  hit  down  his  wicket;  (6) 
if,  under  pretence  of  running  or  otherwise, 
tfie  striker  prevent  a  ball  from  being  caught ; 
(7)  if  the  ball  be  struck  and  he  wilfully 
strike  it  again;  (8)  if,  in  running,  the 
wicket  be  struck  down  by  a  throw,  or  by 
the  hand  or  arm  (with  ball  in  hand),  be- 
fore his  bat  (in  hand)  or  some  part  of 
his  person  be  grounded  over  the  popping- 
crease.  But,  if  both  the  bails  be  off,  a 
stump  must  be  struck  out  of  the  ground ; 
(9)  if  any  part  of  the  striker's  dress 
knock  down  the  wicket;  (10)  if  the  striker 
touch  or  take  up  the  ball  while  in  play, 
unless  at  the  request  of  the  opposite  party; 
(n)  if  with  any  part  of  his  person  he 
stop  the  ball,  pitched  in  a  straight  line 
from  the  bowler's  wicket  to  the  striker's 
wicket,  and  would  have  hit. 

If  the  players  have  crossed  each  other, 
he  that  runs  for  the  wicket  which  is  put 
down  is  out. 

A  ball  being  caught,  no  run  shall  be 
reckoned. 

A  striker  being  out,  that  run  which  he 
and  his  partner  were  attempting  shall  not 
be  reckoned. 

If  a  lost  ball  be  called,  the  striker  shall 
be  allowed  six  runs ;  but  if  more  than  six 


shall  be  called,  then  the  striker  shall  have 
all  that  have  been  run. 

If  any  fieldsman  stop  the  ball  with  his 
hat,  the  ball  shall  be  considered  dead,  and 
the  opposite  party  shall  add  five  runs  to 
their  score;  if  any  be  run,  they  shall  have 
five  in  all. 

The  ball  having  been  hit,  the  striker  may 
guard  his  wicket  with  his  bat,  or  with  any 
part  of  his  body  except  his  hands. 

The  wicket-keeper  shall  not  take  the  ball 
for  the  purpose  of  stumping  until  it  shall 
have  passed  the  wicket;  he  shall  not  move 
until  the  ball  be  out  of  the  bowler's  hand ; 
he  shall  not  by  any  noise  incommode  the 
striker;  and  if  any  part  of  his  person  be 
over  or  before  the  wicket,  although  the 
ball  hit  it,  the  striker  shall  not  be  out. 

THE  UMPIRES  are  the  sole  judges  of  fair 
or  unfair  play,  and  all  disputes  shall  be 
determined  by  them,  each  at  his  own  wicket. 
They  shall  pitch  fair  wickets,  and  the  par- 
ties shall  toss  up  for  choice  of  innings. 

They  shall  allow  two  minutes  for  each 
striker  to  come  in,  and  ten  minutes  be- 
tween each  innings,  when  the  umpire  shall 
call  "play."  The  party  refusing  to  play 
shall  lose  the  match. 

They  are  not  to  order  a  striker  out,  un- 
less appealed  to  by  the  adversaries. 

But  if  one  of  the  bowler's  feet  be  not 
on  the  ground  behind  the  bowling-crease 
and  within  the  return-crease  when  he  shall 
deliver  the  ball,  the  umpire  at  his  wicket, 
unasked,  must  call  "no  ball." 

If  either  of  the  strikers  run  a  short  run, 
the  umpire  must  call  "one  short." 

After  the  delivery  of  four  balls  the  um- 
pire must  call  "over,"  but  not  until  the 
ball  shall  be  finally  settled  in  the  wicket- 
keeper's  hands :  the  ball  shall  then  be  con- 
sidered dead. 

The  players  who  go  in  second  shall  fol- 
low their  innings  if  they  have  obtained  80 
runs  less  than  their  antagonists,  except  in 
all  matches  limited  to  only  one  day's  play, 
when  the  number  of  runs  shall  be  limited 
to  60  instead  of  80. 

When  one  of  the  strikers  shall  have  been 
put  out,  the  use  of  the  bat  shall  not  be 
allowed  to  any  person  until  the  next  striker 
shall  come  in. 

THE   LAWS    OF    SINGLE   WICKET 

(1)  When  there  shall  be  less  than  five 
players  on  a  side,  bounds  shall  be  placed 
22  yards  each  in  a  line  from  the  off  and 
leg  stump. 

(2)  The    ball    must    be    hit    before    the 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


557 


bounds,  to  entitle  the  striker  to  run,  which 
run  can  not  be  obtained  unless  he  touch 
the  bowling-stump  or  crease  in  a  line  with 
his  bat,  or  some  part  of  his  person,  or  go 
beyond  them,  returning  to  the  popping- 
crease. 

(3)  When  the  striker  shall  hit  the  ball, 
one   of   his    feet   must   be   on   the   ground 
and   behind    the   popping-crease ;    otherwise 
the  umpire  shall  call  "no  hit." 

(4)  When  there  shall   be  less  than  five 
players   on  a   side,   neither  byes  nor  over- 
throws   shall    be    allowed ;    nor    shall    the 
striker  be  caught  out  behind  the  wicket,  nor 
stumped  out. 

(5)  The  fieldsman  must  return  the  ball 
so  that  it  shall  cross  the  play  between  the 
wicket  and  the  bowling-stump,  or  between 
the    bowling-stump    and   the    bounds;    the 
striker  may  run  till  the  ball  be  so  returned. 

(6)  After   the   striker   shall    have   made 
one  run,  if  he  start  again,  he  must  touch 
the  bowling-stump  and  turn  before  the  ball 
cross  the  play,  to  entitle  him  to  another. 

(7)  The  striker  shall  be  entitled  to  three 
runs   for  lost   ball,   and  the   same   number 
for  ball  stopped  with  bat. 

(8)  When  there  shall  be  more  than  four 
players  on  a  side,  there  shall  be  no  bounds. 
All    hits,  byes,   and   overthrows   shall   then 
be  allowed. 

Single  wicket  is  chiefly  valuable  in  ab- 
sence of  sufficient  players  to  form  an  ade- 
quate field  at  double  wicket  It  is  so 
inferior  in  interest  to  double  wicket,  that 
it  is  hardly  ever  played,  unless  when  the 
latter  is  impracticable. 

A  good  game  at  single  wicket,  though, 
where  only  a  few  players  have  met  for 
practice,  is  far  better  than  the  desultory 
knocking  about  which  is  usual  on  such 
occasions.  For  a  player  deficient  in  driving 
and  forward  hitting  of  all  kinds  the  prac- 
tice it  affords  is  invaluable,  and  to  such 
a  good  course  of  single  wicket  is  strongly 
recommended. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  RULES 

The  accompanying  diagram  will  explain 
the  arrangement  of  the  various  creases, 
which  are  usually  marked  out  on  the  turf 
with  a  mixture  of  chalk  or  whiting  and 
water. 

It  is  well  to  practice  always  with  the 
creases  duly  marked,  as  the  mind  thus 
forms  a  habit  of  conformity  to  them,  and 
the  player  is  not  embarrassed  by  the  neces- 
sity of  keeping  a  watch  over  his  feet  as 
well  as  over  the  ball. 


The  purposes  of  the  several  creases  are 
as  follows : 

The  BOWLING-CREASE  marks  the  nearest 
spot  to  the  striker  from  which  the  bowler 
may  deliver  the  ball.  N 

The  RETURN-CREASE  prevents  the  bowler 
from  delivering  the  ball  at  an  unreasonable 
distance  laterally  from  the  wicket;  and  the 


.000 

8  in. 


3  A 


Unlimited. 


s  s  s,  the  stumps  (the  three  together  forming  the 
wicket);  B  C,  the  bowling-crease;  r  c,  the  return-crease; 
P  C,  the  popping-crease 

two  together  mark  out  within  sufficiently 
exact  limits  the  precise  spot  from  which 
the  striker  may  expect  the  ball. 

The  POPPING-CREASE,  while  giving  the 
striker  ample  space  to  work  in,  puts  a 
check  upon  any  attempt  to  get  unduly  for- 
ward to  meet  the  ball ;  it  forms,  too,  a  dis- 


/    M  Yds. 


B,  the  bowling-stump,  crease,  etc.;  Jf,  the  wickets 
with  popping-crease,  as  in  double  wicket;  b  £,  the 
boundaries 

tinct  and  convenient  mark  by  which  to 
judge  of  a  man's  being  on  his  ground,  and 
of  his  having  run  the  requisite  distance 
between  wickets.  It  is  unlimited,  to  avoid 
the  confusion  between  strikers  and  fields- 
men, which  must  inevitably  be  of  constant 
recurrence  were  the  strikers  required  to  run 

directly  from  wicket  to  wicket. 

3o 


558 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


The  thickness  and  weight  of  a  bat  are 
left  to  the  fancy  and  capacity  of  the  player. 
In  general,  a  tall  man  can  use  a  heavier 
bat  than  a  short  one.  About  two  pounds  is 
a  fair  weight  for  a  player  of  middle  height 

Although  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  play 
with  too  heavy  a  bat — for  nothing  so  cramps 
the  style,  and  does  away  with  beautiful 
wrist-play — yet  extreme  lightness  is  still 
more  to  be  deprecated:  it  is  useless  for 
hard  hitting,  and  can  therefore  do  little  in 
the  way  of  run-getting  against  a  good  field. 

The  points  most  to  be  looked  for  in  a 
bat  are  these:  First,  weight  suited  to  the 
player. 

Secondly,  good  thickness  of  wood  at  the 
drive  and  lower  end  of  the  bat,  i.e.,  at  the 
last  six  inches  or  so. 

Thirdly,  balance  Badly  balanced  bats 
give  a  sensation  as  of  a  weight  attached 
to  them  when  they  are  wielded,  while  a 
well-balanced  one  plays  easily  in  the  hand. 


The  handle  is  a  very  important  considera- 
tion. Cane  handles,  pure  and  simple,  or 
in  composition  with  ash  or  other  materials, 
are  the  best:  some  prefer  oval  handles, 
some  round.  The  handle  should,  at  least, 
be  as  thick  as  the  player  can  well  grasp: 
a  thick  handle  greatly  adds  to  the  driving 
power  of  the  bat;  it  is  also  naturally 
stronger,  and  therefore  more  lasting. 

In  choosing  wickets,  attention  must  be 
paid  to  two  points:  first,  that  each  stump 
be  perfectly  straight;  and,  secondly,  that 
it  be  free  from  flaws  or  knots.  The  least 
weakness  is  sure  to  be  found  out  sooner 
or  later. 

Great  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
bails,  that  they  are  exactly  of  the  right 
size,  especially  that  they  are  not  too  long. 
The  least  projection  beyond  the  groove  in 
the  stump  may  make  all  the  difference  be- 
tween "out"  and  "not  out" — between,  per- 
haps, winning  a  match  and  losing  it 


THE  LEAGUE  RULES  FOR  BASEBALL 


THE  BALL  must  weigh  not  less  than  5 
ounces  and  not  more  than  51A  ounces, 
and    must    measure    not    less    than    9   and 
not   more    than   p/4    inches    in   circumfer- 
ence 

THE  BAT  must  be  made  wholly  of  wood, 
except  that  the  handle  may  be  wound  with 
twine  or  coated  with  a  granulated  sub- 
stance, not  to  exceed  18  inches  from  the 
end.  It  must  be  round,  not  more  than  2^4 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  thickest  part,  nor 
may  it  exceed  a  length  of  42  inches. 

THE  BASES  must  be  four  in  number,  and 
designated  as  first  base,  second  base, 
third  base,  and  home  base.  The  home 
base  must  be  12  inches  square  and  so  fixed 
in  the  ground  as  to  be  even  with  the  sur- 
face, and  so  placed  in  the  corner  of  the  in- 
field that  two  of  its  sides  will  form  part 
of  the  infield  boundaries.  The  first,  sec- 
ond, and  third  bases  must  be  canvas  bags, 
15  inches  square,  filled  with  some  soft  ma- 
terial, and  so  placed  that  the  centre  of  the 
second  base  shall  be  upon  its  corner  of 
the  infield,  and  the  centre  of  the  first  and 
third  bases  shall  be  on  the  lines  running 
to  and  from  second  base,  and  7^2  inches 
from  the  foul  lines,  each  base  entirely 
within  the  foul  lines. 

THE  FOUL  LINES  must  be  drawn  in 
straight  lines  from  the  outer  corner  of  the 


home  base,  along  the  outer  edge  of  the 
first  and  third  bases,  to  the  boundaries 
of  the  ground. 

THE  PITCHER'S  LINES  must  be  straight, 
forming  the  boundaries  of  a  space  in  the 
infield,  5l/2  feet  long  by  4  feet  wide,  distant 
50  feet  from  the  centre  of  the  home  base, 
and  so  placed  that  the  5^-foot  lines  will 
each  be  2  feet  distant  from  and  parallel 
with  a  straight  line  passing  through  the 
centres  of  the  home  and  second  bases. 
Each  corner  of  this  space  must  be  marked 
by  a  flat,  round  plate,  6  inches  in  diam- 
eter, fixed  in  the  ground  even  with  the 
surface 

THE  BATSMAN'S  LINES  must  be  straight, 
forming  the  boundaries  of  a  space  on  the 
right  and  of  a  similar  space  on  the  left 
of  the  home  base,  6  feet  long  by  4  feet 
wide,  extending  3  feet  in  front  of  and  3 
feet  behind  the  centre  of  the  home  base, 
and  with  its  nearest  line  distant  6  inches 
from  the  home  base. 

THE  PLAYERS  of  each  club  in  a  game 
shall  be  nine  in  number,  one  of  whom  shall 
act  as  captain,  and  in  no  case  shall  less 
than  nine  men  be  allowed  to  play  on  each 
side.  No  player  shall  attach  anything  to 
the  sole  or  heel  of  his  shoes  other  than 
the  ordinary  baseball  shoe  plate. 

THE  PITCHER  shall  take  his  position  fac- 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


559 


ing  the  batsman  with  feet  square  on  the 
ground  and  in  front  of  the  pitcher's  plate; 
but  when  delivering  the  ball  to  the  bat  one 
foot  must  touch  the  plate;  nor  shall  he 
raise  either  foot,  except  at  delivery,  or 
take  more  than  one  step  then.  Should  the 
pitcher  throw  the  ball  to  any  save  the 
catcher,  except  to  retire  a  base-runner, 
while  the  batsman  is  ready,  each  ball  so 
thrown  shall  be  called  a  ball,  as  also  a  de- 
lay exceeding  twenty  seconds  in  delivering 
to  bat.  A  fair  ball  is  a  ball  delivered  by 
the  pitcher  while  standing  wholly  within 
the  lines  of  his  position,  facing  the  bats- 
man; being  so  delivered  as  to  pass  "over 
the  home  base,  not  lower  than  the  bats- 
man's knee,  nor  higher  than  his  shoulder, 
provided  a  ball  so  delivered  that  touches 
the  bat  of  the  batsman  in  his  position  shall 
be  considered  a  batted  ball,  and  in  play. 
An  unfair  ball  is  a  ball  delivered  by  the 
pitcher,  as  above,  except  that  it  does  not 
pass  over  the  home  base  or  does  pass 
above  the  batsman's  shoulder,  or  below 
the  knee.  A  balk  is  any  motion  made  by 
the  pitcher  to  deliver  the  ball  to  the  bat 
without  delivering  it,  and  shall  be  held  to 
include  (i)  any  and  every  accustomed  mo- 
tion with  the  hands,  arms,  or  feet,  or  po- 
sition of  the  body  assumed  by  the  pitcher 
in  his  delivery  of  the  ball  and  any  motion 
calculated  to  deceive  a  base-runner,  ex- 
cept the  ball  be  accidentally  dropped;  (2) 
the  holding  of  the  ball  by  the  pitcher  so 
long  as  to  delay  the  game  unnecessarily; 
(3)  any  motion  to  deliver  the  ball,  or  the 
delivering  the  ball  by  the  pitcher  when  any 
part  of  his  person  is  upon  ground  outside 
of  the  lines  of  his  position,  including  all 
preliminary  motions  with  the  hands,  arms, 
and  feet. 

A  DEAD  BALL  is  one  that,  delivered  by 
the  pitcher,  touches  any  part  of  the  bats- 
man's person  or  clothing  while  standing 
in  his  position  without  being  struck  at;  or 
any  part  of  the  umpire's  person  or  cloth- 
ing while  on  foul  ground,  without  first 
passing  the  catcher.  In  case  of  a  foul 
strike,  foul  hit  ball,  not  legally  caught  out, 
dead  ball,  or  base-runner  put  out  for  being 
struck  by  a  fair  hit  ball,  the  ball  shall  not 
be  considered  in  play  until  it  is  held  by 
the  pitcher  standing  in  his  position.  A 
block  is  a  batted  or  thrown  ball  that  is 
stopped  or  handled  by  any  person  not  en- 
gaged in  the  game.  Whenever  a  block  oc- 
curs the  umpire  shall  declare  it,  and  base- 
runners  may  run  the  bases,  without  being 
put  out,  until  the  ball  has  been  returned  to 
and  held  by  the  pitcher  standing  in  his  po- 


sition. In  the  case  of  a  block,  if  the  per- 
son not  engaged  in  the  game  should  retain 
possession  of  the  ball,  or  throw  or  kick  it 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  fielders,  the  um- 
pire should  call  "Time,"  and  require  each 
base-runner  to  stop  at  the  last  base  touched 
by  him  until  the  ball  be  returned  to  the 
pitcher  standing  in  his  position. 

A  GAME  shall  consist  of  nine  innings  to 
each  contesting  nine,  except  that  (i)  if  the 
side  first  at  bat  scores  less  runs  in  nine 
innings  than  the  other  side  has  scored  in 
eight  innings,  the  game  shall  then  termi- 
nate; (2)  if  the  side  last  at  bat  in  the 
ninth  inning  scores  the  winning  run  be- 
fore the  third  man  is  out,  the  game  shall 
terminate;  and  (3)  if  the  umpire  calls 
"Game"  on  account  of  darkness  or  rain  at 
any  time  after  five  innings  have  been  com- 
pleted, the  score  shall  be  that  of  the  last 
equal  innings  played,  unless  the  side  sec- 
ond at  bat  shall  have  scored  more  runs  than 
the  side  first  at  bat,  in  which  case  the  score 
of  the  game  shall  be  the  total  number  of 
runs  made. 

THE  BATSMAN  is  OUT  if  he  fails  to  take 
his  position  at  the  bat  in  his  order  of  bat- 
ting, unless  the  error  be  discovered  and 
the  proper  batsman  takes  his  position  be- 
fore "at  bat"  is  recorded ;  and  in  such  case 
the  balls  and  strikes  called  must  be  counted 
in  the  time  at  bat  of  the  proper  batsman. 
This  rule  shall  not  take  effect  unless  the 
out  is  declared  before  the  ball  is  delivered 
to  the  succeeding  batsman:  (i)  if  he  fails 
to  take  his  position  within  one  minute 
after  the  umpire  has  called  for  the  bats- 
man; (2)  if  he  makes  a  foul _ strike;  (3) 
if  he  attempts  to  hinder  the  catcher  from 
fielding  or  throwing  the  ball,  by  stepping 
outside  the  lines  of  his  position,  or  other- 
wise obstructing  or  interfering  with  that 
player;  (4)  if,  while  the  first  base  be  oc- 
cupied by  a  base-runner,  three  strikes  be 
called  on  him  by  the  umpire,  except  when 
two  men  are  already  out;  (5)  if,  while 
making  the  third  strike,  the  ball  hits  his 
person  or  clothing;  (6)  if,  after  two  strikes 
have  been  called,  the  batsman  obviously 
attempts  to  make  a  foul  hit. 

THE  BATSMAN  BECOMES  A  BASE-RUNNER 
instantly  (i)  after  he  makes  a  fair  hit; 
(2)  after  four  balls  have  been  called  by 
the  umpire;  (3)  after  three  strikes  have 
been  declared  by  the  umpire;  (4)  if,  while 
he  be  a  batsman,  his  person — excepting 
hands  or  forearm,  which  makes  it  a  dead 
ball — or  clothing  be  hit  by  a  ball  from  the 
pitcher,  unless,  in  the  opinion  of  the  um- 


660 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


pire,  he  intentionally  permits  himself  to 
be  so  hit;  or  interference  by  the  catcher 
prevents  him  from  striking  the  ball. 

THE  BASE-RUNNER  shall  be  entitled, 
without  being  put  out,  to  take  the  base  in 
the  following  cases:  (i)  if,  while  he  was 
batsman,  the  umpire  called  four  balls;  (2) 
if  the  umpire  awards  a  succeeding  bats- 
man a  base  on  four  balls,  or  for  being  hit 
with  a  pitched  ball,  or  in  case  of  an  illegal 
delivery,  and  the  base-runner  is  thereby 
forced  to  vacate  the  base  held  by  him;  (3) 
if  the  umpire  calls  a  "balk";  if  a  ball  de- 
livered by  the  pitcher  pass  the  catcher  and 
touch  the  umpire  or  any  fence  or  building 
within  ninety  feet  of  the  home  base ;  (4) 
if  upon  a  fair  hit  the  ball  strikes  the  per- 
son or  clothing  of  the  umpire  on  fair 
ground;  (5)  if  he  be  prevented  from  mak- 
ing a  base  by  the  obstruction  of  an  adver- 
sary; (6)  if  the  fielder  stop  or  catch  a 
batted  ball  with  his  hat,  or  any  part  of 
his  dress. 

The  base-runner  shall  return  to  his  base, 
and  shall  be  entitled  to  so  return  without 
being  put  out,  (i)  if  the  umpire  declares 
a  foul  tip  or  any  other  foul  hit  not  legally 
caught  by  a  fielder;  (2)  if  the  umpire  de- 
clares a  foul  strike;  (3)  if  the  umpire 
declares  a  dead  ball,  unless  it  be  also  the 
fourth  unfair  ball,  and  he  be  thereby  forced 
to  take  the  next  base;  (4)  if  the  person 
or  clothing  of  the  umpire  interferes  with 
the  catcher,  or  he  is  struck  by  a  ball 
thrown  by  the  catcher  to  intercept  a  base- 
runner. 

THE  UMPIRE  shall  not  be  changed  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  a  game,  except  for 
reason  of  illness  or  injury.  The  umpire 
is  master  of  the  field  from  the  commence- 
ment to  the  termination  of  the  game,  and 


is  entitled  to  the  respect  of  the  spectators. 
Any  person  offering  any  insult  or  indignity 
to  him  must  be  promptly  ejected  from  the 
grounds.  He  must  compel  the  players  to 
observe  the  provisions  of  all  the  playing 
rules,  and  be  invested  with  authority  to 
order  any  player  to  do  or  omit  any  act,  as 
he  may  deem  necessary.  The  umpire  is 
the  sole  and  absolute  judge  of  play.  In  no 
instance  shall  any  person  be  allowed  tc 
question  the  correctness  of  any  decision 
made  by  him  on  a  play,  and  no  player  shall 
leave  his  position  in  the  field,  his  place  at 
the  bat,  on  the  bases  or  players'  bench,  to 
approach  or  address  the  umpire,  except  on 
an  interpretation  of  the  playing  rules,  and 
only  that  shall  be  done  by  the  captains  of 
the  contending  nines. 

Before  the  commencement  of  a  game,  the 
umpire  shall  see  that  the  rules  governing 
all  the  materials  of  the  game  are  strictly 
observed.  He  must  keep  the  contesting 
nines  playing  constantly  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  game  to  its  termination, 
allowing  such  delays  only  as  are  rendered 
unavoidable  by  accident,  injury,  or  rain. 
He  must,  until  the  completion  of  the  game, 
require  the  players  of  each  side  to  promptly 
take  their  positions  in  the  field  as  soon  as 
the  third  man  is  put  out,  and  must  require 
the  first  striker  of  the  opposite  side  to  be 
in  his  position  at  the  bat  as  soon  as  the 
fielders  are  in  their  places.  The  umpire 
shall  count  and  call  every  "unfair  ball"  de- 
livered by  the  pitcher,  and  every  "dead 
ball,"  if  also  an  unfair  ball,  as  a  "ball," 
and  he  shall  also  count  and  call  every 
"strike."  •  Neither  a  "ball"  nor  a  "strike" 
shall  be  counted  or  called  until  the  ball 
has  passed  the  home  base.  He  shall  also 
declare  every  "dead  ball,"  "block,"  "foul 
hit,"  "foul  strike,"  and  "balk." 


AMERICAN    REGULATIONS    FOR    FOOTBALL 


FOOTBALL,  like  baseball,  requires  two 
opposing  sides,  or  "teams."  It  is 
played  with  a  ball  of  leather,  inclosing  an 
inflated  rubber  bladder,  and  in  shape  is  a 
prolate  spheroid.  The  goals  are  placed  at 
either  end  of  the  field,  and  each  side  is  to 
defend  its  own  goal,  while  trying  to  drive 
the  ball  through  its  opponents'  goal. 

RULES 

THE  GROUND. — The  game  is  played  upon 
a  field  of  330  feet  length  and  160  feet 
width,  the  inclosure  to  be  marked  upon 


the  ground  in  heavy  white  lines  with  lime. 
The  lines  at  the  two  ends  are  called  goal 
lines,  and  the  side  lines  extend  beyond 
their  intersection  with  the  goal  lines.  The 
goals,  placed  in  the  middle  of  each  goal 
line,  consist  of  two  upright  posts  not  more 
than  twenty  feet  high,  and  eighteen  feet 
and  six  inches  distant  from  each  other. 
Ten  feet  from  the  ground  is  a  horizontal 
cross-bar.  Five-yard  lines,  parallel  with 
the  goal  lines,  are  laid  the  entire  length 
of  the  field.  The  game  is  played  by  two 
teams  of  eleven  men  each.  The  officials  of 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


561 


the  game  are  a  referee,  an  umpire,  and  a 
linesman. 

A  DROP  KICK  is  made  by  dropping  the 
ball  and  kicking  it  as  it  rises  from  the 
ground;  a  place  kick,  by  kicking  the  ball, 
after  it  has  been  placed  on  the  ground;  a 
punt,  by  letting  the  ball  fall  and  kicking  it 
before  it  strikes  the  ground.  A  kick-off  is 
a  place  kick  from  the  centre  of  the  field, 
and  a  goal  can  not  be  scored  thereby;  a 
kick-out  is  a  drop,  place,  or  punt  by  a 
player  of  the  side  that  makes  a  safety  or 
a  touchback;  a  free  kick  means  any  kick 
when  the  rules  prevent  the  opponents  from 
advancing  beyond  a  certain  point.  The 
free  kick  includes  a  kick-off,  kick-out, 
punt-out,  kick  from  a  fair  catch,  and  place 
kick  for  goal  after  touchdown. 

THE  GAME  consists  of  two  halves,  each 
of  35  minutes'  duration.  The  two  sides 
toss  up  a  coin,  the  winner  choosing  either 
goal  or  kick-off.  Line-up  is  effected  by  one 
of  the  players  of  the  side  having  the  kick- 
off  placing  the  ball  in  the  exact  centre  of 
the  field,  the  opponents  standing  in  their 
own  territory,  at  least  ten  yards  from  the 
ball  until  it  has  been  touched  by  the  foot. 
Each  team  of  eleven  men  consists  of  seven 
forwards,  a  quarter-back,  two  half-backs, 
and  a  goal-tend.  One  of  the  forwards  of 
the  side  having  the  ball  kicks  it  at  least 
ten  yards  into  the  opponents'  territory. 
Upon  catching  the  ball,  one  of  the  oppo- 
nents returns  it  by  kick,  or  runs  with  it. 
If  a  player  runs  with  the  ball  he  is  tackled 
by  his  opponents. 

BALL  DOWN. — When  the  player  with  the 
>»all  is  fairly  held,  the  referee  blows  his 
whistle,  and  the  ball  is  "down."  At  the 
spot  of  holding,  the  ball  is  placed  on  the 
ground  for  a  "scrimmage."  Both  sides 
must  line  up  on  their  own  side  of  the  ball. 
One  of  the  forwards  of  the  team  holding 
the  ball  kicks  or  snaps  back.  As  soon  as 
the  ball  is  in  motion  both  sides  may  press 
forward.  A  team  is  "off  side"  that  is  be- 
tween the  ball  and  opponents'  goal ;  the 
other  team  is  "on  side."  The  side  having 
the  ball  may  not  use  their  hands  or  arms 
to  obstruct  opponents. 

When     a     side,     after     three     successive 


"downs,"  fails  to  advance  the  ball  five 
yards,  or  is  obliged  to  retreat  twenty  yards, 
that  side  gives  up  the  ball. 

THE  FREE  KICK.— If  a  player  catches  the 
ball,  when  kicked  by  his  opponents,  this 
is  termed  "a  fair  catch."  He  must  hold 
up  the  ball  and  plant  one  heel  to  mark  the 
spot.  His  side  is  then  entitled  to  a  free 
kick,  and  opponents  must  not  come  within 
ten  yards  until  the  ball  is  in  motion. 

"Out  OF  BOUNDS"  is  when  the  ball  goes 
across  the  side  lines  of  the  field.  It  must 
be  brought  back  at  the  point  at  which  it 
crossed  the  line  at  least  five  yards  into  the 
field,  and  not  more  than  fifteen,  and  an- 
other "scrimmage"  follows. 

TOUCHDOWN  AND  "SAFETY." — When  the 
ball  is  carried  across  the  goal  line  by  the 
assailants  it  is  termed  a  "touchdown,"  and 
counts  five  points,  besides  entitling  the  side 
accomplishing  it  to  have  a  try  for  a  goal 
kick.  If  the  ball  is  then  kicked  between 
the  goal-posts,  and  over  the  cross-bar,  this 
is  a  goal,  and  adds  one  more  to  the  score. 
A  "safety  touch"  may  be  made  sometimes 
by  the  side  defending  the  goal.  This  con- 
sists in  carrying  the  ball  back  of  the  de- 
fenders' own  goal  line,  and  counts  two 
points  for  the  opponents.  In  some  cases 
it  is  better  to  make  a  "safety"  than  to  risk 
allowing  the  enemy  to  score  a  "touchdown." 
A  drop-kick  for  goal,  if  successful,  counts 
five  points. 

TACKLING. — There  shall  be  no  striking 
or  unnecessary  roughness,  nor  any  tripping. 
Tackling  below  the  knees  is  prohibited. 

DIRECTION  OF  A  GAME. — The  referee  has 
general  charge  of  the  game,  sees  that  the 
ball  is  put  in  play,  and  is  judge  of  its  po- 
sition and  progress;  he  is  also  sole  au- 
thority as  to  the  score  of  the  game.  The 
umpire  is  responsible  for  the  enforcement 
of  all  rules  whose  infraction  calls  for  a  dis- 
tance penalty  or  the  surrender  of  the  ball, 
and  is  judge  of  the  conduct  of  the  players. 
The  linesman,  who  is  under  the  orders  of 
the  referee,  marks  the  distances  gained  or 
lost  with  the  ball.  He  must  give  testimony 
to  either  of  the  other  officials,  and  the  um- 
pire is  required  to  give  testimony  to  the 
referee. 


THE      LAWS     OF     LAWN-TENNIS 


FOR  THE  SINGLE-HANDED  GAME 
the  court  is  27  feet  in  width,  and  78 
feet  in  length.  It  is  divided  across  the 
middle  by  a  net,  the  ends  of  which  are 
attached  to  the  tops  of  the  two  posts,  each 
placed  4tl/2  feet  from  the  inner  side-line 
on  the  outside  the  court.  The  height  of 
the  net  is  3  feet  6  inches  at  the  posts  and 
3  feet  at  the  centre.  At  each  end  of  the 
court  parallel  with  the  net,  and  at  a  dis- 
tance of  39  feet  from  it,  are  drawn  the 
base-lines,  the  extremities  of  which  are 
connected  by  the  side-lines.  Half-way  be- 
tween the  side-lines  and  parallel  with  them 
is  drawn  the  half-court-line,  dividing  the 
space  on  each  side  of  the  net  into  two 
equal  parts,  called  the  right  and  left  courts. 
On  each  side  of  the  net,  at  a  distance  of 
21  feet  from  it,  and  parallel  with  it,  are 
drawn  the  service-lines. 

The  larger  margin  there  is  around  the 
court  the  better;  but  at  least  there  should 
be  12  feet  clear  on  each  side,  and  21  feet 
at  each  end.  '*  • 

The  choice  of  sides  and  the  right  of 
serving  during  the  first  game  shall  be  de- 
cided by  toss;  provided  (i)  that  if  the 
winner  of  the  toss  choose  the  right  to 
serve,  the  other  shall  have  the  choice  of 
sides,  and  vice  versa;  and  (2)  that  the 
winner  of  the  toss  may,  if  he  prefer  it, 
require  the  other  player  to  make  the  first 
choice. 

The  players  shall  stand  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  net;  he  who  first  delivers  the  ball 
being  called  the  server,  the  other,  the 
striker-out. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  game,  the  striker- 
out  shall  become  server,  and  the  server 
shall  become  striker-out;  and  so  on  alter- 
nately throughout  the  set. 

The  server  shall  stand  with  one  foot 
further  from  the  net  than  the  base-line, 
and  with  the  other  foot  upon  the  base- 
line, and  shall  serve  from  both  courts 
alternately,  beginning  from  the  right. 

The  ball  served  must  drop  within  the 
service-line,  half-court-line,  and  side-line 
of  the  court,  diagonally  opposite  to  that 
from  the  point  of  service,  or  upon  any 
such  line. 

It  is  a  fault  (i)  if  the  service  be  de- 
livered from  the  wrong  court;  (2)  if  the 
server  do  not  stand  as  directed;  (3)  if  the 
ball  drop  in  the  net  or  beyond  the  service 


line;   (4)   if  it  drop  out  of  the  court  or  in 
the  wrong  court. 

After  a  fault  the  server  shall  serve  again 
from  the  same  court,  unless  it  was  a  fault 
because  served  from  the  wrong  court. 

A  fault  may  not  be  claimed  after  the 
next  service  has  been  delivered. 

The  service  may  not  be  volleyed  (i.e. 
taken  before  it  touches  the  ground). 

The  server  shall  not  serve  until  the 
striker-out  is  ready ;  but  if  the  latter  at- 
tempt to  return  the  service,  he  shall  be 
deemed  ready. 

A  ball  is  in-play  from  the  moment  it  is 
served  (unless  a  fault),  until  (i)  it  has 
been  volleyed  by  the  striker-out  in  his 
first  stroke,  or  (2)  has  dropped  in  the  net, 
or  out  of  court;  or  (3)  has  touched  either 
of  the  players  or  anything  he  carries,  ex- 
cept his  racket  in  the  act  of  striking;  or 
(4)  has  been  struck  by  either  of  the  players 
with  his  racket  more  than  once  consecu- 
tively; or  (5)  has  been  volleyed  before  it 
has  passed  over  the  net;  or  (6)  has  failed 
to  pass  over  the  net  before  its  first  bound; 
or  (7)  has  touched  the  ground  twice  con- 
secutively on  either  side  of  the  net,  though 
the  second  time  may  have  been  out  of 
court. 

It  is  a  let  if  (i)  the  ball  touch  the  net, 
provided  the  service  be  otherwise  good;  or 
(2)  if  a  service  or  fault  be  delivered  when 
the  striker-out  is  not  ready;  or  (3)  if 
either  player  be  prevented  by  an  accident 
from  serving  or  returning  the  ball  in-play. 
In  case  of  a  let  the  service  or  stroke  counts 
for  nothing,  and  the  server  shall  serve 
again. 

The  server  wins  a  stroke  if  (i)  the 
striker-out  volley  the  service;  or  (2)  fail 
to  return  the  service  or  the  ball  in-play 
(except  in  the  case  of  a  let)  ;  or  (3)  re- 
turn the  service  or  ball  in-play,  so  that  it 
drop  outside  any  of  the  lines  which  bound 
his  opponent's  court;  or  (4)  otherwise 
lose  a  stroke. 

Either  player  loses  a  stroke  (i)  if  the 
ball  in-play  touch  him,  or  anything  he 
wears  or  carries,  except  his  racket  in  the 
act  of  striking;  or  (2)  if  he  touch  or 
strike  the  ball  in-play  with  his  racket  more 
than  once  consecutively;  or  (3)  if  he  touch 
the  net  or  any  of  its  supports  while  the 
ball  is  in-play;  or  (4)  if  he  volley  the  ball 
before  it  has  passed  the  net. 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


563 


The  first  stroke  won  by  either  player 
scores  15  for  him,  or  love  for  his  oppo- 
nent. In  announcing,  the  server's  score 
is  always  put  first,  thus:  if  the  server  wins 
the  point  it  is  "15  love,"  if  he  loses,  it  is 
"love  15,"  etc.  On  either  player  winning 
his  second  stroke,  his  score  is  called  30; 
his  third  stroke,  40;  his  fourth  stroke, 
"game." 

If,  however,  both  players  have  won  three 
strokes,  the  score  is  "deuce" ;  and  the  next 

Bui e Lin*  36 ft 


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Diagram  of  a  Lawn  Tennis  Court  as  at  present  laid 
out  for  both  double  and  single-handed  games.  This 
court  is  designed  particularly  for  the  double-handed 
game,  but  the  single-handed  game  may  be  played  on  it, 
provided  the  rules  be  observed. 

stroke  won  by  either  is  scored  "advan- 
tage." If  the  same  player  win  the  next 
stroke,  it  is  "game" ;  if  he  lose  the  next 
stroke,  the  score  is  again  "deuce" ;  and  so 
on,  until  either  player  wins  the  two  strokes 
immediately  following  "deuce." 

The  player  who  first  wins  six  games  wins 
a  set,  unless  each  har>  won  five  games,  which 
scores  "games-all."  The  text  game  won 


by  either  scores  "advantage  game,"  and 
if  the  same  player  win  the  next  game,  he 
wins  the  set;  if  he  lose  the  next  game,  the 
score  is  again  "games-all";  and  so  on  until 
either  wins  the  two  games  immediately 
following  "games-all,"  when  he  wins  the  set. 

The  players  shall  change  sides  at  the 
end  of  every  set;  but  the  umpire,  on  ap- 
peal from  either  before  the  toss  for  choice, 
shall  direct  a  change  of  sides  at  the  end 
of  the  first,  third,  and  every  alternate  game 
of  each  set,  provided  that  the  players  shall 
not  change  sideo,  at  the  end  of  a  set  of 
an  even  number  of  games. 

When  a  series  of  sets  is  played,  the 
player  who  was  server  in  the  last  game  of 
one  set  shall  be  striker-out  in  the  first  game 
of  the  next. 

FOR  THE  THREE-HANDED  AND  FOUR- 
HANDED  GAMES,  the  same  court  is  at  pres- 
ent in  general  use.  Within  the  side-lines, 
and  four  and  one-half  feet  from  them,  anti 
parallel  with  them,  are  drawn  the  service 
side-lines. 

In  the  three-handed  tennis,  the  single 
player  serves  in  every  alternate  game. 

In  the  four-handed  game,  the  pair  who 
have  the  serve  in  the  first  game  may  de- 
cide which  shall  take  it,  and  the  opposing 
pair  may  decide  for  the  second  game.  The 
partner  of  the  server  in  the  first  game 
shall  serve  in  the  third;  the  partner  of  the 
server  in  the  second  game  shall  serve  in  the 
fourth,  etc. 

The  players  shall  take  the  service  alter- 
nately throughout  each  game;  no  player 
shall  receive  or  return  a  service  delivered 
to  his  partner;  and  the  order  of  service 
and  of  striking-out,  once  arranged,  shall 
not  be  altered,  nor  shall  the  strikers-out 
change  courts  to  receive  the  service  before 
the  end  of  the  set. 

The  ball  served  must  drop  within  the 
service-line,  half-court-line  and  service  side- 
line of  the  court,  diagonally  opposite  to 
that  from  which  it  was  served,  or  upon 
any  such  line. 

It  is  a  fault  if  (i)  the  ball  served  do 
not  drop  as  already  provided,  or  (2)  if  it 
touch  the  server's  partner,  or  anything  he 
wears  or  carries. 

If   a  player   serve  out   of  his   turn,   the 
umpire,  as  soon  as  the  mistake  is  discov- 
ered,   shall    direct    the    proper    player    to 
serve;  but  all  strokes  score  also  any  fault 
already   served. 

A  racket  should  not  be  strung  too  tight- 
ly; one  can  generally  tell  at  once  whether 
the  stringing  is  too  loose,  but  it  is  neces- 


664 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


sary  to  play  with  a  racket  half  a  dozen 
times  or  so  before  one  can  feel  whether 
there  is  sufficient  "give"  in  the  strands  to 
make  it  a  good  driver. 

The  first  important  point  is  to  hold  the 
racket  at  the  extreme  end,  and  not  half- 
way up  the  handle.  It  should  be  firmly, 
but  not  tightly,  grasped.  Do  not  move 
your  arm  stiffly  from  the  shoulder,  but 
learn  to  use  the  elbow  and  wrist  joints. 
This  is  a  matter  of  considerable  impor- 
tance to  grace  and  efficiency  in  playing. 
Keep  a  good  distance  off  the  ball,  and 
stand  well  back  in  the  court. 

Hit  the  ball  in  the  centre  of  the  racket, 
with  such  elevation  as  will  carry  it  over 
the  net  and  well  into  the  back  of  the 
court.  The  nearer  the  ball  is  played  to 
the  top  of  the  net  the  more  difficult  will 
it  be  to  return,  but  such  strokes  can  be 
made  with  certainty  only  after  much  prac- 
tice. The  great  trouble  for  beginners  is 
to  get  the  ball  over  the  net.  When  a 
ball  drops  short  never  run  forward  and 
hit  it  very  hard,  or  with  exactly  the  same 
strength  as  if  it  had  fallen  on  the  base- 
line. Always  think  of  the  position  in 
court  and  regulate  the  strength  of  the 
stroke  accordingly. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  a  ground- 
stroke  may  be  taken,  namely,  at  the  top 
of  the  bound,  and  again  when  the  ball  is 
near  the  ground. 

In  service,  never  have  less  than  two  balls 
in  your  hand,  as  you  are  more  likely  to 
serve  a  double-fault  if  you  wait  to  pick 
up  a  second  ball. 

It  is  generally  better  to  serve  from  near 
the  middle  of  the  back-line  rather  than 
from  the  extreme  corner,  as  is  frequently 
done  for  two  reasons:  (i)  because  the 
former  position  exposes  a  larger  portion 
of  the  opposite  court  into  which  to  serve, 
consequently  with  less  liability  to  a  fault ; 
(2)  because  the  middle  of  the  court  is  a 
better  position  to  take  the  return,  which 
otherwise  your  opponent  can  easily  place 
where  you  will  find  it  impossible  to  get 
up  to  it  in  time. 

Your  position  in  the  court  is  of  much 
importance.  Stand  well  back  in  the  court, 
near  the  base-line,  and  rather  to  the  left 
of  the  court.  If  in  the  left  court  in  a 
double  game,  stand  near  the  outside  line, 
otherwise  your  opponent  may  place  the 
ball  to  your  left,  where  it  will  be  difficult 
for  you  to  reach  it  in  time.  After  making 
a  stroke  that  takes  you  away  from  your 
ground,  always  get  home  again  directly,  to 
be  ready  for  the  return. 


Take  the  racket  in  the  left  hand  by  the 
splice,  the  blade  being  vertical  and  the 
handle  horizontal. 

FOR  THE  FOREHAND  STROKE  (the  figure  be- 
ing a  vertical  section  of  the  handle)  the 
base  of  the  right  hand  will  just  overlap 
the  butt;  the  knuckle  of  the  thumb  will 
be  at  A;  the  knuckle  of  the  forefinger 
at  B;  the  bend  of  the  first  joint  of  the 
forefinger  at  C,  and  of  the  second  joint 
at  D.  The  first  joint  will  slope  toward  the 
blade,  the  other  joints  away  from  the 
blade ;  the  thumb  will  slope  very  slightly 
toward  the  blade,  its  last  joint  jutting  out 
from  the  handle,  the  first  joints  of  the 
other  fingers  will  lie  across  the  handle  at 
right  angles. 

FOR  THE  BACKHAND  STROKE  the  knuckle 
of  the  thumb  will  be  at  A;  the  knuckle 
of  the  forefinger  at  B,  and  the  bend  of 
the  first  joint  at  C.  The  slope  of  the 
fingers  will  be  exactly  the  same  as  in  the 


Diagrams  ol  cross- sections  ol  the  racquet  handle,  in- 
dicating manner  ot  holding  for  forehand  and  backhand 
strokes. 


forehand  stroke;  in  fact,  the  change  from 
the  forehand  to  the  backhand  stroke  is 
simply  turning  the  hand  back  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  body,  through  rather  more  than 
a  right  angle. 

The  racket  should  be  grasped  as  firmly 
as  possible,  if  it  is  intended  to  make  a 
severe  stroke;  it  may  be  held  more  loosely 
for  a  gentle  one. 

When  about  to  make  a  forehand  stroke 
the  feet  should  be  apart,  the  left  foot  be- 
ing slightly  in  front.  The  racket  is  swung 
back  behind  the  shoulder  to  an  extent 
varying  with  the  strength  of  the  stroke 
to  be  made;  the  weight  of  the  body  being 
on  the  right  foot.  In  the  act  of  striking, 
the  weight  is  transferred  to  the  left  foot; 
the  body  is  bent  forward,  and  the  left 
knee  is  bent. 

For  the  backhand  stroke  the  right  foot 
is  in  front;  the  body  is  turned  sidewise 
to  allow  a  clear  swing  for  the  arm;  the 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


565 


weight  is  first  on  the  left  foot,  and  then 
transferred  to  the  right. 

The  left  arm  should  be  kept  quiet,  and 
not  waved  about  in  the  air. 

The  ball  may  be,  and  sometimes  must 
be,  taken  at  all.  sorts  of  different  heights, 
but  the  one  which  lends  itself  best  to  a 
good  stroke  is  from  about  two  feet  to  a 
foot  and  a  half  from  the  ground  when  the 
ball  is  falling;  the  position  of  the  arm 
and  racket  will  of  course  vary  with  the 
height  at  which  the  ball  is  taken.  In  mak- 
ing this  stroke,  the  arm  must  be  rather  stiff. 

After  knowing  how  to  strike  the  ball,  the 
next  point  is  to  acquire  what  is  known 
as  a  good  length — that  is  to  say,  the  power 


of  propelling  the  ball   to  a  point  as  near 
the  opposite  base-line  as  possible. 

Good  length  is  the  most  important  branch 
of  the  art  of  placing,  which  consists  of 
putting  the  ball  in  that  part  of  the  court 
which  is  most  inconvenient  for  the  op- 
ponent to  reach,  and  which  he  least  ex- 
pects. If  a  ball  struck  with  a  certain  force 
drops,  say  within  a  foot  of  the  base-line, 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  make  a  stroke 
off  it  which  an  opponent  will  be  unable  to 
return.  Not  only  does  this  involve  the 
difficult  task  of  making  the  ball  travel  a 
long  distance,  but  the  time  which  must 
elapse  gives  the  opponent  a  very  good 
chance  of  reaching  his  return. 


RULES    AND    REGULATIONS    IN    CROQUET 


A  FULL-SIZED  croquet  ground  should 
measure  40  yards  by  30  yards.  Its 
boundaries  should  be  accurately  defined. 

The  Hoops  should  be  of  half-inch  round 
iron,  and  should  not  be  more  than  6  inches 
in  width,  inside  measurement.  The  crown 
of  the  hoop  should  be  at  least  12  inches 
clear  of  trie  ground.  A  hoop  with  the 
crown  at  right  angles  to  the  legs  is  to 
be  preferred. 

The  Pegs  should  be  of  uniform  diameter 
of  not  less  than  \y2  inch,  and  should  stand 
at  least  18  inches  above  the  ground. 

The  Balls  should  be  of  boxwood,  and 
should  not  weigh  less  than  14  ounces  each. 

The  FOUR-BALL  GAME  is  recommended 
for  adoption  in  preference  to  any  other. 

When  odds  are  given,  the  Bisque  is 
recommended.  A  bisque  is  an  extra  stroke 
which  may  be  taken  at  any  time  during 
the  game  in  continuation  of  the  turn.  A 
player  receiving  a  bisque  can  not  roquet 
a  ball  twice  in  the  same  turn  without 
making  an  intermediate  point.  In  other 
respects,  a  bisque  confers  all  the  advan- 
tages of  an  extra  turn.  A  player  receiv- 
ing two  or  more  bisques  can  not  take  more 
than  one  in  the  same  turn.  Passing  the 
boundary,  or  making  a  foul  strike,  does 
not  prevent  the  player  taking  a  bisque. 

The  following  Settings  are  recommended : 

No.  I.  Eight-Hoop  Setting. — Distances 
on  a  full-sized  ground:  Pegs  3  yards  from 
boundary;  first  and  corresponding  hoop  5 
yards  from  pegs;  centre  hoops  midway  be- 
tween first  and  sixth  hoops  and  5  yards 
from  each  other;  corner  hoops  6  yards 
from  end  of  .ground  and  5  yards  from 


side.  Starting  spot  2  feet  in  front  of 
first  hoop,  and  opposite  its  centre. 

No.  2.  Seven-Hoop  Setting. — Distances 
on  a  full-sized  ground :  Pegs  in  centre  line 
of  ground  8  yards  from  nearest  boundary. 
Hoops  up  centre  line  of  ground  6  yards 
from  peg  and  6  yards  apart;  corner  hoops 
7  yards  from  centre  and  in  a  line  with 
pegs.  Starting  spot  il/2  yard  from  first 
hoop  in  centre  line  of  ground. 

No.  3.  Six-Hoop  Setting. — Distances  on 
a  full-sized  ground  as  in  No.  2,  except 
the  middle-line  hoops  8  yards  apart.  Start- 
ing spot  i  foot  from  left-hand  corner  hoop, 
and  opposite  its  centre. 

It  is  essential  to  match  play  that  by- 
standers should  abstain  from  walking  over 
the  grounds,  speaking  to  the  players  or 
the  umpires,  making  remarks  about  them 
aloud  or  in  any  way  distracting  their  at- 
tention. 

DEFINITIONS 

A  Point  is  made  when  a  hoop  is  run, 
or  a  peg  is  hit,  in  order. 

The  striker's  hoop  or  peg  in  order  is 
the  one  he  has  next  to  make. 

A  Roquet  is  made  when  the  striker's  ball 
is  caused  by  a  blow  of  the  mallet  to  hit 
another  which  it  has  not  before  hit  in  the 
same  turn  since  making  a  point. 

The  striker's  ball  is  said  to  be  in  play 
until  it  roquets  another.  Having  made 
roquet,  it  is  in  hand  until  croquet  is  taken. 
Croquet  is  taken  by  placing  the  striker's 
ball  in  contact  with  the  one  roqueted,  the 
striker  then  hitting  his  own  ball  with  the 
mallet.  The  non-striker's  ball,  when  moved 


666 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


by     a    croquet,     is    called     the    croqueted 
ball. 

A  Rover  is  a  ball  that  has  made  all  its 
points  in  order  except  the  winning  peg. 

THE   LAWS    OF    CROQUET 

MALLETS. — There  should  be  no  restriction 
as  to  the  number,  weight,  size,  shape,  or 
material  of  the  mallets;  nor  as  to  the  at- 
titude or  position  of  the  striker;  nor  as  to 
the  part  of  the  mallet  held,  provided  the 
ball  be  not  struck  with  the  handle,  nor  the 
mace  stroke  used. 

SIZE  OF  BALLS. — The  balls  used  in  match 
play  shall  be  3^  inches  in  diameter. 

CHOICE  OF  LEAD  AND  OF  BALLS. — It  shall 
be  decided  by  lot  which  side  shall  have 
choice  of  lead  and  of  balls.  In  a  succes- 
sion of  games  the  choice  of  lead  shall  be 
alternate,  the  sides  keeping  the  same  balls. 

COMMENCEMENT  OF  GAME. — In  commenc- 
ing, each  ball  shall  be  placed  on  the  start- 
ing spot  (see  SETTINGS).  The  striker's  ball, 
when  so  placed  and  struck,  is  at  once  in 
play,  and  can  roquet  another,  or  be  ro- 
queted, whether  it  has  made  the  first  hoop 
or  not. 

STROKE,  WHEN  TAKEN. — A  stroke  is  con- 
sidered to  be  taken  if  a  ball  be  moved  in 
the  act  of  striking;  but  should  a  player, 
in  taking  aim,  move  his  ball  accidentally, 
it  must  be  replaced  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  adversary,  and  the  stroke  be  then  taken. 
If  a  ball  be  moved  in  taking  aim,  and  then 
struck  without  being  replaced,  the  stroke 
is  foul  (see  FOUL  STROKES). 

HOOP,  WHEN  RUN. — A  ball  has  run  its 
hoop  when,  having  passed  through  from 
the  playing  side  and  ceased  to  roll,  it  can 
not  be  touched  by  a  straight-edge  placed 
against  the  wires  on  the  side  from  which 
it  was  played. 

BALL  DRIVEN  PARTLY  THROUGH  HOOP. — A 
ball  driven  partly  through  its  hoop  from 
the  non-playing  side  can  not  run  the  hoop 
at  its  next  stroke,  if  it  can  be  touched  by 
a  straight-edge  placed  against  the  wires 
on  the  non-playing  side. 

POINTS  COUNTED  TO  NON-STRIKER'S  BALL. 
— A  ball  driven  through  its  hoop,  or  against 
the  turning  peg,  by  any  stroke  not  foul, 
whether  of  its  own  or  of  the  adverse  side, 
counts  the  point  so  made. 

POINTS  MADE  FOR  ADVERSARY'S  BALL. 
— If  a  point  be  made  for  an  adversary's 
ball,  the  striker  must  inform  his  adversary 
of  it.  Should  the  striker  neglect  to  do 
so,  and  the  adversary  make  the  point  again, 


he    may    continue    his    turn   as    though   he 
had  played  for  his  right  point. 

THE  TURN. — A  player,  when  his  turn 
comes  round,  may  roquet  each  ball  once, 
and  may  do  this  again  after  each  point 
made.  The  player  continues  his  turn  so 
long  as  he  makes  a  point  or  a  roquet 

CROQUET  IMPERATIVE  AFTER  ROQUET. — A 
player  who  roquets  a  ball  must  take  cro- 
quet, and  in  so  doing  must  move  both 
balls  (see  FOUL  STROKES).  In  taking  cro- 
quet, the  striker  is  not  allowed  to  place  his 
foot  on  the  ball. 

BALL  IN  HAND  AFTER  ROQUET. — No  point 
or  roquet  can  be  made  by  a  ball  which  is 
in  hand.  If  a  ball  in  hand  displace  any 
other  balls,  they  must  remain  where  they 
are  driven.  Any  point  made  in  conse- 
quence of  such  displacement  counts,  not- 
withstanding that  the  ball  displacing  them 
is  in  hand. 

BALLS  ROQUETED  SIMULTANEOUSLY. — When 
a  player  roquets  two  balls  simultaneously, 
he  may  choose  from  which  of  them  he  will 
take  croquet;  and  a  second  roquet  will  be 
required  before  he  can  take  croquet  from 
the  other  ball. 

BALLS  FOUND  TOUCHING. — If  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  turn  the  striker's  ball  be 
found  touching  another,  roquet  is  deemed 
to  be  made,  and  croquet  must  be  taken 
at  once. 

ROQUET  AND  HOOP  MADE  BY  SAME  STROKE. 
— Should  a  ball,  in  making  its  hoop,  roquet 
another  that  lies  beyond  the  hoop,  and  then 
pass  through,  the  hoop  counts  as  well  as 
the  roquet.  A  ball  is  deemed  to  be  beyond 
the  hoop  if  it  lies  so  that  it  can  not  be 
touched  by  a  straight-edge  placed  against 
the  wires  on  the  playing  side.  Should  any 
part  of  the  ball  that  is  roqueted  be  lying 
on  the  playing  side  of  the  hoop,  the  ro- 
quet counts,  but  not  the  hoop. 

PEGGING  OUT. — If  a  rover  (except  when 
in  hand)  be  caused  to  hit  the  winning  peg 
by  any  stroke  of  the  same  side,  not  foul, 
the  rover  is  out  of  the  game,  and  must  be 
removed  from  the  ground.  A  rover  may 
similarly  be  pegged  out  by  an  adverse 
rover. 

ROVER  PEGGED  OUT  BY  ROQUET. — A  player 
who  pegs  out  a  rover  by  a  roquet  loses 
the  remainder  of  his  turn. 

BALLS  SENT  OFF  THE  GROUND. — A  ball 
sent  off  the  ground  must  at  once  be  re- 
placed 3  feet  within  the  boundary,  meas- 
ured from  the  spot  where  it  went  off,  and 
at  right  angles  to  the  margin.  If  this 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


567 


spot  be  already  occupied,  the  ball  last 
sent  off  is  to  be  placed  anywhere  in  con- 
tact with  the  other,  at  the  option  of  the 
player  sending  off  the  ball. 

BALL  SENT  OFF  NEAR  CORNER. — A  ball  sent 
off  within  3  feet  of  a  corner  is  to  be  re- 
placed 3  feet  from  both  boundaries. 

BALL  TOUCHING  BOUNDARY. — If  the  boun- 
dary be  marked  by  a  line  on  the  turf,  a 
ball  touching  the  line  is  deemed  to  have 
been  off  the  ground.  If  the  boundary  be 
raised,  a  ball  touching  the  boundary  is 
similarly  deemed  to  have  been  off  the 
ground. 

BALL  SENT  OFF  AND  RETURNING  TO  GROUND. 
— If  a  ball  be  sent  off  the  ground,  and 
return  to  it,  the  ball  must  be  similarly  re- 
placed, measuring  from  the  point  of  first 
contact  with  the  boundary. 

BALL  SENT  WITHIN  3  FEET  OF  BOUN- 
DARY.— A  ball  sent  within  3  feet  of  the 
boundary,  but  not  off  the  ground,  is  to 
be  replaced  as  though  it  had  been  sent 
off — except  in  the  case  of  the  striker's  ball, 
when  the  striker  has  the  option  of  bring- 
ing his  ball  in,  or  of  playing  from  where 
it  lies. 

BOUNDARY  INTERFERING  WITH  STROKE. — If 
it  be  found  that  the  height  of  the  boundary 
interferes  with  the  stroke,  the  striker,  with 
the  sanction  of  the  umpire,  may  bring  in 
the  balls  a  longer  distance  than  3  feet,  so 
as  to  allow  a  free  swing  of  the  mallet. 
Balls  so  brought  in  must  be  moved  in  the 
line  of  aim. 

DEAD  BOUNDARY. — If,  in  making  croquet, 
the  striker  send  his  own  ball,  or  the  ball 
croqueted,  off  the  ground,  he  loses  the  re- 
mainder of  his  turn;  but  if  by  the  same 
stroke  he  make  a  roquet,  his  ball,  being 
in  hand,  may  pass  the  boundary  without 
penalty.  Should  either  ball  while  rolling 
after  a  croquet  be  touched  or  diverted 
from  its  course  by  an  opponent,  the  striker 
has  the  option  (see  BALLS  TOUCHED  BY  AD- 
VERSARY), and  is  not  liable  to  lose  his  turn 
should  the  ball  which  has  been  touched  or 
diverted  pass  the  boundary. 

FOUL  STROKES. — If  a  player  make  a  foul 
stroke,  he  loses  the  remainder  of  his  turn, 
and  any  point  or  roquet  made  by  such 
stroke  does  not  count.  Balls  moved  by 
a  foul  stroke  are  to  remain  where  they 
lie,  or  be  replaced,  at  the  option  of  the 
adversary.  If  the  foul  be  made  when  tak- 
ing croquet,  and  the  adversary  elect  to  have 
the  balls  replaced,  they  must  be  replaced 


in  contact  as  they  stood  when  the  croquet 
was  taken.    The  following  are  foul  strokes : 

(a)  To  strike  with  the  mallet  another 
ball  instead  of  or  besides  one's  own  in 
making  the  stroke. 

(&)  To  spoon,  i.e.,  to  push  a  ball  with- 
out an  audible  knock. 

(c)  To  strike  a  ball  twice  in  the  same 
stroke. 

(rf)  To  touch,  stop,  or  divert  the  course 
of  a  ball  when  in  play  and  rolling,  whether 
this  be  done  by  the  striker  or  his  partner. 

(tf)  To  allow  a  ball  to  touch  the  mallet 
in  rebounding  from  a  peg  or  wire. 

(/)  To  move  a  ball  which  lies  close  to 
a  peg  or  wire  by  striking  the  peg  or  wire. 

(g)  To  press  a  ball  round  a  peg  or  wire 
(crushing  stroke). 

(/t)  To  play  a  stroke  after  roquet  with- 
out taking  croquet. 

(0  To  fail  to  move  both  balls  in  taking 
croquet. 

(&)  To  croquet  a  ball  which  the  striker 
is  not  entitled  to  croquet. 

BALLS  TOUCHED  BY  ADVERSARY. — Should 
a  ball  when  rolling,  except  it  be  in  hand, 
be  touched,  stopped,  or  diverted  from  its 
course  by  an  adversary,  the  striker  may 
elect  whether  he  will  take  the  stroke  again, 
or  whether  the  ball  shall  remain  where  it 
stopped,  or  be  placed  where,  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  umpire,  it  would  have  rolled  to. 

BALLS  STOPPED  OR  DIVERTED  BY  UMPIRE. — 
Should  a  ball  be  stopped  or  diverted  from 
its  course  by  an  umpire,  he  is  to  place  it 
where  he  considers  it  would  have  rolled  to. 

PLAYING  OUT  OF  TURN,  OR  WITH  THE 
WRONG  BALL. — If  a  player  play  out  of 
turn,  or  with  the  wrong  ball,  the  re- 
mainder  of  the  turn  is  lost,  and  any  point 
or  roquet  made  after  the  mistake.  The 
balls  remain  where  they  lie  when  the  pen- 
alty is  claimed,  or  are  replaced  as  they 
were  before  the  last  stroke  was  made,  at 
the  option  of  the  adversary.  But  if  the 
adverse  side  play  without  claiming  the  pen- 
alty, the  turn  holds  good,  and  any  point 
or  points  made  after  the  mistake  are  scored 
to  the  ball  by  which  they  have  been  made 
— that  is,  the  ball  is  deemed  to  be  for 
the  point  next  in  order  to  the  last  point 
made  in  the  turn — except  when  the  ad- 
versary's ball  has  been  played  with,  in 
which  case  the  points  are  scored  to  the 
ball  which  ought  to  have  been  played  with. 
If  more  than  one  ball  be  played  with  dur- 
ing the  turn,  whether  before  or  after  the 
mistake,  the  points  are  scored  to  the  ball 
last  played  with.  Whether  the  penalty  be 


56S 


OUTDOOR   GAMES 


claimed  or  not,  the  adversary  may  follow 
with  either  ball  of  his  own  side. 

PLAYING  FOR  WRONG  POINT. — If  a  player 
make  a  wrong  point  it  does  not  count, 
and  therefore — unless  he  have,  by  the  same 
stroke,  taken  croquet,  or  made  a  roquet — 
all  subsequent  strokes  are  in  error,  the 
remainder  of  turn  is  lost,  and  any  point 
or  roquet  made  after  the  mistake.  The 
balls  remain  where  they  lie  when  the  pen- 
alty is  claimed,  or  are  replaced  as  they 
were  before  the  last  stroke  was  made,  at 
the  option  of  the  adversary.  But  if  the 
player  make  another  point,  or  the  adverse 
side  play,  before  the  penalty  is  claimed, 
the  turn  holds  good;  and  the  player  who 
made  the  mistake  is  deemed  to  be  for  the 
point  next  in  order  to  that  which  he  last 
made. 

INFORMATION  AS  TO  SCORE. — Every  player 
is  entitled  to  be  informed  which  is  the 
next  point  of  any  ball. 

STATE  OF  GAME,  IF  DISPUTED. — When  clips 
are  used,  their  position,  in  case  of  dispute, 
shall  be  conclusive  as  to  the  position  of 
the  balls  in  the  game. 

WIRES  KNOCKED  OUT  OF  GROUND. — Should 
a  player,  in  trying  to  run  his  hoop,  knock 
a  wire  of  that  hoop  out  of  the  ground 
with  his  ball,  the  hoop  does  not  count. 
The  ball  must  be  replaced,  and  the  stroke 
taken  again;  but  if  by  the  same  stroke  a 
roquet  be  made,  the  striker  may  elect 
whether  he  will  claim  the  roquet  or  have 
the  balls  replaced. 

PEGS  OR  HOOPS  NOT  UPRIGHT. — Any  player 
may  set  upright  a  peg  or  hoop,  except  the 


one  next  in  order;  and  that  must  not  be 
altered  except  by  the  umpire. 

BALL  LYING  IN  A  HOLE  OR  ON  BAD 
GROUND. — A  ball  lying  in  a  hole  or  on  bad 
ground  may  be  removed  with  the  sanction 
of  the  umpire.  The  ball  must  be  put  back 
— i.e.,  away  from  the  object  aimed  at — and 
so  as  not  to  alter  the  line  of  aim. 

UMPIRES. — An  umpire  shall  not  give  his 
opinion,  or  notice  any  error  that  may  be 
made,  unless  appealed  to  by  one  of  the 
players.  The  decision  of  an  umpire,  when 
appealed  to,  shall  be  final.  The  duties  of 
an  umpire  are — 

(a)  To  decide  matters  in  dispute  during 
the  game,  if  appealed  to. 

(fr)  To  keep  the  score,  and,  if  asked  by 
a  player,  to  disclose  the  state  of  it. 

(c)  To  move  the  clips,  or  to  see  that 
they  are  properly  moved. 

(rf)  To  replace  balls  sent  off  the  ground, 
or  to  see  that  they  are  properly  replaced. 

(*)  To  adjust  the  hoops  or  pegs  not  up- 
right, or  to  see  that  they  are  properly 
adjusted. 

ABSENCE  OF  UMPIRE. — When  there  is  no 
umpire  present,  permission  to  move  a  ball, 
or  to  set  up  a  peg  or  hoop,  or  other  in- 
dulgence for  which  an  umpire  would  be 
appealed  to,  must  be  asked  of  the  other 
side. 

APPEAL  TO  REFEREE. — Should  an  umpire 
be  unable  to  decide  any  point  at  issue,  he 
may  appeal  to  the  referee,  whose  decision 
shall  be  final ;  but  no  player  may  appeal 
to  the  referee  from  the  decision  of  an 
umpire. 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


IN  CONNECTION  with  the  general  subject  of  health,  gymnastics  and 
out-of-door  athletic  sports  and  exercises  it  is  desirable  to  give  at  least 
passing  attention  to  the  subject  of  relieving  the  victims  of  accidental 
injuries  and  mishaps.  While  it  is  in  no  sense  reasonable  to  encourage 
people  to  think  that  the  treatment  and  cure  of  even  the  simplest  maladies 
and  accidental  disorders  can  •  be  undertaken  by  a  person  unlearned  in 
medicine  and  surgery,  there  are  certain  things  that  intelligent  information 
will  enable  any  one  to  do  in  emergencies.  It  is,  furthermore,  most  essential 
that  information  'on  these  matters  be  as  widely  disseminated  as  possible, 
in  order  to  alleviate  suffering  and  contribute  to  the  saving  of  many  lives 
that  would  otherwise  be  sacrificed.  The  classes  of  accident  that  a  well- 
informed  person  may  relieve  are  such  as  result  in  fractures  of  the  limbs,  in 
unconsciousness  from  submersion  in  water  and  in  bleeding  at  some  artery. 


TREATMENT    FOR    ACCIDENTAL    INJURIES 


BLEEDING   WOUNDS 

IN  CASE  of  hemorrhage,  or  bleeding,  as 
the  result  of  a  cut  or  some  other  cause 
that  has  broken  the  skin  and  tissues  cov- 
ering the  blood  vessels,  the  treatment  to 
be  given  depends  on  the  character  of  the 
wound  and  the  amount  of  bleeding.  Loss 
of  blood  is  always  disastrous,  particularly 
if  an  artery  be  severed,  but  radical  treat- 
ments, cutting  off  the  entire  supply  from  the 
limb,  need  not  be  applied  unless  the  wound 
is  of  such  a  character  as  to  preclude  local 
applications,  or  unless  such  applications  fail 
to  check  the  flow. 

LOCAL  APPLICATIONS. — In  many  cases  of 
hemorrhage  from  wounds  in  the  limbs  an 
effective  method  cf  stopping  the  blood  is 
to  lay  the  patient  on  his  back,  with  the 
head  slightly  raised.  Then,  having  elevated 
the  injured  limb  to  a  higher  level,  bring 
the  edges  of  the  wound  together,  and  apply 
a  wet  compress — a  handkerchief  folded  in- 
to a  pad — and  bind  it  down  tightly  with 


another  handkerchief  or  a  strip  of  cloth 
passed  around  the  limb  and  firmly  secured. 
Cold  water  or  ice,  or  water  as  hot  as 
can  be  borne  by  the  sufferer,  are  equally 
efficient  in  contracting  the  blood  vessels 
in  persistent  bleeding.  Warm  or  tepid  water 
tends  rather  to  increase  the  hemorrhage. 
It  is  not  well  for  an  unprofessional  person 
to  attempt  any  other  measure  of  relief,  such 
as  holding  the  vessels  with  the  fingers,  etc., 
for  the  simple  reason  that  only  a  precise 
knowledge  of  anatomy  reveals  the  location, 
and  guess  work  only  causes  unnecessary  suf- 
fering. 

BLEEDING  FROM  VEINS  AND  ARTERIES. — In 
case  a  wound  has  opened  a  vein,  without 
cutting  an  artery  also,  the  fact  may  be  dis- 
covered by  the  color  of  the  blood  passed — 
dark  red  or  purplish — and  by  the  character 
of  the  flow — steady  and  uninterrupted.  If 
an  artery  has  been  severed,  the  blood  is 
a  bright  red  color  and  spurts  oat  in  jets, 
as  if  under  the  impulse  of  a  pump.  This 

(569) 


570 


FIRST    AID    TO    THE    INJURED 


is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  blood  pumped 
into  the  arteries  by  the  heart  moves  by  a 
number  of  successive  impulses,  as  may  be 
found  in  the  pulses  at  the  wrist  or  throat. 
Generally  a  wound  severs  both  veins  and 
arteries;  so  these  tests  fail. 

SUMMARY  TREATMENTS. — In  case  of  per- 
sistent and  copious  bleeding  from  a  wound 
in  either  arm  or  leg  that  may  not  be 
stopped  by  local  pressure,  as  already  de- 
scribed, summary  methods  may  be  used  to 
cut  off  the  blood  supply  from  the  limb. 
This  operation  consists  in  binding  a  hard 
substance — preferably  a  round  flat  stone — 
firmly  at  the  point  in  the  limb  where  the 
artery  is  nearest  the  surface.  These  points 
in  both  arm  and  leg,  also  the  methods  of 
applying  the  pressure,  are  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figures. 

AN  IMPROVISED  TOURNIQUET. — To  shut  off 
.the    blood-supply    from    an    artery,    a    flat 
I,  stone   of  about   the   same   size  as   a   hen's 
egg  should  be  wrapped  in  a  folded  hand- 
kerchief and  pressed  against  the  point  where 
the  main  artery  passes.     On  the  arm,  this 
point  is  midway  between  the  shoulder  and 
elbow,  inside  the  biceps  muscle,  and  on  the 


Showing  method  of  bandaging  an  artery  in  the  leg  to 
stop  bleeding  at  a  wound,  below  the  point  of  pressure. 

leg,  about  an  inch  below  the  groin,  some- 
what forward  on  the  inside  of  the  limb. 
The  pad  being  pressed  firmly  down  is  se- 
cured in  place  by  a  handkerchief,  bandage 
strip,  or  a  piece  of  soft  rope,  which  is 
tied  securely  about  the  limb.  A  strong 
stick  is  then  run  under  the  bandage  and 
used  to  twist  it  around  tightly,  so  as  to 


press  the  hard  pad  as  tightly  as  possible 
against  the  flesh,  thus  constricting  the  ar- 
tery. Of  course,  such  compression,  in  order 
to  be  effective,  must  be  applied  between 
the  bleeding  wound  and  the  heart. 

WOUNDS  IN  THE  BODY  OR  HEAD  can  be 
treated  only  by  local  compression,  as  al- 
ready described,  since  it  is  impossible  to 


Showing  method  of  bandaging  an  artery  in  the  arm  to 
stop  bleeding  at  a  lower  point. 

constrict  the  arteries -  beyond  the  bleeding 
point.  With  such  injuries,  however,  it  is 
useful  to  apply  cold  water  or  ice  to  stop 
the  blood  as  much  as  possible.  In  no  case 
should  a  person,  other  than  a  surgeon,  ap- 
ply any  drug  or  caustic  substance  at  a 
bleeding  point;  since  the  use  of  such  agents 
should  be  guided  solely  by  experience  and 
adequate  knowledge.  Cold  applications  and 
pressure  are  the  only  means  that  should  be 
employed  by  a  layman  in  such  cases. 

FRACTURED    BONES 

In  case  of  the  fracture  of  a  bone  it  is 
necessary  to  do  nothing  more  than  provide 
for  the  comfort  of  the  patient,  until  the 
services  of  a  surgeon  may  be  secured.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  set  the  bone  at  once, 
nor  should  the  inexperienced  hand  attempt 
it  under  any  circumstances  that  we  need 
consider  here. 

FRACTURE  OF  A  LEG. — If  a  person's  leg 
is  fractured  at  any  place  where  the  services 
of  a  surgeon  may  be  speedily  summoned, 
there  is  no  need  to  do  more  than  to  lay 
him  on  his  back,  in  as  comfortable  a  posi- 
tion as  possible,  and  remove  all  clothing 
or  other  articles  that  will  press  upon  the 
injured  limb.  If  it  is  necessary  to  move 
the  patient,  the  two  ends  of  the  broken 
bone  should  be  brought  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible to  the  normal  position,  with  the  ex- 
ertion of  no  more  force  than  is  absolutely 
necessary,  and  with  the  steady  avoidance  of 
any  movement  that  is  liable  to  cause  suf- 


FIRST   AID   TO    THE   INJURED 


571 


fering.  The  limb  should  then  be  wrapped 
in  a  pillow  or  in  a  cushion  of  the  softest  ob- 
tainable cloth  stuffed  with  hay,  grass,  leaves 
or  any  other  suitable  substance.  Splints  of 
board,  stick,  or  other  strong  substance,  as 
long  as,  if  not  slightly  longer  than,  the 
broken  bone,  should  be  secured  to  either 
side,  outside  of  the  pillow  or  cushion,  and 


Showing  method  of  splinting  a  broken  leg,  when  it  ts 
necessary  to  move  the  sufferer. 

the  whole  made  secure  by  cords  or  band- 
ages passed  around,  as  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying cut. 

OTHER  FRACTURES. — In  all  fractures,  the 
main  object  of  the  provisional  treatment  is 
to  prevent  the  two  ends  of  the  broken  bone 
from  rubbing  against  one  another,  or  from 
lacerating  the  surrounding  tissues.  A  broken 
forearm  may  be  bandaged  and  splinted  in 
the  same  fashion  as  has  already  been  de- 
scribed for  a  broken  leg.  It  should  then 
be  arranged  in  a  sling  hanging  from  the 


patient's  neck.  If  the  upper  arm  is  broken, 
as  happens  less  frequently,  a  similar  treat- 
ment may  be  followed,  so  far  as  the  splint- 
ing and  bandaging  are  concerned,  but  the 
patient  had  best  be  carried  on  a  stretcher, 
in  order  to  avoid  unnecessary  irritation  of 
the  tissues  surrounding  the  injured  bone. 
In  the  case  of  a  broken  jaw,  the  bone 
should  be  set  into  position,  with  the  teeth 
closed,  and  two  bandages  should  be  used — 
one  passing  from  beneath  and  tied  over  the 
top  of  the  head,  the  other  from  the  point 
of  the  jaw-bone  and  tied  behind  the  neck. 
With  fractured  ribs,  collar-bones,  etc.,  all 
that  the  non-professional  assistant  can  do 
is  to  lay  the  patient  on  his  back  in  as 
comfortable  a  position  as  possible,  until  as- 
sistance can  be  obtained.  The  same  is 
true  in  cases  of  fractured  skull  or  concus- 
sion of  the  brain — such  injuries  are  usually 
indicated  by  bleeding  at  the  nose  or  ears, 
or  by  blood  settling  in  the  whites  of  the 
eyes.  In  this  latter  case  the  patient  should 
be  laid  in  a  dark  cool  place,  with  a  cool 
wet  cloth  on  his  head,  until  surgical  as- 
sistance may  be  obtained.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  stimulants  of  any  kind 
be  administered.  In  all  injuries  to  the 
head  and  brain,  alcoholic  drinks,  quinine, 
and  drugs  liable  "to  go  to  the  head"  art 
the  worst  possible  things,  if  you  desire  the 
patient  to  recover. 


IN  cases  of  apparent  death,  either  from 
drowning  or  other  suffocation,  send  im- 
mediately for  medical  assistance,  blankets, 
and  dry  clothing,  but  proceed  to  treat  the 
patient  instantly  on  the  spot,  in  the  open  air, 
with  the  face  downward,  whether  on  shore 
or  afloat;  exposing  the  face,  neck,  and  chest 
to  the  wind,  except  in  severe  weather,  and 
removing  all  tight  clothing  from  the  neck 
and  chest,  especially  the  braces. 

The  points  to  be  aimed  at  are:  first  and 
immediately,  the  restoration  of  breathing; 
and,  secondly,  after  breathing  is  restored, 
the  promotion  of  warmth  and  circulation. 

The  efforts  to  restore  breathing  must  be 
commenced  immediately  and  energetically, 
and  persevered  in  for  one  or  two  hours, 
or  until  a  medical  man  has  pronounced  that 
life  is  extinct. 

Efforts  to  promote  warmth  and  circula- 
tion, beyond  removing  the  wet  clothes  and 
drying  the  skin,  must  not  be  made  until  the 
first  appearance  of  natural  breathing.  For 


if  circulation  of  the  blood  be  induced  be- 
fore breathing  has  recommenced,  the  res- 
toration to  life  will  be  endangered. 

MARSHALL  HALL'S  METHOD 

To  CLEAR  THE  THROAT. — Place  the  pa- 
tient on  the  floor  or  ground  with  the  face 
downward,  and  one  of  the  arms  under  the 
forehead,  in  which  position  all  fluids  will 
more  readily  escape  by  the  mouth,  and  the 
tongue  itself  will  fall  forward,  leaving  the 
entrance  into  the  windpipe  free.  Assist  this 
operation  by  wiping  and  cleansing  the 
mouth. 

If  satisfactory  breathing  commences,  use 
the  treatment  described  below  to  promote 
warmth. 

If  there  be  only  a  slight  breathing,  or  no 
breathing,  or  if  the  breathing  fail,  then — 

To  EXCITE  BREATHING.  —  Turn  the  pa- 
tient well  and  instantly  on  the  side,  sup- 
porting the  head,  and  excite  the  nostrils 
with  snuff,  hartshorn,  and  smelling  salts; 


572 


FIRST    AID   TO    THE    INJURED 


or  tickle  the  throat  with  a  feather,  etc.,  if 
they  are  at  hand.  Rub  the  chest  and  face 
warm  and  dash  cold  water,  or  cold  and 
hot  water  alternately,  on  them. 

If  there  be  no  success,  lose  not  a  mo- 
ment, but  instantly — 

To  IMITATE  BREATHING. — Replace  the  pa- 
tient on  the  face,  raising  and  supporting 
the  chest  well  on  a  folded  coat  or  other 
article  of  dress. 

Turn  the  body  very  gently  on  the  side  and 
a  little  beyond  and  then  briskly  on  the  face, 
back  again;  repeating  these  measures  cau- 
tiously, efficiently,  and  perseveringly  about 
fifteen  times  in  the  minute,  or  once  every 
four  or  five  seconds,  occasionally  varying 
the  side. 

By  placing  the  patient  on  the  chest,  the 
weight  of  the  body  forces  the  air  out;  when 
turned  on  the  side,  this  pressure  is  re- 
moved, and  air  enters  the  chest. 

On  each  occasion  that  the  body  is  replaced 
on  the  face,  make  uniform  but  efficient 
pressure  with  brisk  movement,  on  the  back 
between  and  below  the  shoulder-blades  or 
boms  on  each  side,  removing  the  pressure 
immediately  before  turning  the  body  on  the 
side. 

During  the  whole  of  the  operations  let  one 
person  attend  solely  to  the  movements  of 
the  head,  and  of  the  arm  placed  under  it. 

The  result  is  respiration  or  natural  breath- 
ing; and,  if  not  too  late,  life. 

While  the  above  operations  are  being  pro- 
ceeded with,  dry  the  hands  and  feet;  and 
as  soon  as  dry  clothing  or  blankets  can  be 
procured,  strip  the  body,  and  cover  or  grad- 
ually reclothe  it,  but  taking  care  not  to  in- 
terfere with  the  efforts  to  restore  breathing. 

SILVESTER'S    METHOD 

Instead  of  these  proceedings,  or  should 
these  efforts  not  prove  successful  in  the 
course  of  from  two  to  five  minutes,  pro- 
ceed to  imitate  breathing  by  Dr.  Silvester's 
method,  as  follows: 

PATIENT'S  POSITION. — Place  the  patient 
on  the  back  of  a  flat  surface,  inclined  a 
little  upward  from  the  feet;  raise  and  sup- 
port the  head  and  shoulders  on  a  small  firm 
cushion,  or  folded  article  of  dress  placed 
under  the  shoulder-blades. 

FORCING  AIR  INTO  THE  WINDPIPE. — Cleanse 
the  mouth  and  nostrils,  draw  forward  the 
patient's  tongue,  and  keep  it  projecting  be- 
yond the  lips;  an  elastic  band  over  the 
tongue  and  under  the  chin  will  answer  this 
purpose,  or  a  piece  of  string  or  tape  may 
be  tied  roupd  them,  or  by  raising  the  lower 


jaw,  the  teeth  may  be  made  to  retain  the 
tongue  in  that  position.  Remove  all  tigkt 
clothing  from  about  the  neck  and  chest, 
especially  the  braces. 

To  IMITATE  THE  MOVEMENTS  OF  BREATH- 
ING.— Standing  at  the  patient's  head,  grasp 
the  arms  just  above  the  elbows,  and  draw 
the  arms  gently  and  steadily  upward  above 
the  head,  and  keep  them  stretched  upward 
for  two  seconds.  (By  this  means  air  is 
drawn  into  the  lungs.)  Then  turn  down 
the  patient's  arms  and  press  them  gently 
and  firmly  for  two  seconds  against  the  sides 
of  the  chest.  (By  this  means  air  is  pressed 
out  of  the  lungs.  Pressure  on  the  breast- 
bone will  aid  this.) 

Repeat  these  measures  alternately,  delib- 
erately, and  perseveringly,  about  fifteen  times 
in  a  minute,  until  a  spontaneous  effort  to 
respire  is  perceived ;  immediately  upon  which 
cease  to  imitate  the  movements  of  breath- 
ing, and  proceed  to  induce  circulation  and 
warmth. 

Should  a  warm  bath  be  procurable,  the 
body  may  be  placed  in  it  up  to  the  neck, 
continuing  to  imitate  the  movements  of 
breathing.  Raise  the  body  in  twenty  sec- 
onds in  a  sitting  position,  and  dash  cold 
water  against  the  chest  and  face,  and  pass 
ammonia  under  the  nose.  The  patient 
should  not  be  kept  in  the  warm  bath  longer 
than  five  or  six  minutes. 

To  EXCITE  INSPIRATION. — During  the  em- 
ployment of  the  above  method  excite  the 
nostrils  with  snuff  or  smelling  salts,  or 
tickle  the  throat  with  a  feather.  Rub  the 
chest  and  face  briskly,  and  dash  cold  and 
hot  water  alternately  on  them. 

The  above  directions  are  chiefly  Dr.  H. 
R.  Silvester's  method  of  restoring  the  ap- 
parently dead  or  drowned,  and  have  been 
approved  by  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chi- 
rurgical  Society. 

AFTER    RESTORED    BREATHING 

To  PROMOTE  WARMTH  AND  CIRCULATION. 
— Wrap  the  patient  in  dry  blankets,  com- 
mence rubbing  the  limbs  upward,  with  firm 
grasping  pressure  and  energy,  using  hand- 
kerchiefs, flannels,  etc.  (By  this  means  the 
blood  is  propelled  along  the  veins  toward 
the  heart.) 

The  friction  must  be  continued  under  the 
blanket  or  over  the  dry  clothing. 

(i.)  Promote  the  warmth  of  the  body 
by  the  application  of  hot  flannels,  bottles, 
or  bladders  of  hot  water,  heated  bricks, 
etc.,  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  the  arm- 
pits, between  the  thighs,  and  to  the  soles 


FIRST   AID   TO   THE   INJURED 


573 


of  the  feet.  Warm  clothing  may  generally 
be  obtained  from  bystanders. 

(2.)  If  the  patient  has  been  carried  to  a 
house  after  respiration  has  been  restored, 
be  careful  to  let  the  air  play  freely  about 
the  room. 

(3.)  On  the  restoration  of  life,  when  the 
power  of  swallowing  has  returned,  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  warm  water^  small  quantities 
of  wine,  warm  brandy  and  water  or  coffee, 
should  be  administered.  The  patient  should 
be  kept  in  bed,  and  a  disposition  to  sleep 
encouraged.  During  reaction,  large  mus- 
tard plasters  to  the  chest  below  the  shoul- 
ders will  greatly  relieve  the  distressed 
breathing. 

CAUTIONS 

(i.)  Prevent  unnecessary  crowding  of 
persons  round  the  body;  especially  if  in  an 
apartment. 

(2.)  Avoid  rough  usage,  and  do  not  al- 
low the  body  to  remain  on  the  back  unless 
the  tongue  is  secured. 

(3.)  Under  no  circumstances  hold  the 
body  up  by  the  feet. 

(4.)  On  no  account  place  the  body  in  a 


warm  bath,  unless  under  medical  direction, 
and  even  then  it  should  only  be  employed 
as  a  momentary  excitant. 

The  police  in  many  of  our  large  cities 
are  instructed  to  place  the  patient  face 
downward  over  a  barrel,  rolling  it  briskly 
to  and  fro.  This  motion  helps  to  expel  the 
water  from  the  lungs.  But  the  most  im- 
portant thing  of  all  to  remember  is  to  send 
some  bystander  running  for  the  nearest 
physician. 

The  above  treatment  should  be  continued 
for  some  hours,  as  it  is  an  erroneous  opin- 
ion that  persons  are  irrecoverable  because 
life  does  not  soon  make  its  appearance.  Per- 
sons have  been  restored  after  persevering 
for  many  hours. 

INDICATIONS    OF   DEATH 

Breathing  and  the  heart's  action  cease 
entirely;  the  eyelids,  are  generally  half- 
closed  ;  the  pupils  dilated ;  the  jaws  clinched ; 
the  fingers  semi-contracted ;  the  tongue  ap- 
proaches to  the  under  edges  of  the  lips,  and 
these,  as  well  as  the  nostrils,  are  covered 
with  a  frothy  mucus.  Coldness  and  pallor 
of  surface  increase. 


37 


THE  SCIENCE  and  art  of  boxing-  is  an  accomplishment  valuable 
to  any  mart,  both  on  account  of  furnishing  him  with  a  ready 
means  of  self-defence,  and,  also,  for  the  sake  of  the  valuable 
exercise  of  mind  and  body  to  be  obtained  by  practicing  it.  Because 
certain  professional  boxers  are  also  prize-fighters,  it  would  be  senseless 
to  condemn  the  art. 

In  almost  every  branch  of  human  effort  the  greatest  stimulus  to  am- 
bition lies  in  the  possibility  of  contests  with  others,  if  it  be  only  the 
friendly  rivalry  that  belongs  with  games  and  plays  of  all  descriptions. 
So,  also-,,  when  two  merr,  of  nearly  equal  strength,  endurance,  and  skill, 
put  on  the  gloves  for  a  friendly  sparring  match,  they  indulge  in  an  ex- 
ercise that  is  enjoyable,  as  well  as  profitable.  There  are  many  ways  in 
which:  the  one  or  the  other  may  be  overcome  without  doing  him  injury; 
while  the  constant  exercise  of  skill  and  watchfulness,  to  prevent  such 
advantages  as  result  from  well-directed  blows  on  any  portion  of  the 
anatomy,  is  a  mental  benefit  of  no  mean  order. 

Apart  from  all  these  advantages,  there  are  many  occasions  when 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  boxing  is  of  the  utmost  use.  In  case  of  being 
attacked  by  a  ruffian,  it  is  desirable  to  know  how  to  defend  one's  self, 
and  to  have  the  skill  to  land  blows  where  they  will  soonest  disable  or 
subdue  such  an  unfair  antagonist. 


THE   PRINCIPLES  OF  SCIENTIFIC   BOXING 


IN  entering  upon  the  study  of  boxing,  one 
must  distinctly  understand  that  he  has 
begun  work  in  an  art  having  a  serious  pur- 
pose. He  must  understand  that  its  real 
aim  is  not  merely  to  obtain  the  exercise 
and  beneficial  "pummeling"  that  come 
from  a  friendly  sparring  match,  but  to 
teach  him  where  and  how  to  strike  an  op- 
ponent in  order  to  overcome  him.  Hav- 
ing grasped  these  facts,  he  readily  recog- 
nizes that  he  must  study  to  become  profi- 
cient in  the  several  kinds  of  guard,  in  order 
to  protect  himself,  while  seeking  to  land  a 
blow  on  his  opponent's  body. 

ELEMENTS  OF  BOXING. — There  are  four 
elements  in  the  art  of  boxing — leads,  feints, 
guards,  and  counters.  A  lead  is  a  blow 
struck  in  offence,  with  the  design  of  reach- 
ing some  vulnerable  point  on  an  adversary's 
person.  A  feint  is  any  movement  of  the 
limbs,  body,  or  eyes  intended  to  deceive  an 
(574) 


adversary  as  to  the  lead  about  to  be  made, 
and  cause  him  to  guard  the  wrong  point, 
leaving  others  unprotected,  or  to  make  a 
lead,  giving  chance  for  a  good  counter.  A 
guard  is  a  defence  with  the  arm — particu- 
larly the  forearm  and  elbow — against  a  blow 
from  an  adversary.  A  counter  is  a  return 
blow,  struck  in  answer  to  a  lead  that  has 
been  effectually  fended  off  or  avoided,  or 
as  part  of  the  tactics  adopted  in  order  to 
avoid  it. 

DUCKS  AND  SIDE-STEPS. — In  addition  to 
these,  it  is  desirable  that  the  boxer  be 
carefully  prepared  to  duck  or  side-step,  in 
order  to  avoid  leads  and  counters,  when- 
ever convenient  or  advantageous,  or  when- 
ever it  is  difficult  or  undesirable  to  merely 
guard  with  the  arm.  Straight  leads  for  the 
face,  as  we  shall  see  later,  can  often  be  ad- 
vantageously avoided  by  merely  drawing  the 
head  back  out  of  reach,  or  by  ducking  to 


BOXING 


575 


the  side.  These  motions  are  desirable  in 
many  cases,  particularly  as  preparatory  to 
cross-countering. 

BEHAVIOR   IN   BOXING 

Understanding  these  points,  we  may  read- 
ily see  that  a  skilful  and  successful  boxer 
must  combine  a  number  of  scientific  quali- 
ties. 

(i.)  He  must  maintain  a  firm  position  in 
making  leads,  carefully  watching  and  guard- 
ing, meantime,  against  such  counters  as  are 
possible  against  points  necessarily  left  un- 
protected. 

(2.)  He  must  know  how  to  prevent  him- 
self from  being  deceived  by  the  feints  of  his 
adversary  by  not  taking  guard  too  rapidly; 
thus  leaving  other  points  of  his  person  ex- 
posed to  ugly  blows. 

(3.)  He  must  determine  on  the  lead  he 
wishes  to  make,  and  make  it  as  quickly  as 
possible,  when  the  opportunity  occurs. 

(4.)  When  a  certain  lead  has  been  made, 
he  must  be  ready,  whenever  it  is  possible  or 
desirable,  to  respond  quickly  and  strongly 
with  a  counter  at  the  most  convenient 
point  on  his  adversary's  person. 

(5.)  He  should  not  waste  his  strength, 
or  needlessly  expose  his  own  person,  by 
leading  or  countering  at  undecisive  points 
— which  is  to  say,  points  not  recognized  as 
"vulnerable." 

(6.)  He  must  be  ready  at  all  times  to 
take  advantage  of  an  unguarded  point  in 
his  adversary,  and  to  end  any  feinting  and 
foolery  by  a  strong  blow  from  the  shoulder. 

(7.)  He  must  be  able  to  consistently  pur- 
sue a  plan  of  fighting  best  adapted  to  his 
adversary  in  each  particular  case.  If,  for 
example,  he  is  attacked  by  a  man  stronger 
or  more  skilful  than  himself,  by  one  noted 
for  particular  "tricks,"  or,  by  a  person 
whom  he  does  not  wish  to  harm — as,  for 
example,  a  woman  or  an  intoxicated  man — 
his  best  policy  is  to  carefully  guard  against 
all  leads,  saving  his  strength,  either  until  a 
favorable  opportunity  occurs  for  decisive  ac- 
tion, or  until  his  opponent  shows  signs  of 
tiring  or  has  revealed  weak  points  in  his 
tactics. 

This  last  rule  is  better  calculated  for 
guidance  in  serious  fights  than  in  mere 
'  sparring  matches.  In  the  former,  the  best 
all-around  rule  is,  "Make  the  other  man  hit 
first."  This  is  advantageous  in  every  sense: 
scientifically,  morally,  and  legally. 

VULNERABLE    POINTS 

Since,  as  already  stated,  the  primary  aim 
of  the  art  of  boxing  is  to  provide  an  effec- 


tive means  of  self-defence,  it  follows  that 
its  proper  theory  and  practice  involve  end- 
ing a  fight  as  quickly  as  possible,  while 
doing  no  more  injury  to  an  opponent  than 
is  positively  necessary  for  that  purpose. 
Hence,  all  leads  and  counters  that  are  rec- 
ognized and  practiced  by  boxers  are  de- 
liberately directed  toward  points  where  a 
blow  is  likely  to  result  in  temporary  disable- 
ment. Such  points  are  situated  at  either 
side  of  the  head,  from  the  hinge  of  the 
jaw  to  below  the  ears;  on  either  side  of  the 
body  at  the  level  of  the  lower  ribs,  from 
the  side  to  near  the  middle  of  the  back;  at 
the  centre  of  the  body,  just  below  the 
breast-bone;  at  the  full  face,  either  on  the 
point  of  the  jaw  or  between  the  eyes.  A 
well-directed  blow  at  any  of  these  points 
will  result  in  temporary  disablement,  al- 
though not  necessarily  inflicting  serious  in- 
jury. 

THE    TECHNIQUE    OF    STRIKING 

In  striking  at  an  adversary  it  is  neces- 
sary to  carefully  observe  the  rule  that  the 
blow  should  be  straight  outward  with  the 
knuckles,  and  never  downward,  with  a  chop- 
ping movement,  nor  upward,  except  in  up- 
cuts.  On  landing  a  blow  the  arm  should 
be  as  nearly  straight  as  the  distance  be- 
tween the  combatants  will  permit.  It 
should  never  be  crooked  at  the  elbow,  ex- 
cept in  aiming  blows  at  the  side  of  an  op- 
ponent's head  or  body;  and, "in  such  cases, 
the  forearm  should  be  slightly  turned,  so 
as  to  bring  the  back  of  the  fist  inward, 
thereby  lengthening  the  reach,  and  giving 
the  knuckles  of  the  second  joint  of  the  fin- 
gers as  the  point  of  contact.  In  the  last- 
named  variety  of  blows,  the  crook  at  the 
elbow  also  serves  to  give  the  arm  greater 
resistance  against  an  opponent's  side-stroke 
in  guarding;  since  it  is  easier  to  straighten 
out  under  his  stroke  than  to  run  the  risk 
of  a  broken  arm. 

CHOPPING  BLOWS,  while  recommended  by 
some  of  the  older  writers  on  sparring,  are 
very  dangerous,  and  should  always  be 
avoided.  They  are,  to  be  sure,  very  well 
calculated  to  injure  an  opponent's  counte- 
nance, if  successfully  landed,  but,  if  he  is 
at  all  skilful,  he  will  take  serious  advan- 
tage of  the  "chopper's"  unguarded  "mark" 
— for  so  older  authorities  designate  the 
point,  on  the  centre  of  the  body,  at  the 
junction  of  the  ribs — and  land  a  stunning 
blow.  A  chopping  blow  is  also  compara- 
tively easy  to  avoid  or  guard  off,  and,  be- 
cause if  shortens  the  reach,  it  is  by  no 


576 


BOXING 


means   as   convenient   or   effective  as  one 
struck  straight  out  from  the  shoulder. 

POSITION    OF   THE  BOXER 

The  first  and  most  important  considera- 
tion in  successful  boxing  is  the  position. 
There  are  two  things  to  be  considered: 
(a)  the  position  of  the  arms;  (&)  the  po- 
sition of  the  feet 

In  modern  sparring  the  universally  rec- 
ognized rule  is  to  hold  the  left  arm  in 
readiness  for  leading,  and  the  right  arm 
as  a  guard  across  the  chest.  For  these 
reasons,  the  left  arm  should  be  advanced 
from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow,  until  the 
latter  is  between  six  and  seven  inches  in 
advance  of  the  body.  The  right  arm 
should  be  held  across  and  about  three 
inches  clear  of  the  chest;  the  hand  turned 
slightly  downward  and  at  about  the  level 


Position  of  the  Boxer. 

of  the  left  shoulder.  The  former  is  thus 
in  position  for  leading  at  the  first  opportu- 
nity; the  latter,  for  meeting  and  parrying 
an  opponent's  blows. 

The  weight  of  the  body  should  be  evenly 
divided  between  the  two  feet,  which  should 
be  sufficiently  far  apart  to  afford  a  firm 
support,  while  allowing  the  body  freedom 
to  move,  without  altering  the  ground  posi- 
tion. A  firm  support  also  prevents,  as  far 
as  possible,  a  knockdown  from  a  heavy 
blow,  or  a  fall  due  to  a  too  rapid  shift 
It  is  also  necessary  to  be  well  balanced, 
in  case  your  opponent  ducks  and  avoids  a 
straight  forward  lead,  into  which  the  whole 
weight  of  the  body  is  thrown. 

In  taking  position,  the  sparrers  should 
stand  with  their  left  sides  slightly  directed 
toward  one  another.  The  left  foot  should 
always  point  directly  at  an  opponent;  be- 
ing parallel  to  the  left  arm,  and  so  ad- 


vanced as  to  bring  the  heel  as  nearly  as 
possible  under  the  elbow  joint  of  the  left 
arm. 

All  muscles  should  be  in  as  flexible  con- 
dition as  possible — neither  drawn  nor  tense 
— so  as  to  admit  of  easy  quick  movements 
in  any  direction,  either  in  making  or  avoid- 
ing blows.  In  changing  positions,  the  left 
foot  should  be  advanced  or  moved  back- 
ward first,  allowing  the  right  foot  to  fol- 
low, except  in  making  side-steps;  at  all 
times  carefully  preserving  the  balance.  In 
making  side-steps,  the  balance  is  the  first 
consideration.  If  the  weight  rests  on  the 
right  foot,  just  previous  to  a  right-side 
movement,  the  left  foot  should  be  moved 
toward  it,  taking  the  weight,  before  the 
right  is  moved.  In  making  left  side-steps, 
from  a  position  in  which  the  weight  rests 
on  the  left  foot,  the  opposite  course  is  to 
be  followed — the  right  foot  being  first 
moved  to  the  left  to  take  the  weight,  leav- 
ing the  left  free  to  shift  the  position  of  the 
body  as  desired.  These  rules  are  of  the 
utmost  importance  in  successful  sparring. 

RULES    FOR    LEADING 

As  already  stated,  the  recognized  rule  of 
modern  boxing  is  to  lead  with  the  left 
hand,  reserving  the  right  for  guarding  or 
for  certain  counters.  This  practice  is  so 
firmly  established  that  a  man  who  leads 
with  his  right  is  at  a  decided  disadvantage, 
and  constantly  exposes  his  person  by  leav- 
ing his  body  unprotected.  Some  skilful 
boxers  can  lead  with  either  hand,  and  nu- 
merous instructors  teach  both  methods,  so 
as  to  thoroughly  equip  them  for  meeting 
all  emergencies  and  profiting  by  all  advan- 
tages. It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  dis- 
cuss right-hand  boxing,  since  the  regular 
method,  if  thoroughly  understood,  is  quite 
sufficient  for  ordinary  purposes,  and  also 
requires  all  the  study  and  attention  that  the 
beginner  can  afford  to  give. 

FEINTING 

At  the  beginning  of  a  sparring  match  or 
stand-up  fight,  it  is  desirable  to  feint,  in 
order  to  discover  an  opponent's  skill  and 
methods;  oftentimes,  also,  with  the  view 
of  causing  him  to  make  some  particular 
lead  that  may  be  readily  parried,  or  that 
will  give  opportunity  for  the  counter  de- 
sired. Altogether  the  safest  and  readiest 
blow  to  attempt  as  a  lead  is  the  straight 
left  for  the  face;  since,  although  it  may  be 
readily  parried  by  a  skilful  and  watchful 
boxer,  it  leaves  the  body  or  face  perfectly 
protected 


BOXING 


STRAIGHT    LEFT    FOR    THE    HEAD 

This  blow,  which  is  called  "Number  One" 
by  several  of  the  older  writers  on  boxing, 
is  to  be  delivered  straight  out  from  the 
shoulder,  carefully  avoiding  crooks  of  the 
elbow  in  attempting  to  up-cut,  and,  above 
all,  any  effort  to  make  a  chop  downward. 
In  making  it,  the  boxer  should  move  for- 
ward— carefully  maintaining  balance  perfect- 
ly at  all  points — and  lead  out  the  instant  he 
is  within  striking  distance.  The  trouble  is 
that,  when  matched  with  a  clever  opponent, 
he  may  be  unprepared  for  side-steps  that 
would  land  him  on  his  face,  if  imperfectly 
balanced,  or  expose  him  to  some  foul  blow 
that  might  result  seriously.  This  is  an  emi- 
nent example  of  the  prime  importance  of 
a  firm  and  balanced  position,  and  of  the 
ability  to  move  and  check  one's  self  quickly. 
Having  delivered  the  blow,  spring  back  into 
position,  out  of  reach  of  a  cross-counter. 

Should  this  blow  be  parried,  the  leader 
is  again  exposed  to  the  danger  of  losing 
his  balance,  and  should  be  carefully  pre- 
pared against  this  contingency.  With  the 
right  hand  slightly  inclined  inward,  as 
shown  in  the  position  of  the  boxer,  the  left 
hand  lead  for  the  head  may  be  readily  par- 
ried by  raising  the  arm  and  striking  the 


Left-hand  Blow  for  the  Face. 

opponent's  arm  upward  and  outward  with 
the  right  forearm,  at  the  same  time  strongly 
bracing  the  body.  Unless  he  is  very  care- 
ful, therefore,  the  leader  is  quite  liable  to 
be  thrown  off  his  balance. 

LEFT   COUNTER    FOR   THE    HEAD 

After  parrying  the  left  lead  for  the  head, 
the  boxer  will  find  his  opponent  in  a  posi- 
tion open  to  a  left  counter  for  the  head.  In 
delivering  this  blow,  both  arms  are  sent 


out  at  once:  the  right,  to  parry  the  op- 
ponent's left  lead,  as  already  described;  the 
left,  straight  forward  for  his  face.  It  is 
possible  to  meet  this  left-hand  counter, 
either  by  drawing  back  the  head  out  of 


Left-hand  Counter  for  the  Head  with  Guard. 

reach,  or  by  ducking  to  the  right.  If  not 
avoided,  it  is  most  severe;  having  double 
strength,  owing  to  the  leader's  own  weight 
in  advancing  being  thrown  in  with  the 
strength  of  his  opponent  in  countering. 

DUCKING    FROM    A    LEFT    LEAD 

A  far  better  and  more  scientific  way  of 
meeting  and  countering  a  lead  for  the  head 
is  to  practice  ducking  to  the  left,  which  re- 
quires only  a  free  movement  from  the  hips, 
and  is  not  likely  to  endanger  the  balance. 
With  any  but  the  quickest  and  most  skil- 
ful opponent,  this  may  be  successfully  ac- 
complished ;  provided  the  eye  be  carefully 
trained,  by  long  practice,  to  time  the  lead. 
It  is  often  difficult,  however,  even  danger- 
ous, against  some  expert  boxers,  who  seem 
literally  prepared  for  any  possible  emer- 
gency. Perhaps,  therefore,  it  is  well  to 
avoid  ducking  away  from  a  lead,  until  the 
match  is  sufficiently  far  advanced  to  allow 
one  to  judge  of  his  opponent's  skill  and 
quickness. 

RIGHT    COUNTER    FOR    THE    HEAD 

One  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  a  duck 
to  the  left,  to  avoid  a  left-hand  lead  for 
the  head,  is  that  it  gives  opportunity  for 
a  right  counter.  On  this  account,  clever 
boxers  often  feint  so  as  to  draw  an  oppo- 
nent's left  lead.  The  procedure  is  then  sim- 
ple :  instead  of  throwing  the  right  arm  up- 
ward, to  parry  the  lead,  it  is  shot  straight 


578 


BOXING 


out  from  the  shoulder,  so  as  to  pass,  out- 
side of  and  somewhat  above  the  leader's 
left  arm,  straight  for  his  jaw.  At  the  in- 
stant that  this  movement  is  made  the  head 
is  ducked  to  the  left,  allowing  the  oppo- 
nent's arm  to  pass  over  the  shoulder,  or, 
at  worst,  to  only  graze  the  side  of  the  head, 
without  inflicting  any  serious  injury.  It  is 
important  in  delivering  this  blow  that  the 
knuckles  be  turned  outward,  and  that  the 
arm  be  somewhat  crooked,  so  as  to  balance 
the  leader's  probable  inclination  of  his  head 
in  lunging,  or  his  attempt  to  duck  in  avoid- 
ing the  counter.  This  blow,  if  properly 
delivered,  is  even  more  punishing  than  the 
left-hand  counter,  but  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult and  dangerous. 

The  skilful  boxer  must  be  fully  prepared 
above  all  things  to  successfully  evade  or 
guard  against  cross-counters,  which,  on  ac- 
count of  their  great  punishing  power,  are 


Rig". it  Cross-Counter  for  the  Head. 

favorite  movements  both  in  a  sparring 
match  and  in  stand-up  fights.  It  may  be 
possible,  even  after  leading  directly  for  an 
opponent's  head,  to  check  the  movement  of 
the  left  arm,  and  use  it  as  a  guard  to  throw 
off  his  right.  If  this  is  impossible,  as  fre- 
quently occurs  in  the  quick  movement  of  a 
sparring  match,  it  still  remains  to  the  leader 
to  duck  his  head  still  further  to  the  right, 
or  to  spring  back,  thereby  causing  the  blow 
to  pass  over  his  left  shoulder,  or  grazing 
him  but  slightly.  When  it  is  possible  to 
withdraw  the  lead  and  to  guard  the  left 
forearm  or  elbow,  it  is  desirable  to  lift  the 
knuckles  by  turning  the  hand  upward  at 
the  wrist,  thus  giving  a  stronger  guard  and 
good  resisting  power  to  a  heavy  blow. 

LEADING    FOR    THE    BODY 

While  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  make 
a  straight  lead  for  the  head,  as  already  de- 


scribed, a  lead  for  the  body  requires  con- 
siderably more  care  and  skill.  This  is  true 
because  the  boxer  always  has  his  body  well 
guarded,  and,  to  land  an  effective  blow  on 
his  chest  or  ribs,  it  is  necessary  to  induce 
him  to  raise  his  guard.  In  attempting  to 
lead  for  the  face,  also,  one  exposes  himself 
to  any  one  of  the  counters  already  described, 
all  of  them  being  most  punishing.  If, 
therefore,  one  desires  to  land  an  effective 
blow  or  to  end  a  fight  with  an  opponent 
stronger,  more  skilful,  or  taller  than  him- 
self, a  lead  for  the  body  will  be  most  ef- 
fective in  accomplishing  the  desired  result 

LEFT    LEAD    FOR    THE    BODY 

Effective  body  blows  may  be  made  either 
with  the  right  or  left  hand;  the  latter  be- 
ing the  most  convenient  in  a  lead.  In 
leading  with  the  left  hand  for  the  body,  it 
is  necessary  to  induce  an  opponent  to  raise 
his  guard,  which  may  be  done  by  feinting 
at  him  with  the  left  hand,  as  though  in- 
tending to  lead  for  his  face.  After  sev- 
eral feints  at  this  lead,  he  will,  of  course, 
raise  his  right  arm,  in  readiness  to  pro- 
tect his  face,  thus  exposing  his  chest  and 
body  to  a  straight  blow  with  the  left.  In 
making  this  lead,  it  is  necessary  to  spring 
forward,  throwing  the  weight  upon  the  left 
foot,  until  within  the  proper  distance  to 
make  a  straight  outward  stroke.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  come  no  nearer  to  your  opponent 
than  is  positively  necessary  to  strike  him, 
since  the  right  arm  is  scarcely  able  to  pro- 
tect your  own  person  by  guarding,  and 
your  head  and  face  are  liable  to  be  exposed 
to  several  ugly  counters.  Therefore,  the 
head  should  be  held  well  to  the  right,  and 
the  chin  depressed  as  much  as  possible. 
This  blow  being  successfully  delivered,  re- 
cover position  quickly. 

PARRYING   A    LEFT   BODY    LEAD 

Since  a  blow  in  the  body  is  liable  to  have 
an  immediate  disabling  effect,  it  is  seldom 
that  a  left-hand  lead  can  be  successfully 
landed  on  a  skilful  opponent.  Although 
he  may  be  deceived  by  continued  feints  at 
the  head,  he  will  be  prepared  to  ward  off 
the  blow  in  two  or  three  ways,  (i.)  He 
may  either  lower  his  right  arm  the  in- 
stant he  perceives  your  intention  for  lead- 
ing for  his  body  and,  coming  down  sharply 
on  your  wrist,  throw  your  arm  downward 
and  outward,  thus  effectually  stopping  the 
blow.  (2.)  In  case  he  can  not  lower  his 
guard  sufficiently  soon,  he  can  deliver  an 
outward  and  downward  blow  with  his  left 


BOXING 


579 


that  may  throw  you  off  your  balance  and 
expose  you  to  his  blows  on  your  head  or 
neck.  (3.)  While  both  these  guards  are 
most  effective,  when  one  is  thoroughly  sure 
of  his  opponent's  intention  to  lead  for  his 
body,  neither  of  them  would  be  of  service 
in  the  event  that  he  was  simply  feinting, 
with  the  intention  of  confusing  you  and 
finally  leading  for  the  face.  The  safest 
plan,  therefore,  until  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  skill  and  methods  of  your  oppo- 
nent, is  to  guard  against  a  left-hand  lead  for 
the  body  by  lowering  both  arms  quickly 
and  crossing  the  hands  over  the  pit  of  the 
stomach.  This  motion  will  not  only  serve 
to  guard  off  the  blow,  but  will  also  enable 
you  to  quickly  raise  your  right  arm,  to  pro- 
tect your  face,  in  case  your  opponent  is 
merely  feinting,  or  follows  up  this  lead 
quickly  with  another  for  your  face. 

Similar  tactics  must  be  adopted  in  mak- 
ing a  right-hand  lead  for  the  body,  which, 


Right-hand  Body  Blow. 

on  account  of  the  advantages  presented, 
may  be  even  more  effective  than  a  lead  with 
the  left.  In  making  this  blow,  it  is  neces- 
sary, either  to  feint,  so  as  to  induce  your 
opponent  to  make  a  left-hand  lead  for  your 
head,  or  to  wait  until  he  attempts  that 
lead  of  his  own  accord.  Your  opportu- 
nity occurs  the  moment  he  raises  his  left 
arm,  thus  exposing  that  side  of  his  body 
to  a  well-directed  blow.  In  making  this 
lead,  step  quickly  to  the  left,  strike  out 
with  the  right  arm  for  the  centre  of  his 
body  or  the  short  ribs,  at  the  same  time 
carefully  ducking  your  head  to  the  left  to 
avoid  his  lead.  Having  struck  this  blow, 
you  are  in  position  to  follow  up  with  the 
left  for  the  same  spot;  thus  quickly  dis- 
abling your  opponent,  and  enabling  you 
to  subdue  him  by  changing  the  point  of 
contact  to  the  head  and  hitting  with  both 
hands  alternately.  Of  course,  such  a  pro- 


cedure is  conceived  primarily  with  the  view 
of  overcoming  a  dangerous  and  persistent 
adversary  in  a  serious  fight. 

Owing  to  the  position  of  the  contending 
parties,  it  is  particularly  difficult  to  guard 
against  a  right-hand  body  blow.  The  prin- 
cipal reason  for  this  is  that  the  left  arm, 
being  in  action  in  leading  for  the  oppo- 
nent's head,  the  left  side  of  the  body  can  not 
be  protected.  If,  however,  you  can  check 
the  movement  of  the  arm  sufficiently  soon 
to  lower  it  rapidly,  you  can  form  a  very 
effective  guard  by  folding  the  hands  to- 
gether over  the  left  side.  It  is  always  pos- 
sible, however,  to  spring  quickly  out  of 
reach,  and,  although  missing  the  blow  at 
your  opponent  you  had  already  begun,  to 
save  yourself  from  severe  punishment. 

SWINGING   BLOWS 

In  most  of  the  leads  and  blows  already  de- 
scribed the  movement  of  the  arm  is  straight 
outward  from  the  shoulder.  There  are, 
however,  several  other  varieties  of  stroke 
practiced  by  modern  boxers,  which  have 
the  effect  of  inflicting  considerable  punish- 
ment, and  also  of  effectually  disconcerting 
an  opponent.  Among  these  may  be  men-  , 
tioned  the  swinging  blows  for  the  head  and 
the  up-cuts.  All  of  these  blows  are  very 
difficult  and  dangerous,  not  only  because 
of  the  necessity  of  swinging  the  arm  round 
the  opponent's  guard,  but  also  because  the 
whole  of  one  side  of  your  person  is  left 
unprotected,  and  the  arm  attempting  to 
swing  is  liable  to  be  injured  by  your  op- 
ponent's parry. 

For  a  successful  swinging  blow,  with  ^ 
either  the  right  or  left  hand,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  deceive  your  opponent  by  clever 
feinting.  This  will  be  comparatively  sim- 
ple, if  you  have  confined  your  tactics  to 
straight  strokes  throughout  the  entire 
match.  In  making  a  left-hand  swing  for 
the  side  of  your  opponent's  head  or  for 
the  point  of  his  jaw,  it  is  necessary  to 
spring  quickly  forward  with  the  left  foot, 
preferably  outside  your  opponent's  left,  and 
in  so  doing,  to  swing  your  left  arm, 
slightly  bent  in  a  half-circle,  for  the  side  • 
of  his  face.  The  point  of  contact  should 
be  the  first  knuckle  of  the  fist.  In  making 
this  blow  balance  must  be  preserved  by 
pivoting  the  body  on  the  ball  of  each  foot. 
The  head  should  be  ducked  well  to  the 
right  to  avoid  any  counter  blow  that  may 
be  attempted. 

If  the  boxer  is  sufficiently  watchful  and 
alert,  it  is  possible  for  him  to  effectually 
avoid  or  parry  this  left-hand  swing.  The 


680 


BOXING 


way  to  do  this  is  either  to  spring  back  quick- 
ly out  of  reach,  thus  probably  causing  your 
opponent  to  lose  his  balance  and  swing 
half-way  round,  exposing  his  head  or  body 
to  an  effective  right  swing  or  to  parry. 
In  parrying,  it  will  be  necessary  to  throw 
the  right  arm  upward  and  outward,  bend- 
ing it  somewhat,  so  as  to  catch  the  op- 
ponent's arm  on  the  point  of  the  elbow, 
which,  under  some  circumstances,  might 
effectually  disable  him. 

A  swinging  blow  for  the  side  of  the 
head  may  be  struck  with  the  right  hand,  in 
much  the  same  fashion  as  has  already  been 
described  for  the  left  swing.  After  suc- 
cessfully feinting  at  your  opponent,  you 
may  deliver  the  blow,  by  springing  for- 
ward with  your  left  foot  inside  of  his,  and 
from  this  position  swinging  the  right  arm 
in  a  half-circle  for  his  head,  throwing  the  en- 
tire weight  of  the  body  into  the  blow.  The 


Landing  a  Swinging  Left-band  Blow  for  the  Head. 

point  of  contact  should  be  the  first  knuckle 
or  the  ridge  formed  by  the  second  joint  of 
the  fingers.  Since  this  blow  is  a  difficult 
and  dangerous  one  to  deliver,  it  should  be 
your  constant  effort  to  learn  to  land  it 
with  as  little  danger  to  yourself  as  pos- 
sible. This  can  best  be  done  by  allowing 
the  toe  of  the  right  foot  to  rest  on  the 
floor,  thus  adding  to  your  reach,  and  fur- 
nishing a  pivot  upon  which  you  may  swing 
the  whole 'body  into  the  blow,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  preserve  your  balance. 

In  spite  of  this  risk,  due  to  leaving  your 
body  unprotected  against  your  opponent's 
right-hand  counter,  and  of  injuring  your 
arm,  if  he  catches  it  on  his  guard,  this 
blow  is  the  most  effective  one  known  to 
the  art  of  boxing.  It  may  be  guarded  in 
the  same  manner  as  has  already  been  de- 
scribed, in  connection  with  the  left  swing 
for  the  head.  In  both  cases,  the  favorite 


practice    is   to    present    the    point   of   the 
elbow  to  catch  your  opponent's  swing. 

UP-CUT   BLOWS 

It  is  necessary,  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, to  again  emphasize  the  fact  that 
strokes  with  the  elbow  crooked  are  to  be 
delivered  only  as  occasion  presents.  The 
swinging  blows  for  the  head,  as  already  de- 
scribed, are  properly  counters  to  straight 
leads,  and  are  accompanied  by  ducks  to  the 
right  or  to  the  left,  as  the  case  may  be, 
in  avoiding  such  leads.  The  same  rules 
apply  to  making  up-cuts  for  the  face  with 
the  left  or  right 

To  state  the  matter  briefly,  we  may  say 
that  the  opoprtunity  for  an  up-cut  is  when 
your  opponent  miscalculates  his  distance  in 
making  a  lead  or  counter  for  the  body,  and, 
in  order  to  reach  your  person,  plunges  his 
head  and  body  forward.  This  is  the  very 
movement  that  an  expert  boxer  will  avoid 
making;  and,  for  this  reason,  one  seldom 
has  opportunity  to  make  a  good  up-cut. 

The  left-hand  up-cut  may  be  delivered 
when  your  opponent  makes  a  left  lunge  for 
your  body,  at  the  same  time  ducking  for- 
ward to  the  right.  In  hitting  this  blow,  it 
is  necessary  to  step  forward  to  meet  his 
rush,  and,  while  so  doing,  to  drop  the  left 
forearm  somewhat  below  the  level  of  guard, 
and  to  draw  back  the  upper  arm  from  the 
shoulder  sufficiently  to  give  it  a  forcible 
forward  movement  In  making  the  blow, 
let  the  fist  be  inclined  upward  from  the 
wrist,  and,  holding  the  arm  rigid  at  all 
joints,  swing  out  and  up  from  the  shoulder 
joint  as  a  pivot  The  point  of  contact 
should  be  the  ridge  formed  by  the  second 
joints  of  the  fingers,  and  the  aim  should 
be  for  the  face. 

If  properly  timed  and  landed,  this  blow 
will  effectually  check  your  opponent's  lunge 
for  your  body,  but  it  is  a  good  practice  to 
guard  with  the  right  arm,  if  possible,  with- 
out turning  the  attention  from  the  blow. 

As  may  be  readily  understood,  this  blow 
is  exceedingly  difficult  to  parry.  If  you 
have  made  a  bad  lunge,  and  see  that  your 
opponent  is  about  to  up-cut,  you  may  throw 
your  right  arm  forward  and  downward,  so 
as  to  receive  the  blow  on  the  forearm  and, 
if  possible,  strike  it  aside  It  would  gen- 
erally be  impossible  to  check  the  lunge  you 
have  already  made,  or  to  duck  sufficiently 
to  avoid  your  opponent's  movement. 

The  right-hand  up-cut  is  even  more  pun- 
ishing than  that  delivered  with  the  left, 
but  is  somewhat  more  dangerous,  since  it 
involves  withdrawing  the  right  arm  -from 


BOXING 


581 


the  position  of  guard.  However,  if  prop- 
erly timed  and  delivered,  it  may  serve  to 
effectually  check  the  lunge  made  at  your 
body.  Its  delivery  differs  from  that  of  the 
left  up-cut;  since  it  is  not  a  mere  move- 
ment of  the  crooked  arm  from  the  shoul- 
der, but,  necessarily,  from  the  very  nature 
of  its  conditions,  involves  the  shoulder, 


Right-hand  Up-Cut. 

body,  and  hips.  It  is,  in  fact,  delivered 
with  less  motion  of  the  arm  than  of  the 
connected  parts,  and  is  most  effective  when 
the  shoulder  and  body  are  drawn  back  at 
the  hips,  and  the  arm  moves  no  more  than 
is  required  to  fill  the  distance  between  your 
opponent's  face  and  the  point  at  which  the 
hand  stops  at  the  completion  of  the  full 
swing  of  the  body.  In  other  words,  the 


right  arm  should  move  only  as  if  continu- 
ing the  momentum  of  the  body  swing. 

While  the  right  up-cut  is  an  ugly  blow, 
if  received  full  in  the  face,  it  is  somewhat 
easier  to  parry  than  that  delivered  with  the 
left  Since  it  can  be  given  successfully 
only  as  a  counter  to  a  left  lead  for  the 
body,  it  may  be  effectually  avoided  by 
swinging  the  left  shoulder  well  forward, 
so  as  to  obtain  a  longer  reach  for  the  body, 
and  thus  opposing  your  left  arm  as  an  ef- 
fectual check  to  your  opponent's  right. 

GRAPPLES   AND    CHANCERIES 

As  a  general  rule,  grapples  and  chan- 
ceries are  discountenanced  in  modern  box- 
ing. This  is  a  good  thing  in  several  ways; 
since  more  attention  is  expended  in  ac- 
quiring expertness  in  the  delivery  and 
parrying  of  blows  with  the  arms  and  fists; 
also,  because,  with  skilful  boxers,  it  is  now 
recognized  that  to  get  the  head  in  chancery 
is  a  doubtful  advantage.  This  is  true, 
since  a  thoroughly  alert  man  can  pain- 
fully injure,  if  not  quite  disable,  his  op- 
ponent, even  when  his  head  is  in  this  un- 
desirable position.  In  a  serious  fight,  for 
example,  he  may  nearly  always  reach  his 
nearest  arm  around  his  opponent's  back, 
and,  grabbing  him  beneath  the  chin,  com- 
pel him  to  loosen  his  hold.  In  fact,  the 
science  of  self-defence  has  so  greatly  pro- 
gressed at  the  present  time  that  fighters 
avoid  any  kind  of  a  grapple,  except  such 
as  pinions  an  opponent's  arms. 


WRESTLING  is,  undoubtedly,  the  most  ancient  form  of  athletic 
sport.  Wall  decorations  in  some  of  the  temples  of  Egypt 
show  how  early  it  was  in  vogue  in  that  country  and  how 
nearly  it  was  then  what  it  is  to-day.  The  same  kind  of  testimony  is 
afforded  by  certain  sculptures  from  Nineveh.  Plutarch  calls  it  the  most 
cunning  and  artistic  of  games,  and  Homer  has  immortalized  a  match 
between  Ajax  and  Ulysses.  Sir  Thomas  Parkyns,  an  Englishman  who 
was  represented  on  his  tombstone  in  wrestling  dress  and  posture,  pub- 
lished a  book  on  the  sport  in  1741,  and  pointed  to  the  story  in  Genesis 
of  Jacob  wrestling  with  the  angel,  to  prove  its  antiquity.  Wrestling 
was  introduced  into  Greece  from  Egypt,  about  708  B.C.,  and  at  once 
became  a  feature  of  the  Olympic,  Isthmian,  and  other  games.  It  was 
the  custom  to  seize  by  the  neck,  to  throttle,  to  butt  with  the  head,  and 
to  use  other  violent  measures;  also  to  roll  on  the  ground.  Thus,  the 
contestants  were  wont  to  oil  or  grease  their  bodies  to  make  their  muscles 
supple,  and  to  sand  their  hands  in  order  to  get  a  firm  grasp.  Rome, 
copying  both  the  recumbent  and  upright  styles  from  Greece,  made  the 
sport  more  intricate.  The  earliest  recorded  wrestling  in  Japan  bears  date 
of  23  B.C.  Germany  has  been  acquainted  with  the  sport  from  a  remote 
period,  and  in  Great  Britain  its  popularity  runs  far  back  before  the 
Middle  Ages.  One  of  the  most  noted  Puritan  divines  of  New  Eng- 
land, John  Wise,  of  Ipswich,  Mass.,  was  a  champion  wrestler. 


ELEMENTS      OF      WRESTLING 


THE  HOLD 

THE  wrestlers  face,  chest  to  chest,  with 
the  shoulders  squared.  Each  places 
his  chin  on  his  opponent's  right  shoulder 
and  grasps  him  round  the  body,  placing 
his  left  arm  above  his  antagonist's  right, 
the  hands  joined,  the  fingers  interlocked, 
so  that  the  back  of  the  right  hand  presses 
on  the  smal}  of  the  antagonist's  back.  In 
placing  the  right  arm,  the  further  under 
your  antagonist's  you  get  it,  the  better  for 
your  hold;  at  the  same  time,  keep  your 
(582) 


left  arm  well  down  to  prevent  him  from 
getting  his  right  shoulder  too  far  through. 
The  legs  must  be  placed  astride,  the  left 
foot  being  about  two  feet  in  advance  of 
the  other,  the  weight  of  the  body  being 
thrown  on  the  right  leg.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  lean  to  the  left,  as  some  do,  in  taking 
hold,  as  one  is  thus  easily  thrown  off  his 
balance.  The  hold  may  be  improved  by 
shrinking  the  right  breast  under  that  of 
the  antagonist,  tightening  the  arms  around 
his  loins,  or  pinning  his  right  arm  by  press- 


WRESTLING 


583 


ing  upon  it  with  your  left.  The  hold  se- 
cured, the  play  begins,  kicking  and  the 
catching  hold  of  legs,  thighs,  or  arms  being 
forbidden. 

THE  FALL 

If  one  competitor  lets  go  his  hold  before 
the  other,  though  not  on  the  ground,  the 
decision  is  given  against  him.  If  either 


The  Hold. 

touches  the  ground  with  one  knee  only  or 
any  other  part  of  his  body,  though  still 
keeping  his  hold,  he  is  deemed  the  loser. 
If  both  fall  on  the  ground,  he  who  is  first 
down  or  falls  under  the  other  is  the  loser. 
But  if  the  competitors  fall  side  by  side, 
or  otherwise,  making  a  "dog-fall,"  as  it  is 
termed,  so  that  the  umpire  can  not  decide 
which  touched  the  ground  first,  they  are 
obliged  to  wrestle  over  again. 

THE  BACK  HEEL 
This  throw  is  both  offensive  and  de- 
fensive, and  is  the  best  one  for  a  beginner 
to  master,  for  the  excellent  reasons  that 
it  is  safe,  easy,  and  the  one  most  used. 
It  consists  in  getting  a  leg  behind  the  op- 
ponent's heel  on  the  outside.  It  is  safer 
to  back-heel  your  opponent's  right  leg  with 
your  left  than  his  left  leg  with  your  right, 
as  he  can  not  employ  the  hank  so  readily 
to  foil  you.  Experts  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  back-heel  with  both  legs. 

The  back-heel  may  be  foiled  by  slacken- 
ing the  hold  and  leaning  forward,  or  by 
turning  round  for  the  cross-buttock;  or  by 
keeping  the  back-heel  in  and  employing  the 
hank.  The  hip,  also,  may  be  used  with 
good  effect. 

THE   HANK 

This  is  an  unscientific  chip  and,  more- 
over, dangerous.  The  wrestler  turns  his 


right  or  left  side  simply  to  his  antagonist, 
clicks  his  leg  on  the  inside  below  the  calf, 
and  pulls  his  man  backward,  falling  on 
him,  as  a  rule.  The  main  thing  in  re- 
sisting is  to  avoid  being  pulled  backward, 
and  the  next,  to  lean  forward,  taking  a 
better  hold  and  pitching  your  opponent 
forward. 

THE  OUTSIDE  CLICK 
This  is  a  back-heel  and  is  invaluable  to 
a  light-weight  wrestler,  but  its  value  de- 
pends on  the  quickness  with  which  it  is 
employed.  It  is  a  defensive  measure,  which, 
if  used  in  time,  will  save  a  man  from  be- 
ing lifted  clean  off  his  legs,  and  frequently 
will  bring  down  his  opponent.  The  foe 
should  be  clicked  as  near  the  ground  as 
possible. 

THE  INSIDE  CLICK 
This  is  a  chip  not  easily  mastered,  but 
is  an  important  one,  for,  if  carried  out 
dexterously,  it  enables  you  to  have  your 
opponent  almost  at  your  mercy.  The 
method  is  that  of  the  hank,  with  this 
difference,  that  you  face  your  antagonist 
squarely.  Holding  him  tight  and  pulling 


The  Hank. 

him  forward,  you  click  him  with  the  right 
or  left  leg,  landing  him  on  his  back  and 
frequently  on  the  back  of  his  head. 

THE  CROSS-BUTTOCK 

This  throw  requires  great  rapidity  of 
action,  and  is  of  much  value  when  a  wrest- 
ler has  permitted  his  antagonist  to  get  be- 
hind him.  To  perform  it,  you  take  a  loose 
hold,  turn  your  left  side,  and,  getting  your 
hip  under  your  foe  and  tightening  your 
hold  round  his  neck  or  shoulders,  cross 


r,s4 


WRESTLING 


both  his  legs  with  your  left  and  lift  him 
from  the  ground.  Unless  the  attack  is 
seconded  by  the  arms  and  upper  part  of 
the  body,  disaster  will  result.  If  your 
hold  as  you  turn  is  very  slack,  you  may 
be  brought  in  front  of  your  antagonist. 
If  that  is  the  case,  keep  the  hands  fast, 


The  Cross-buttock. 

use  the  buttock,  and  twist  your  man  for- 
ward with  all  your  might.  To  foil  this 
chip,  if  the  aggressor  does  it  in  a  bungling 
way,  lift  him  up  and  throw  him  over  your 
right  knee  on  to  his  back,  or,  getting  be- 
hind him,  put  one  leg  or  foot  across  both 
of  his.  The  nght  leg  may  be  used"  in  the 
cross-buttock,  but  the  left  is  preferable. 

THE  BUTTOCK 

This  chip,  which  is  not  much  in  use 
nowadays,  requires  greater  strength  and 
alertness  than  the  cross-buttock.  Slacken- 
ing your  hold,  you  turn  quickly,  getting 
your  hip  further  under  than  in  the  cross- 
buttock,  and,  without  tripping  your  antag- 
onist, throw  him  over  your  head.  If  the 
buttocker  does  not  succeed  in  throwing  his 
adversary,  the  latter  gets  a  firmer  hold  and 
throws  him. 

THE  HIP 

For  this  many  wrestlers  use  the  left  leg, 
but  there  is  this  disadvantage:  that  you  are 
not  able  to  lift  your  adversary  so  high, 
your  left  arm  being  above  his  right,  and 
in  case  you  do  not  succeed  in  throwing 
him  you  are  liable  to  get  into  a  slack  hold 
which  will  put  you  in  his  power.  Lift 
your  man,  carrying  him  to  the  left,  at  the 
same  time  twisting  his  left  leg  with  your 
right  so  as  to  swing  both  his  feet  off  the 
ground,  and  you  can  then  easily  lay  him  on 
his  back.  In  using  the  left  leg,  if  you  fail 


to  "grass"  your  man,  bring  the  buttock  or 
the  inside  click  into  play.  As  a  rule,  a 
short  man  should  never  try  to  hip  a  man 
taller  than  himself.  To  foil  the  hip  either 
apply  the  click  very  low  down,  or  close  the 
knees  and  turn  sidewise. 

THE   SWINGING  HIP 

This  chip,  which  is  difficult  to  stop,  con- 
sists is  swinging  your  antagonist  after  lift- 
ing him  and  before  using  the  hip. 

THE  OUTSIDE  STROKE 

The  safest  way  to  use  this  chip  is  to 
half  lift  your  man,  twisting  him  round  to 
the  left,  and  to  strike  along  the  outside  of 
his  right  leg  and  foot  with  your  left,  when, 
aided  by  your  arms,  he  is  quickly  placed 
on  his  back.  In  case  of  failure  with  the 
left  leg,  you  can  still  keep  your  hold,  but 
in  failure  with  the  right,  your  foe  secures 
a  rasping  hold. 

THE  HITCH  OVER 

Turning  your  left  side  to  the  adversary, 
put  your  left  leg  around  his  right  on  the 
inside,  holding  it  up  as  high  as  you  can, 
and  while  he  is  standing  on  his  left  leg, 


The  Hip. 

withdraw  your  left  leg  from  his  right  and 
cross  his  right  as  in  the  cross-buttock. 
This  will  bring  him  down  quickly. 

THE  BREAST  STROKE 

In  this  the  legs  have  no  part,  the  arms 
and  chest  doing  the  execution.  The  fall 
is  accomplished  by  grasping  the  antagonist 
firmly,  twisting  him  quickly  to  one  side 
and  as  quickly  to  the  other. 


WRESTLING 


585 


CORNISH  AND  DEVONSHIRE  STYLE 

The  men  compete  in  loose,  strong  linen 
jackets,  each  getting  hold  as  best  he  can, 
and  seizing  above  the  waist,  or  of  any  por- 
tion of  the  jacket,  it  being  forbidden  to 
take  hold  of  drawers,  handkerchief,  or  belt. 
Ground  wrestling  is  forbidden.  The  best 
holds  are  the  forehand-play,  in  which  you 
are  almost  in  front  of  your  opponent,  and 
the  after-play,  in  which  you  are  behind 
him.  The  manoeuvres  include  the  double- 
lock,  employed  to  prevent  one's  adversary 
from  lifting  him  off  his  feet,  and  consist- 
ing in  twisting  the  right  heel  round  the 
other's  left  on  the  inside,  while  throwing 
the  left  leg  over  his  right,  making  a  back- 
heel  of  it,  and  at  the  same  time  pressing 
him  backward ;  the  heave,  in  which,  on 
facing  your  opponent,  you  place  your  right 
arm  round  his  right  shoulder,  and  reach 
over  to  his  left  loin,  getting  him  under 
your  right  arm,  then  slipping  the  left  hand 
under  him  so  as  to  grasp  his  left  elbow;  the 
fore-hip  and  back-lock,  which  are  the  same, 
respectively,  as  the  Cumberland  and  West- 
moreland buttock  and  hank.  Two  shoul- 
ders and  a  hip  on  the  ground,  or  two  hips 
and  a  shoulder  constitute  a  fall,  and  a  man 
must  be  thrown  flat  on  his  back  before  any 
other  portion  of  his  body  touches  the  earth 
before  a  decision  can  be  given  against  him. 

LANCASHIRE  STYLE 

The  wrestlers  compete  in  their  stocking 
feet;  it  is  allowable  to  catch  hold  of  any 
part  of  the  body,  and  to  trip,  but  not  to 
throttle  or  to  maim.  The  principal  fea- 
ture is  struggling  on  the  ground,  and  two 
shoulders  down  constitutes  a  fall. 

CATCH-AS-CATCH-CAN    OR    CATCH 

HOLD,   FIRST  DOWN  TO  LOSE, 

STYLE 

This  is  of  recent  origin,  and,  being  the 
most  simple  and  the  fairest  for  all  parties, 
deserves  great  popularity.  All  modes  of 
attack  or  defence  are  permitted,  provided 
the  contestants  do  not  hold  by  the  hair, 
legs,  or  clothes,  or  make  use  of  painful  or 
dangerous  grasps.  There  is  little  restric- 
tion as  to  how  the  hold  shall  be  taken,  but 
contestants  generally  aim  either  for  a  head 
hold  or  a  grip  round  the  waist.  In  the 
former,  one  arm  of  each  man  usually 
rests  on  the  nape  of  the  other's  neck,  while 
the  other  grasps  his  wrist.  A  wrestler  is 
thrown  if  he  falls  on  his  back,  both  shoul- 
ders touching  the  ground.  At  the  com- 


mencerfient,  the  men  face,  heads  up,  legs 
straddled  apart,  the  knees  very  much  bent, 
the  body  bowed  forward  from  the  hip 
joints,  the  arms  hanging  down  in  front  of 
the  knees. 

The  cross-buttock  can  be  used  with  good 
effect  in  this  encounter,  by  seizing  your 
man's  left  arm  or  wrist  with  your  right 
hand,  and,  while  placing  your  left  arm 
round  his  body,  crossing  his  left  leg  vig- 
orously with  your  left  and  vigorously  jerk- 
ing him  down.  When  a  head  hold  has 
been  taken  and  the  cross-buttock  applied, 
your  opponent  usually  turns  a  complete 
somersault. 

THE  BACK  HEEL 

To  use  this  chip  in  catch-hold  wrestling, 
catch  your  adversary  round  the  head,  jerk 
him  forward,  and,  as  he  steps  in  with  one 


The  Back-heel. 

leg  to  steady  himself,  place  your  foot  be- 
hind his  on  the  outside  and  bend  him  over 
backward.  To  foil  this  chip,  clasp  your 
man  round  the  waist  with  the  under-hold, 
if  possible,  and  apply  the  hip,  or  turn  sud- 
denly round  sidewise,  with  your  arms  round 
his  neck,  and  bring  the  hank  into  play. 

STANDING   CHANCERY  AND   BAR 
HOLD 

The  aggressor  catches  hold  of  his  oppo- 
nent's head  with  the  right  hand  and  pulls 
it  down  under  his  left  arm,  securing  the 
standing  chancery  hold ;  then  slips  his  right 
hand  and  arm  under  his  opponent's  left 
arm  and  across  his  back,  securing  the  bar 
hold.  By  leaning  heavily  upon  his  oppo- 
nent's neck  with  the  chancery  hold  and 
twisting  vigorously  round  with  the  bar 


586 


WRESTLING 


hold,  the  aggressor  compels  his  opponent 
to  sink  to  his  side,  from  which  position 
he  may  press  his  shoulders  to  the  ground. 

HEAD    IN   CHANCERY 

The  aggressor  grasps  the  wrist  of  the  arm 
which  has  the  chancery  hold  and  draws  it 
in  to  his  body,  so  that  the  pressure  upon 
his  opponent's  head  comes  across  the  jaw 
and  cheek-bones.  The  hold  must  not  be 
secured  round  the  neck. 

THE    FLYING    MARE 

This  throw  requires  great  rapidity  of  exe- 
cution. In  the  beginning  it  resembles  the 
cross-buttuck.  Swing  yourself  around,  fac- 
ing in  the  same  direction  as  your  oppo- 
nent, bringing  your  shoulder  under  his 
armpit.  Bend  forward,  holding  his  arm 
tightly  down  in  front  of  his  body,  thereby 


The  Half-Nelson 

lifting  him  off  his  feet.  A  forward,  fol- 
lowed by  a  sidewise,  movement — your  op- 
ponent's arm  being  still  tightly  held — will 
enable  you  to  throw  him  upon  his  shoul- 
ders, or,  by  freeing  your  hold  upon  his 
arm,  you  may  throw  him  straight  forward 
over  the  shoulder.  To  foil  this  move,  place 
your  hand  upon  your  adversary's  hip,  as 
he  turns,  blocking  the  move,  as  in  the  cross- 
buttock,  by  coming  under  his  armpit. 

THE  HALF-NELSON 

Face  your  adversary,  grasp  him  by  the 
right  wrist  with  your  left  hand,  then  thrust 
your  right  hand  quickly  under  his  arm, 
while  you  firmly  seize  him  by  the  neck  and 
press  his  head  forward;  your  next  move  is 
to  quit  his  right  hand,  and  by  clasping  him 
round  the  waist  to  give  him  the  Cornish 
heave,  and  lay  him  on  his  back. 


THE  OUTSIDE   STROKE 

Induce  your  man  to  stand  with  one  leg, 
say  the  left,  well  advanced.  Place  your 
right  hand  on  his  left  shoulder ;  at  the  same 
time  strike  as  in  the  northern  style,  close 
to  the  ground,  and  at  the  same  time  seize 
him  under  his  right  armpit  and  twist  him 
on  to  his  back.  If  he  changes  legs,  try  to 
get  a  head  hold,  and  strike  his  right  leg 
in  the  same  manner  with  your  left.  To 
foil  the  outside  stroke,  stand  square  with 
both  legs  and  give  your  foe  no  chance 
to  throw  you  off  your  guard. 

THE  GRAPEVINE  LOCK 

The  aggressor,  in  a  standing  position, 
secures  a  waist  hold  from  the  side  upon 
his  adversary,  so  that  both  men  face  in 
the  same  direction.  Locking  his  left  leg 
round  his  opponent's  right,  from  the  in- 
side, he  reaches  over  in  front  of  the  latter 
and  seizes  his  left  arm  above  the  elbow, 
bends  forward,  lifts  the  grapevine-locked 
leg  of  his  opponent  upward  and  to  the 
rear,  twists  him  underneath,  and  falls  for- 
ward, keeping  his  weight  closely  applied 
to  the  other's  chest. 

THE  DOUBLE  NELSON 

This  is  a  Lancashire,  Cornwall,  and  Devon 
chip,  and  is  practically,  and  with  reason, 
debarred  in  the  United  States.  It  is  both 
difficult  and  dangerous,  and  consists  in  get- 
ting behind  your  opponent,  placing  both 
arms  under  his,  clasping  your  hands  round 
the  back  of  his  head,  and  then  bending  it 
forward.  It  can  be  made  effective  only 
when  the  adversary  is  a  slender  man. 

NEW    SCOTCH   STYLE 

In  this  the  hold  is  taken  as  in  Cumber- 
land and  Westmoreland,  and  if  one  falls 
flat  on  his  back,  the  contest  is  over,  but 
if  a  fair  back  fall  with  both  shoulders 
down  does  not  result,  the  play  is  con- 
tinued in  the  French  style,  as  a  struggle 
on  the  ground  until  one  man  or  the  other 
is  exhausted.  In  beginning,  the  wrestlers 
take  hold  from  the  head,  and  not  lower 
than  this  when  on  the  ground.  Tripping 
is  not  allowed. 

IRISH  STYLE 

In  this  the  first  down  is  the  loser.  The 
wrestlers  take  hold  of  the  elbow  with  one 
hand  and  of  the  collar  with  the  other; 
neither  party  being  allowed  to  let  go  till 
there  has  been  a  fall. 


WRESTLING 


587 


FRENCH,   OR   GRyECO-ROMAN, 
WRESTLING 

The   following  are   the   rules   in   French 
wrestling: 

1.  The  wrestlers  are  only  allowed  to  take 
hold   from   the   head,   and   not  lower  than 
the  waist. 

2.  Taking  hold  of  the  legs  and  tripping 
are  strictly  forbidden. 

3.  The  wrestling  is  with  open  hands,  and 
the    wrestlers    are    not    allowed    to    strike, 
scratch,  or  to  clasp  hands.     Clasping  hands 
means    that   the    wrestlers    shall    not   clasp 
one  of  their  hands   within  the  other,   nor 
interlace    their    fingers;    but    they    are    al- 
lowed to  grasp  their  own  wrists  to  tighten 
their  hold  round  their  opponent's  body  or 
otherwise. 

4.  The  wrestlers  must  have  their  hair  cut 
short,  also  their  finger-nails,  and  they  must 
wrestle  either  barefooted  or  with  socks. 

5.  If   one   of   the    wrestlers    fall    on   his 
knee,  shoulder,  or  side,  they  have  to  start 
again. 


6.  If  the  wrestlers  roll  over  each  other, 
the   one   whose   shoulders   shall   touch   the 
carpet  first  is  deemed  conquered. 

7.  To  be  conquered,  it  is  necessary  that 
both  shoulders  of  the  fallen  shall  touch  the 
ground  at  the  same  time,  so  as  to  be  fairly 
seen  by  the  judges  and  the  public. 

GERMAN  WRESTLING 

In  this,  strength  and  stamina  are  the 
chief  factors,  and  the  main  object  is  a  full 
hold.  Both  arms  are  placed  around  the 
opponent's  body  below  the  armpits,  so  as 
to  lift  him,  if  possible,  off  the  ground  and 
throw  him  on  his  back.  It  is  permissible 
to  shift  the  hands  about  unlocked;  but  the 
wrestlers  are  forbidden  to  catch  hold  of 
the  legs,  or  touch  below  the  waist.  Trip- 
ping and  entrapping  by  movements  of  the 
feet  or  legs  are  forbidden  also.  The  back 
may  not  be  presented ;  hence  the  buttock 
and  cross-buttock  can  not  be  employed. 
The  fall  is  when  both  shoulders  touch  the 
ground. 


ROLAND,  in  his  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Fencing,"  says :  "Per- 
haps there  is  no  exercise  whatever  more  calculated  for  develop- 
ing and  cultivating  bodily  strength  and  activity  than  this.  Riding, 
walking,  sparring,  wrestling,  running,  and  pitching  the  bar  are  all  of 
them  highly  beneficial;  but  beyond  all  question  there  is  no  single  exer- 
cise which  combines  so  many  advantages  as  fencing.  By  it  the  muscles 
of  every  part  of  the  body  are  brought  into  play;  it  expands  the  chest, 
and  occasions  an  equal  distribution  of  the  blood  and  other  circulating 
fluids  through  the  whole  system.  More  than  one  case  has  fallen  under 
the  author's  own  observation,  in  which  affections  of  the  lungs  and  a 
tendency  to  consumption  have  been  entirely  removed  by  occasional  prac- 
tice with  the  foil."  He  might  have  added :  There  is  no  exercise  which 
imparts  more  grace  to  the  movements  or  gives  greater  keenness  to  the 
eye.  The  method  of  the  French  school,  which  is  that  used  in  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  is  described  in  this  chapter. 

LINES. — In  fencing  language,  the  front  of  the  body  is  divided  by 
an  imaginary  line,  horizontal  and  just  below  the  breast,  separating  the 
upper  from  the  lower  portion;  the  upper  part  is  subdivided  by  a  per- 
pendicular line,  the  right  of  which  is  termed  the  outside,  the  left,  the 
inside.  The  lower  lines  are  the  lower,  to  the  left  of  the  fencer's  blade, 
and  the  exterior,  to  the  right.  Engagements  in  the  lower  lines  are  more 
common  in  Italian  than  in  French  fencing. 


GENERAL  RULES  FOR  FENCING 


THE  FOIL,  OR  SMALL  SWORD, 
briefly  described,  consists  of  two  parts : 
the  blade  and  the  hilt,  which  includes  the 
guard  of  metal  reinforced  by  thick  leather, 
and  the  grip.  The  blade  is  tipped  with  a 
button,  and  it  is  important  before  exercis- 
ing to. see  that  the  button  is  secure.  The 
part  of  the  blade  near  the  point  is  the 
foible,  that  near  the  handle,  the  forte.  The 
thumb  should  extend  along  the  convex 
side  of  the  handle  at  least  half  an  inch 
from  the  guard.  The  forefinger  is  partially 
extended  on  the  under  side,  the  middle  por- 
tion opposite  the  thumb.  The  remaining 
ringers  embrace  lightly  the  side  of  the 
handle. 
(588) 


It  is  not  necessary  to  change  the  hold  for 
any  of  the  movements  of  correct  fencing. 
The  position  of  the  hand  on  the  wrist — con- 
sequently also  of  the  foil — varies  between 
supination,  in  which  the  thumb  is  turned 
upward  and  the  back  of  the  hand  <  tward, 
and  pronation,  in  which  the  back  of  the 
hand  is  upward  and  the  thumb  to  the  left. 
These  variations,  produced  by  movement  at 
the  wrist,  change  the  dip  of  the  point  from 
upward  to  downward. 

POSITIONS. — These  are  three  in  number: 
that  taken  before  the  fencer  places  himself 
on  guard;  the  position  on  guard;  the  lunge 
or  extension.  In  the  first  named,  the  heels 
must  touch;  the  right  foot  points  toward 


FENCING 


589 


the  adversary  and  the  left  foot  at  right 
angles  to  it.  The  legs  must  be  straight; 
the  body  turned  toward  the  right  and  pre- 
senting three-quarters  of  the  face  to  the 
opponent;  the  hand  holding  the  foil  at 
about  the  height  of  the  head,  the  arm 
straight  and  inclined  to  the  right;  the  hand 
in  supination  (i.e.  with  the  finger-nails 
turned  downward) ;  the  left  arm  falling 
naturally  by  the  side,  but  clear  of  it,  the 
hand  turned  outward. 

THE  GUARD  is  the  position  from  which 
all  movements,  offensive  or  defensive,  are 
made.  The  fencer  places  his  right  foot 
twice  its  length  in  front  of  the  left,  bend- 
ing the  knees  so  as  to  distribute  the  weight 
of  the  body  equally  between  the  two  legs, 
the  right,  from  ankle  to  knee,  being  per- 
pendicular. At  the  same  time,  the  foil 
is  raised  to  the  height  of  the  waist  and 
turned  near  the  left  side,  bringing  the  point 
to  the  front;  the  right  arm  is  extended 
till  it  is  half  bent,  the  elbow  about  six 
inches  in  front  of  the  side  and  turned  in 
toward  the  body,  the  hand  at  the  height 
of  and  opposite  the  right  nipple,  the  nails 
in  pronation  (turned  up),  the  thumb  hori- 
zontal, the  back  to  the  right.  The  point 
of  the  blade  should  be  at  the  height  and  in 
front  of  the  eyes.  (It  should  have  been 
stated  before  that  the  fencer  turns  three- 
quarters  face  toward  his  opponent.)  The  left 
hand  is  extended  to  the  rear  and  a  few 
inches  higher  than  the  head ;  the  elbow  is 
slightly  bent;  the  hand  open,  palm  to  the 
front.  The  arm,  from  the  shoulder  to  the 
end  of  the  fingers,  forms  a  curve.  The  re- 
verse of  this  position  is  true  for  left-handed 
men.  The  guard  just  described  is  termed 
the  middle  guard,  because  the  weapon  oc- 
cupies a  middle  position  in  reference  to 
those  it  assumes  in  the  defence.  The  guard 
must  be  raised  according  to  the  height  of 
that  of  the  opponent,  tall  men  forming  it 
with  the  hand  a  little  below  the  breast. 
When  the  hand  has  been  carried  so  nearly 
in  front  of  the  right  shoulder  that  the  ad- 
versary's point,  if  extended,  on  that  side 
would  not  touch,  the  fencer  is  covered  and 
the  guard  of  tierce  is  formed ;  if  the  hand 
is  sufficiently  in  front  of  the  left  breast  to 
divert  the  point  on  that  side,  the  guard  of 
quarte  is  formed. 

THE  LUNGE  OR  EXTENSION. — Stretch  the 
right  arm  straight,  keeping  it  at  the  height 
of  the  shoulder,  without  bending  the  body; 
pointing  it  direct  to  the  spot  aimed  at; 
put  the  hand  in  supination;  advance  the 
right  foot  about  a  sole  and  a  half  (if  the 


length  of  the  fencer's  leg  will  allow)  ;  Mft 
the  toes  a  little,  the  heel  brushing  the  floor ; 
at  the  same  moment  that  the  heel  is  ad- 
vanced tighten  the  loins,  press  in  the  left 
hip,  straighten  the  left  leg  and  thigh;  drop 
the  left  hand  to  the  left  thigh  without 
touching  it,  the  palm  turned  outward.  It 
is  important  that  the  whole  of  the  left  foot 
should  be  kept  firmly  fixed  on  the  ground. 
The  knee  of  the  right  leg  should,  when  the 
lunge  is  completed,  be  just  over  the  instep. 
OPPOSITION  is  the  act  of  covering  the 
body  with  the  blade  when  delivering  a 
thrust,  on  the  side  where  the  foils  happen 
to  cross,  and  to  avoid  receiving  a  blow  in 
return  when  in  the  act  of  recovering  the 
position  of  guard.  If  the  foils  are  crossed 
in  quarte,  and  one  fencer  holds  his  blade 


Lines 


Lines 


Diagram  of  a  fencer's  waist  quartered  to  show 
the  points  of  the  body  against  which  thrusts  are 
aimed,  and  which  must  be  guarded  by  the  parries 
named  accordingly,  as  explained  in  the  following 
cuts  and  description. 

so  far  to  the  left  that,  if  the  other  thrusts 
to  the  left,  his  point  must  go  past  the  body, 
the  former  takes  opposition  in  quarte. 

THE  ENGAGEMENT  is  when  the  adversaries 
have  come  to  the  guard  and  join  blades. 
It  may  take  place  in  each  of  the  four  lines, 
and  is  either  called  engagement  simply,  or 
is  named  after  the  parry  formed  when  the 
blades  meet.  If  the  right  of  the  blades  is 
in  contact,  the  engagement  is  in  tierce;  if 
the  left,  it  is  in  quarte.  When  the  hand 
is  turned  so  as  to  bring  the  back  up  and 
obliquely  to  the  left,  and  the  points  are 
lowered  and  meet  in  contact  on  the  right 
and  at  the  height  of  the  groin,  the  en- 
gagement is  in  seconde. 

CHANGING  THE  ENGAGEMENT. — This  has 
been  concisely  described  as  making  a  very 
small  quick  movement  of  the  point,  pass- 

38 


590 


FENCING 


ing  it  under  and  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
blade  of  the  antagonist  to  the  opposite 
side,  executing  the  movement  abruptly  and 
with  the  fingers  only,  without  lowering  the 
hand.  The  fencer  should  cover  the  mo- 
ment the  opposing  blade  is  felt. 

To  RECOVER  THE  GUARD,  throw  the  left 
arm  nimbly  up  to  its  place;  draw  in  the 
right  arm,  and  rebend  the  left  knee.  These 


PRIME  PARRY 

The  thrust  in  prime  for  the  left  side  of  the 
body  is  parried  by  the  act  of  striking  tip  the  op- 
ponent's foil  by  lowering  the  point  of  the  foil,  the 
back  of  the  hand  toward  the  face,  as  shown  in 
the  right-hand  figure. 


movements  must  be  made  at  the  same  time 
the  advance  is  made  from  the  guard,  and 
when  the  adversary  is  beyond  hitting  dis- 
tance. The  step,  in  the  advance,  is  usu- 
ally about  that  of  the  width  of  the  guard, 
and  is  made  by  advancing  the  right  foot 
the  distance  given;  on  its  reaching  the 
ground,  the  left  foot  is  brought  up  and 
lakes  its  place.  It  is  important  to  have 
one  side  of  the  body  secured  by  the  posi- 
tion, particularly  that  side  to  which  the 
antagonist's  blade  is  opposed ;  so  that  if 
he  commence  an  attack  during  this  move- 
ment, he  must  quit  the  blade  in  order  to 
direct  his  thrust  or  feint  at  any  opening 
the  position  of  his  opponent  gives  him. 

THE  RETREAT  is  the  reverse  of  the  ad- 
vance. The  left  foot  takes  the  lead,  step- 
ping to  the  rear  about  as  much  as  the 
right  had  stepped  to  the  front ;  the  right 
occupying  its  place  on  its  taking  up  the 
new  position. 

ATTACKS. — "There  are  three  main  points 
of  attack,"  to  use  the  words  of  Kelton,  an 
authority  often  quoted:  "On  the  'right/ 
which  is  a  blow  at  the  face  and  right  side, 
on  the  right  side  of  the  weapon ;  on  the 
'left,'  which  is  an  attack  on  the  face  and 
left  side,  on  the  left  of  the  weapon ;  and 
'below,'  which  is  a  blow  under  the  sec- 
ond arm." 

The  modes  of  attack  are  three  in  num- 


ber: (i)  a  quick  thrust  given  merely  by 
the  wrist,  the  arm  being  elevated  and  ad- 
vanced at  the  same  time,  with  the  point 
directed  at  the  opponent's  breast;  (2)  what 
is  technically  called  an  extension;  (3)  the 
lunge  and  recovery. 

THRUSTS  are  directed  solely  at  the  body, 
a  hit  upon  a  limb  not  being  counted.  The 
simplest  form  of  attack  is  the  straight 
thrust,  used  when  the  antagonist,  from  his 
position  on  guard,  leaves  sufficient  open- 
ing to  enable  him  to  be  touched  upon  that 
side  of  the  body  on  which  blades  are 
joined.  In  this  attack,  raise  the  wrist  sud- 
denly, bringing  the  forte  of  your  sword  to 
the  foible  of  your  adversary's;  then  lunge 
at  once  on  the  same  line  to  his  breast, 
keeping  the  while  a  correct  opposition. 
Movement  of  the  hand  and  arm  must  pre- 
cede that  of  the  body  or  foot  The  de- 
scription of  the  lunge  is  practically  that 
of  the  straight  thrust;  it  is  a  lunge  in  a 
straight  line,  care  being  taken  to  feel  the 
adversary's  blade  firmly,  bringing  the  forte 
of  one's  weapon  to  the  foible  of  the  ad- 
versary, but  not  pressing  or  leaning  on 
the  blade  while  making  the  thrust. 

THE  DISENGAGEMENT  is  another  form  of 
attack,  and  is  made  by  dropping  the  point 
of  the  foil  beneath  the  adversary's  blade, 
and  raising  it  on  the  opposite  side;  at  the 
same  time  rising  with  the  arm  fully  ex- 
tended. It  is  used  when  an  antagonist 


QUARTE  PARRY 

The  thrust  in  quarte  for  the  left  side  of  the 
body,  on  the  high  lines,  is  parried  by  striking 
down  to  the  left  the  opponent's  foil  by  assuming 
the  attitude  shown  in  the  left-hand  figure. 


leaves  sufficient  opening  to  enable  him  to 
be  touched  upon  that  side  of  the  body  on 
which  blades  are  joined.  On  the  comple- 
tion of  the  extension,  the  lunge  is  made 
and  the  thrust  delivered.  In  French  fenc- 
ing, disengagement  is  usually  from  one 
upper  line  to  the-  other. 

THE  BEAT  AND  THRUST  is  a  form  of  at- 
tack  used   when  your  adversary's  blade  is 


FENCING 


591 


firmly  joined  to  yours  and  you  wish  to 
deliver  a  straight  thrust,  but  are  in  dan- 
ger of  falling  upon  his  point.  In  this  case, 
you  give  a  slight  beat  on  his  blade,  follow 
it  swiftly  with  an  extension  of  the  arm, 
and  this  immediately  with  the  lunge. 

THE  ONE,  Two  is  a  double  disengage- 
ment; the  first  being  a  feint  to  induce  the 
opponent  to  parry  to  cover  the  part  threat- 
ened, the  covering  of  one  part  of  the  body 
naturally  exposing  the  opposite.  The  sec- 
ond disengagement  takes  advantage  of  this 
exposure.  The  arm  is  extended  half-way 
on  the  first,  and  then  wholly  on  the  sec- 
ond, and  is  immediately  followed  by  the 
lunge. 

FEINTS,  which  are  so  numerous  that  only 
a  few  can  be  given  here,  are  simply  false 
attacks,  or  thrusts,  to  deceive  the  antag- 
onist, and  are  followed  by  a  disengagement 
or  a  direct  blow.  One,  two,  just  described, 
is  a  feint.  In  all  feints  the  hand  should 
be  in  supination.  To  execute  a  feint,  keep 
body  and  legs  immovable;  raise  the  hand  to 
the  height  of  the  mouth;  move  the  point 
quickly  and  smoothly  to  the  front,  nearly 
to  the  full  extent  of  the  arm,  and  as  close 
as  possible  to  the  antagonist's  weapon. 

BEATING  is  abruptly  touching  your  ad- 
versary's blade,  striking  your  forte  against 
his  foible,  thus  startling  him  and  getting 
openings  to  thrust.  If  he  resists  it,  disen- 
gage at  once  and  thrust.  Should  he  em- 
ploy a  simple  parry,  mark  feint  one,  two; 
if  he  uses  a  counter-parry,  counter,  disen- 
gage, or  double. 

THE  BEAT  AND  DISENGAGEMENT  resembles 
the  first  disengagement  in  one,  two,  and  is 
made  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  the  ad- 
versary to  return  to  the  place  he  occupied 
when  the  beat  was  made.  You  then  im- 
mediately pass  to  the  opposite  side  of  his 
blade,  in  the  manner  described  in  the  dis- 
engagement. 

CUT  OVER  THE  POINT. — Raise  the  foil 
with  the  hand  (which  is  not  drawn  back 
at  all),  bring  down  the  foil  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  adversary's  blade,  the  arm  being 
extended  during  its  fall  to  the  horizontal 
position,  then  deliver  the  lunge. 

Cur  OVER  AND  DISENGAGEMENT. — This  is 
on  the  same  principle  as  the  one,  two,  and 
the  beat  and  disengagement.  On  the  adver- 
sary opposing  the  first  movement  (the  cut) 
with  a  parry,  the  second  movement  (the 
disengagement)  is  made  to  the  opposite 
side,  and  is  followed  by  the  lunge:  the  ex- 


tension of  the  arm  being  divided  between 
the  two  movements. 

GLIDING  THE  WEAPON  consists  in  mov- 
ing your  blade  smoothly  along  your  ad- 
versary's till  the  arm  is  nearly  extended 
(being  aware  of  his  thrust  and  making 
sure  of  your  own),  and  following  the  ex- 
tension with  a  swift,  direct  blow.  A  quick 
advance,  with  a  glissade,  affords  you  open- 
ings either  to  mark  feints  or  otherwise.  If 
the  adversary  protects  himself,  taking  the 
opposition,  a  disengagement  may  be  made. 

PRESSING. — Move  your  blade  quickly  for- 
ward along  your  adversary's,  bearing  upon 
his,  and  moving  it  out  of  line ;  commence  at 
the  foible  and  develop,  or,  if  the  opposition 
is  taken,  disengage. 

REMOVING  THE  POINT. — If  your  opponent 
bears  upon  your  weapon  with  a  hard  hand, 
suddenly  remove  your  point  a  short  dis- 
tance. In  his  attempt  to  find  new  support 
for  his  blade,  he  will  be  very  apt  to  give 
you  an  opportunity  to  make  a  direct  blow 
or  a  disengagement. 

PARRIES  OR  PARADES,  which  constitute  the 
defensive  part  of  the  art,  or  the  turning 
aside  of  the  antagonist's  blade,  are  ten 
in  number:  prime,  seconds,  tierce,  quarte 
(sometimes  written  cart),  quinte,  six,  sep- 
tinte  or  sept,  octave,  contre-tierce,  and 
contre-quarte.  Counter-tierce  and  counter- 
quarte  are  also  called  round  parades.  Of 
the  ten,  tierce,  quarte,  quinte,  and  six  are 


TIERCE  PARRY 

The  thrust  in  tierce,  or  for  the  right  side  of 
the  body,  on  the  high  lines,  is  parried  by  raising 
the  foil  and  striking  the  opponent's  weapon  to 
the  right,  as  in  the  left-hand  figure. 

called  simple  parries,  as  the  weapon  is  but 
slightly  moved  from  the  position  of  guard. 
(According  to  another  division,  there  are 
six  simple  parries :  quarte,  tierce,  circle,  oc- 
tave, prime,  and  quinte.)  Prime,  seconde, 
sept,  and  octave  are  called  half-counters,  as 
the  point  describes  a  half-circle  in  effecting 
the  parry.  The  remaining  two  are  called 
counters;  the  point  describing  a  curve  and 


592 


FENCING 


returning  to  its  original  position.  The  chief 
parries  (the  others  are  used  in  exceptional 
cases  only)  are  tierce,  which  defends  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  to  the  right ;  quarte, 
which  defends  the  upper  part  to  the  left; 
and  seconde,  which  defends  the  lower  line. 
PRIME  is  the  most  natural  parry,  the  po- 
sition being  almost  that  one  would  assume 
in  drawing  his  sword  from  the  sheath  on 


SECONDE  PARRY 

This  is  the  defence  for  a  thrust  in  seconde,  or 
for  the  right  side  of  the  body,  on  the  low  lines. 
It  differs  from  prime  in  the  fact  that  the  handle 
of  the  foil  is  lower,  but  the  movement  of  striking 
the  opponent's  foil  to  the  right  is  the  same  as  in 
tierce. 

being  attacked.  The  hand  (in  pronation) 
is  raised  as  high  as  the  forehead,  and  op- 
posite the  left  shoulder,  so  that  the  fencer 
can  see  the  antagonist's  face  under  his 
wrist.  The  elbow  is  lowered  somewhat; 
the  blade  of  the  foil  is  almost  horizontal, 
but  the  point  is  rather  lowered  toward  the 
ground.  The  point  must  describe  a  curve, 
so  that  the  blade  will  cut  the  line  of  ap- 
proach of  the  opposite  weapon.  As  this 
parry  throws  the  right  side  of  the  body 
open  to  the  adversary's  weapon,  it  is  good 
play  to  disengage  from  left  to  right,  and 
deliver  a  rapid  thrust  at  the  adversary,  in 
order  to  anticipate  him  before  he  can  bring 
his  own  sword  round  for  another  thrust. 
His  point  will  be  thrown  far  out  of  line, 
so  that  he  is  behindhand  in  point  of  time. 
This  parry  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  used 
to  turn  aside  every  blow  that  can  be  made 
from  the  position  of  guard,  and  is  a  very 
useful  one  for  fencers  of  short  statures,  as 
they  can  sometimes  get  in  their  blade  un- 
der their  adversary's  arm  after  parrying  his 
thrust. 

The  other  parry,  defending  the  opening 
inside  above  the  hand,  is  quarte.  The  right 
hand  is  moved  a  few  inches  across  the 
body  on  the  inside,  neither  in  pronation 
nor  SHpination,  but  with  the  thumb  upper- 
most; the  elbow  close  to  the  body;  the 
point  of  the  foil  at  the  height  of  the  eyes 
and  slightly  beyond  the  under  line  In 


this,  as  in  all  simple  parries,  the  very 
movement  which  has  guarded  the  body  on 
one  side  has  exposed  it  on  the  other. 

TIEBCE. — This  parry  it,  used  when  the 
exposed  part  outside  above  the  hand  is  as- 
sailed. It  is  formed,  from  the  middle 
guard,  by  turning  the  hand  with  the  nails 
downward,  and  crossing  to  the  opposite 
side  some  six  or  eight  inches;  the  hand 
and  point  at  the  same  elevation  as  before. 
If,  however,  the  attack  is  made  under  in- 
stead of  over  the  hand,  the  proper  parry  is : 

SECONDE. — In  this  the  hand  is  to  the 
right,  a  little  higher  than  the  right  hip, 
well  in  front  and  in  pronation;  the  arm 
straight  without  stiffness;  the  point  a  lit- 
tle lower  than  the  hand,  and  slightly  outside 
the  exterior  line.  If  the  attack  is  delivered 
at  the  inside  under  the  hand,  the  proper 
parry  is  sept. 

QUINTE. — Used  to  parry  a  low  disen- 
gagement from  tierce,  is  formed  by  lower- 
ing the  hand  diagonally,  placing  it  in  front 
of  the  left  side  at  the  height  of  the  groin, 
the  nails  to  the  left.  The  point  should  be 
arrested  as  nearly  as  possible  on  a  line  with 
the  opponent's  right  shoulder.  Six,  for- 
merly called  tierce  parry,  is  formed  from 
the  middle  guard,  as  follows :  turn  the 
hand  in  pronation  and  move  it  opposite  the 


SIXTE  PARRY 

Like  tierce,  this  parry  is  used  to  protect  the 
upper  right-hand  side  of  the  body;  the  foil  being 
moved  to  the  right  sufficiently  to  meet  and  turn 
aside  the  opponent's  thrust.  The  hand  is  in 

supination. 

right  side.  Put  the  point  in  front  of  the 
antagonist  and  at  the  height  of  the  crown 
of  the  head. 

SEPT  or  DEMI  (half)  circle  is  formed 
from  middle  guard  and  is  used  to  parry 
blows  at  the  waist.  In  this  the  hand  is 
to  the  right  in  supination,  at  the  height  of 
the  shoulder;  the  arm  half  extended;  the 
point  to  the  left,  at  the  height  of  the  breast 
or  shoulder. 

OCTAVE. — In  this  the  hand  is  held  as  in 


FENCING 


593 


quarte;  the  foil  hilt  is  kept  lower  than  that 
of  the  adversary;  the  blade  is  almost  hori- 
zontal, the  point  being  only  slightly  lower 
than  the  hilt  and  directed  toward  the  body 
of  the  adversary;  the  point  in  sinking  de- 
scribes a  slight  curve.  Octave  generally 
meets  the  opposing  blade  before  the  point 
can  be  fixed  properly;  moreover,  it  brings 


SEPTIME  PARRY,  OR  DEMI-CERCI.E 

This  movement  is  intended  as  a  defence  from 
a  thrust  to  the  left  side  of  the  body,  on  the  low 
lines.  It  is  executed  by  describing  a  semicircular 
movement  to  the  left,  so  as  to  meet  and  turn  down- 
ward your  opponent's  foil. 

the  point  so  near  the  adversary's  body  that 
he  does  not  venture  to  make  another  thrust 
until  he  has  removed  the  foil. 

COUNTER- PARRIES.  —  As  has  been  said, 
simple  parries  guard  one  opening  only; 
counter-parries  are  devised  so  that  each  is 
capable  of  protecting  the  entire  front,  and 
all  are  formed  on  the  same  plan.  A 
counter-parry  is  a  full  circle  in  the  posi- 
tion of  hand  and  direction  of  blade  of  its 
simple.  The  parries  of  positive  value  are 
counter-tierce  and  counter-quarte.  The 
former  is  executed  thus,  according  to  Kel- 
ton:  Being  engaged  in  tierce,  when  the  an- 
tagonist disengages  at  the  "left,"  lower  the 
point  with  a  quick  bend  of  the  wrist,  pass- 
ing it  under  the  approaching  weapon,  and 
throw  it  off  to  the  right.  Counter-quarte 
is  made  by  retaining  the  hand  in  the  posi- 
tion of  quarte  while  the  foil  describes  a 
circle,  descending  on  the  inside  and  return- 
ing by  the  outside  to  the  place  of  its  de- 
parture. 

DOUBLES  are  separate  movements  to  de- 
ceive counter-parries,  and  must  be  made 
connectedly  and  without  allowing  your  ad- 
versary's blade  to  overtake  yours.  If  you 
threaten  your  man  by  a  disengagement  to 
the  outside,  and  if,  instead  of  tierce,  he 
parries  by  counter-quarte,  the  double  is 
made  by  your  disengaging  a  second  time  to 
the  same  side  as  the  first,  his  counter-quarte 
having  replaced  the  blades  in  the  positions 


they  occupied  previous  to  your  disengage- 
ment. You  will  then  have  an  opening  and 
can  finish  the  attack  by  the  lunge. 

A  DISENGAGEMENT  is  made  as  a  defence 
as  well  as  an  attack,  and  is  executed  both 
under  and  over  the  wrist  or  foils.  A  dis- 
engagement over  the  arm  may  be  parried 
with  tierce  or  prime,  and  if  made  low  by 
the  parry  of  circle;  from  the  position  of 
octave,  by  quarte,  or,  when  the  thrust  is 
low,  by  circle;  from  the  position  of  quinte, 
by  prime.  Quarte  and  tierce  are  also  cor- 
rect parries  against  this  thrust.  To  disen- 
gage below  from  tierce  or  quarte,  lower 
the  point  by  bending  the  wrist  and  move  it 
to  the  front  at  the  same  time,  just  under 
the  blade  of  the  antagonist.  To  disengage 
by  cutting  over  the  point,  make  a  feint  or 
an  attack  on  your  opponent's  foil ;  then 
raise  your  blade  over  his  point  and  as  close 
as  possible  to  it. 

COUNTER-DISENGAGEMENT. — In  this,  which 
is  used  to  avoid  the  counter-tierce  and 
counter-quarte  parries,  move  your  point  en- 
tirely around  the  adverse  blade,  describing 
a  very  small  circle  near  the  shoulder  of 
the  foil,  and  follow  the  movement  with  a 
blow. 

RIPOSTES  are  return  thrusts  delivered 
after  parrying,  and  are  of  three  kinds:  (i) 
the  direct  or  straight,  a  thrust  in  the  line 
of  the  parry,  without  moving  the  foot;  (2) 
the  riposte  with  a  change  of  line  or  some 


OCTAVE  PARRY 

This   movement,    like   septime,   is   in  the   form  of 

a   half-circle,   only  made   to   the  right,    in   order  to 

deflect    the    thrust    intended    for    the    right    side  of 
the   body   on   the   lower   lines. 


preparatory  movement;  (3)  the  riposte  with 
a  pause  when  the  touch  of  the  steel  is 
abandoned,  so  that  the  adversary  may  half 
make  or  indicate  a  parry  which  the  ripost- 
ing fencer  can  nullify.  Ripostes  are  usu- 
ally attempted  after  quarte,  quinte,  six,  and 
tierce,  counter-quarte,  and  counter-tierce 
parries.  The  riposte  after  six,  which  can 
be  delivered  with  more  certainty  and  effect 


594 


FENCING 


than  any  other,  is  made  by  raising  the 
hand  as  high  as  the  head,  the  thumb  turned 
directly  down;  lowering  the  point  over  the 
antagonist's  guard,  and  delivering  the  blow 
at  the  "right"  or  disengaging  below. 

To  MENACE,  advance  your  point  quickly 
by  a  partial  extension  of  the  arm  on  the 
engagement  side,  as  if  about  to  make  a 
direct  blow.  Maintain  the  opposition  in 
menacing  after  a  parry. 

To  CROSS,  hold  the  hand  high,  turn  the 
blade  over  that  of  the  adversary,  and  form 
the  parry  of  seconde  or  sept  (demi-circle), 
thus  getting  command  of  his  weapon  and 
obtaining  an  opportunity  of  attacking  be- 
low. Crossing  comes  into  service  when  the 
antagonist  ignores  a  feint,  and  extends  his 
blade,  presenting  it  at  the  breast. 

BINDING  THE  BLADE  is  brought  into  play 
when  the  foible  of  the  adversary's  blade  is 
controlled  after  a  successful  parry.  If  he 
disengages  from  quarte  below,  and  his  blow 
is  parried  with  sept,  an  opportunity  is  given 
to  bind  his  weapon  by  turning  the  blade 
under  his,  and,  with  a  quick  motion  of  the 
wrist,  raising  it  and  throwing  it  off  to  the 
right.  Flanconnade  is  the  principal  way. 
of  binding,  and  it  is  also  made  as  a  riposte. 
The  attack  of  flanconnade  is  commenced 
when  the  blades  are  primed  in  quarte,  and 
it  is  parried  either  by  octave  or  quinte,  or 
by  the  parry  of  quarte. 

To  ENCIRCLE  (after  parrying  six),  raise 
the  hand,  master  your  adversary's  foible 
with  your  forte,  then  (as  he  rises  and  at- 
tempts to  guard  against  the  riposte)  turn 
or  slide  the  blade  around  it  without  quit- 
ting it,  and  riposte  below  or  cut  over  the 
point  at  the  left. 

TIME  THRUSTS,  which  have  been  called 
the  most  scientific  movements  in  fencing, 
are  attacks  made  before  the  finish  of  the 
adversary's  attack  made  in  opposition  on 


a  complicated  attack,  and  intended  to  in- 
tercept the  line  where  such  an  attack  is 
meant  to  finish.  They  are  of  two  kinds, 
in  the  execution  of  one  of  which  it  is 
necessary  that  the  blades  should  cross  each 
other;  for  the  .completion  of  the  other,  the 
blades  need  not  even  meet.  Time  thrusts 
in  opposition  are  two  in  number:  over  the 
arm,  and  in  octave,  the  former  being  ap- 
plicable to  every  kind  of  thrust,  provided 
the  lunge  is  made  upon  the  outside ;  lunges 
directed  to  the  inside  of  the  body  or  under 
the  arm  are  exposed  to  the  time  in  octave. 
Time  thrusts,  or  blows,  in  which  opposi- 
tion is  not  essential,  are  delivered  at  a 
foe  who  advances  within  distance  uncov- 
ered, or  who  makes  a  too  wide  engagement, 
or  quits  the  blade  in  a  dangerous  position. 

THE  SALUTE. — The  etiquette  of  fencing 
requires  that  before  engaging  in  an  as- 
sault, the  combatants  shall  salute.  As  Kel- 
ton  describes  it:  "The  fencers,  on  first  tak- 
ing the  position  of  guard,  rise,  salute  with 
their  weapons  each  other,  and,  if  there  are 
spectators,  on  the  right  and  left.  They  then 
resume  guard  in  tierce;  one  disengages  first 
at  the  'left,'  then  at  the  'right,'  the  blows 
being  delivered  with  a  loose  hand,  so  that 
the  weapon,  on  being  parried,  will  be  turned 
and  the  point  thrown  to  the  rear,  the  par- 
rier  at  the  same  time  lowering  his  point 
out  of  line.  After  a  few  repetitions  of  these 
disengagements,  the  first  fencer  will  dis- 
continue and  will  so  indicate  by  an  appel 
(two  blows  of  the  right  foot  on  the  ground), 
both  rising.  The  guard  of  tierce  is  again 
resumed,  and  the  other  fencer  makes  the 
same  disengagements.  On  appeling  and 
both  rising,  the  salute  of  the  weapon  will 
terminate  the  exercise,  and  the  assault  will 
begin."  Etiquette  also  requires  that  if 
your  adversary  drops  his  foil  by  accident 
or  in  consequence  of  a  smart  parry  of  yours, 
you  should  pick  it  up  and  present  it  to 
him  politely. 


JIU-JITSU 


TWENTY-FIVE   hundred   years    ago,    when    our    ancestors    in    the 
British   Isles   and   on   the   nearby   parts   of   the   Continent   dwelt 
in  the  most  primitive  houses  and  clothed  themselves  in  the  skins 
of  wild  beasts,  the  Japanese  enjoyed  a  fairly  high  state  of  civilization. 
Yet  in  both  Japan  and  Europe  the  warrior  was  looked  upon  as  the  highest 
type  of  manhood. 

In  Japan,  the  art  of  war  was  then  confined  to  a  class  of  military 
nobles,  or  knights,  known  as  the  Samurai.  Having  much  idle  time  on 
their  hands,  and  being  an  ingenious  people,  these  men  began  to  devise 
sports  to  make  the  time  pass  pleasantly,  and  at  the  same  time  develop 
their  bodies  for  the  rigors  of  campaigning.  So  that  wonderful  system 
of  self-defence,  known  as  jiu-jitsu,  was  born  and  slowly  developed.  The 
principles  of  the  system  were  kept  secret,  being  passed  down  under  oath 
from  father  to  son.  It  was  forbidden  to  show  any  of  the  "tricks"  to 
persons  not  members  of  the  Samurai. 

When  the  present  Emperor  of  Japan  ascended  the  throne,  one  of  his 
first  acts  was  to  abolish  the  Samurai  as  a  class.  For  that  reason  the  need 
of  secrecy  as  to  jiu-jitsu  gradually  lapsed.  Nowadays,  any  traveller  in 
Japan  may  take  the  complete  course  in  the  science.  A  few  teachers  have 
also  come  to  this  country,  although  up  to  date  comparatively  few  Ameri- 
cans have  interested  themselves  in  the  study.  This  is  a  pity,  for  no 
known  system  of  athletics  will  do  so  much  to  develop  the  body  in  a 
normal  way.  Nor  could  any  of  our  boxers  or  wrestlers  overcome  a 
Japanese  adept  in  jiu-jitsu. 

While  the  primary  object  of  this  system  is  to  perfect  an  invincible 
method  of  self-defence,  its  manoeuvres  serve  very  well  for  a  course  in 
athletics  that  ensures  "muscles  of  steel  and  bones  of  granite,"  after  a 
few  months  of  faithful  daily  practice.  The  reader  who  thoroughly  prac- 
tices, will  soon  find  himself  able  to  cope  easily  with  any  adversary,  since 
everything  depends  upon  rapidity  of  movement. 

(595) 


596 


JIU-JITSU 


USEFUL   TRICKS   FOR   ORDINARY   SELF-DEFENCE 


EVERY  trick  in  jiu-jitsu  is  based  on  a 
patiently  studied  principle  of  anatomy, 
the  aim  being  always  to  injure  a  muscle 
or  a  bone  in  such  fashion  that  your  oppo- 
nent is  willing  to  give  up  the  contest.  An 
adept  could,  in  a  twinkling,  break  both 
arms  of  his  assailant,  yet  bones  seldom  are 
broken,  for  the  reason  that  the  assailant  is 
quickly  astounded  and  convinced  of  the 
folly  of  keeping  up  the  contest.  In  this 
respect,  jiu-jitsu  is  the  most  humane  form 
of  bodily  contest,  as  its  use  ends  a  fight 
without  any  permanent  ill  effect  upon  either 
contestant. 

TWISTING  THE  WRIST  TO  THROW 

Figure  i  shows  the  first  and  easiest  trick 
in  the  system.  Practice  it  with  a  friend 
of  your  own  size,  weight,  and  strength. 
Let  your  friend  extend  his  left  hand  as  if 
to  shake  hands.  Take  that  hand  with  your 
right  hand,  fingers  and  thumb  pointing 
downward,  while  his  hand  should  be  thumb 
uppermost.  Place  the  ball  of  your  thumb 
between  the  last  two  knuckles  of  his  hand, 
pressing  severely.  There  is  a  muscle  be- 
tween these  two  knuckles  a  strong  pressure 
upon  which  will  cause  a  good  deal  of  pain, 
and  a  little  practice  on  your  own  hand  will 
enable  you  to  find  it  instantly  thereafter. 

Now,  while  the  ball  of  your  thumb  rests 


FIG. 


as  directed,  the  fingers  of  that  hand  should 
rest  over  the  thumb  and  on  the  palm  of  the 
hand  of  your  adversary.  You  are  now,  if 


directions  have  been  closely  followed,  in 
position  for  the  trick.  Give  your  opponent's 
hand  and  wrist  a  quick  strong  twist  from 
right  to  left,  making  the  turn  as  complete 
as  possible.  Your  opponent  will  fall  to  the 
floor. 

PRESSING  WRIST  AND  HEAD  TO 
THROW 

In  time,  after  months  of  practice,  you  will 
be  able  to  throw  an  opponent,  no  matter 
how  much  stronger  he  is  than  yourself. 


FIG.  a. 

But  at  first,  if  you  have  an  opponent  much 
stronger  than  yourself,  it  may  be  well  to 
employ  the  method  illustrated  in  Figure  2. 
Take  the  hand  grip  in  the  same  way  as  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  paragraphs.  Place 
your  right  foot  behind  his  left  foot,  in  or- 
der to  trip.  At  the  same  time  throw  your 
open  left  hand  against  the  right  side  of  his 
head.  Simultaneously  twist  his  left  wrist, 
push  against  his  head,  and  employ  your  foot 
in  the  trip. 

In  case  of  seizing  your  opponent  by  the 
right  hand,  all  the  above  directions  are  of 
course  reversed. 

CLINCHING  THE  ARM  TO  THROW 

After  fully  mastering  the  above  manoeu- 
vres the  student  of  jiu-jitsu  is  ready  for 
the  next.  (Figure  3.)  Close  your  left  hand 
around  the  left  wrist  of  your  opponent, 
forcing  him  "to  extend  that  arm.  At  the 
same  time  throw  your  right  arm  over  his 
left  arm  at  the  shoulder.  In  this  position 


JIU-JITSU 


597 


force  your  right  arm  under  his  left  arm 
and  with  your  right  hand  clutch  your  left 
wrist.  In  this  attitude  bear  with  all  the 
weight  you  wish  upon  your  right  arm,  and 
you  will  momentarily  cause  your  opponent 
to  feel  a  great  deal  of  pain  in  his  left  arm. 
The  whole  trick  lies  in  getting  your  right 
arm  as  high  up  as  possible  against  his  left 
shoulder.  Should  he  attempt  to  strike  you 
in  this  clinch,  you  will  find  it  in  your  power 
to  swing  him  around  as  much  as  you  wish; 
you  will  avoid  the  blow  from  his  right  fist 
and  will  at  the  same  time  give  him  acute 
pain  as  long  as  he  resists.  An  extra 
wrench,  while  in  this  clinch,  will  throw 
your  opponent.  As  in  the  foregoing  and 
in  all  these  exercises,  whenever  you  seize 
your  opponent  by  the  other  hand  or  arm 
than  the  one  indicated  the  directions  should 
be  reversed. 

HOLDING  OFF  AN  ADVERSARY 

Now  comes  one  of  the  prettiest  grips 
known  to  elementary  jiu-jitsu.  Again  seize 
your  opponent  by  the  left  wrist,  wholly  and 
tightly  inclosing  it  with  your  left  hand. 
Throw  your  right  arm  under  his  left  arm, 
holding  him  at  the  nape  of  the  neck  with 
your  open  right  hand.  The  real  trick  in 
this  manoeuvre  is  to  keep  your  right  arm 
straight  and  rigid.  Hold  tightly  to  your 
adversary's  left  wrist,  and,  with  your  rigid 
right  arm,  keep  his  head  away.  It  will 
be  impossible  for  him  to  strike  you  with  his 


FIG.  3. 

right  fist.  At  the  same  time,  by  any  for- 
ward wrench,  you  can  cause  him  such  pain 
in  his  captive  left  wrist  that  he  will  be 
glad  to  abandon  the  now  unequal  contest. 
Figure  4  explains  the  position  to  take. 


THE  PUSHING  HOLD 

Next,  for  a  breathing  spell,  we  will  at- 
tempt a  manoeuvre  that  does  not  bear  di- 
rectly upon  self-defence,  yet  it  offers  one 
of  the  best-known  methods  of  developing 
every  muscle  in  the  body.  Stand  close  to 
each  other,  breast  to  breast.  Spread  your 
feet  as  far  apart  as  they  will  go.  Extend 
your  arms  horizontally,  the  opposite  hands 
clutching  each  other.  Maintaining  this  po- 


FlG.  4. 

sition  as  rigidly  as  possible,  each  contestant 
should  strive  to  press  the  other  backward. 
Finally,  let  one  or  the  other,  still  keeping 
his  arms  horizontal  with  the  floor,  bring 
his  arms  rigidly  in  front  of  him,  forcing  his 
opponent  to  do  the  same,  and  thus  obliging 
that  opponent  to  yield  two  or  three  feet 
more.  This  exercise,  if  persisted  in  for 
several  minutes  every  day  for  a  few  months, 
will  equip  both  contestants  with  muscles 
of  steel.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  best  all- 
around  exercise,  considering  the  amount  of 
time  required  daily,  that  is  known  to  any 
system  of  athletics. 

THE   THROTTLING   HOLD 

Take  a  careful  look  at  Figure  5.  This 
illustrates  the  most  decisive  way  of  chok- 
ing an  opponent  that  is  known.  Place  both 
hands  inside  your  opponent's  collar,  the 
hands  being  nearly  back  to  back.  In  this 
position  the  second  knuckles  of  the  fore- 
fingers should  rest,  on  either  side,  just  at 
the  back  of  the  "Adam's  Apple."  Having 
secured  this  grip,  twist  the  hands  closer 
together,  applying  most  of  the  pressure 
with  the  second  knuckles  of  the  forefingers. 
A  complete  stoppage  of  breath  follows.  In 
an  ordinary  choking,  a  powerful  enemy  is 
able  to  shake  himself  free.  When,  how" 


598 


JIU-JITSU 


ever,  the  manoeuvre  described  in  this  para- 
graph is  faithfully  followed,  he  has  no 
chance  to  free  himself,  and  must  quickly 
yield.  The  more  fiercely  he  struggles  the 
harder  you  apply  the  pressure,  and  thus 
the  sooner  he  reaches  unconsciousness. 

THROWING  OVER  THE  HEAD 

In  Figure  6  is  portrayed  a  trick  that  can 
not  fail  to  astound  a  new  hand  at  jiu-jitsu 
the  first  time  it  is  tried  upon  him.  This 
trick  must  be  tried  in  a  room  the  floor  of 
which  is  covered  with  soft  mattresses  or 
on  a  haymow,  or  elsewhere  that  a  soft  fall 
is  assured.  Each  contestant  should  be  in 
his  underclothing,  or  in  bathing  costume, 
and  without  shoes.  Each  must  wear  a 
jacket  of  tough  cloth. 

Begin  by  seizing  with  either  hand  the 
lapels  of  your  adversary's  coat.  As  soon 
as  you  have  done  this,  raise  your  right 
foot,  placing  it  firmly  against  the  fleshy 
front  of  your  opponent's  leg  just  below  the 
crotch.  In  the  same  instant,  hop  as  close 
to  him  as  you  can.  Holding  tightly  to  the 
lapels  of  his  jacket  and  with  your  right 
foot  still  in  place,  throw  yourself  over  back- 
ward, carrying  him  with  you.  Though  your 
opponent  be  much  heavier  than  yourself, 
he  can  not  help  flying  over  your  head,  and 
will  land  on  his  back  beyond  you.  This 
trick  can  not  fail,  if  properly  carried  out, 
nor  can  it  result  in  any  injury  to  either 
contestant  if  the  double  fall  is  made  on  a 
soft  enough  surface.  Of  course  you  know 
what  is  coming,  while  your  opponent  does 
not.  You  will,  therefore,  have  the  presence 
of  mind  to  spring  up  instanter  and  throw 


FIG.  5. 

yourself  upon  him,  pinning  him  where  he 
has  fallen  before  he  has  had  time  to  re- 
cover from  the  daze  in  which  the  unex- 
pected trick  has  left  him. 


TO   DISABLE   THE   ARM   AND 
THROW 

In  order  to  overpower  an  adversary  by 
rendering  his  arm  useless  and  throwing 
him,  grasp  him  by  the  wrist,  and,  setting 
the  point  of  your  elbow  above  and  inside 
the  bend  of  his  arm,  pull  his  forearm  up- 
ward toward  his  shoulder.  This  move- 
ment may  be  readily  performed  even  on  an 


FIG.  6. 

adversary  stronger  than  yourself — the  po- 
sition of  your  elbow  giving  a  leverage  that 
is  very  difficult  to  resist.  When  your  adver- 
sary's arm  is  thus  raised  he  will  be  unable 
to  lower  it,  and,  by  continuing  the  move- 
ment, he  may  be  thrown  backward. 

FORCING    THE    HEAD    BACKWARD 

Another  trick  that  will  frequently  prove 
of  use,  either  when  the  others  can  not 
be  successfully  performed,  or  when  you  are 
grappled  from  behind,  is  to  grasp  your  ad- 
versary by  the  right  shoulder  with  the  right 
hand,  and,  using  that  point  as  a  fulcrum, 
to  force  his  head  backward  by  pressure 
with  the  forearm  under  his  chin.  If  you 
can  also  hold  him  with  the  left  hand,  he 
may  speedily  be  rendered  helpless  and  so 
brought  to  terms. 

TO  THROW  FROM  A  CLINCH  OR 
BLOW 

One  of  the  neatest  and  most  serviceable 
"tricks"  of  ordinary  jiu-jitsu — one,  also, 
that  may  be  used  by  a  woman  in  overcom- 
ing an  assailant — consists  simply  in  grasp- 
ing the  antagonist's  hand  and  forcing  it 
b?ck  against  his  shoulder.  If  he  reaches 


JIU-JITSU 


599 


out  to  seize  you,  quickly  grab  his  hand, 
preferably  by  the  ends  of  the  fingers — your 
hand  meeting  his  so  as  to  seize  his  fingers 
between  your  fingers  and  palm — and,  be- 
fore he  has  time  to  perceive  your  inten- 
tion, force  his  hand  upward  and  backward, 
bending  his  elbow,  until  his  hand  is  against 
his  shoulder.  As  may  be  readily  discov- 
ered by  experiment,  a  person  seized  in  this 
manner  can  not  resist  with  the  arm  you 
hold,  and,  if  you  are  quick  enough,  you 
may  push  him  backward  to  the  ground. 
Do  not  fail  to  hold  down  an  antagonist 


you  have  once  thrown  in  this  manner. 
The  throttling  hold  already  explained  is 
the  safest  and  most  effectual,  when  your 
antagonist  is  much  the  stronger;  although 
both  his  arms  may  be  pinioned  back,  if  you 
are  strong  enough  to  resist  his  struggles 
and  do  not  wish  to  harm  him. 

The  same  movement  may  be  successfully 
used  by  a  man  of  sufficient  strength  in 
seizing  the  fist  of  an  antagonist  attempt- 
ing to  strike  him.  It  requires  greater 
strength  and  quickness,  however,  than  is 
needed  to  work  on  the  unclinched  hands. 


HI  1111  iiii  iiii  iiiriiii  iniiiiriiii  ilium  muni  in.  in.  mini,  in.  1111  iiiiiinjii.in.  nuiiii  iiinifi  iiimiiiiii  1111  11 


AGRICULTURE 


AGRICULTURE  is  the  art  of  cultivating  the  ground,  and  of  obtain- 
ing from  it  the  product  necessary  to  sustain  animal  life. 
The  change  from  a  state  of  nature,  in  which  the  human  race 
must  have  first  lived,  to  the  pastoral,  or  to  any  high  mode  of  living,  must 
have  been  gradual,  the  work,  perhaps,  of  ages.  The  race  was  doomed  to 
toil,  and  necessity  soon  sharpened  the  power  of  invention.  The  agriculture 
of  a  people  must  be  influenced  by  the  climate  and  natural  features  of  the 
country.  Formerly  its  progress  largely  depended  on  the  density  of  the 
population,  but  now,  the  iron  horse  and  the  giant  steamer  bear  away  the 
product  of  the  farm,  and  the  results  of  the  labor  of  a  few  are  reaped  by 
the  many,  hundreds  and  thousands  of  miles  away.  This  vast  continent 
has  been  justly  called  the  granary  of  the  world.  We  shall  now  see  how 
even  the  smallest  farm  may  be  managed  so  as  to  produce  good  crops  and 
prove  profitable  to  its  owner. 


SOILS      AND      THEIR      TREATMENT 


IN  selecting  a  farm,  or  entering  upon  the 
cultivation  of  one  already  in  possession, 
the  farmer  should,  first  of  all,  turn  his  at- 
tention to  an  investigation  of  the  various 
soils  of  which  its  surface  is  composed. 

All  soils  adapted  to  agricultural  purposes 
are  composed  of  two  classes  of  substances 
— organic  and  inorganic.  The  inorganic 
parts  are  derived  from  the  decay  of  animal 
and  vegetable  matter.  The  organic  part  of 
the  soil  is  generally  called  vegetable  mould, 
but  scientific  writers  designate  it  as  humus. 
To  be  fertile,  a  soil  must  contain  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  this  organic  matter.  More 
than  fifty  per  cent  of  humus,  however,  in  a 
moist  soil  has  an  injurious  effect,  rendering 
it  what  is  called  sour. 
(600) 


Of  the  various  soils  several  distinct  classi- 
fications may  be  made.  It  will  be  well,  at 
the  outset,  to  consider  them  all  as  embraced 
in  two  grand  classes — heavy  or  light.  The 
distinction  indicated  by  these  terms  is  fa- 
miliar to  every  farmer.  He  knows,  too,  that 
it  is  a  predominance  of  clay  which  makes 
a  soil  heavy,  and  that  an  excess  of  sand 
or  of  gravel  makes  a  soil  what  is  called 
light. 

Heavy  soils,  also  often  denominated  cold 
and  wet,  are  distinguished  for  their  affinity 
for  water,  their  tenacity,  their  softness  when 
wet,  and  their  hardness  when  dry.  They 
are  admirably  adapted  to  wheat,  oats,  In- 
dian corn,  and  the  various  grasses;  hence 
they  are  sometimes  styled  grass  lands,  and 


AGRICULTURE 


601 


are  generally  susceptible  of  being  made 
highly  productive. 

Light  soils  are  easily  cultivated,  friable, 
dry,  and  warm ;  but  their  porousness  renders 
them  liable  to  drought  and  exhaustion. 
They  are  particularly  adapted  to  rye,  barley, 
buckwheat,  and  the  tap-rooted  plants. 

Soils  are  chiefly  made  up  of  what  are 
sometimes  called  the  three  primitive  earths 
— silex  (including  sand  and  gravel),  clay, 
and  lime.  As  either  of  these  predominates, 
it  gives  its  peculiar  character  to  the  soil, 
whence  we  have  the  arrangement  into  three 
grand  classes — sandy,  clayey,  and  limy  soils. 

1.  Sandy  Soils. — A  soil  containing  not  less 
than  seventy  per  cent  of  sand  may  be  con- 
sidered  sandy,   in  the   sense  in   which  the 
term  is  here  used. 

2.  Clayey  Soils. — Clay  with  a  mixture  of 
not  more  than  twenty  per  cent  of  sand  forms 
a  clayey  soil. 

3.  Limy  Soils. — Limy  or  calcareous  soils 
are  those  in  which  lime,  exceeding  twenty 
per  cent,  becomes  the  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic.    Calcareous  soils  may  be  either  cal- 
careous clays,  calcareous  sands,  or  calcare- 
ous loams,  according  to  the  proportions  of 
clay  or  sand  that  may  be  present  in  them. 

4.  Loamy  Soils. — Loamy  soils  are  inter- 
mediate between  those   denominated  sandy 
and  those  with  predominant  clayey  charac- 
teristics.     There  'are    sandy    loams,    clayey 
loams,     calcareous     loams,     and    vegetable 
loams. 

5.  Marly  Soils. — Soils  containing  lime,  but 
in  which   the   proportion   does   not   exceed 
twenty     per    cent,     are     sometimes     called 
marly. 

6.  Alluvial  Soils.     Soils  made  up  of  the 
washings    of    streams    are    called    alluvial. 
They  contain  portions  of  every  kind  of  soil 
existing  in  the  surrounding  country,  and  are 
generally  loamy  and  very  fertile. 

7.  Vegetable  Moulds. — When  decayed  veg- 
etable and  animal  matter  or  humus  exists 
in  so  great  a  proportion  as  to  give  the  pre- 
dominant character  to  a  soil,  it  sometimes 
receives  the  name  of  vegetable  mould. 

8.  Subsoils. — The  stratum  or  bed  on  which 
a  soil  immediately  rests  is  called  the  sub- 
soil.     Subsoils,    like    soils,    may    be    either 
silicious,  argillaceous,  or  calcareous. 

Heavy  soils  are  often  stronger  and  more 
productive  than  light ;  but  they  require  more 
labor  for  pulverization  and  tillage.  They 
can  not  be  plowed  when  very  wet,  nor  so 
well  when  very  dry. 

Sandy  and  gravelly  loams  also  contain 
clays,  but  in  smaller  quantity;  so  that  they 
do  not  present  the  cloddiness  and  adhesive- 


ness of  heavy  soils.  Though  possessing, 
generally,  less  strength  than  clay  soils,  they 
are  far  more  easily  tilled,  and  may  be 
worked  without  difficulty  in  wet  weather. 
They  do  not  crack  or  break  in  drought.  In- 
dian corn,  ruta-bagas,  and  some  other  crops, 
succeed  best  upon  them.  Sandy  soils  are 
very  easily  tilled,  but  are  generally  not 
strong  enough.  When  made  rich,  they  are 
fine  for  some  succulent  crops.  Peaty  soils 
are  generally  light  and  free,  containing  large 
quantities  of  decayed  vegetable  matter.  They 
are  made  by  draining  low  and  swampy 
grounds.  They  are  fine  for  Indian  corn, 
broom  corn,  barley,  potatoes,  and  turnips. 
They  are  great  absorbers,  and  great  radia- 
tors of  heat;  hence  they  become  warm  in 
sunshine  and  cold  in  clear  nights.  For  this 
reason  they  are  peculiarly  liable  to  frosts. 
Crops  planted  upon  them  must,  consequent- 
ly, be  put  in  late,  after  spring  frosts  are 
over.  Corn  should  be  of  early  varieties, 
that  it  may  not  only  be  planted  late,  but 
ripen  early. 

Each  of  these  kinds  of  soil  may  be  vari- 
ously improved.  Heavy  soils  are  much  im- 
proved by  draining:  open  drains  to  carry 
off  the  surface-water,  and  covered  drains, 
that  which  settles  beneath.  Heavy  soils  are 
also  made  lighter  and  freer  by  manuring; 
by  plowing  under  coatings  of  straw,  rotten 
chips,  and  swamp  muck;  and,  in  some  rare 
cases,  by  carting  on  sand,  though  this  is 
usually  too  expensive  for  practice.  Subsoil 
plowing  is  very  beneficial  both  in  wet  sea- 
sons and  in  drought;  the  deep,  loose  bed  of 
earth  it  makes,  receiving  the  water  in 
heavy  rains,  and  throwing  it  off  to  the  soil 
above,  when  needed;  but  a  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  the  operation  is  needed,  as  the  sub- 
soil gradually  settles  again. 

Sandy  soils  are  improved  by  manuring, 
by  the  application  of  lime,  and  by  frequently 
plowing  in  green  crops. 

The  great  art  of  saving  and  manufactur- 
ing manure  consists  in  retaining  and  apply- 
ing to  the  best  advantage  those  soluble  and 
gaseous  portions.  Probably  more  than  one- 
half  of  all  the  materials  which  exist  in  the 
country  are  lost,  totally  lost,  by  not  attend- 
ing to  the  drainage  of  stables  and  farm- 
yards. This  could  be  retained  by  a  copious 
application  of  straw;  by  littering  with  saw- 
dust, when  saw-mills  are  near;  and  more 
especially  by  the  frequent  coating  of  yards 
and  stables  with  dried  peat  and  swamp 
muck,  of  which  many  parts  of  our  States 
furnish  inexhaustible  supplies. 

Our  limits  do  not  admit  of  many  remarks 
on  the  principles  of  rotation.  The  follow- 


602 


AGRICULTURE 


ing    courses,    however,    have    been    found 
among  some  of  the  best. 

I.  istyear — Corn  and  roots,  well  ma- 
nured. 

ad  year — Wheat,  sown  with  clover- 
seed;  15  Ib.  an  acre. 

3d  year — Clover,  one  or  more  years, 

according  to  fertility  and 

amount  of  manure  at  hand. 

II.  ist  year — Corn  and  roots,  with  all  the 

manure. 

2d  year — Barley  and  peas. 

3d  year — Wheat,  sown  with  clover. 

4th  year — Clover,  one  or  more  years. 
III.  ist  year — Corn  and  roots,  with  all  the 
manure. 

2d  year — Barley. 

3d  year — Wheat,  sown  with  clover. 

4th  year — Pasture. 

5th  year — Meadow. 

6th  year — Fallow. 

7th  year — Wheat. 

8th  year — Oats,  sown  with  clover. 

9th  year — Pasture  or  meadow. 

The  number  of  the  fields  must  correspond 
with  the  number  of  the  changes  in  each 
course,  the  first  needing  three  fields  to  carry 
it  out,  the  second,  four,  and  the  third,  nine. 
As  each  field  contains  a  crop  each,  in  the 
several  successive  stages  of  the  course,  the 
whole  number  of  fields  collectively  com- 
prise the  entire  series  of  crops  every  year. 
Thus,  in  the  list  above  given,  there  are  two 
fields  of  wheat  growing  at  once,  three  of 
meadow  and  pasture,  one  of  corn  and  roots, 
one  of  barley,  one  of  oats,  and  one  in  sum- 
mer fallow. 

Operations  in  the  Order  of  Time. — The 
vital  consequence  of  doing  everything  in 
the  right  season  is  known  to  every  good 
farmer. 

In  reviewing  the  various  items  which  are 
most  immediately  essential  to  good  farm 
management,  some  of  the  most  obvious  will 
be — capital  enough  to  buy  the  farm  and  to 
stock  it  well ;  to  select  a  size  compatible  with 
these  requisites ;  to  lay  it  out  in  the  best 
manner;  to  provide  it  well  with  fences, 
gates,  and  buildings;  to  select  the  best  ani- 
mals and  the  best  implements  to  be  had  rea- 
sonably; to  bring  the  soil  into  good  condi- 
tion, by  draining,  manuring,  and  good 
culture;  to  have  every  part  under  a  good 
rotation  of  crops,  and  every  operation  ar- 
ranged so  as  all  to  be  conducted  systemat- 
ically, without  clashing  or  confusion.  An 
attention  to  all  these  points  would  place 
agriculture  on  a  very  different  footing  from 
its  present  condition  in  many  places  and 


with  most  fanners.  The  business  then,  in- 
stead of  being  repulsive,  as  it  so  frequently 
is  to  our  young  men,  would  be  attended 
with  real  enjoyment  and  pleasure. 

But  in  all  improvements,  in  all  enter- 
prises, the  great  truth  must  not  be  forgot- 
ten, that  success  is  not  to  be  expected  with- 
out diligence  and  industry.  We  must  sow 
in  spring  and  cultivate  well  in  summer  if 
we  would  reap  an  abundant  harvest  in 
autumn. 

ANALYSIS    OF    SOILS 

Chemical  analysis  shows  that  the  organic 
parts  of  a  soil  are  composed  of  carbon,  oxy- 
gen, nitrogen,  and  hydrogen.  The  inorganic 
parts  of  a  fertile  soil,  in  addition  to  the 
silex,  clay,  and  lime,  of  which  we  have  al- 
ready spoken,  contain  smaller  quantities  of 
magnesja,  potash,  soda,  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
chlorine,  oxide  of  iron,  and  oxide  of  manga- 
nese. All  these  are  essential  to  independent 
fertility. 

To  ascertain  the  percentage  of  sand  which 
a  soil  may  contain,  dry  a  quantity  thorough- 
ly; weigh  it;  boil  it  in  water;  stir  it  in  a 
convenient  vessel,  and  when  the  sand  has 
settled  pour  off  the  liquid,  which  will  hold 
the  fine  clay,  etc.,  in  suspension;  after  do- 
ing this  a  few  times,  nothing  will  remain  in 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel  but  nearly  pure 
sand,  which  may  be  dried  and  weighed,  and 
the  quantity  will  show  whether  the  soil  be 
sandy,  loamy,  or  clayey. 

Any  considerable  quantity  of  lime  in  a 
soil  is  readily  detected  by  pouring  upon  it 
a  little  muriatic  acid,  which  may  be  obtained 
at  any  apothecary  shop.  So  soon  as  this 
acid  comes  in  contact  with  lime,  if  there  be 
any,  a  brisk  effervescence  will  take  place, 
owing  to  the  bubbling  up  and  escape  of 
carbonic  acid  gas. 

I.  Texture  of  Soils. — Considered  in  ref- 
erence to  texture,  a  soil  may  be  described 
as  essentially  a  mixture  of  an  impalpable 
powder  with  a  greater  or  smaller  quantity 
of  visible  particles  of  all  sizes  and  shapes. 
Now,  although  the  visible  particles  are  ab- 
solutely essential,  their  effects  are,  as  it 
were,  indirect;  the  impalpable  powder  alone 
exerting  a  direct  influence  upon  vegetation, 
by  entering  into  solution  with  the  water  and 
acids  with  which  it  comes  in  contact;  for 
plants  are  incapable  of  taking  in  solid  mat- 
ter, however  minutely  divided;  and  it  is  in 
a  liquid  or  gaseous  form  only  that  their 
food  can  be  received.  From  this  it  will  be 
readily  understood  how  a  soil  may  possess 
all  the  elements  of  fertility  and  yet  be  bar- 
ren, on  account  of  some  of  these  elements 


AGRICULTURE 


603 


being  locked  up  in  it,  as  it  were,  in  an  in- 
soluble condition.  The  stones  and  smaller 
visible  portions  of  the  soil  are  gradually  but 
constantly  crumbling  down  under  the  action 
of  air,  moisture,  and  other  chemical  agents, 
thus  adding,  from  year  to  year,  new  impal- 
pable matter  to  the  soil.  The  greater  the 
proportion  of  this  impalpable  matter,  all 
other  things  being  equal,  the  greater  will  be 
the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Soils  must  also  be  examined  in  reference 
to  their  consistency  or  tenacity,  which  is 
nothing  more  than  the  strength  with  which 
their  molecules  or  particles  are  bound  to 
each  other  by  what  is  called,  in  the  language 
of  natural  philosophy,  the  attraction  of  co- 
hesion. Clayey  soils  have  the  greatest  de- 
gree of  consistency,  and  sandy  soils  the  least. 
Both  extremes  are  unfavorable,  a  medium  in 
this  respect  agreeing  best  with  vegetation. 

2.  Depth   of  Soil. — A   deep  soil   has   not 
only  the  advantage  of  giving  the  roots  of 
plants  a  wider  range   and   a   greater  mass 
of  food,  but  it  retains  moisture  better   in 
seasons  of  drought,   and  is  not  so  readily 
saturated  in  rainy   weather.     For  the  tap- 
rooted  plants,  such  as  beets,  carrots,  pars- 
nips, etc.,  depth  of  soil  is  particularly  im- 
portant. 

3.  Colors  of  Soils. — The  brown  and  red 
soils    are    generally    the    best.     They    are 
termed   warm,   and   are  mostly  loamy  and 
fertile.     Yellow  and  gray  indicate  clayey  soils, 
which  are  cold  in  their  nature.     Black  gen- 
erally indicates  peat  or  deep  vegetable  mould. 
Dark-colored  earths  absorb  heat  more  rap- 
idly than  others,  but  they  also  allow  it  to 
escape  with  equal  readiness. 

4.  Humidity  of  Soils. — Too  great  moist- 
ure is  not  less  injurious  to  a  soil  than  ex- 
treme dryness.     The  proper  medium  should 
be  sought,  and  where  land  is  too  wet,  thor- 
ough  underdraining  should  be  practiced. 

5.  Influence    of    Subsoils. — A    subsoil    of 
clay  beneath  a  clayey  soil  is  unfavorable ; 
but   beneath    a    sandy   soil    it   is   beneficial, 
especially   if   deep   plowing   and   subsoiling 
be  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  improv- 
ing the  latter.     On   the   same   principle   a 
sandy  or  gravelly  subsoil  is  desirable  under 
clayey  soils.     A  calcareous  or  limy  subsoil 
is  beneficial  to  both  clayey  and  sandy  soils. 

6.  Position  and  Form  of  Surface. — Sandy 
soils  are  most  fertile  when  flat  and  situated 
lower   than   the    surrounding  country.     On 
the  declivities  of  hills,  such  soil  is  of  less 
value,  as  it  is  liable  to  become  parched  by 
droughts  and  washed  away  by  rains.  Clayey 
soils,  on  the'  contrary,  especially  where  the 
subsoil  is  impermeable,  are  favorably  situ- 


ated when  on  a  hillside.  Southern  and  east- 
ern exposures  are  favorable  to  early  vege- 
tation, and,  in  a  cold  climate  or  with  a 
clayey  soil,  are  very  desirable  for  many 
crops. 

1.  Improving  Clayey  Soils. — One   of  the 
principal  defects  of  clayey  soils,  especially 
where  they  rest  upon  a  subsoil  of  the  same  ' 
nature,  is  the  excess  of  water  which  is  held 
in  them.    The  only  effectual  way,  in  a  ma- 
jority of  cases,  to  get  rid  of  this  is  by  thor- 
ough underdraining.  Open  drains  or  ditch'es, 
though  less  effectual,  are  useful.     In  some 
cases,  "water  furrows,"  terminating  in  some 
ravine  or  ditch,  serve  a  very  good  purpose. 

Lime  is  exceedingly  useful  as  an  amelio- 
rator of  clayey  soils.  Gypsum  or  plaster 
of  Paris,  ashes,  coarse  vegetable  manures, 
straw,  leaves,  chips,  etc.,  are  also  very  use- 
ful, adding  new  materials  to  the  soil,  and 
tending  to  separate  its  particles  and  destroy 
their  strong  cohesion.  In  cold  climates, 
plowing  clayey  lands  in  the  fall,  and  thus 
exposing  them  to  the  action  of  the  frosts 
and  snows,  has  a  beneficial  effect.  At  the 
South,  where  there  is  little  frost,  and  fre- 
quent and  heavy  rains  occur  during  the 
winter,  the  effect  of  fall  plowing  is  very 
injurious.  Clayey  lands  must  never  be 
plowed  when  wet. 

Where  a  clayey  soil  rests  upon  a  sandy 
subsoil,  its  improvement  is  easier,  as  deep 
plowing,  by  which  a  portion  of  the  subsoil 
is  turned  up  and  mixed  with  the  soil,  soon 
modifies  it  very  sensibly. 

2.  Improving   Sandy   Soils. — Sandy   soils 
require   a   treatment   in   most   respects   the 
reverse  of  that  applied  to  clayey  soils. 

Lime  and  gypsum,  which  render  clayey 
soils  more  friable,  increase  the  adhesive- 
ness of  sandy  soils,  and  when  cheaply  ob- 
tained furnish  a  profitable  dressing.  Ashes 
may  also  be  applied  with  great  benefit,  as 
may  vegetable  manures  and  vegetable  mould. 
Sandy  soils  are  plowed  to  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage when  wet,  and  are  improved  by  the 
frequent  use  of  a  heavy  roller.  Pasturing 
sheep  upon  them  is  very  beneficial. 

Gravelly  soils  (except  calcareous  gravels) 
are  more  difficult  of  improvement  than 
sandy  soils,  and  are  most  profitably  ap- 
propriated to  pasturage.  Sheep  will  keep 
them  in  the  most  useful  condition  of  which 
they  are  capable. 

3.  Improvement     of     Vegetable     Soils. — 
Soils  composed  mainly  of  humus  or  vege- 
table mould  should  be  drained  from  all  ex- 
cess of  water.     Then  the  hummocks,  if  any, 
must   be   cut   off,   dried,    and   burned,    and 
the   ashes   spread   over  the   surface;    after 


604 


AGRICULTURE 


which  sand,  fine  gravel,  ashes,  air-slaked 
time,  and  barnyard  manure  should  be  lib- 
erally added. 

4.  Management  of  Subsoils. — In  subsoil 
plowing  a  common  plow  goes  first,  and  is 
followed  in  the  same  furrow  by  the  sub- 
soil plow,  which  thoroughly  breaks  up  the 
.subsoil  to  the  depth  of  from  twelve  to 
sixteen  inches,  without  displacing  it.  At 
subsequent  plowings  portions  of  this  sub- 
soil are  turned  up  by  allowing  the  common 
ploV  to  run  more  deeply  than  before;  but 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  bring  it  up  too 
rapidly  or  in  too  large  quantities. 

Subsoil  plowing  should  be  repeated  once 
in  five  or  six  years;  going  each  time  a  lit- 
tle deeper  than  before,  till  the  greatest  prac- 
tical depth  is  attained. 

Subsoil  plowing  is  not  applicable,  how- 
ever, to  all  lands.  Where  the  subsoil  is 
loose  and  leachy,  consisting  of  an  excess 
of  sand  or  gravel,  it  is  not  only  unnecessary 
but  positively  injurious. 

The  gradual  mixing  of  the  subsoil  with 
the  soil  which  results  from  subsoil  plowing 
is  especially  beneficial  to  lands  which  have 
been  for  a  long  time  under  cultivation,  and 
have  become  partially  exhausted. 

Where  underdraining  is  required,  it 
should  precede  the  subsoiling,  and  the  sur- 
face of  the  drains  should  be  sufficiently  be- 
low the  surface  not  to  be  disturbed  by  the 
subsoil  plow. 

With  the  exception  we  have  noted,  where 
the  subsoil  is  loose  and  leachy,  subsoil 
plowing,  though  expensive,  will  most  cer- 
tainly "pay,"  as  experience  has  amply 
proved. 

MANURE 

The  productive  power  of  soils  subjected 
to  cultivation  is  gradually  exhausted  by  the 
process.  Some  of  the  alluvial  lands  of 
Virginia  produced  large  annual  crops  of 
corn  and  tobacco  for  more  than  a  century, 
without  any  return  being  made  to  them 
for  the  elements  of  fertility  abstracted;  but 
'  these  lands  are  now  nearly  valueless. 

The  average  yield,  per  acre,  of  the  culti- 
vated lands  of  the  State  of  New  York  has 
decreased  since  1844.  In  corn,  the  decrease  is 
nearly  four  bushels  per  acre ;  in  wheat,  near- 
ly two  bushels;  and  in  potatoes,  partly  ow- 
ing to  the  rot,  no  doubt,  twenty-two  and  a 
half  bushels. 

These  are  instructive  facts,  and  should 
cause  the  farmer  to  pause  and  reflect. 

Both  the  organic  and  inorganic  parts  of 
plants  are  made  up  from  their  food,  which 
must,  of  course,  consist  of  both  organic 


and  inorganic  materials.  The  former  are 
obtained  partly  from  the  soil  and  partly 
from  the  air;  the  latter  come  exclusively 
from  the  soil.  A  fertile  soil  must  there- 
fore contain,  in  sufficient  quantity  and  in 
an  available  form,  all  the  constituents  of 
plants;  and  to  maintain  its  fertility  under 
cultivation,  these  constituents  must  be  sup- 
plied in  the  form  of  manures  as  fast  as 
they  are  taken  up  by  the  crops  produced. 

I. — VEGETABLE   MANURES 

Vegetable  manures  are  not  so  energetic 
in  their  action  as  those  of  animal  or  min- 
eral origin,  but  their  effects  are  more  dur- 
able; and  the  wise  agriculturist  will  avail 
himself  largely  of  the  cheap  means  of  ame- 
liorating his  soil  which  they  afford. 

1.  Green  Crops. — Plowing  in  green  crops, 
such  as  clover,  spurry,  sainfoin,  buckwheat, 
cow-peas,    turnips    (sown   thickly),    Indian 
corn,  etc.,  is  one  of  the  best  modes  of  ren- 
ovating  and   sustaining  a   soil.     Worn-out 
lands,  unsalable  at  ten  dollars  an  acre,  have 
by  this  means,  while  steadily  remunerating 
their   proprietors   by   their   returning   crops 
for  all  the  outlay  of  labor  and  money,  been 
brought  up  in  value  to  fifty  dollars  an  acre. 

For  the  Northern  States  red  clover  has 
been  found  best  fitted  for  a  green  manure ; 
but  in  particular  cases  some  other  crop  may 
be  used  with  greater  advantage.  At  the 
South,  the  cow-pea  (which  is  no  pea,  but 
a  bean)  is  considered  the  best  fertilizer. 

Clover  and  most  broad-leaved  plants  draw 
largely  for  their  sustenance  from  the  air, 
especially  when  aided  by  the  application  of 
gypsum.  By  its  long  tap-roots,  clover  also 
draws  much  from  the  subsoil. 

The  proper  time  to  turn  in  most  plants 
used  as  green  manure  is  at  the  season  of 
blossoming. 

The  same  effects  follow  the  plowing  of 
grass  lands,  and  turning  under  the  turf; 
and  the  thicker  and  heavier  the  sward  the 
better. 

2.  Straw,  Leaves,  etc. — Straw,  leaves,  hay, 
are  usually  applied  to  the  lands  after  they 
have  either  been   worked  over  by  animals 
and    mixed    with    their   manures,    or   com- 
posted  with   other   substances   and   decom- 
posed ;    but    clayey    soils    are   benefited    by 
their  application  in  an  undecayed  state. 

Potato  -  tops  or  haulm ;  bean  haulm ; 
weeds,  pulled  before  they  have  seeded,  and 
all  kinds  of  vegetable  refuse,  are  readily 
decomposed  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  animal  substances  or  lime,  and 
should  be  carefully  composted. 


AGRICULTURE 


605 


3.  Sea-weed. — Sea-weed    and    pond-weed 
form  valuable  manures.    The  former  is  par- 
ticularly rich  in  the  substances  most  needed 
by  our  crops. 

4.  Cotton    Seed. — At    the    South,    cotton 
seed  is  much  used  as  a  manure,  and  is  very 
valuable  for  that  purpose.     It  is  applied  at 
the  rate  of  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  bush- 
els per  acre.   It  may  be  sown  broadcast  and 
plowed  in  during  the  winter,  when  it  will 
rot  before  spring,  or  it  may  be  left  in  heaps 
to  heat  till  its  vitality  is  destroyed,  when 
it  may  be  thrown  upon  the  corn  hills  and 
covered  with  the  hoe  or  plow. 

5.  Turf,  Muck,  Mud,  etc. — Rich  turf,  full 
of   the   roots   of   the   grasses   and   decayed 
vegetable  matter,  is  valuable  as  an  absor- 
bent of  animal  or  other  manures  in  com- 
post heaps.     Mixing  it  with  lime,  and  leav- 
ing it  several  weeks  to  decompose,  is  a  good 
preparatory  process. 

Swamp  muck,  pond  mud,  and  the  scour- 
ings  of  old  ditches,  are  exceedingly  rich  in 
vegetable  matter,  and  are  all  very  useful 
as  manures. 

II. — ANIMAL   MANURES 

These  comprise  the  flesh,  blood,  hair, 
bones,  horns,  excrements,  etc.,  of  animals. 
They  contain  more  nitrogen  than  vegetable 
manures,  and  are  far  more  powerful. 

1.  Stable    Manures. — The    standard    ma- 
nure of  this  country  is  that  from  the  stable 
and  barnyard.     The  principal  varieties  are 
those  of  the  ox,   the  cow,   the  horse,  and 
the  sheep.     Of  these,  that  of  the  horse  is 
the  most  valuable  in  its  fresh  state,  but  is 
very   liable,    as   ordinarily   treated,   to   lose 
much  of  its  value  by  fermentation ;  that  of 
the   sheep   comes   next;    while  that  of  the 
cow  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  list,  be- 
cause the  enriching  substance  of  her  food 
goes  principally  to  the  formation  of  milk. 
That  of  the  ox  is  better. 

All  the  urine  as  well  as  the  solid  ex- 
crements of  animals  should  be  carefully 
preserved.  The  urine  of  three  cows  for 
one  year  is  worth  more  than  a  ton  of 
guano,  which  would  cost  from  -fifty  to  sixty 
dollars.  Various  methods  of  preserving  and 
applying  it  will  suggest  themselves  to  the 
intelligent  farmer. 

Stable  manures  should  be  sheltered  from 
the  sun  and  rain,  and  fermenting  heaps  so 
covered  with  turf  or  loam  as  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  fertilising  gases.  Plaster, 
as  in  the  case  of  urine,  will  aid  in  retaining 
the  ammonia. 

2.  Hog  Manure. — The   manure   of   swine 


is  strong  and  valuable.  Swamp  muck, 
weeds,  straw,  leaves,  etc.,  should  be  thrown 
into  the  sty  in  liberal  quantities,  to  be 
rooted  over  and  mixed  with  the  dung.  In 
this  way  from  five  to  ten  loads  of  manure 
per  annum  may  be  obtained  from  a  single 
hog. 

3.  The  Manure  of  Fowls,  etc. — The  ma- 
nure   of    hens,    turkeys,    geese,    ducks,    and 
pigeons   should   be   carefully   collected  and 
preserved.      Professor     Norton     says     that 
three  or  four  hundred  pounds  of  such  ma- 
nure, that  has  not  been  exposed  to  the  rain 
or  sun,  is  equal  in  value  to  from  fourteen 
to  eighteen  loads  of  stable  manure. 

4.  Guano. — Of  its  value  as  a  manure  there 
can  be  no   doubt;   but  circumstances  must 
determine  whether  in  any  given  case  it  can 
profitably  be  purchased  and  applied  at  the 
prices  at  which  it  is  held. 

In  applying  guano,  care  should  be  taken 
that  it  does  not  come  in  contact  with  any 
seed,  as  it  might  destroy  its  vitality. 

5.  Fish     Manures. — These     are    available 
near  the  seacoast  only,  where  they  furnish 
an    important    source    of     fertility,     which 
should  not  be  neglected.     The  flesh  of  fish 
acts    with    great    energy    in    hastening    the 
growth    of   plants.     It    decomposes    rapidly, 
and   should    be   at   once   plowed    under,    or 
made  into  a  well-covered  compost  heat. 

6.  Flesh,  Blood,  Hair,  etc. — Dead  animals, 
the  blood  and  offal  from  slaughter-houses, 
are  among  the  most  powerful  of  fertilizers 
— equal  to  guano  and  the  other  costly  ma- 
nures.    Every   animal   that   dies   should  be 
made  into  compost  at  once. 

Hair,  woollen  rags,  leather  shavings  from 
the  shoe-shops,  and  all  other  refuse  animal 
matters,  .should  be  carefully  preserved  and 
composted,  as  they  make  very  rich  manure. 

7.  Bones. — The  value  of  bones  as  a  ma- 
nure is  just  beginning  to  be- appreciated  in 
this  country.     They  unite  some  of  the  most 
efficacious  and  desirable  organic  and  inor- 
ganic manures. 

Bones  make  a  cheap  as  well  as  a  ricK 
manure,  and  no  thoughtful  farmer  will  suf- 
fer one  to  be  wasted  about  his  house. 

III. — MINERAL   MANURES 

I.  Lime. — Lime  is  applied  to  land  in  three 
different  states — as  quicklime,  slaked  lime, 
and  mild  or  air-slaked  lime.  To  cold,  stiff, 
newly  drained  land,  especially  if  there  ex- 
ist in  it  much  of  acid  organic  compounds, 
it  is  best  to  apply  quicklime  or  caustic  hy- 
drate (slaked  lime),  as  it  will  have  a  more 
energetic  effect  in  ameliorating  it.  On 

39 


606 


AGRICULTURE 


light  soils  mild  or  air-slaked  lime  is  con- 
sidered most  beneficial.  It  is  best  to  apply 
lime  frequently  and  in  small  quantities,  so 
as  as  to  keep  it  near  the  surface  and  al- 
ways active. 

2.  Marls. — In  true  marl,  the  principal  ele- 
ment of  fertility  is  the  lime  which  it  con- 
tains;   but    its    value    is    increased    by    the 
greater  or  less  proportion  of  magnesia  and 
phosphoric  acid  which  are  usually  combined 
with  it. 

A  valuable  mineral  fertilizer  generally 
called  marl,  but  which  contains  compara- 
tively little  lime,  abounds  in  parts  of  New 
Jersey  and  Delaware.  Its  effects  upon  the 
light,  sandy  soils  of  New  Jersey  is  very 
striking  indeed. 

3.  Gypsum. — Gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris, 
is  a  sulphate  of  lime,  and  has  been  found 
one  of  the  cheapest  and  most  powerful  fer- 
tilizers derived  from  the  mineral  kingdom. 
On  grass  lands  it  is  best  to  sow  it  in  damp 
weather  or  while  the  dew  is  on.  Sow  broad- 
cast at  the  rate  of  a  bushel  to  the  acre.  Seed 
potatoes  may  be  wet  and  rolled  in  plaster 
before    planting    with    decided    advantage ; 
and  we  know  of  no  better  way  of  applying 
it  to  corn  than  to  give  the  seed  a  coat  be- 
fore putting  it  in  the  ground. 

4.  Common   Salt,   etc. — Common   salt,   as 
an  ingredient  in  compost,  is  of  great  ser- 
vice.   As  a  top  dressing  for  grass  lands — 
especially  those   of  a  loamy  texture — it   is 
invaluable.      Mixed    with    wood   ashes   and 
lime,  in  the  proportion  of  one  bushel  of  salt 
to  three  of  ashes  and  five  of  lime,  it  con- 
stitutes a  very  energetic  manure  for  Indian 
corn. 

A  very  useful  and  energetic  mixture  is 
made  by  the  following  simple  process : 

"Take  three  bushels  of  unslaked  lime,  dis- 
solve a  bushel  of  salt  in  as  little  water  as 
will  dissolve  it,  and  slake  the  lime  with  it. 
If  the  lime  will  not  take  up  all  the  brine 
at  once — which  it  will  if  good  and  fresh 
burned — turn  it  over  and  let  it  lie  a  day 
and  add  a  little  more  of  the  brine ;  and  so 
continue  to  do  till  it  is  all  taken  up." 

Brine  which  has  been  used  for  salting 
meat  or  fish  is  still  more  valuable  than  that 
newly  made,  as  it  contains  a  portion  of 
blood  and  other  animal  matter. 

Whenever  refuse  nitrate  of  potash — that 
is,  common  saltpetre — or  refuse  liquid  in 
which  it  has  been  dissolved  for  pickling 
meat,  can  be  procured,  it  should  be  care- 
fully preserved  and  mixed  into  a  compost 
heap. 

5.  Ashes. — Ashes  compose  the  entire  to- 


organic  parts  of  plants.  Returned  to  the 
soil,  they  may  again  be  taken  up  by  the 
growing  vegetation.  Their  great  useful- 
ness as  a  manure  is  evident  and  undisputed. 

Leached  ashes  have  lost  some  of  their 
value,  being  deprived  of  the  greater  portion 
of  their  potash  and  soda,  but  are  still  very 
useful  as  manures. 

Coal  ashes  are  less  valuable  than  wood 
ashes,  but  are  by  no  means  to  be  neglected 
by  the  farmer. 

Soot  is  exceedingly  valuable  as  a  manure, 
and  the  small  quantity  produced  should  be 
carefully  saved. 

IV. — MANAGEMENT  OF   MANURES 

1.  Fermentation. — That    great    loss    takes 
place  when  manure  ferments  uncovered  by 
some  absorbent  of  the   fertilizing  gases  is 
clear   to   every   observer  and  thinker.     See 
to  it,   then,  that  all   fermenting  manure  is 
covered  with  turf,  muck,  charcoal  dust,  saw- 
dust, or  plaster,  to  take  up  and  retain  the 
ammoniacal  gases  as  they  arise. 

2.  Digging   over  Manures. — The  frequent 
digging  over  of  barnyard  manure,  practiced 
by  some  farmers,  while  it  promotes  decom- 
position, also  leads  to  great  waste. 

3.  Hauling  Manure  in  Winter. — The  opin- 
ion  is   now   gaining   ground   that,   when   it 
can  be  conveniently  done,  the  best  way  to 
secure  to  the  land  the  greatest  possible  ben- 
efit from  stable  and  barnyard  manure  is  to 
draw  them  at  once,  as  fast  as  they  are  pro- 
duced, to  the  fields   where  they  are  to  be 
used,   and   either   spread   them   at  once  or 
deposit  them  in  heaps  so  small  that  no  pu- 
trefactive fermentation  will  take  place.     In 
many  cases,  manures  may  be  hauled  in  the 
winter  with  great  economy,  as  the  labor  of 
the  teams  and  hands  is  in  less  demand  else- 
where. 

4.  A     Caution.  —  Never     mix     quicklime 
with  any  animal  manure,  as  it  will  greatly 
deteriorate  the  manure. 

5.  Burying  Manure. — Here  again  doctors 
disagree.      Some  advocate  burying  manure 
very  deeply,  others  slightly,  and  still  others 
would  leave  it  upon  the  surface.     The  best 
general   rule,   we   believe,   is   to   mix   it   as 
thoroughly  as  possible  with  every  part  of 
the   soil.     The   roots   will   then  be  sure  to 
find  it.     A  few  crops — onions  and  some  of 
the   grasses,   for   instance — must   find   their 
nutriment    near   the   surface,    as    the   roots 
do  not  extend  deeply ;  for  these  a  top  dress- 
ing may  be  best. 

6.  Importance  of  Texture. — Far  more  im- 
portant than  the  mere  presence  of  fertiliz- 


AGRICULTURE 


607 


ing  ingredients,  or  even  the  chemical  con- 
dition of  those  ingredients,  in  many  cases, 
is  their  mechanical  texture  and  degree  of 
pulverization.  Hence  it  may  be  reasonably 
believed  that  the  general  introduction  and 
free  use  of  pulverizers,  as  the  most  effec- 
tive harrows,  clod-crushers,  and  subsoilers, 
assisted  by  tile-draining,  may  be  of  greater 
benefit  to  the  whole  country  than  the  im- 
portation of  a  million  tons  of  guano. 

v. — COMPOSTS 

Let  nothing  that  is  capable,  when  de- 
composed, of  furnishing  nutriment  to  your 
growing  crops  be  permitted  to  go  to  waste 
about  your  premises.  A  compost  heap 
should  be  at  hand  to  receive  all  decom- 
posed refuse.  The  best  basis  for  this  heap 
is  well-dried  swamp  muck;  but  where  this 
is  not  readily  obtained,  procure  rich  turf 
scraping  from  the  roadside,  leaves  and  sur- 
face soil  from  the  woodlands  and  the  sides 
of  fences,  straw,  chips,  corncobs,  weeds, 
etc.,  aiding  the  decay  of  the  coarser  mate- 
rials by  the  addition  of  urine  or  the  lime 
and  salt  mixture  mentioned  in  the  previous 
section.  Let  this  be  composted  with  any 
animal  matter  found  about  the  premises,  or 
in  the  vicinity. 

<I. — IRRIGATION 

Irrigation  is  manuring  Dy  means  of  water. 
"The  manner  of  irrigation  must  depend  on 
the  situation  of  the  surface  and  the  supply 
of  water.  When  it  is  desirable  to  bring 
more  water  on  to  meadows  than  is  required 
for  saturating  the  ground,  and  its  escape  to 
the  fields  below  is  to  be  avoided,  other 
ditches  should  be  made  on  the  lower  sides, 
to  arrest  and  convey  away  the  surplus  wa- 
ter." 

Irrigation  contributes  to  the  growth  of 
plants  in  several  ways. 

"The  advantages  of  irrigation  are  so  man- 
ifest that  they  should  never  be  neglected, 
when  the  means  for  securing  them  are 
within  economical  reach. 

"The  increase  from  the  application  of  wa- 
ter is  sometimes  fourfold,  when  the  soil,  the 
season,  and  the  water  are  all  favorable,  and 
it  is  seldom  less  than  doubled. 

"Light,  porous  soils,  and  particularly  grav- 
els and  sands,  are  the  most  benefited  by  ir- 
rigation." 

CHEAP    FERTILIZERS 

The  following  fertilizers  are  all  excellent 
for  increasing  the  crop  production  per  acre. 
These  formulas  are  based  on  experiments 


successfully  made  at  the  Massachusetts  Ag- 
ricultural College.  By  following  these  sim- 
ple directions  the  farmer  may  make  his 
fertilizer  at  much  less  cost  than  he  can 
buy  it. 

To  produce  50  bushels  of  corn  more  than 
the  natural  product  to  the  acre: 

(i.)  Nitrogen,  64  lb.,  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phate of  ammonia; 

(2.)  Potash,  77  lb.,  in  the  form  of  chlo- 
ride of  potash; 

(3.)  Phosphoric  acid,  31  lb.,  in  the  form 
of  muriate  of  superphosphates. 

To  grow  i  ton  of  hay  to  the  acre  more 
than  the  natural  product : 

(i.)  Nitrogen,  36  lb.,  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phate of  ammonia; 

(2.)  Potash,  31  lb.,  in  the  form  of  chlo- 
ride of  potash; 

(3.)  Phosphoric  acid,  12  lb.,  in  the  form 
of  superphosphate. 

To  produce  100  bushels  of  potatoes  per 
acre  and  their  usual  proportion  of  tops  more 
than  the  natural  production  of  the  land : 

(i.)  Nitrogen,  21  lb.,  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phate of  ammonia; 

(2.)  Potash,  34  lb.,  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phate of  potash ; 

(3.)  Phosphoric  acid,  n  lb.,  in  the  form 
of  superphosphate. 

To  produce  25  bushels  of  oats  and  the 
usual  proportion  of  straw  per  acre  more 
than  the  natural  product  of  the  soil : 

(i.)  Nitrogen,  10  lb.,  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phate of  ammonia; 

(2.)  Potash,  31  lb.,  in  the  form  of  chlo- 
ride of  potash; 

(3.)  Phosphoric  acid,  8  lb.,  in  the  form 
of  superphosphate. 

To  produce  1,500  lb.  of  dried  leaf  tobacco 
with  the  usual  proportion  of  stalk  more  than 
the  natural  yield  per  acre  of  land : 

(i.)  Nitrogen,  149  lb.,  in  the  form  of 
sulphate  of  ammonia : 

(2.)  Potash,  172  lb.,  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phate of  potash ; 

(3.)  Phosphoric  acid,  16  lb.,  in  the  form 
of  superphosphate; 

(4.)  Lime,  160  lb.,  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phate of  lime  (lime  plaster). 

Sow  the  appropriate  mixture  broadcast 
over  the  land,  after  the  ground  has  been 
made  ready.  A  great  deal  depends  upon 
the  evenness  with  which  the  fertiliser  is 
spread. 

DRAINING 

Thorough  drainage  implies  covered 
drains,  and  it  is  to  the  advantage  of  these 
mainly  that  we  now  desire  to  call  the  read- 


608 


AGRICULTURE 


er's  attention;  although  open  ditches  and 
water-furrows  are  very  useful  in  certain 
situations. 

The  principal  benefits  of  a  system  of  cov- 
ered drains  are  succinctly  and  clearly  stated 
in  the  following: 

REASONS   FOR    UNDERDRAINING 

(l.)  It  prevents  water  which  falls  from 
resting  on  or  near  the  surface,  and  renders 
the  soil  dry  enough  to  be  worked  or  plowed 
at  all  times. 

(2.)  By  rendering  the  soil  porous  or 
spongy,  it  takes  in  water  without  flooding 
in  time  of  rain  and  gives  it  off  again  grad- 
ually in  time  of  drought. 

(3.)  By  preventing  adhesion  and  assist- 
ing pulverization,  it  allows  the  roots  to 
pass  freely  through  all  parts  of  the  soil. 

(4.)  By  facilitating  the  mixture  of  ma- 
nure through  the  pulverized  portions,  it 
greatly  increases  its  value  and  effect. 

(5.)  It  allows  water  falling  on  the  sur- 
face to  pass  downward,  carrying  with  it 
any  fertilizing  substances  (as  carbonic  acid 
and  ammonia),  until  they  are  arrested  by 
the  absorption  of  the  soil. 

(6.)  It  abstracts  in  a  similar  manner  the 
heat  contained  in  falling  rains,  thus  warm- 
ing the  soil,  the  water  discharged  by  drain- 
mouths  being  many  degrees  colder  than  or- 
dinary rains. 

(7.)  The  increased  porosity  of  the  soil 
renders  it  a  more  perfect  non-conductor  of 
heat,  and  the  roots  of  plants  are  less  in- 
jured by  freezing  in  winter. 

(8.)  The  same  cause  admits  the  entrance 
of  air,  facilitating  the  decomposition  of  en- 
riching portions  of  the  soil. 

(9.)  By  admitting  early  plowing  crops 
may  be  sown  early,  and  an  increased  amount 
reaped  in  consequence. 

(10.)  It  economizes  labor,  by  allowing 
the  work  to  go  on  at  all  times  without  in- 
terruption from  surplus  water  in  spring,  or 
from  a  hard-baked  soil  in  summer. 

CONDITIONS   REQUIRING  DRAINAGE 

The  conditions  from  which  arise  the  prin- 
cipal causes  of  mischief  to  undrained  land 
are  thus  stated  by  Munn  in  "The  Practical 
Land-Drainer" : 

"(i.)  Where  water  has  accumulated  be- 
neath the  surface  and  originated  springs. 

"(2.)  Where,  from  the  close  nature  of  the 
substrata,  it  can  not  pass  freely  downward, 
but  accumulates  and  forms  its  level  or  wa- 
ter line  at  a  short  distance  below  the  sur- 
face; and 


"(3-)  Where,  from  the  clayey  or  close 
texture  of  the  soil,  it  lies  on  the  surface  and 
becomes  stagnant" 

Farmers  are  apt  to  consider  land  in  which 
the  second  condition  mentioned  exists  to 
be  too  dry  to  need  draining,  yet  it  is  cold 
and  sour  late  in  spring,  apt  to  bake  hard 
in  summer,  and  very  liable  to  suffer  from 
early  frosts  in  autumn.  There  is  no  rem- 
edy but  underdraining. 

PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS 

(i.)  Preliminary. — The  first  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  examine  the  field  to  be  drained 
and  determine  the  plan  of  drainage  best 
adapted  to  effect  the  object  in  view,  and 
the  materials  which  may  most  economically 
be  used  in  constructing  the  drains. 

(2.)  Draining  Springy  Soils. — Where  the 
wetness  to  be  remedied  results  from  springs 
having  their  source  in  higher  grounds  above 
the  field  to  be  drained,  the  desired  result  is 
generally  attained  by  making  one  or  more 
drains  across  the  declivity  about  where  the 
low  grounds  of  the  valley  begin  to  form, 
thus  intercepting  or  cutting  off  the  springs. 
These  transverse  drains  must  be  connected 
with  others  made  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
veying the  water  collected  in  them  into 
some  brook,  ravine,  or  other  outlet  which 
may  be  near. 

(3.)  Direction  of  Drains. — In  cases  char- 
acterized by  either  of  the  other  conditions 
specified  in  the  previous  section,  parallel 
drains  should  be  cut  directly  up  and  down 
the  inclination  of  the  field,  and  emptying  in- 
to a  main  cross  drain  at  the  lower  side. 

(4.)  Depth  and  Distance  Apart.— The  ex- 
perience of  some  of  the  most  extensive 
drainers,  both  in  this  country  and  in  Eu- 
rope, seems  to  indicate,  however,  that  for 
very  heavy,  clayey  soils,  from  two  and  a 
half  to  three  feet  in  depth  and  from  twelve 
to  thirty  feet  apart  generally  produce  the 
most  satisfactory  results.  More  porous  and 
friable  soils  may  be  successfully  drained  at 
greater  depth  and  distance. 

(5.)  Materials  and  Construction.  —  The 
ditch  excavated  must  be  furnished  with  a 
permanent  duct  through  which  water  may 
at  all  times  pass  freely  off.  This  may  be 
constructed  of  various  substances — brush- 
wood, straw,  turf,  clinkers  from  furnaces, 
wood,  brick,  stone,  and  tiles  of  burned  clay. 
Of  these,  stone  and  tiles  in  their  various 
forms,  when  they  can  be  procured,  are  the 
only  materials  which  we  can  unconditionally 
recommend. 

Brushwood  Drains. — Where  no  better  ma- 
terials are  available  these  will  be  found, 


AGRICULTURE 


609 


while  they  last,  quite  effective,  and  they  are 
far  more  permanent  than  might  be  sup- 
posed. 

Stone  Drains. — In  reference  to  their  mode 
of  construction,  stone  drains  are  of  various 
kinds.  The  simplest  form  is  that  in  which  the 
ditch  or  cutting  is  filled  to  the  depth  of  nine 
or  ten  inches  with  small  stones,  covered  with 
mverted  turf,  shavings,  or  something  of  the 
kind.  The  stones  should  be  about  the  size 
of  a  hen's  egg.  Where  larger  ones  are  used, 
the  earth  is  apt  to  fall  into  the  cavities,  or 
mice  or  rats  make  their  burrows  there,  and 
the  drain  becomes  choked.  The  water 
should  find  its  way  into  the  drain  from  the 
sides,  and  not  from  the  top.  In  making 
stone  drains  in  swampy  or  very  soft  ground 
it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  lay  a  plank  or 
Glab  on  the  bottom  before  putting  in  the 
stones,  to  prevent  them  from  sinking  before 
the  soil  shall  become  dry  enough  to  be  firm. 

Tile  Drains. — The  first  form  of  tile  drain 
used  was  arched  and  made  to  rest  on  a  sole 
or  flat  tile  laid  under  it ;  but  the  more  mod- 
ern tile  pipes  are  to  be  preferred,  as  they 
are  smaller,  cheaper,  and  more  easily  laid. 
Those  with  an  oval  bore  are  considered  bet- 
ter than  those  with  a  round  one.  The  tiles 
are,  of  course,  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  which  must  be  smooth  and  straight. 
They  are  simply  placed  end  to  end  and 
wedged  a  little  with  small  stones,  if  neces- 
sary, and  the  earth  packed  hard  over  them. 
The  water  very  readily  finds  its  way  through 
the  pores  of  the  material  and  at  the  joints. 
Collars  or  short  outer  tiles  are  sometimes 
used  to  go  over  the  joints,  to  secure  them 
against  getting  displaced.  An  inch  pipe  is 
sufficient  for  most  situations. 

The  drains  should  be  connected  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  field  by  a  small  drain  run- 
ning at  right  angles  with  them.  It  should 
be  of  the  same  depth  as  the  other  drains. 

WILL  UNDERDRAINING   PAY? 

This  depends  on  circumstances.  If  natu- 
rally good,  underdrained  land  can  be  ob- 
tained in  your  neighborhood  for  from  $15 
to  $20  per  acre,  it  would  not  pay  in  all  prob- 
ability to  expend  $30  per  acre  in  underdrain- 
ing  low,  wet,  or  springy  land ;  but  in  all  dis- 
tricts where  land  is  worth  $50  per  acre, 
nothing  can  pay  better  than  to  expend  from 
$20  to  $30  per  acre  in  judicious  underdrain- 
ing.  The  labor  of  cultivation  is  much  re- 
duced, while  the  produce  is  generally  in- 
creased one-half,  and  is  not  infrequently 
doubled,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  increase  is  net  profit. 

In  reference  to  tile-pipe  drains,  it  must 


be  remembered  that  the  ditch  may  be  much 
narrower  than  when  stones  are  used,  thus 
making  a  considerable  saving  in  the  ex- 
pense of  digging. 

LABOR-SAVING   MACHINES 

With  all  the  progress  of  the  nineteenth 
century  husbandry  made  but  few  steps 
ahead  before  1875.  For  some  reason .  the 
farmer  was  the  last  to  obtain  his  share 
in  the  advancement  of  that  wonderful  cycle. 
During  the  last  twenty-five  years  the  agri- 
culturist has  been  offered  many  wonderful 
devices  for  saving  the  cost  of  labor. 

In  the  far  West  the  tiller  of  the  soil  has 
taken  advantage  of  many  new  mechanical 
schemes  for  saving  money.  It  has  been 
only  within  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  that 
the  farmer  east  of  the  Mississippi  has  real- 
ized to  the  full  the  opportunities  that  have 


FIG.  i.— Machine  Planter. 

been  afforded  him  of  vastly  increasing  the 
economy  of  the  farm. 

On  the  small  farms  of  the  East,  those 
that  run  from  ten  to  a  hundred  acres,  many 
devices  have  come  up  within  the  last  few 
years  that  double  or  treble  the  profits  of 
farming.  No  crop  is  more  universally  or 
profitably  adapted  to  Eastern  States  than 
that  of  the  potato.  In  strong  contrast  with 
the  old  methods  of  hand-planting  is  a  ma- 
chine-planter of  recent  invention,  as  shown 
in  Figure  i.  This  machine  is  adapted  to 
dropping  the  seed  in  drills  at  several  dis- 
tances from  ten  to  thirty-six  inches  apart. 

This  machine  has  the  great  advantage 
that  the  driver  can  see  the  potatoes  drop- 
ping. He  then  knows  whether  the  machine 
is  depositing  the  seed  properly  or  not,  and 


610 


AGRICULTURE 


can  detect  the  fact  of  the  machine  being 
out  of  potatoes  as  soon  as  it  occurs. 

The  bottom  of  the  hopper  is  constructed 
with  two  feeding  channels  which  vibrate 
from  the  top  of  the  hopper  down  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  concaves,  thus  ensuring  an  even 
and  steady  flow  of  potatoes. 

This  machine  is  controlled  by  a  simple 
and  effective  hand  lever,  which  governs  the 


FIG.  2.— Corn  Planter. 

depth  of  planting  and  covering,  and  is  read- 
ily changed  by  the  operator  without  leaving 
his  seat. 

The  marker  is  positive  in  operation,  is 
constructed  on  the  principles  of  the  hand 
lever,  has  a  spring  catch,  which  holds  it  in 
an  upright  position  when  turning  round,  is 
readily  operated  by  the  hand  catch,  and  can 
not  fall  when  turning  on  hilly  ground. 

The  machine  is  thirty-six  inches  wide 
from  the  centre  of  one  drive-wheel  to  the 
centre  of  the  other,  which  is  quite  an  ad- 
vantage over  narrow-tread  machines,  which 
easily  upset  on  hilly  ground. 

The  price  of  such  a  machine  is  moderate, 
when  considered  in  connection  with  the  re- 
sults. It  can  be  purchased  at  from  $65  to 
$80. 

Figure  2  shows  a  corn-planter  with  check 
rower,  of  steel  frame,  with  full  hill  drop 
planter  and  automatic  reel.  It  has  a  thick 
and  a  thin  plate,  and  can  be  used  by  putting 
on  or  taking  off  the  drive-chain.  When 
the  machine  is  used  as  a  drill  it  can  be 
changed  to  drop  seed  for  the  several  dis- 
tances between  ten  and  sixteen  inches  apart. 
It  will  plant  in  hills  with  the  drill  drop 
from  two  to  six  grains  each  by  regulating 
the  chain  to  different  sprockets.  By  adding 
four  sets  of  feed  plates  sixteen  changes  are 
possible.  The  check  rower  is  fastened  on 
the  beam  of  the  planter  front,  is  directly 
connected  with  the  valve  rod,  and  has  a 
long  adjustment  which  brings  the  corn  in 
check  under  the  knot  The  average  price 
of  this  machine  is  $75. 

Figure  3  shows  another  form  of  imple- 
ment designed  for  planting  field  or  ensilage 
corn,  beans,  peas  or  be^ts  in  hills,  drills  or 


checks.  It  is  especially  intended  for  the  ac- 
curate distribution  of  fertilizers  in  full 
strength,  wet  or  dry,  without  "injury  to  the 
seed.  The  average  price  is  $30. 

Figure  4  shows  a  slightly  different  form 
of  machine  designed  for  the  same  purpose, 
and  by  many  practical  agriculturists  consid- 
ered to  be  superior. 

Cheaper  than  either  of  the  above,  and 
suited  to  farmers  of  less  means  and  acres, 
is  the  corn-planter  and  distributer  of  fer- 
tilizer shown  in  Figure  5.  It  has  bent-wood 
frames,  strongly  bolted,  and  the  covering 
wheel  is  adapted  to-  crushing  clods.  There 
is  a  device  for  throwing  in  and  out  of  gear 
at  pleasure,  while  the  operator  has  no  need 
to  stop  the  team.  No  marking  of  drills  is 
required,  and  the  price  of  this  implement 
does  not  exceed  $25,  while  in  several  good 
makes  it  can  be  obtained  for  a  little  less. 

Figure  6  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  a  per- 
fect grain  drill  that  may  be  purchased  at 
about  $100. 

It  has  large,  strong  wheels,  well  made. 
The  frame  and  rolls  are  well  proportioned, 
firmly  framed  and  bolted,  and  of  the  best 
selected  seasoned  maple.  The  grain,  phos- 
phate, and  grass-seed  boxes  are  made  of 
carefully  selected  and  thoroughly  seasoned 
lumber,  and  so  formed  and  put  together  as 
to  give  the  greatest  strength  and  the  most 
amount  of  room.  The  box  covers  are  con- 
structed by  overlapping  each  other,  to  pre- 
vent any  rain  or  moisture  entering  the 
boxes.  The  roll  lever  and  latch  are  a  novel 
feature  for  raising  and  lowering  the  teeth, 
which  is  easily  done  by  the  use  of  one 
hand  only.  There  is  a  tube  shifter,  giving 
several  different  positions  to  the  teeth,  to 


FIG.  3.— Field  Corn  Planter. 

suit  the  condition  of  the  soil,  and  is  oper- 
ated by  a  lever  at  the  centre.  The  self- 
operating  spring  hoe  is  very  simple  and 
does  away  entirely  with  all  wooden  pins, 
and  in  passing  obstructions  always  ad- 
justs itself  instantly  to  its  original  posi- 
tion. When  once  tried,  the  user  will  never 
return  to  the  old  wooden-peg  hoe.  The 
grass-seed  is  sown  either  in  rear  or  front 
of  the  hoes,  by  a  simple  change,  by  an  ac- 


AGRICULTURE 


611 


curate  and  even  grass-seed  distributer.  The 
propelling  power  is  placed  in  both  drive- 
wheels  (the  same  as  in  mowing  machines) 
by  ratchets,  that  engage  with  the  hubs 
of  both  large  wheels  on  a  continuous  pol- 
isRed  steel  axle,  so  that  in  turning  right 
or  left  or  moving  straight  ahead  you  have 
the  same  even,  steady  motion  given  to  the 
distributers.  This  new  principle  of  apply- 


FIG.  4.— Another  form  of  Field  Planter. 


ing  the  power  to  both  drive-wheels  is  read- 
ily understood  and  appreciated  by  all  farm- 
ers, as  it  avoids  all  side  draught,  and  gives 
a  stronger  and  more  certain  motion  to  the 
drill,  which  never  loses  its  motion  in  pass- 
i"g  either  way  around  an  obstruction.  The 
distributers  are  placed  in  the  grain  and  fer- 
tilizer boxes  in  the  most  simple  and  practi- 
cal manner,  and  their  connection  with  the 
gate  adjustments  regulates  the  quantity. 
This  machine  is  nicely  balanced,  and  when 
loaded  leaves  but  slight  pressure  on  the 
horses'  necks.  Each  drill  is  provided  with 
whiffletrees  and  neck  yoke.  No  change  of 
loose  cog  or  gear-wheels  for  regulating 
quantity  is  made.  It  has  always  the  same 
unchangeable  motion  by  one  fixed  gear- 
wheel, engaging  directly  with  the  axle,  im- 
parting motion  instantly  to  the  distributers, 
thereby  making  no  skips  in  sowing  when 
stopping  and  starting  on  the  field.  This 
machine  changes  its  quantity  by  a  new  and 
perfect  principle  of  gates  or  gauges,  placed 
directly  in  the  distributers  and  moving  in- 
stantly at  the  will  of  the  operator  to  the 
nicest  adjustment  of  quantities,  as  shown 
by  an  indicator 'on  the  graduated  dial. 

One  of  the  best  of  the  improved  harrows 
is  the  hinge  harrow.  This  harrow  may  be 
folded  double,  or  separated  into  two  parts, 
for  the  convenience  of  transportation  or 
other  purpose.  Either  half  may  be  lifted 
for  any  purpose  while  the  implement  is  in 
motion;  and  the  easy  and  independent  play 
of  the  parts  up  and  down  upon  the  hinges 
enables  the  instrument  to  adapt  itself  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground  in  all  places,  so  that 
whether  going  through  hollows  or  over 
knolls  or  ridges  it  is  always  at  work,  and 
every  tooth  has  an  operation  uoon  the  soil. 


The  Geddes  harrow  and  the  Hanford 
harrow,  triangular  in  shape,  are  also  excel- 
lent implements;  and  for  light  grounds, 
free  from  stones  and  other  obstructions,  the 
Scotch  or  square  harrow  serves  its  pur- 
pose admirably. 

THE     CULTIVATOR 

This  is  a  useful  implement  for  stirring 
the  soil  and  killing  weeds.  It  saves  a  great 
deal  of  hard  labor;  but  must  not  be  al- 
lowed to  usurp  the  place  of  the  plow  where 
deep  cultivation  is  required. 

THE     HORSE     HOE 

Allied  to  the  cultivator  is  the  horse  hoe 
in  its  various  forms.  "Knox's  patent  has 
four  teeth.  The  forward  one  is  simply  a 
coulter,  to  keep  the  implement  steady  and 
in  a  straightforward  direction;  the  two 
sides  or  middle  teeth  are  miniature  plows, 
which  may  be  changed  from  one  side  to 
the  other,  so  as  to  turn  the  earth  from  the 
rows  at  first  weeding,  when  the  plants  are 
small  and  tender,  or  toward  them  in  later 
cultivation,  at  the  option  of  the  operator; 
the  broad  rear  tooth  effectually  disposes  of 
grasses  and  weeds,  cutting  off  or  rooting 
up  all  that  come  in  its  way.  It  is  a  thor- 
ough pulverizer  of  the  surface,  sifting  the 
earth  and  weeds  through  its  iron  prongs 
or  fingers  in  the  rear,  leaving  the  weeds  on 
the  surface  to  wilt  and  die,  and  the  ground 
level  and  mellow.  For  hoeing  carrots,  tur- 
nips, etc.,  where  the  rows  are  narrow,  the 
side  teeth  are  taken  out,  and  the  rear 


FIG.  5.— Fertilizer  Distributer. 

tooth,  with  the  forward  one  as  a  director 
to  guide  the  instrument,  hoes  and  mellows 
the  ground  between  the  rows  very  per- 
fectly." 

THE     FIELD    ROLLER 

No  good  farmer  will  omit  this  useful  im- 
plement from  his  list.  In  spring  there  is 
frequently  great  advantage  in  rolling  lands 
recently  sowed  to  grain  and  grass,  as  the 
earth  that  has  been  raised  by  the  frost,  ex- 
posing the  roots  of  plants,  is  replaced  by  the 


612 


AGRICULTURE 


operation,  with  benefit  to  the  growing  crop. 
The  roller  is  particularly  beneficial  on  light 
lands,  of  soil  too  loose  and  porous  to  retain 
moisture  and  protect  the  manure  from  the 


FIG.  6.— Grain  Drill. 


effects  of  drying  winds  and  a  scorching 
sun,  and  too  light  to  allow  the  roots  of 
plants  a  firm  hold  in  the  earth. 


SEED     SOWERS 


Every  farmer  or  gardener  needs  a  seed- 
sower  of  some  sort ;  but  one  of  the  smallest 


and  simplest  of  the  many  kinds  manufac- 
tured will  serve  the  purpose  of  the  ma- 
jority of  agriculturists. 

THE  HORSE  RAKE 

The  utility  of  this  simple  implement  is 
not  fully  realized,  we  are  sure,  or  it  would 
be  more  generally  employed.  A  horse  rake 
is  not  an  expensive  implement,  and  every 
farmer  should  have  one.  The  old  revolver 
is  perhaps  the  best  for  general  use. 

MOWERS,     REAPERS,  ETC. 

Of  the  expensive  labor-saving  agricul- 
tural implements,  like  the  mower,  the 
reaper,  and  the  thresher,  it  does  not  fall 
within  our  purpose  to  speak,  further  than 
to  recommend  our  readers  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  grand  economies  which  they 
afford,  whenever  they  can,  by  combinations 
with  their  neighbors  for  joint  ownership  of 
such  machines,  or  by  employing  those  kept 
for  the  purpose  of  being  hired  out. 


THE  first  requisite  in  all  undertakings  of 
magnitude  is  to  "count  the  cost." 

The  importance  of  possessing  the  means 
of  doing  everything  at  exactly  the  right  sea- 
son can  not  be  too  highly  appreciated. 

Admitting  that  the  farm  is  already  pur- 
chased and  paid  for,  it  becomes  an  object 
to  know  what  else  is  needed  and  at  what 
cost,  before  cultivation  is  commenced.  If 
the  buildings  and  fences  are  what  they 
should  be,  which  is  riot  often  the  case,  little 
immediate  outlay  will  be  needed  for  them. 
But  if  not,  then  an  estimate  must  be  made 
of  the  intended  improvements,  and  the  nec- 
essary sum  allotted  for  them. 

Size  of  Farms. — The  cultivator  will  per- 
ceive in  part  the  advantages  of  moderate- 
sized  farms  for  men  in  moderate  circum- 
stances. The  great  disadvantage  of  a  super- 
ficial, skimming  culture  is  obvious  with  a 
moment's  attention.  Take  the  corn  crop  as 
an  illustration.  There  are  a  great  many 
farmers  whose  yearly  product  per  acre  does 
not  exceed  an  average  of  twenty-five  bushels. 
There  are  other  farmers  who  obtain  gen- 
erally not  less  than  sixty  bushels  per  acre, 
and  often  eighty  to  ninety-five.  Now  ob- 
serve the  difference  in  the  profits  of  each. 
The  first  gets  250  bushels  from  ten  acres. 
In  doing  this  he  has  to  plow  ten  acres,  har- 
row ten  acres,  mark  out  ten  acres,  find  seel 


for  ten  acres,  plant,  cultivate,  hoe,  and  cut 
up  ten  acres,  besides  paying  the  interest  on 
ten  acres,  worth  from  three  to  five  hundred 
dollars.  The  other  farmer  gets  250  bushels 
from  four  acres  at  the  furthest ;  and  he  only 
plows,  plants,  cultivates,  and  hoes,  to  ob- 
tain the  same  amount,  four  acres,  which 
from  their  fine  tilth,  and  freedom  from  grass 
and  weeds,  is  much  easier  done,  even  for  an 
equal  surface.  The  same  reasoning  applies 
throughout  the  farm.  Be  sure,  then,  to 
cultivate  no  more  than  can  be  done  in  the 
best  manner,  whether  it  be  ten,  fifty,  or  five 
hundred  acres. 

But  let  me  not  be  misunderstood.  Large 
farms  are  by  no  means  to  be  objected  to, 
provided  the  owner  has  capital  enough  to 
perform  all  the  work  as  well  as  it  is  now 
done  on  the  best  farms  of  small  size. 

Laying  Out  Farms. — This  department  is 
very  much  neglected. 

Many  suppose  that  this  business  is  very 
quickly  disposed  of ;  that  a  very  few  minutes, 
or  hours  at  most,  will  enable  a  man  to  plan 
the  arrangement  of  his  fields  about  right. 
But  this  is  a  great  error.  Even  when  a 
farm  is  of  the  simplest  form,  on  a  flat,  uni- 
form piece  of  ground,  many  things  are  to 
be  borne  in  mind  in  laying  it  out. 

In  the  first  place  we  all  know  that  the 
fencing  of  a  moderate-sized  farm  costs  many 


AGRICULTURE 


613 


hundred  dollars.  It  is  very  desirable  to  do 
it  well,  and  use  at  the  same  time  as  little 
material  as  possible.  To  do  this  much  will 
depend  on  the  shape  of  the  fields.  A  certain 
length  of  fence  will  inclose  more  land  in  the 
form  of  a  square  than  in  any  other  practical 
shape.  Hence  fields  should  approach  this 
form  as  nearly  as  possible.  Again,  the  dis- 
position of  lanes  is  a  matter  of  consequence, 
so  as  to  avoid  unnecessary  length  and  fencing 
and  at  the  same  time  occupy  the  least  quan- 
tity of  ground. 

In  laying  out  a  farm  with  a  very  uneven 
surface  or  irregular  shape,  it  would  be  best 
to  •  draw,  first,  a  plan  adapted  to  smooth 
ground,  and  then  vary  in  size  and  shape  of 
the  fields,  the  distance  of  the  lane  from  the 
centre,  its  straightness,  etc.,  according  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

Fences. — The  kind  of  fence  used,  and  the 
materials  used  for  its  construction,  must  de- 
pend on  circumstances  and  localities.  A 
good  fence  is  always  to  be  preferred  to  an 
imperfect  one;  though  it  will  cost  more,  it 
will  more  than  save  that  cost,  and  three 
times  the  amount  in  vexation  besides,  by 
keeping  cattle,  colts,  and  pigs  out  of  fields 
of  grain. 

Gates. — Every  field  on  the  farm  should  be 
entered  by  a  good  self-shutting  and  self- 
fastening  gate.  Let  the  farmer  who  has  bars 
instead  of  gates  make  a  trial  of  their  com- 
parative convenience,  by  taking  them  out 
and  replacing  them  without  stopping  as  often 
as  he  does  in  one  year  on  his  farm,  say  about 
six  hundred  times,  and  he  can  not  fail  to  be 
satisfied  which  is  the  cheapest  for  use. 

Buildings. — These  should  be  as  near  the 
centre  of  the  farm  as  other  considerations 
will  admit.  The  buildings  should  not,  how- 
-ever,  be  too  remote  from  the  public  road, 
and  a  good  dry,  healthy  spot  should  be 
chosen. 

The  barn  and  outbuildings  should  be  of 
ample  extent.  The  barn  should  have  space 
for  hay,  grain,  and  straw.  It  is  a  matter  of 
great  convenience  to  have  the  straw  for  lit- 
tering stables  housed  and  close  at  hand,  and 
not  out  of  doors,  under  a  foot  of  snow. 
There  should  be  plenty  of  stables  and  sheds 
for  all  domestic  animals. 

A  small,  cheap,  movable  horsepower 
should  belong  to  every  farm,  to  be  used 
in  churning,  sawing  wood,  driving  washing 
machine,  turning  grindstone,  cutting  straw, 
and  slicing  roots. 

There  should  be  a  large  root-cellar  under 
the  barn,  into  which  the  cart  may  be  dumped 
from  the  outside.  One  grept  objection  to 
the  culture  of  roots  in  inis  country — the 


difficulty  of  winter  keeping — would  then 
vanish. 

Both  barns  and  house  cellars  should  be 
well  coated,  on  the  bottom  and  sides,  with 
water-lime  mortar,  which  is  a  very  cheap 
and  effectual  way  to  exclude  both  water  and 
rats. 

Choice  of  Implements. — Of  those  which 
are  much  used,  the  very  best  only  should  be 
procured.  A  laborer  who,  by  the  use  of  a 
good  hoe  for  one  month,  can  do  one-quarter 
more  each  day,  saves,  in  the  whole  time,  an 
entire  week's  labor. 

Choice  of  Animals. — The  best  of  all  kinds 
should  be  selected,  even  if  costing  something 
more  than  others.  Not  "fancy"  animals,  but 
those  good  for  use  and  profit.  Cows  should 
be  productive  of  milk,  and  of  a  form  adapted 
.for  beef;  oxen,  hardy  and  fast  working; 
sheep,  kept  fine  by  never  selling  the  best; 
swine,  not  the  largest  merely,  but  those  fat- 
tening best  on  least  food.  A  Berkshire  at 
200  pounds,  fattened  on  10  bushels  of  corn, 
is  better  than  a  "land  pike"  of  300,  fattened 
on  50  bushels. 

VARIOUS    KINDS    OF   FENCES 

(i.)  Stone  Fence. — Wherever  there  is 
plenty  of  stone,  and  especially  where  loose 
stones  abound  and  must  be  removed  before 
the  land  can  be  properly  cultivated,  stone 
fences  are  the  best  and  most  economical 
that  can  be  constructed. 

Where  stone  is  not  very  abundant,  a  com- 
bination of  stone  and  rail  fence  is  often 
economically  constructed.  A  substantial 
foundation  of  stones  is  laid,,  reaching  two 
or  two  and  a  half  feet  above  ground,  in 
which  posts  are  placed  at  proper  distances, 
with  two  or  three  bar  holes  above  the  wall, 
for  the  insertion  of  an  equal  number  of 
rails,  which  for  convenience  should  be  put 
in  when  the  posts  are  set. 

(2.)  The  Zigzag  or  Worm  Fence. — In 
large  portions  of  our  country,  where  there 
is  a  superabundance  of  timber  and  economy 
of  space  is  of  little  importance,  the  common 
zigzag  or.  worm  fence  of  the  West  and 
South  is  probably  the  most  economical  that 
can  be  erected. 

(3.)  Post-and-Rail  Fences. — As  timber  be- 
comes somewhat  more  valuable,  it  ceases  to 
be  economical  to  use  it  so  lavishly  as  the 
worm  fence  requires,  and  the  post-and-rail 
fence  takes  its  place.  This  is,  in  many  re- 
spects, the  best  of  all  the  wooden  farm 
fences. 

The  best  timber  for  posts  in  the  order  of 
its  durability  is  red  cedar,  yellow  locust, 


6U 


AGRICULTURE 


white  oak.  and  chestnut,  for  the  Northern 
and  Middle  States. 

In  some  cases  boards  may  be  economically 
substituted  for  rails,  and  firmly  nailed  to 
suitably  prepared  posts. 

(4.)  The  Sunken  Fence. — The  sunken 
fence  or  wall  consists  of  a  vertical  excava- 
tion on  one  side,  about  five  feet  in  depth, 
against  which  a  wall  is  built  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  The  opposite  side  is  inclined 
at  such  an  angle  as  will  preserve  the  sod 
against  sliding,  from  the  effects  of  frost  or 
rain,  and  is  then  turfed  over. 

(5.)  Iron  Fences. — Wire  and  other  forms 
of  iron  fence  are  now  in  extensive  use. 
Where  there  is  a  deficiency  of  both  timber 
and  stone,  the  wire  fence  is  probably  the 
best  and  most  economical  that  can  possibly 
be  made. 

No  ordinary  domestic  animal  will  break 
through  fences  of  considerably  less  than 
one-quarter  inch  wrought  wire,  while  still 
larger  sizes  may  be  used  with  the  same  fa- 
cility if  required.  The  bright  or  hard  wire 
is  now  generally  used. 

Another  style  of  iron  farm  fence  is  called 
the  "Corrugated  Flat  Rail  Fence."  It  is  in 
some  respects  preferable  to  the  round  rail 
or  wire,  being  visible  at  a  greater  distance 
and  less  liable  to  sagging. 

(6.)  Hurdle  Fence. — The  hurdle,  or  light, 
movable  fence,  is  formed  in  short  panels, 
and  firmly  set  in  the  ground  by  sharpened 
stakes  at  the  end  of  each  panel,  and  these 
are  fastened  together.  This  is  a  convenient 
addition  to  farms  where  heavy  green  crops 
of  clover,  lucern,  peas,  or  turnips  are  re- 
quired to  be  fed  off  in  successive  lots  by 
sheep,  swine,  or  cattle.  It  is  variously  con- 
structed of  wood  or  iron,  and  is  much  less 
expensive  than  might  be  supposed. 

(7.)  Hedges. — The  live  fence,  almost  uni- 


versal in  England,  is  still  an  experiment 
here.  There  have  been  a  few  successes  and 
many  failures  in  the  cultivation  of  hedges. 
The  causes  of  failure  have  been  various — a 
wrong  choice  of  trees,  the  dryness  of  our 
climate,  lack  of  experience  in  planting,  neg- 
lect of  proper  after-cultivation  and  pruning, 
etc.  But  the  few  examples  of  complete  suc- 
cess which  may  be  pointed  out  prove  conclu- 
sively that,  under  proper  and  easily  attain- 
able conditions,  live  fences  are  perfectly 
practicable  in  this  country,  and  in  some 
parts  of  it  they  are  doubtless  economical. 
When  well  kept  they  are  certainly  very 
beautiful. 

The  soil  for  a  hedge  row  must  be  deeply 
plowed  or  spaded,  and,  if  poor,  manured  a 
little. 

Evergreens  make  the  handsomest  hedges ; 
and  although  less  stout,  yet  by  shutting  out 
of  sight  are  usually  quite  safe.  The  Nor- 
way fir  is  the  fastest  grower — the  hemlock 
most  beautiful,  and  the  best  of  any  for  the 
shade  of  trees;  the  growth  is,  however, 
rather  slow.  It  shears  finely,  and  its  in- 
terior is  dense.  The  Norway  fir  also  does 
well  on  these  points. 

At  the  South  we  should  choose  the  single 
white  Macartney  rose  for  general  cultiva- 
tion; although  the  Cherokee  rose,  when 
properry  treated,  the  evergreen  thorn,  the 
honey  locust,  the  jujube,  and  the  Spanish 
bayonet  (Yucca  gloriosa)  all  form  efficient 
and  beautiful  hedges. 

A  really  good  and  perfect  hedge  should 
form  a  rounded  pyramid,  branching  out 
broadly  and  close  to  the  ground,  and  taper- 
ing up  either  sharply  or  obtuse,  as  the  taste 
of  the  cultivator  may  determine.  This  is  a 
fundamental  principle  in  all  hedging,  and 
unless  it  is  secured  at  the  outset  by  proper 
trimming,  it  can  never  be  done  afterward. 


A  PRACTICAL    DISCUSSION    OF  FARM    CROPS 


I.— THE    EDIBLE    GRAINS 

INDIAN  CORN  (Zea  Mays).— The  principal 
varieties  of  Indian  corn  in  extensive  use  for 
field  culture  in  the  United  States  are  the 
Big  White,  Big  Yellow,  Little  White,  Little 
Yellow,  and  Virginia  Gourd  Seed  (yellow 
and  white).  Of  each  of  these  there  are 
many  sub-varieties.  The  King  Philip,  or 
Brown  Corn,  a  very  early  and  small-growing 
but  productive  variety,  is  much  approved  in 
the  more  northern  States;  and  Peabody's 
Prolific  or  Tillering  Corn,  said  to  be  a  won- 
derfully productive  sort,  is  adapted  to  the 


Southern  and  Middle  States;  but  it  has  not 
yet  been  extensively  tested.  In  the  selection 
of  varieties,  choose  for  general  planting 
those  that  have  been  proved  in  your  own 
vicinity,  as  the  best  sort  of  one  locality  may 
prove  inferior  in  another.  For  trial,  get 
new  sorts  from  a  more  northern  latitude, 
especially  where  earliness  is  particularly  de- 
sirable. 

The  best  soil  for  corn  is  a  rich  loam,  but 
good  crops  are  produced,  with  proper  ma- 
nuring, on  light,  sandy  land.  A  strong  clay, 
or  a  poor,  wet  soil  will  not  produce  a  good 


AGRICULTURE 


615 


crop.  Corn  is  a  gross  feeder,  and,  except  on 
very  light,  sandy  soils,  fresh,  unfermented 
manure  is  best  for  it  Ashes  may  be  added 
or  applied  as  a  top  dressing,  with  great  ad- 
vantage; also  the  salt  and  lime  mixture. 

The  after-culture  of  Indian  corn  may 
mostly  be  performed  with  a  light  plow  and 
a  good  cultivator.  It  should  be  commenced 
soon  after  the  plants  show  themselves  above 
ground,  but  deep  culture  of  every  kind 
should  be  discontinued  after  the  roots  have 
spread  through  the  soil,  as  they  can  not  be 
disturbed  without  great  injury.  Hilling  or 
heaping  the  earth  about  the  plants  is  an  ab- 
surd and  injurious  process,  which,  instead 
of  helping  to  support  them,  as  many  sup- 
pose, greatly  weakens  the  stalks,  by  destroy- 
ing or  covering  up  the  prop-roots  with 
which  nature  has  supplied  them. 

Corn  should  be  perfectly  dried  in  the  field, 
husked,  and  stored  in  an  airy  loft,  or  in  a 
properly  constructed  granary  or  crib. 

The  proper  selection  and  saving  of  seed  is 
of  great  importance.  It  should  be  selected 
in  the  field  from  the  earliest  and  largest  ears 
of  the  most  prolific  stalks.  In  this  way  as- 
tonishing improvements  in  a  variety  may  be 
gradually  made. 

WHEAT  (Triticum  of  species). — Botanists 
describe  about  thirty  species  of  wheat  and 
some  hundreds  of  varieties.  The  species 
mainly  cultivated  in  the  United  States  are 
the  Winter  Wheat  and  the  Spring  Wheat,  in 
their  numerous  varieties. 

In  your  choice  of  varieties  it  is  best  to  be 
governed,  as  in  the  case  of  Indian  corn,  by 
the  experience  either  of  yourself  or  others. 
Depend  upon  known  and  tried  sorts  till,  by 
experiments  on  a  small  scale,  you  are  satis- 
fied that  you  have  obtained  something  better. 

"Wheat  thrives  best  on  a  strong,  clayey 
loam,  but  many  light  and  all  calcareous  soils, 
if  in  a  proper  condition,  will  give  a  good 
yield.  The  soil  should  be  deep,  and  well 
pulverized  with  the  plow  and  the  harrow. 
Underdraining  and  subsoil  plowing  add 
greatly  to  the  amount  of  the  crop. 

"Select  seed  that  is  free  from  the  seeds  of 
weeds  and  from  smut,  if  this  be  possible; 
but  in  any  event  it  is  well,  previous  to  sow- 
ing, to  wash  it  in  a  strong  brine  made  of  salt 
and  water,  taking  care  to  skim  off  all  light 
and  foreign  seeds.  If  the  grain  be  smutty, 
repeat  the  washing  in  another  clean  brine, 
when  it  may  be  taken  out  and  intimately 
mixed  with  about  one-twelfth  of  its  bulk 
of  pulverized  quicklime. 

"Wheat  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  the 
Hessian  fly  if  sown  too  early  in  the  fall,  and 
again  the  ensuing  spring,  there  being  two 


annual  swarms  of  the  fly,  early  in  May  and 
September.  When  thus  invaded,  harrow- 
ing or  rolling,  by  which  the  maggots  or 
flies  are  displaced  or  driven  off,  is  the  only 
remedy  of  much  avail.  Occasionally  other 
flies  and  sometimes  wheat  worms,  commit 
great  depredations.  There  is  no  effectual 
remedy  known  against  any  of  these  ma- 
rauders, beyond  rolling,  brushing,  and  har- 
rowing." 

The  grain  should  be  cut  immediately  after 
the  lowest  part  of  the  stalk  becomes  yellow, 
while  the  grain  is  yet  in  the  dough  state,  and 
easily  compressible  between  the  thumb  and 
finger.  Repeated  experiments  have  demon- 
strated that  wheat  cut  at  this  time  will  yield 
more  in  measure,  of  heavier  weight,  and  a 
larger  quantity  of  sweet,  white  flour.  If 
early  cut,  a  longer  time  is  required  for  cur- 
ing before  storing  or  threshing. 

Spring  wheat  should  be  sown  as  early  as 
the  ground  will  admit.  The  best  crops  are 
raised  on  land  that  has  been  plowed  the 
previous  fall,  and  sown  without  additional 
plowing,  but  harrowed-in  thoroughly. 

RYE  (Secale  Cereale). — This  plant  will 
flourish  on  soils  too  poor  or  too  destitute 
of  lime  for  wheat.  It  has  taken  the  place 
of  wheat  in  many  portions  of  the  country, 
where  repeated  crops  of  the  latter  have  ex- 
hausted the  soil  of  some  of  the  requisite 
elements  for  its  growth.  The  best  soil  for 
it  is  a  rich,  sandy  loam,  but  it  grows  freely 
on  the  lightest  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  that 
are  capable  of  sustaining  any  kind  of  vege- 
tation. The  directions  for  the  preparation 
of  soil  and  seed,  and  for  cultivation,  har- 
vesting, etc.,  are  the  same  as  for  wheat,  but 
it  is  sometimes  sown  among  standing  corn 
and  hoed  in,  the  ground  being  left  as  level 
as  possible.  As  soon  as  the  corn  is  matured 
it  is  cut  up  by  the  roots  and  removed  to  the 
sides  of  the  field,  when  the  ground  is  thor- 
oughly rolled. 

THE  OAT  (Avena  Sativa). — This  grain 
will  grow  on  any  soil,  and  in  almost  any 
climate.  It  is  affected  less  by  disease  and 
has  fewer  insect  enemies  than  most  of  the 
cereals.  The  wire  worm,  however,  occa- 
sionally proves  destructive  to  it,  when  sown 
on  fresh  sod.  The  remedy  in  this  case  is  to 
turn  over  the  sod  late  in  the  fall,  just  be- 
fore the  severe  winter  frosts. 

There  are  many  varieties  and  sub-varieties 
of  the  oat. 

The  heaviest  oat  cultivated  in  the  United 
States  is  the  Imperial ;  and  it  is  preferred 
by  many  to  all  others.  It  is  bright  and 
plump,  and  yields  a  large  proportion  of  nu- 


616 


AGRICULTURE 


tritive  matter.  It  has  proved  very  produc- 
tive in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States.  But 
the  variety  most  cultivated  is  the  common 
White  Oat,  which  is  hardy  and  a  good 
bearer. 

The  only  oat  that  will  mature  with  cer- 
tainty in  the  Southern  States  is  the  Egyp- 
tian. It  is  sound,  hardy,  and  moderately 
productive.  It  is  sown  in  autumn.  On  most 
soils  rolling  is  beneficial. 

BARLEY  (Hordeum)f — In  Europe  this  grain 
ranks  next  to  wheat  in  importance;  but  it 
is  much  less  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
United  States. 

A  loam  of  medium  consistency,  between 
light  and  heavy,  is  best  for  it.  Barnyard 
manures  must  never  be  applied  directly  to 
this  grain.  Steeping  the  seed  twenty-four 
hours  in  a  week  solution  of  saltpetre  is 
beneficial.  The  roller  is  sometimes  applied 
to  the  field,  when  the  plants  are  two  or 
three  inches  in  height,  with  great  resultant 
benefit. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  harvest  barley 
at  the  proper  time. 

RICE  (Oryza  Saliva). — Rice  probably  af- 
fords food  for  more  human  beings  than  any 
other  plant. 

The  varieties  of  rice  most  grown  in  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia,  which  have  hitherto 
been  the  greatest  rice-producing  States  of 
the  Union,  are  the  Gold-seed  rice,  the 
Guinea,  the  Common  White,  and  the  White- 
bearded.  There  are  several  other  varieties, 
but  generally  inferior  to  the  foregoing.  The 
best  are  produced  by  careful  cultivation  on 
soils  suited  to  this  grain,  and  by  a  careful 
selection  of  seed. 

The  method  of  cultivation  pursued  on  the 
rice  lands  of  the  lower  Mississippi,  as  de- 
tailed by  Dr.  Cartwright,  a  practical  planter, 
is  as  follows : 

"The  seed  is  sown  broadcast  about  as 
thick  as  wheat,  and  harrowed  in  with  a  light 
harrow,  having  many  teeth ;  the  ground  be- 
ing first  well  plowed  and  prepared  by  ditches 
and  embankments  for  inundation.  It  is 
generally  sown  in  March,  and  immediately 
after  sowing,  the  water  is  let  on,  so  as 
barely  to  overflow  the  ground.  The  water 
is  withdrawn  on  the  second,  third,  or  fourth 
day,  or  as  soon  as  the  grain  begins  to  swell. 
The  rice  very  soon  after  comes  up  and  grows 
finely.  When  it  has  attained  about  three 
inches  in  height,  the  water  is  again  let  on, 
the  top  leaves  being  left  a  little  above  the 
water.  Complete  immersion  would  kill  the 
plant.  A  fortnight  previous  to  harvest  the 
water  is  drawn  off  to  give  the  stalks 


strength,  and  to  dry  the  ground  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  reapers." 

BUCKWHEAT  (Polygonum  Fagopyrum.)  — 
Buckwheat  is  extensively  cultivated  in  th» 
United '  States,  as  it  affords  a  flour  which 
is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food.  It 
will  grow  with  considerable  luxuriance  on 
the  poorest  land.  When  intended  for  seed  it 
should  be  sown  sufficiently  early  to  allow 
the  kernel  to  become  perfectly  ripe — say 
from  the  middle  of  June  to  the  first  of 
July. 

Buckwheat  is  often  used  for  plowing  un- 
der as  a  green  manure.  This  can  be  done 
where  the  land  is  too  poor  to  produce  clover 
for  that  purpose.  When  in  flower,  it  should 
be  first  rolled,  and  then  plowed  ia 

MILLET  (Panicum). — The  species  gener- 
ally cultivated  for  the  seed  is  the  P.  mil' 
liaceum.  As  a  forage  crop,  the  German 
millet  (P.  Germanicum)  is  preferable,  and 
is  coming  into  extensive  use,  especially  in 
the  West. 

II.— HOW   TO   SHOCK    GRAIN 

Many  a  valuable  harvest  may  be  pre- 
served from  ruin  by  taking  heed  to  the  fol- 
lowing hints : 

(i.)  Grain  should  be  firmly  bound  in 
smaller  sheaves  than  are  almost  universally 
used.  Loosely  bound  sheaves  can  not  be 
well  shocked.  They  also  admit  more  rain 
than  tightly  bound  ones. 

(2.)  Two  men  can  shock  better  and  more 
advantageously  than  one. 

(3.)  Let  the  shocker  always  take  two 
sheaves  at  a  time,  holding  them  with  his  el- 
bow against  his  side,  bringing  the  heads 
together  with  hands  well  spread  upon  them. 
Lift  them  as  high  as  possible,  bringing  them 
with  force,  in  as  nearly  a  perpendicular  po- 
sition as  can  be,  to  the  ground.  Never 
make  the  second  thrust,  if  the  sheaves  stand 
erect,  for  every  one  after  the  first,  by  break- 
ing the  butts,  makes  the  matter  worse. 

(4.)  Then  let  two  persons  bring  down 
two  sheaves  each  at  the  same  time,  as  be- 
fore described,  being  extremely  careful  to 
keep  them  perpendicular.  The  form  of 
shock  at  this  period  may  be  rep-  *  *  * 
sented  thus :  *  *  * 

(5.)  As  lastly  stated,  two  more 
each,  thus :  *     * 

The   reader   will   perceive   we  * 
now  have  ten  sheaves,  forming  a       *     * 
circle  as  nearly  as  can  be. 

(6.)    While   one   man  presses       *     * 
the  head  of  the  shock  firmly  together,  let  the 
other  break,  not  Mnd,  the  two  cap  sheaves, 


AGRICULTURE 


617 


and  place  them  on,  well  spreading  heads  and 
butts. 

The  main  points  are,  to  have  grain  well, 
bound,  sheaves  made  to  stand  in  an  erect 
position,  and  then  to  put  cap  sheaves  on 
firmly,  and  every  gust  of  wind  will  not 
demolish  your  work. 

Grain  is  usually  shocked  in  this  manner : 
One  sheaf  is  made  to  stand  alone,  another 
is  leaned  against  it,  and  another,  sometimes 
at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  "to  make 
them  stand  up,"  until  a  sufficient  number  is 
thought  to  be  leaned  up 

Now,  the  probability  is,  that  there  is  but 
one  sheaf  in  the  whole  shock  that  has  its 
centre  of  gravity  within  its  base;  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course,  each  depends  on  some  other 
to  hold  it  up.  Consequently  they  twist; 
and  if  the  shock  does  not  fall  down  before 
the  hands  get  the  next  one  up,  it  most  cer- 
tainly will  during  the  first  rain,  just  when 
the  perpendicular  position  is  most  accessary. 

III.— LEGUMINOUS   VEGETABLES 

THE  KIDNEY  BEAN  (Phaseolus  Vulgaris). 
— The  bush  or  dwarf  kidney  bean  is  fre- 
quently cultivated  as  a  field  crop.  There 
are  many  sorts  that  may  be  profitably  used 
for  this  purpose,  but  the  Small  White  is 
generally  preferred,  as  it  is  very  polific, 
quite  hardy,  will  grow  in  light,  poor  soil, 
and  is  more  delicately  flavored  than  the  col- 
ored varieties.  The  Long  White  garden  bean 
is  also  good. 

The  bean  succeeds  best  on  a  light,  warm, 
and  moderately  fertile  soil.  A  strong  soil, 
or  too  much  manure,  induces  a  tendency  to 
run  to  vine,  without  a  corresponding  quan- 
tity of  fruit. 

Plant  either  in  hills  or  in  drills.  If  you 
have  a  sower,  or  drill  for  putting  them  in, 
the  latter  is  the  best  mode.  The  drills  may 
be  from  two  to  three  feet  apart,  the  hills 
from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  each  way. 
From  five  to  eight  plants  are  enough  for  a 
hill.  They  must  be  kept  clear  from  weeds 
by  the  use  of  the  hoe  or  cultivator;  but 
1  should  be  earthed  up  very  slightly,  if  at  all. 
The  first  of  June  is  sufficiently  early  to 
plant  them.  They  are  sometimes  planted 
with  corn,  putting  three  or  four  beans  in 
each  hill.  This  may  be  done  either  at  the 
time  of  planting  the  corn,  or  at  the  first 
hoeing. 

THE  PEA  (Pisum  Sativum). — The  Mar- 
rowfat and  Small  Yellow  peas  are  the  sorts 
generally  used  for  field  culture.  The  Marrow- 
fat is  the  richer  and  better  pea,  and  is  to  be 
preferred  for  good  *oils.  The  Small  Yellow 


thrives  on  poorer  soils,  and  is  therefore,  in 
some  cases,  more  profitably  cultivated.  In. 
some  parts  of  the  South  a  very  prolific 
bush  pea  is  cultivated  and  much  esteemed 
for  the  table,  both  green  and  dry. 

Prepare  the  ground  as  for  any  other 
spring  crop,  by  plowing  and  harrowing,  and 
sow  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  two  or  two 
and  a  half  bushels  to  the  acre.  Cover  them 
with  the  harrow  or  the  cultivator,  the  latter 
implement  being  preferable,  and  smooth  the 
ground  by  the  use  of  the  roller. 

The  great  enemy  of  the  pea  is  the  pea- 
weevil  or  pea-bug,  which  is  too  well  known 
to  require  description.  As  a  remedy,  some 
recommend  keeping  the  seed  in  tight  vessels 
over  one  year.  This  plan,  if  universally 
adopted,  would  probably  lead  to  the  total 
extermination  of  this  destructive  insect; 
but  as  this  is  not  likely  to  be  the  case,  the 
only  practicable  way  to  avoid  its  ravages 
is  by  late  sowing. 

THE  PEANUT  (Arachis  Hypogcea). — This 
is  a  legume  bearing  its  pods  under  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  It  was  originally 
brought  from  Africa. 

A  North  Carolina  planter  thus  describes 
the  mode  of  cultivation:  "As  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  the  land  is 
broken  up,  and  about  the  middle  of  April 
laid  off  with  the  plow  thirty-three  inches 
each  way;  two  or  three  peas  are  then 
dropped  in  the  crosses  thus  made.  The 
plants  are  kept  clean  with  hoes  and  plows 
until  the  vines  cover  the  ground ;  but  no 
dirt  is  put  on  the  vines.  In  October  they 
are  dug  with  a  rake  or  plow.  Hogs  are 
then  turned  into  the  field,  and  they  soon 
fatten  upon  the  peas  left  upon  the  ground. 
When  the  vines  are  left  upon  the  land  for 
the  hogs  to  feed  upon,  there  is  no  crop 
that  improves  the  land  so  much." 

IV.— ESCULENT    ROOTS 

THE  POTATO  (Solanum  Tuberosum). — In 
reference  to  the  choice  of  varieties  for 
planting,  the  best  advice  we  can  give  will 
be  simply  a  repetition  of  our  recommenda- 
tions in  respect  to  several  other  plants : 
Choose  such  as  have  been  well  tested  by 
yourself  or  others,  and  found  adapted  to 
the  soil  and  purposes  for  which  they  are  to 
be  cultivated.  Try  your  experiments  with 
new  sorts,  on  a  small  scale,  and  with  close 
observation  of  the  results.  Experiment,  also, 
if  leisure  serve,  in  the  production  of  new 
varieties  from  the  seeds  found  in  the  balls. 

A  fair  crop  of  potatoes  may  be  produced 
on  almost  any  soil,  properly  manured  and 


618 


AGRICULTURE 


prepared  and  well  cultivated,  but  a  rich 
loam,  of  medium  humidity,  is  best.  If  fresh 
or  unfermented  manures  be  used,  they 
should  be  spread  on  the  land,  and  plowed 
under,  and  not  scattered  in  the  drills  or 
hills,  as  they  are  apt  to  injure  the  flavor 
of  the  potatoes.  Lime,  crushed  bones,  gyp- 
sum, salt,  and  ashes  are  excellent  special 
manures  for  the  potato.  The  soil  should 
be  made  loose  and  mellow  before  planting. 

THE  SWEET  POTATO  (Convolvulus  Bata- 
tas).— This  is  the  potato  of  the  South,  and 
is  much  cultivated  in  the  Middle  and  West- 
ern States.  In  its  perfection,  as  it  grows 
in  South  Carolina  and  the  other  extreme 
Southern  States,  it  is  the  best  of  all  the 
esculent  roots. 

The  varieties  most  cultivated  are  the 
Small  Spanish,  long,  purplish  color,  grows 
in  clusters,  very  productive,  and  of  good 
quality;  Brimstone,  sulphur-colored,  long, 
large,  and  excellent ;  Red  Bermuda,  the  best 
early  potato;  Common  Yam,  root  oblong 
and  large,  the  best  keeper,  and  very  pro- 
ductive. 

A  dry,  loamy  soil,  inclining  to  sand,  is 
best  for  the  sweet  potato.  The  manure 
should  be  plowed  in,  and  the  ground  well 
pulverized.  A  top-dressing  of  wood  ashes 
is  very  beneficial. 

As  soon  as  the  tops  are  dead  or  touched 
by  the  frost,  the  crop  should  be  gathered. 

Sweet  potatoes  are  difficult  to  keep. 

THE  TURNIP  (Brassica  Repa).—The  va- 
rieties of  the  turnip  are  numerous.  The  flat 
English  turnip  has  been  longest  in  cultiva- 
tion, and  still  holds  its  place  among  most 
farmers  as  a  field  crop.  It  thrives  best  on 
new  land  and  freshly  turned  sod,  but  will 
grow  wherever  Indian  corn  can  be  raised. 

English  turnips  are  often  sowed  among 
Indian  corn  at  the  last  hoeing,  producing, 
in  many  cases,  a  fair  crop. 

The  Ruta-Baga,  or  Swedish,  turnip  is  a 
far  more  valuable  root  than  the  English, 
but  requires  a  little  more  attention  in  cul- 
tivation. It  will  grow  on  a  heavier  soil, 
yield  as  good  a  crop,  furnish  a  more  nutri- 
,  tive  root,  and  keep  longer. 

The  turnip  is  exposed  to  numerous  depre- 
dators, of  which  the  turnip  flea-beetle  is 
the  most  inveterate.  It  attacks  the  plant 
as  soon  as  the  first  leaves  expand,  and  often 
destroys  two  or  three  successive  sowings. 
When  the  fly  or  bug  is  discovered,  the  ap- 
plication of  lime,  ashes,  or  soot,  or  all  com- 
bined, should  be  made  upon  the  leaves, 
while  the  dew  or  a  slight  moisture  is  on 
them. 


Harvesting  should  be  deferred  till  the 
approach  of  severe  frosts,  and  at  the  South 
the  crop  may  remain  in  the  ground  till 
wanted  in  the  winter. 

The  Purple  -  Topped  Swede,  Skirving's 
Swede,  and  Ashcroft's  Swede  are  approved 
varieties. 

THE  CARSOT  (Daucus  Carota). — The  va- 
rieties mostly  used  for  field  culture  are  the 
Altringham,  the  Orange,  and  the  White  Bel- 
gian. The  last-named  is  very  productive, 
and,  growing  high  out  of  ground,  is  more 
easily  harvested  than  the  other  sorts;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  considered  below 
the  others  in  nutritive  value. 

It  is  very  important  to  have  both  the  soil^ 
and  the  manure  for  carrots  free  from  the 
seeds  of  weeds  and  grasses;  the  plants  in 
the  early  stages  of  their  growth  are  small 
and  feeble,  which  makes  it  a  slow  and  ex- 
pensive process  to  eradicate  the  weeds,  if 
abundant.  Well  manured  sandy,  or  light, 
loamy  soils  are  best  adapted  to  the  carrot 
crop.  The  ground  should  be  deeply  worked, 
and  brought  to  a  fine  tilth  before  sowing 
the  seed. 

THE  PARSNIP  (Pastinaca  Saliva). — The 
parsnip  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  our  table 
vegetables,  and  is  also  excellent  for  cattle, 
sheep,  and  swine.  The  leaves  of  both  pars- 
nips and  carrots  are  good  for  cattle,  either 
green  or  dried. 

THE  BEET  (Beta  Vulgaris). — The  varie- 
ties most  in  use  for  field  culture  are  the 
Sugar  beet  and  the  Mangold-Wurzel,  of 
both  of  which  there  are  several  sub- 
varieties. 

Beets  do  well  in  any  soil  of  sufficient 
depth  and  fertility,  but  they  are  perhaps 
most  partial  to  a  strong  loam.  If  well 
tilled,  they  will  produce  large  crops  on  a 
tenacious  clay.  We  have  raised  at  the  rate 
of  800  bushels  per  acre,  on  a  stiff  clay, 
which  had  been  well  supplied  with  unfer- 
mented manure.  The  soil  can  not  be  made 
too  rich ;  and  for  such  as  are  adhesive, 
fresh  or  unfermented  manures  are  much 
the  best. 

The  culture  is  similar  to  that  of  carrots 
and  parsnips. 

V.— THE    GRASSES 

The  grasses  cultivated  for  the  food  of 
animals  are  too  numerous  to  admit  of  a 
description  in  such  a  work  as  this. 

We.  will  speak  briefly  of  a  few  of  the 
leading  species  cultivated  among  us,  noting 
some  of  their  peculiar  excellences  and 
adaptations. 


AGRICULTURE 


619 


TIMOTHY  (Phleum  Pratense). —  Allen 
says:  "For  cultivation  in  the  northern  por- 
tion of  the  United  States,  I  am  inclined  to 
place  the  timothy  first  in  the  list  of  the 
grasses.  It  is  indigenous  to  this  country, 
and  flourishes  in  all  soils  except  such  as  are 
wet,  too  light,  dry,  or  sandy ;  and  it  is  found 
in  perfection  on  the  rich  clays  and  clay 
loams  which  lie  between  38°  and  44°  north 
latitude.  It  is  a  perennial,,  easy  of  cultiva- 
tion, hardy  and  of  luxuriant  growth,  and 
on  its  favorite  soil  yields  from  one  and  a 
half  to  two  tons  of  hay  per  acre  at  one  cut- 
ting." 

It  may  be  sown  either  in  August  or  Sep- 
tember with  the  winter  grains,  or  in  the 
spring.  "Twelve  quarts  of  seed  per  acre  on 
a  fine  mellow  tilth  are  sufficient;  and  twice 
this  quantity  on  a  stiff  clay."  This  is  the 
Herds  grass  of  New  England. 

THE  SMOOTH  -  STALKED  MEADOW  GRASS 
{Pea  Pratensis). — This  is  one  of  the  best 
of  grasses,  both  for  hay  and  for  pasture. 
It  is  a  native  species,  and  is  found  almost 
everywhere,  but  does  not  grow  in  its  great- 
est perfection  north  of  the  valley  of  the 
Ohio.  It  is  seen  in  all  its  glory  on  the  fer- 
tile soils  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Every 
animal  that  eats  grass  is  fond  of  it. 

The  Roughish  Meadow  grass  (P.  trivia- 
/«)  has  the  appearance  of  the  smooth  va- 
riety, but  is  rough  to  the  touch,  and  pre- 
fers moist  situations  and  clayey  soils.  This, 
also,  is  an  excellent  grass. 

RED  TOP  (Agrostis  Vulgaris). — A  hardy 
and  luxuriant  species,  much  relished  by  cat- 
tle, but  possessing'  only  a  moderate  nutri- 
tive value.  It  is  much  cultivated  in  some 
portions  of  New  England  and  elsewhere; 
but  where  better  grasses  will  grow,  this 
should  be  rejected.  It  is  sometimes  called 
Foul  Meadow  and  Bent  Grass. 

TALL  OAT  GRASS  (Avena  Elatior'). — An 
early  and  luxuriant  grass,  flourishing  in  a 
loamy  or  clayey  soil,  and  making  good 
hay.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  four  or 
five  feet  on  good  soils.  It  is  well  suited 
to  pasture. 

THE  FESCUE  GRASSES  (Festuca  of  spe- 
cies).— The  Tall  Fescue  grass  (F.  elatior), 
according  to  some  experiments  made  in 
England,  yields  more  nutritive  matter  per 
acre,  when  cut  in  flower,  than  any  other 
grass  cut  either  in  flower  or  seed.  It  is  an 
American  grass,  but  has  found  less  favor 
at  hftme  than  abroad. 

The  Meadow  Fescue  (F.  pratensis)  ;  the 
Spiked  Fescue  (F.  loleacea) ;  the  Purple 
Fescue  (F.  rubra)  ;  and  the  Floating  Fescue 


(F.  fluitans),  are  all  indigenous  grasses  of 
fine  qualities  and  great  value. 

ORCHARD  GRASS  (Dactylis  Glomerata). — 
The  Orchard  or  Cock's  Foot  grass  is  excel- 
lent for  shaded  situations.  It  should  be  cut 
before  it  is  ripe,  and  will  furnish  three  or 
four  crops  a  year. 

THE   EGYPTIAN    GRASS    (Sorghum    Hal- 
Pense). — A  cane-like  grass  which  grows  in 
profusion  in  some  of  the  Southern  States. 
It  is  a  superior  stock-sustaining  plant ;  but , 
as  it  is  difficult  to  remove  when  once  im-  ' 
bedded    in    the    soil,    its    introduction    into 
cultivated  fields  is  considered  a  great  evil. 

GERMAN  MILLET  (Panicum  Germanicum). 
— This  plant,  known  at  the  West  as  Hun- 
garian grass,  seems  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Iowa  by  a  Hungarian  immigrant,  and 
to  have  spread  thence  to  other  parts  of  the 
country.  It  had,  however,  been  previously 
cultivated  in  small  quantities  under  its 
proper  name  of  German  Millet.  As  a  for- 
age crop,  for  the  West  at  least,  its  value 
seems  to  be  well  proved.  It  has  been  less 
extensively  tested  at  the  East. 

THE  CLOVERS  (Trifdtittm  of  species). — 
The  Common  Red  clover  (T.  pratense)  is 
a  hardy  and  easily  cultivated  species,  of 
which  there  are  5everal  varieties.  It  grows 
luxuriantly  on  every  well-drained  soil  of 
sufficient  strength  to  afford  it  nutriment. 

Clover  should  be  cut  after  having  fully 
blossomed  and  assumed  a  brownish  hue. 

Southern  Dover  (T.  medium)  is  a  small- 
er species  than  the  common  red,  and  ma*, 
tures  earlier.  It  succeeds  better  on  a  light 
soil  than  the  latter,  and  should  be  sown 
more  thickly. 

The  White  or  Creeping  clover  (T.  re- 
pens),  of  which  there  are  several  varieties, 
is  a  self-propagating  plant,  and  adds  greatly 
to  the  richness  of  many  of  our  pastures, 
especially  on  clayey  soils.  It  is  very  nutri- 
tious, and  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  are  all 
fond  of  it. 

Dr.  Darlington,  of  Pennsylvania,  gives  the 
following  as  the  species  of  grasses  most  val- 
uable in  our  meadows  and  pastures,  naming 
them  in  the  order  of  their  excellence : 

I.  Meadow  or  green  grass  (Poa  pra- 
tensis). 2.  Timothy  (Phleum  pratense). 
3.  Orchard  grass  (Dactylis  glomerata).  4. 
Meadow  Fescue  (Festuca  pratensis).  5. 
Blue  grass  (Poa  compressa).  6.  Ray  grass 
(Lolium  perenne).  7.  Red  top  (Agrostis 
vulgaris).  8.  Sweet-scented  vernal  grass 
(Anthoxanthum  odoratum). 

BROOM  CORN  (Sorghum  Saccharatum) . — 
Broom  corn  requires  similar  soil  to  Indian 


620 


AGRICULTURE 


corn.  A  green  sward  turned  over  late  in 
the  fall  is  best.  Well-rotted  horse  or  sheep 
manure  and  wood  ashes  may  be  liberally 
scattered  in  the  drills  or  hills.  A  situation 
not  subject  to  early  or  late  frosts  should  be 
chosen.  Clayey  lands  are  not  suitable. 

FLAX  (Linum  Usitatissimum). — A  deep, 
rich  loam  or  alluvial  soil  is  best  for  flax. 
The  proper  fertility  should  be  secured  by  a 
surplus  of  manure  applied  to  a  previous 
crop,  as  fresh  manures  are  injurious  to  it. 

HEMP  (Cannabis  Satvva). — This  is  a  plant 
of  the  nettle  tribe,  and  came  originally  from 
India.  The  Russians  are  at  present  its  chief 
cultivators;  but  in  our  Western  States,  and 
especially  in  Kentucky,  it  is  beginning  to  be 
widely  raised. 

A  rich  loam  or  vegetable  mould  suits  the 
hemp  plant.  The  ground  should  be  care- 
fully prepared  by  plowing  and  harrowing 
all  it  is  perfectly  pulverized,  smooth,  and 
even.  The  seeds  are  sown  broadcast  at  the 
rate  of  a  bushel  and  a  half  to  the  acre,  and 
plowed  or  harrowed  in.  Plowing  is  best 
on  ground  liable  to  bake.  In  Kentucky, 
they  sow  any  time  from  the  first  of  April 
to  the  tenth  of  May.  It  is  desirable  to  sow 
just  before  a  rain.  , 

THE  HOP  (Humulus  Lupulus). — The  hop 
is  found  growing  spontaneously  on  the 
banks  of  rivers  and  brooks  in  various  parts 
of  this  country. 

The  best  soil  for  the  cultivation  of  hops 


is  a  sandy  loam,  rather  low  and  moist,  but 
they  will  grow  on  soils  very  different  from 
this.  New  lands  are  to  be  preferred. 

If  the  land  has  been  long  in  use,  it  should 
be  dressed  with  a  compost  of  alkaline  ma- 
nures, or,  what  is  nearly  equivalent,  with 
fresh  barnyard  manures,  on  a  previously 
well-hoed  crop,  and  made  perfectly  free 
from  all  weeds,  and  deeply  plowed  and 
harrowed. 

After  gathering  in  the  fall,  the  hops 
should  be  hilled  or  covered  with  compost, 
and  all  the  vines  removed.  The  following 
spring,  when  the  ground  is  dry,  the  surface 
is  scraped  from  the  hill  and  additional  com- 
post is  added,  when  a  plow  is  run  on  four 
sides,  as  near  as  possible  without  injury  to 
the  plants.  All  the  running  roots  are  laid 
bare  and  cut  with  a  sharp  knife  within  two 
or  three  inches  of  the  main  root,  and  the 
latter  are  trimmed  if  spreading  too  far.  It 
is  well  to  break  or  twist  down  the  first 
shoots,  and  allow  those  which  succeed  to 
run,  as  they  are  likely  to  be  stronger  and 
more  productive.  Cutting  should  be  avoided, 
unless  on  a  sunny  day,  as  the  profuse  bleed- 
ing injures  them.  The  poles  will  keep  much 
longer  if  laid  away  under  cover  till  again 
wanted  the  following  spring.  Drying  may 
be  done  by  spreading  the  hops  thinly  in  the 
shade,  and  stirring  them  often  enough  to 
prevent  heating;  but  when  there  is  a  large 
quantity  they  can  be  safely  cured  only  in  a 
kiln. 


HINTS    ON    THE   CULTIVATION    OF    FRUIT 


COST 

THE  cost  of  first  planting  will  vary  widely 
in  different  localities — depending  on  the 
condition  of  the  ground,  the  quality  of  the 
soil,  prices  of  trees,  price  of  labor,  etc.  An 
approximate  calculation  may  be  made,  how- 
ever, by  estimating  the  cost  of  preparing 
the  ground  and  planting  the  trees,  at  an 
amount  equal  to  the  cost  of  the  trees  in  the 
nursery;  and,  when  ditching  and  under- 
draining  is  necessary,  at  double  that  amount. 
The  following  rule  laid  down  by  Thomas 
Gregg  in  his  admirable  work  on  fruit  cul- 
ture should  be  inflexibly  observed  in  all 
cases:  Never  slight  the  work,  nor  plant  an 
inferior  tree,  because  it  is  cheaper  to  do  so! 
Work  half  done  is  very  poor  economy  in 
planting  an  orchard,  as  well  as  in  most  other 
things;  and  a  tree  costing  only  half  price 
in  the  nursery  may  turn  out  to  be  a  very 
dear  one  in  the  end.  The  very  best  varie- 


ties (and  these  are  not  always  the  most 
costly),  as  well  as  the  very  best  trees,  are 
those  from  which*  you  must  expect  to  realize 
the  most  profit. 

ESTIMATE   FOR   THREE   ACRES 

The  following  estimate  will  answer  for 
an  orchard  of  three  acres  of  ground,  with 
such  variations  as  circumstances  may  re- 
quire. [The  number  of  trees  will  vary 
somewhat  as  the  shape  of  the  ground  is 
varied ;  the  calculation  is  based  on  a  plat 
which  is  twenty-four  rods  long  by  twenty 
wide.] 

Eighty  apple  trees,  thirty-three  feet  apart, 
covering  two  acres. 

Seventy  peach-trees,  sixteen  and  a  half 
feet  apart,  set  around  three  sides  of  the 
whole. 

There  will  then  be  left  in  front  one  acre, 
which  may  be  divided  into  two  equal  plats 


AGRICULTURE 


621 


of  132  by  166  feet.  These  may  be  filled  as 
follows : 

IN  No.  i. — Twenty  standard  pears,  thirty- 
three  feet  apart,  in  continuation  of  the  apple 
rows. 

Thirty-two  dwarf  pears,  in  the  same  rows, 
seven  feet  apart  and  thirteen  feet  from  the 
standards.  And — 

Twenty-seven  pyramid  and  dwarf  plums, 
quinces,  cherries,  etc.,  in  the  alternate  rows, 
sixteen  and  a  half  feet  apart. 

IN  No.  2. — Such  number  of  almonds,  apri- 
cots, grapes,  nectarines,  gooseberries,  cur- 
rants, raspberries,  blackberries,  and  straw- 
berries as  fancy  may  dictate  and  as  will 
stock  it  properly. 

The  above  estimate  will  constitute  an 
orchard  of  about  250  orchard  trees — stand- 
ard and  dwarf — and  perhaps  as  many  more 
of  the  garden  or  brush  fruits. 

DISTANCES 

Every  planter  has  his  own  opinion  re- 
garding the  distance  which  trees  should 
be  planted  from  each  other.  Besides,  some 
kinds  of  soils  and  localities  require  greater 
distance  than  others ;  and  some  varieties  will 
bear  to  stand  closer  than  other  varieties  of 
the  same  fruit.  A  good  rule  is  that,  when 
full  grown,  the  tops  should  not  be  nearer 
to  each  other  than  one-third  their  diam- 
eter. An  apple-tree,  for  example,  when  fully 
grown,  will  spread,  on  an  average,  to  a  dis- 
tance of  twenty-five  feet;  the  rule  will  give 
thirty-three  feet  as  the  proper  distance  apart. 
Peaches  seldom  spread,  or  should  not,  if 
properly  pruned,  more  than  twelve  to  fifteen 
feet;  the  rule  gives  sixteen  to  twenty  feet 
as  the  distance  to  plant.  In  planting  an 
orchard  of  apples,  with  plenty  of  ground, 
thirty-three  feet  is  probably  the  safest  dis- 
tance; yet,  if  ground  is  an  object,  they  will 
do  at  twenty-five  feet.  Apples  may  be 
planted  a  little  wider — say  forty  feet — and 
rows  of  peach-trees  planted  both  ways  be- 
tween:  as  the  peach,  not  being  so  long-lived, 
will  die  out  before  the  apple  has  attained 
to  a  large  growth. 

When  the  saving  of  ground  is  an  impor- 
tant consideration,  and  none  but  standard 
trees  are  to  be  planted,  more  space  may  be 
obtained  by  planting  in  rows,  according  to 
the  following  diagram : 


*  *  * 

*  * 


Smaller  trees  may  be  set  closely  in  rows, 
as  represented  in  the  figure  below  : 


This  last  method  is  recommended  for  vil- 
lage plats,  where  it  is  desirable  to  combine 
the  raising  of  vegetables  with  that  of  fruit; 
as  the  spaces  between  the  rows  may  be  ap- 
propriated to  any  kind  of  root  crop,  with 
decided  advantage  to  the  trees. 

The  following  table  of  distances  for  the 
various  kinds  of  fruit,  condensed  from 
Thomas's  "Fruit  Culturist,"  seems  to  have 
been  acquiesced  in  by  most  fruit-growers  : 

APPLES.  — 

For  large  trees  .............  25  to  40  feet 

For  pyramids  and  dwarfs.  ...  6  to    8  " 

PEARS.  — 

Large,  trees  on  pear  stocks..  20  " 

Pyramids  on  pear  stocks  .  .  .  .  8  to  10  " 

Pyramids  on  quince  stocks.  .  6  " 

Dwarf  standards  on  quince.  .  8  " 

PEACHES.  — 

Full  growth  .................  20  " 

Shortened    in  ................  12  to  15  " 

CHERRIES.  — 

Common   standards  ...........  20  " 

Pyramids  on  common  stocks  10  " 

(Dukes   and   Morellos   require  less). 

PLUMS.  — 

Standards     .................  15  " 

Pyramids    ..................  6  to    8  " 

APRICOTS    ................  .....  15  to  20  " 

QUINCES   .....................  6  to    8  " 

GRAPES.  — 

On   8-ft.    trellis  .............  25  "• 

On    i2-ft.    trellis  ............  16  " 

Trimmed  to%  stakes  ..........  4  to    6  " 

GOOSEBERRIES  AND  CURRANTS...  4  to    5  " 

RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES  4  " 

For  the  above  distances,  the  following  is 
the  number  of  trees  required  for  an  acre  : 

40  feet  apart  ...........      27  trees 


33 
25 
20 

15 

12 
10 

8 
6 
4 


.  40 

.  69 

.  108 

•  193 
.  302 

•  435 
.    680 
.1,208 
.2,720 


40 


622 


AGRICULTURE 


LOCATION 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  concern- 
ing the  location  of  orchards.  Situation  and 
aspect  doubtless  have  their  effects,  yet  no 
one  should  neglect  to  plant  merely  because 
he  can  not  give  his  trees  such  an  aspect  as 
he  may  desire.  Trees  in  favorable  situa- 
tions will  undoubtedly  produce  more  good 
crops  than  those  less  fortunately  situated; 
yet  many  seasons  occur  when  the  causes  of 
the  difference  do  not  arise,  and  trees  in  any 
exposure  will  produce  abundantly.  To  this 
general  rule  there  can  be  very  few  excep- 
tions, namely — Elevated  situations  are  bet- 
ter than  lowlands,  and  the  brows  and  sides 
of  hills  are  to  be  chosen  in  preference  to 
the  valleys.  Numerous  proofs  have  been 
adduced  to  show  that  the  peach  might  be 
successfully  grown  much  further  north  than 
it  usually  is,  if  the  most  elevated  positions 
were  chosen  instead  of  the  warm  valleys. 
So,  further  south,  frequent  severe  frosts  cut 
off  the  crops  on  the  low  grounds,  while 
those  on  the  more  elevated  and  exposed  sit- 
uations are  not  affected. 

The  old  rule  was  to  choose  a  southern 
or  southeastern  exposure.  A  northern  ex- 
posure is  now  very  generally  preferred.  This 
is  because  the  action  of  the  warm  sun,  in 
a  southern  exposure,  will  too  soon  thaw 
away  the  frost  about  the  roots,  and  cause 
the  buds  to  swell — leaving  them  exposed  to 
alernations  of  frost  and  thaw.  In  the  West, 
the  rolling  prairies  near  the  woodland,  the 
hazel  ruffs  that  skirt  the  prairie  and  wood, 
and  the  richest  portions  of  the  timbered 
bluffs  or  highlands  that  overlook  the  riv- 
ers are  regarded  as  the  best  locations.  The 
best  bearing  orchards  are  those  on  the  bluff 
overlooking  the  Mississippi  at  the  Lower 
Rapids. 

SOIL 

Fruit  trees,  like  corn  and  cabbages,  will 
grow  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil ;  yet  some 
soils  are  more  suited  to  their  natures  than 
others.  They  require  a  soil  strong  enough 
to  give  the  tree  a  vigorous  growth,  and  the 
better  and  more  vigorous  the  growth  of  the 
tree,  the  better  will  be  the  character  of  the 
fruit.  As  a  general  thing,  any  soil  that  will 
produce  a  good  crop  of  corn  will  be  good 
for  fruit-trees.  A  strictly  alluvial  soil,  how- 
ever, is  not  to  be  recommended ;  as,  while  it 
will  produce  a  rank  growth  of  wood,  it  will 
not  make  so  hardy  or  fruitful  a  tree;  nor 
will  the  quality  of  the  fruit  be  equal  to  that 
grown  on  a  less  fertile  soil.  A  calcareous 
soil  is  the  best  adapted  to  most  kinds  of 
fruit ;  yet  in  other  than  limestone  regions  a 
gravelly  or  sandy  loam  will  be  found  to  an- 


swer a  good  purpose.  Stiff,  clayey  soils  are 
not  promotive  of  a  good  growth;  yet  they 
can  be  rendered  available  by  a  proper  in- 
corporation of  sand,  manure,  and  vegetable 
mould.  Most  soils — even  those  in  the  lime- 
stone region — require  an  addition  of  more 
or  less  lime  and  potash,  as  these  ingredients 
enter  largely  into  the  composition  of  most 
fruits. 

PREPARATION    OF    THE    GROUND 

Not  one  in  a  hundred  of  those  who  plant 
trees  bestows  the  necessary  care  and  atten- 
tion on  the  preparation  of  the  ground.  A 
very  common  mode  is  to  dig  a  hole  about 
a  foot  wide  and  five  or  six  inches  deep, 
stick  in  the  tree — bending  the  roots  or  cut- 
ting them  off  to  bring  them  within  the 
proper  compass — shovel  in  a  few  spadefuls 
of  dirt  or  sod,  tread  it  down  with  the  foot, 
and  the  job  is  done!  If  the  tree  grows, 
well ;  if  not,  the  planter  has  only  been  un- 
lucky, and  all  the  neighbors  conclude  not 
to  plant — it  is  so  hard  to  make  trees  grow! 
Is  it  any  wonder  that  three  out  of  every 
four  trees  taken  from  the  nursery  die  with- 
out having  reached  the  stage  of  fruit- 
bearing? 

In  the  first  place,  the  soil  must  be  dry 
before  planting.  If  not  so  naturally,  it  must 
be  made  so  by  deep  plowing,  and,  if  this 
will  not  suffice,  then  by  underdraining.  A 
clay  subsoil  should  be  underdrained  to  the 
depth  of  three  feet ;  but  any  soil  not  very  re- 
tentive of  water  may  be  sufficiently  drained 
by  the  use  of  a  subsoil  plow  and  a  strong 
team.  With  good  underdraining  and  a 
proper  admixture  of  manure,  ashes,  sand, 
and  loam,  the  toughest  clay  soils  may  be  re- 
duced to  a  proper  condition  for  fruit-trees. 
All  soils  that  are  sufficiently  porous  to  drain 
well  should  be  first  prepared  with  the  plow, 
harrow,  and  subsoiler;  and  then  the  holes 
for  the  trees  should  be  made  only  of  proper 
size  and  depth  to  admit  the  roots  in  their 
natural  position,  and  at  two  or  three  inches 
greater  depth  than  they  stood  in  the  nur- 
sery. Deep  holes  in  a  hard  and  tenacious 
subsoil  will  injure  the  trees  by  retaining 
too  much  water.  Such  soils  should  be 
avoided  for  a  fruit  orchard;  or  if  used, 
should  first  be  properly  underdrained.  Many 
young  trees  die  from  the  effects  of  standing 
in  deep  holes,  prepared  for  them  at  great 
expense. 

Previous  to  planting,  the  soil  should  be 
enriched  with  well-rotted  barnyard  manure, 
thoroughly  intermixed  and  pulverized  by 
the  harrow.  If  planting  is  to  be  done  in 
the  spring,  the  plowing  should  have  been 


AGRICULTURE 


623 


gone  through  with  the  fall  previous,  and 
then  thoroughly  stirred  once  more  just 
before  planting.  When  the  whole  field  is 
thoroughly  prepared  by  the  plow,  it  can  be 
cultivated  to  some  useful  crop,  and  the  trees 
will  be  more  likely  to  receive  the  necessary 
tillage  than  they  would  if  standing  in  the 
field  alone. 

MANURING 

It  is  a  quite  common  experience  that  the 
quality  of  fruit  in  orchards  will,  after  a 
few  years,  gradually  decline,  yielding  only 
small  and  imperfect  specimens.  Some  va- 
rieties will  show  this  decline  much  sooner 
than  others.  Negligence  in  regard  to  ma- 
nuring is  generally  the  cause  of  this  dete- 
rioration. The  application  of  barnyard  ma- 
nure will  cure  the  evil,  though,  with  some 
fruits,  other  ingredients  are  very  valuable. 
Ashes  are  a  good  fertilizer  for  most  fruits, 
and  are  worth  more  to  the  fruit-grower  as 
such  than  for  any  other  purpose.  In  the 
peach  orchard  there  is  little  danger  of  get- 
ting too  much.  A  free  use  of  lime  on  some 
soils  is  very  beneficial,  and  in  many  cases 
salt  may  be  used  to  advantage.  This  latter 
has  been  strongly  recommended  as  a  pre- 
ventive to  blight  in  the  pear. 

TRANSPLANTING 

LAYING  OFF  THE  GROUND 

The  best  way  to  lay  off  the  ground,  after 
it  has  been  fully  prepared  and  the  distances 
decided  upon,  is  to  measure  along  the  sides 
and  ends,  setting  a  stake  at  the  proper  dis- 
tances, and  then  driving  small  stakes,  say 
one  foot  high,  at  all  the  points  where  the 
lines  thus  indicated  intersect  each  other. 
After  the  ground  is  staked,  commence  dig- 
ging the  holes — and  this  should  be  com- 
pleted before  the  trees  are  removed  from 
the  nursery. 

SEASON   FOR  TRANSPLANTING 

The  proper  season  for  transplanting  a 
tree  is  any  time  between  the  falling  of  the 
leaves  in  autumn  and  the  swelling  of  the 
buds  in  spring;  and,  in  the  case  of  a  hardy 
tree,  as  the  apple,  it  probably  niakes  but  lit- 
tle difference  whether  it  be  done  before  the 
winter  or  after  it.  With  other  trees  it  is 
different;  the  less  hardy  ones,  with  dimin- 
ished strength,  can  not  so  "asily  withstand 
the  severe  frosts  and  piercing  nor'westers 
of  that  season.  Hence  they  should  be  trans- 
planted only  in  the  spring  Apples  may  be 
removed  either  in  November  or  April,  pro- 
vided it  be  done  well,  with  probably  about 
equal  success. 


SETTING  OUT  TREES 

It  requires  three  men,  or  two  men  and  a 
boy,  to  set  out  trees  as  it  should  be  done. 
Before  inserting  the  roots  into  the  hole  pre- 
pared to  receive  them,  they  should  first  be 
dipped  into  mud  made  of  the  rich  surface 
mould,  to  cause  the  earth  to  adhere  to  all 
their  parts.  This  done,  place  the  tree  in  its 
proper  position  in  the  hole,  shovel  in  a 
small  quantity  of  the  finely  pulverized  mould, 
and  then  give  it  a  gentle  shaking  suddenly 
up  and  down,  in  order  to  settle  the  dirt 
closely  about  the  roots — one  person  to  hold 
the  tree  in  proper  position,  while  another 
shovels  in  the  earth.  When  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  earth  has  been  placed  upon 
the  roots  to  bring  it  level  with  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  tread  it  down  gently  with 
the  foot,  and  then  add  more,  rounding  it 
to  a  slight  mound,  with  the  stem  of  the 
tree  for  a  centre.  The  tree  should  be 
placed  in  the  hole  so  as  to  allow  it  to  stand 
about  as  deep,  when  the  earth  becomes  set- 
tled around  it,  as  it  stood  in  the  nursery. 

It  is  recommended  by  some  to  plant  the 
tree  in  the  orchard  in  the  same  relative 
position  to  the  points  of  the  compass  that 
it  occupied  in  the  nursery.  This  may  be 
beneficial ;  at  any  rate,  it  can  do  no  harm, 
and  it  is  quite  an  easy  matter  to  mark  the 
tree  before  it  is  lifted,  so  as  to  indicate  its 
position. 

If  the  planting  be  done  in  autumn,  there 
should  be  a  mound  of  earth  ten  inches  to  a 
foot  high  and  three  feet  in  diameter  raised 
around  the  tree  to  steady  it  and  protect 
its  roots  from  frost  and  the  bark  from 
mice.  When  the  ground  becomes  well  set- 
tled in  the  spring,  the  mound  should  be 
renioved. 

TRIMMING 

Before  setting  out,  each  tree  should  un- 
dergo a  proper  degree  of  trimming.  This 
requires  considerable  judgment.  As  the 
branches  and  roots  of  a  tree  depend  upon 
each  other  for  support,  it  will  readily  be 
understood  that  neither  should  be  over- 
tasked. In  removing  it  from  the  nursery, 
all  the  small  fibrous  roots,  and  sometimes 
many  of  the  larger,  are  lost;  hence  the  top 
must  be  trimmed  to  correspond.  To  do 
this  properly,  all  the  leading  shoots  should 
be  shortened  back  one-half  or  two-thirds 
of  the  current  year's  growth;  and,  if  the 
roots  have  been  much  injured,  the  leading 
branches  should  be  headed  back  still  more. 

TAKING  FROM   THE  NURSERY 

Trees, should  be  injured  as  little  as  possi- 
ble in  removing  them  from  the  nursery. 


624 


AGRICULTURE 


Taking  them  from  the  row,  and  tying  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  be  easily  transported, 
is  properly  the  nurseryman's  business;  yet 
it  is  always  best  to  keep  a  watchful  eye  to 
the  work.  Especial  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  roots  are  not  broken  or  bruised, 
or  cut  away  by  the  spade  in  taking  them 
from  the  ground;  and  when  any  of  the 
roots  do  become  injured,  they  should  be 
nicely  cut  off  with  a  sharp  knife.  As  soon 
as  dug,  the  trees  should  be  carefully  ar- 
ranged in  convenient  bunches,  as  much 
damp  earth  as  possible  placed  about  their 
roots,  and  then  closely  enveloped  in  some 
coarse  sacking,  or  other  suitable  thing,  and 
firmly  tied  with  strong  cord.  If  they  are 
to  be  re-set  at  but  a  short  distance  from 
the  nursery,  these  precautions  are  unneces- 
sary, though,  if  they  are  to  be  carried  any 
considerable  distance,  too  much  care  can 
not  be  used  in  this  respect.  In  all  cases 
the  roots  should  be  carefully  secured  against 
exposure  to  the  air  and  sun. 

If  from  any  cause  the  trees  are  not  to 
be  immediately  planted,  they  should  be 
placed  in  the  ground,  root  and  stock,  by 
digging  a  trench  and  shovelling  loose  dirt 
upon  them,  to  a  depth  sufficient  to  exclude 
the  air.  The  weather  will  not  always  per- 
mit of  immediate  replanting,  but  it  should 
in  no  case  be  delayed  longer  than  is  abso- 
lutely necessary.  This  covering  should  be 
done  in  the  orchard  or  garden,  and  the 
trees  should  be  removed  from  the  trench 
one  by  one  as  they  are  planted. 

SELECTION   OF  TREES 

There  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  in 
regard  to  the  proper  size  of  a  tree  for 
transplanting,  though  the  best  informed 
and  most  experienced  planters  now  prefer 
a  two-year-old  tree  rather  than  one  of  a 
larger  size.  In  thrifty,  well-tilled  nur- 
series, trees  of  that  age  average  about  five 
feet  high;  and  such  a  tree  can  be  more 
easily  handled,  and  is  also  in  a  better  con- 
dition to  sustain  the  violence  done  to  its 
nature  by  transplanting,  and  better  able  to 
recover  from  it,  than  those  of  an  older  and 
larger  growth.  Care  should  also  be  taken 
to  select  trees  of  well-branched  and  well- 
formed  heads,  and  of  as  near  the  same  size 
vigor,  and  general  condition  as  possible. 

AFTER-CULTURE 

PLOWING   AND   HOEING 

One  of  the  most  common  errors  among 
the   people    in    regard   to    fruit-growing    i 
that  pertaining  to  after-culture.     Many  sup- 


pose that  all  that  is  necessary  to  get  good 
Fruit  is  to  set  the  tree  in  the  ground,  right 
end  downward,  to  be  sure,  and  nature  will 
do  the  rest  This  is  a  most  fatal  error — 
nothing  can  be  more  unreasonable.  It  is 
as  absolutely  necessary  that  the  tree  which 
you  have  planted  should  receive  culture  and 
care  afterward  as  that  the  corn  which 
rustles  in  the  breeze  should  be  plowed, 
hoed,  and  harrowed  to  make  it  yield  its 
golden  harvest.  Trees,  as  well  as  vege- 
tables, must  have  food  and  drink.  It  is  by 
culture  that  they  obtain  them. 

Hence,  in  the  orchard,  the  growing  of 
some  crop  is  very  desirable.  Roots  are 
perhaps  the  best  of  all.  Potatoes,  beets, 
beans,  carrots,  parsnips,  onions — all  require 
thorough  culture,  and  do  not  shade  the 
trees;  while  Indian  corn,  clover,  grass,  and 
all  the  cereal  grains  should  be  rigidly  ex- 
cluded. 

PRUNING 

In  the  matter  of  pruning  we  find  there 
is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  among  ex- 
perienced fruit-growers.  Some  advise  a 
free  use  of  the  knife ;  others  prune  but  lit- 
tle, or  none  at  all.  The  first  are  doubtless 
right,  as  regards  some  sorts  of  trees ;  while, 
in  regard  to  other  varieties,  the  second  class 
are  correct.  And  the  point  must  be  settled 
between  them  by  considering  the  objects 
sought  to  be  attained  by  pruning. 

To  our  mind  there  are  four  objects  to 
be  had  in  view  in  pruning  a  fruit-tree. 
These  are: 

(i.)  To  relieve  it  of  its  dead  and  decay- 
ing branches. 

(2.)  To  promote  the  growth  of  the  tree. 
(3.)  To  encourage  the  production,  and 
increase  the  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit 
(4.)  To  change  its  shape. 
Now,  the  above  being  all  the  objects  for 
which  a  tree  ought  to  be  pruned  (except 
as  heretofore  stated,  under  the  head  of 
"Trimming,"  to  preserve  an  equilibrium  be- 
tween roots  and  branches  in  transplanting), 
it  is  evident  that,  while  a  permanent  vigor 
and  productiveness  are  maintained  without 
it,  the  less  pruning  the  better.  Many  plant- 
ers insist  that  a  tree  should  never  be  pruned 
except  for  the  first  of  these  objects;  be- 
cause, as  they  allege,  if  a  tree  be  faithfully 
kept  free  from  all  dead  and  decaying  wood, 
its  growth  and  productiveness  will  both  be 
promoted.  This  is  doubtless  true  to  some 
extent  with  some  sorts  of  fruit,  and,  unless 
some  peculiar  form  is  desired,  it  is  better 
to  do  but  little  other  pruning.  Yet  withal 
it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  prune  more 


AGRICULTURE 


625 


freely.  Some  varieties  of  the  apple,  for  in- 
stance, will  grow,  if  left  alone,  to  too  thick 
a  head,  and  require  thinning  out;  others 
grow  so  straggling  that  it  is  frequently  nec- 
essary to  cut  away  drooping  or  crooked 
and  deformed  branches,  to  give  the  tree 
some  symmetry  of  appearance.  After  the 
first  object  is  attained,  the  apple,  the  pear, 
and  the  cherry,  as  standards,  require  little 
more,  except  in  the  cases  last  alluded  to. 
Other  trees  require  much  more,  which  will 
be  treated  of  in  the  proper  place. 

PROTECTION 

All  orchards  and  fruit  gardens,  whether 
of  old  or  young  trees,  should  be  carefully 
protected  against  the  depredations  of  cat- 
tle or  other  animals.  Good  fences  to  secure 
them  are  indispensable,  as  it  is  utter  folly 
to  expend  time  and  money  in  planting  and 
rearing  a  fine  orchard,  and  then  allow  ani- 
mals to  disfigure,  maim,  and  destroy  the 
trees.  Cattle,  horses,  or  sheep  should  never 
be  allowed  to  run  in  orchards ;  nor  should 
swine  be  admitted  except  at  intervals  of 
very  short  periods,  in  order  that  they  may 


have  time  only  to  eat  up  the  fallen  fruit, 
and  not  to  bark  the  trees  or  root  up  the 
ground. 

In  some  sections  birds  are  great  depre- 
dators upon  fruit,  but,  as  a  general  thing, 
they  do  more  good  in  devouring  the  insects 
than  harm  in  consuming  the  fruit.  If  they 
become  too  numerous,  they  can  be  fright- 
ened away  with  guns. 

MULCHING 

This  is  simply  the  process  of  distribut- 
ing some  proper  material  around  the  root 
of  each  tree  to  retain  the  moisture.  When 
not  thus  protected,  the  ground  will  fre- 
quently bake  and  greatly  retard  the  growth 
of  the  tree.  Any  coarse  litter,  straw,  or 
forest  leaves  will  be  suitable  for  mulching. 
It  should  be  used  plentifully — spread  on  to 
a  depth  of  at  least  six  inches.  When  prop- 
erly mulched,  trees  will  retain  moisture 
about  their  roots,  and  make  a  vigorous 
growth,  through  the  dry  and  sultry  sum- 
mer months,  while  others  not  protected  in 
this  way  cease  to  grow  altogether,  and  in 
many  cases  wither  and  die. 


HINTS    ON    THE    VINE    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION 


AS  vine  culture  is   so  rapidly  develop- 
ing into  a  source  of  national  wealth, 
the  following  instructions  will  be  found  of 
considerable  value. 

PROPAGATION 

The  grape  is  easily  grown  from  cuttings 
— some  sorts,  however,  much  more  readily 
than  others.  Those  that  are  not  so  easily 
produced  in  this  way  are  usually  grown  in 
the  hot-house  or  hot-beds,  bottom  heat  be- 
ing required  for  the  production  of  roots. 
This  method  we  shall  leave  to  those  who 
are  prepared  for  it. 

For  outdoor  growth,  the  cuttings  should 
be  made  late  in  the  fall,  or  during  the  win- 
ter, or  in  the  early  spring.  They  should 
be  cut  from  well-ripened  wood  of  the  new 
growth,  and  should  be  made  about  a  foot 
in  length,  including  two  eyes,  one  near  each 
end;  if  the  wood  is  short- jointed,  more  eyes 
may  be  used,  but  in  no  case  should  a  cut- 
ting be  used  with  less  than  two.  When  cut, 
they  should  be  tied  in  bunches  of  fifty,  with 
the  butts  all  one  way,  and  should  be  pro- 
tected from  the  weather  until  time  for  plant- 
ing. The  safest  plan  to  do  this  is  to  bury 
in  the  ground  in  a  well-drained  soil,  below 


the  reach  of  frost.  Or  they  may  be  packed 
in  very  slightly  moistened  sawdust  or  sand, 
in  boxes,  in  a  dry  cellar. 

In  the  spring,  when  the  weather  becomes 
sufficiently  settled,  they  may  be  taken  up 
and  planted  in  good  garden  soil,  previously 
well  prepared.  In  planting,  make  a  trench 
with  the  plow,  or  spade,  ten  inches  deep; 
place  the  cuttings  in  the  trench  at  a  slight 
angle,  and  from  eight  to  twelve  inches 
apart,  close  against  the  side  and  with  the 
top-bud  just  even  with  the  surface.  Then 
fill  in  a  fe\7  inches  of  earth  at  the  bottom, 
and  press  tightly  with  the  foot,  continuing 
the  process  with  less  pressure  to  the  top. 
Level  and  smooth,  and  the  work  is  done. 

In  a  favorable  season  and  with  free- 
growing  sorts,  nineteen-twentieths  of  them 
will  grow,  and  with  proper  tillage  will  be- 
come good  plants.  The  only  cultivation 
necessary  will  be  to  keep  the  weeds  down 
with  the  hoe,  and  the  ground  mellow  and 
moist.  If  not  intended  for  sale,  or  trans- 
planting the  next  season,  they  may  remain 
another  year.  Otherwise  they  should  be 
taken  up  in  the  fall,  and  stored  in  cellar 
during  winter,  packed  in  earth  or  sand. 

In  transplanting,  the  tops  should  be  cut 


626 


AGRICULTURE 


back  to  two  buds,  and  the  roots  shortened 
in  to  fifteen  or  twenty  inches. 

PREPARATION    OF    THE    SOIL 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  about 
preparation  of  the  soil  for  grapes  that  is 
calculated  to  mislead  the  planter.  Some 
have  urged  the  entire  trenching  of  the 
ground  to  a  depth  of  three  to  five  feet, 
with  heavy  manuring;  others  require  the 
digging  of  deep  holes,  four  by  four  feet, 
and  filling  in  with  manure  and  other  en- 
riching material ;  while  a  third  and  more 
reasonable  class  would  only  subsoil  and 
drain,  in  addition  to  good  depth  of  culture. 
In  all  soils  suited  to  the  growth  of  a  good 
crop  of  corn  or  potatoes,  grapes  will  flour- 
ish, and  the  plow,  harrow,  and  subsoiler 
are  the  tools  necessary  for  their  preparation. 

If  new  ground  is  used,  the  stumps  and 
roots  should  be  carefully  grubbed  out,  as 
they  will  be  much  in  the  way  while  plant- 
ing and  in  after-cultivation,  and  can  be 
easier  taken  out  before  than  after  planting. 

The  timbered  lands  of  our  bluffs  are  more 
suited  to  grapes  than  the  richer  and  heavier 
soils  of  the  Western  prairies,  or  the  allu- 
vial soils  of  the  river  bottoms.  Thin  soils, 
with  proper  cultivation,  will  produce  grapes 
of  a  richer  and  better  quality  than  others, 
though  the  size  may  not  be  so  great,  or 
the  growth  of  wood  so  abundant. 

TRANSPLANTING 

may  be  safely  done  in  spring  or  fall,  ac- 
cording to  latitude.  In  northern  locations, 
spring  planting  is  preferable.  Southward, 
fall  is  preferred.  No  certain  line  of  divi- 
sion can  be  fixed;  but  we  should  say  that, 
as  a  rule,  all  south  of  the  latitude  of  Phila- 
delphia, Columbus  in  Ohio,  and  Quincy  in 
Illinois,  may  most  safely  plant  in  the  fall, 
while  north  of  those  points  it  is  better  to 
plant  in  the  spring. 

In  fall  planting  there  is  this  advantage 
— the  young  plants  can  be  taken  directly 
from  the  nursery  bed  and  planted,  without 
remaining  out  of  ground  for  any  length  of 
time.  Whereas,  if  planting  be  delayed  till 
spring,  the  vines  must  be  taken  care  of  for 
the  winter — as  heretofore  noted — with  more 
or  less  loss.  In  any  case,  it  is  important 
that  the  roots  shall  not  be  exposed  to  the 
weather,  or  allowed  to  become  dry.  In  re- 
moving from  the  nursery  row,  they  should 
be  securely  packed  in  damp  moss,  straw, 
hay,  or  litter  of  some  sort,  until  they  are 
finally  disposed  of  by  planting  or  packing 
for  the  winter. 


After  frost,  and  the  leaves  have  begun 
to  drop,  the  fall  planting  may  commence. 
In  spring  it  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the 
weather  becomes  settled  and  the  soil  in  good 
condition.  The  last  of  October,  and  through 
November,  will  do  for  fall  planting;  hi 
spring,  the  ist  of  May. 

Fall  planting  is  preferable  on  this  account 
also — that  the  soil  will  become  packed  to 
the  roots  during  winter,  the  new  growth  of 
roots  will  be  ready  to  start,  and  the  plant 
will  commence  growing  by  the  usual  time 
of  spring  planting. 

To  prevent  heaving  by  the  action  of  the 
frost,  and  throwing  out  the  plants — a  very 
serious  matter  if  not  prevented — a  furrow 
should  be  turned  on  the  plants  from  each 
side  after  planting  in  fall;  or  they  should 
be  mounded  up  with  the  hoe.  This  should 
be  levelled  down  again  in  the  spring. 

Having  prepared  the  ground  well,  as  be- 
fore stated,  with  plow,  subsoiler,  and  har- 
row, run  off  the  distances  for  the  rows  with 
a  plow,  making  a  clean  furrow  nine  or  ten 
inches  deep — being  careful,  if  crooked,  to 
straighten  with  a  hoe  or  spade.  Then  set 
stakes  the  proper  distances  along  the  fur- 
row, and  plant  at  the  stakes.  Stand  the 
plant  at  a  slight  angle  against  the  perpen- 
dicular side  of  the  furrow,  and  spread  the 
roots  nicely  each  way.  Cover  and  pack  the 
soil  well  around  the  roots. 

DISTANCE 

Most  vineyardists  choose  to  plant  in  rows 
about  eight  feet  apart,  and  eight  feet  in  the 
row.  Sorne  adopt  six  feet,  or  even  less — 
according  to  the  variety  and  the  mode  of 
training.  Some  of  the  strong-growing  sorts 
require  greater  distances.  Concord,  Isabella, 
Hartford  Prolific,  Ives  seedling,  Clinton, 
and  such  need  eight  feet  or  more;  while 
the  little  Delaware  may  do  with  four  or 
five,  and  the  Catawba,  lona,  and  similar 
ones  with  five  or  six.  Where  ground  is 
plenty,  it  is  best  to  allow  plenty  of  room. 

NUMBER    PER    ACRE 

An  acre  of  ground  contains  43,560  square 
feet,  or  4,840  square  yards.  It  will  re- 
quire for  planting  the  numbers  specified  in 
the  following  estimate,  viz. : 

At  distance  of  10  by  10  feet 435  plants 

At  distance  of  9  by    9  feet. ...    537  plants 

At  distance  of    8  by    8  feet 680  plants 

At  distance  of  6  by    6  feet. ..  .1,210  plants 

For  Concords,  10  by  10 — certainly  not  less 
than  9  by  9 — is  desirable,  giving  plenty  of 


AGRICULTURE 


627 


room  for  the  plow  and  cultivator,  and  also 
sufficient  distance  to  train  on  the  trellis. 

Where  the  ground  is  level,  or  nearly  so, 
the  rows  should  be  run  north  and  south, 
thereby  giving  more  sunshine  and  freer  cir- 
culation of  air.  If  it  be  hilly — and  it  is 
presumed  that  grapes  will  be  more  fre- 
quently planted  on  hilly  and  uneven  ground 
than  elsewhere — the  rows  should  be  run 
across  the  slope,  so  as  to  make  the  culti- 
vation as  near  on  a  level  as  possible,  in 
order  that  the  ground  shall  not  wash. 

SELECTION    OF    PLANTS 

In  purchasing  from  a  nursery,  No.  I  year- 
ling plants  are  generally  preferred.  Two- 
year-old  plants  cost  more  in  price  and 
for  transportation,  are  not  so  likely  to 
live,  and  will  gain  little,  if  any,  in  point  of 
time.  Good  No.  i  plants,  from  honest  nur- 
serymen, should  have  four  to  eight  roots 
not  less  than  two  feet  long,  and  a  corre- 
sponding growth  of  top.  Before  transplant- 
ing, all  roots  should  be  cut  back  to  eighteen 
or  twenty  inches,  and  the  top  shortened  to 
two  eyes,  and  these  should  be  set  nearly 
level  with  the  ground. 

CULTIVATION 

The  young  plant  should  be  allowed  to 
take  its  own  course  the  first  year  after 
transplanting.  No  pinching,  no  tying-up, 
is  necessary.  But  the  ground  should  be 
kept  well  tilled  and  clear  of  weeds,  by  the 
free  use  of  the  cultivator  and  hoe.  A  row 
of  early  cabbages,  beans,  beets,  or  other 
root  crop  may  be  beneficially  grown  be- 
tween. In  a  favorable  season,  the  strong- 
growing  sorts  will  usually  make  a  growth 
of  five  or  six  feet  in  length,  and,  in  some 
cases,  as  much  as  ten  or  fifteen  feet,  the 
first  year. 

TRAINING  AND  AFTER-CULTURE  , 

We  have  now  got  our  plants  with  two- 
year-old  roots  and  stems  one  year  old. 
The  after-management  is  various.  It  is 
best,  however,  that  this  one-year  vine 
should  not  be  permitted  to  bear  fruit  the 
next  season:  which  it  would  do  if  left  to 
itself.  It  should  now  be  cut  back  to  two 
eyes,  and  protected  during  winter  by  a 
slight  covering  of  straw,  or  some  other 
light  litter. 

And  here  comes  up  the  question  of  winter 
protection.  What  shall  be  done  with  our 
vines,  now  that  we  have  got  them  planted 
and  growing?  Shall  they  be  protected,  or 


shall  they  be  left  exposed  to  the  rigors  of 
the  winter,  and  run  the  risk  of  life  or  death? 
Some  will  say — Let  them  alone;  plant  only 
such  varieties  as  will  not  need  winter  pro- 
tection. Others,  claiming  that  whatever  is 
worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well,  ad- 
vise protection.  It  is  very  desirable,  cer- 
tainly, that  we  shall  be  able  to  secure  such 
varieties  as  will  withstand  the  rigors  of  our 
winters  without  this  labor  and  care;  and 
there  are  such;  but  it  must  be  confessed 
that  they — as  in  the  case  of  many  other 
fruits — are  not  of  the  best  sorts.  It  is 
also  equally  evident  that,  as  a  rule,  the 
great  mass  of  grape-growers — the  million — 
will  not,  however  much  they  may  be  urged, 
be  induced  to  adopt  any  system  of  winter 
protection  that  involves  care  and  trouble. 

The  Concords,  the  Clintons,  the  Iveses,  the 
Nortons,  and  others,  may  get  along  safely 
through  most  winters  without  protection; 
but  if  we  expect  to  obtain  the  luscious 
Delaware,  the  Rebecca,  the  Maxitawny,  or 
even  the  Catawba,  we  must  make  up  our 
minds  to  protect. 

The  mode  of  protection  usually  practiced 
is  to  lay  the  vine  down  upon  the  ground 
and  cover  with  earth  to  the  depth  of  an 
inch  or  two.  This  requires  that  the  annual 
trimming  shall  be  done  in  the  fall,  before 
the  freezing  weather  commences.  In  most 
vineyards,  where  protection  is  not  prac- 
ticed, this  work  is  omitted  till  in  the  winter 
or  early  spring. 

This  question  of  protection  we  shall  leave 
for  each  one  to  judge  for  himself,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances;  with  the  additional 
remark,  that  of  the  varieties  named  in  the 
preceding  list,  probably  one-half  had  better 
be  protected,  north  of  Ohio  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, while  the  other  half  may  get  along 
without  it. 

Different  modes  of  training  are  adopted. 
Some  tie  to  stout  stakes,  six  or  seven  feet 
high,  one  to  each  plant.  Where  wood  is 
scarce  and  costly,  this  is  an  expensive  mode. 
The  most  common  method  is  to  use  a 
trellis  of  wire.  For  this  purpose,  posts  are 
set  in  the  ground  at  proper  distances — say 
twenty  feet — and  wire  fastened  to  these 
horizontally.  The  posts  at  the  ends  should 
be  firmly  set  and  braced,  in  order  that  the 
strain  of  the  wire  shall  not  loosen  them. 
The  wire  is  fastened  to  the  posts  by  means 
of  small  staples,  to  be  had  at  the  hardware 
stores.  Three  wires  are  usually  required, 
placed  twenty  inches  or  two  feet  apart,  and 
the  lower  one  a  foot  or  so  from  the  ground. 

Manufacturers  now  supply  a  wire  espe- 
cially for  the  purpose.  This  annealed  wire, 


AGRICULTURE 


,No.  12.  is  strong,  and  will  answer;  but  No. 
10  is  heavier,  and  will  last  longer.  To  wire 
an  acre  of  trellis,  the  cost  will  be  from 
thirty  to  sixty  dollars,  while  the  posts,  at 
ten  cents  each,  may  bring  the  sum  total  to 
from  sixty  to  one  hundred  dollars,  accord- 
ing as  wood  and  labor  are  costly  or  cheap. 
Inferior  trellis,  made  of  split  or  sawed  slats, 
may  be  obtained  at  cheaper  rates  in  places 
where  wood  is  plentiful.  A  primitive  mode 
of  building  a  trellis  is  to  use  split  poles, 
obtained  from  the  woods  when  the  bark 
will  peel ;  these,  while  answering  a  present 
purpose,  will  be  of  short  duration. 

PRUNING 

On  this  subject  there  is  a  great  diversity 
of  opinion,  and  the  limits  of  this  work  will 
not  permit  of  a  lengthy  treatise  on  the 
subject  It  is  proper  to  say,  that  the  ten- 
dency to  vine-growth  is  a  check  to  the  fruit- 
ing; and  that  cultivators  consider  it  neces- 
sary to  counteract  this  excessive  growth  by 
pinching  and  pruning.  Many  carry  this 
practice  to  excess;  and  with  spring  and 
summer  pinching,  and  fall  and  winter  prun- 
ing, we  believe,  very  materially  injure  their 
vines. 

In  this  description  of  the  pruning  proc- 
ess, we  shall  condense  from  various  treatises 
on  the  subject.  Buchanan,  a  practical  Cin- 
cinnati vineyardist  of  several  years  ago, 
says:— 

"In  the  second  spring  after  planting,  cut 
down  to  two  or  three  eyes,  or  joints,  and  the 
third  year  to  four  or  five;  pinching  off  lat- 
erals and  tying  up.  .  .  .  Pruning  the  fourth 
year  requires  good  judgment, as  the  standard 
stem  or  stalk  has  to  be  established.  .  .  . 
Select  the  best  stem  or  cane  of  last  year, 
and  cut  it  down  to  six  or  eight  joints;  .  .  . 
the  other  cane  cut  down  to  a  spur  of  two 
or  three  eyes,  to  make  bearing-wood  for 
the  next  season." 

His  mode  has  reference  to  tying  to  up- 
right stakes,  instead  of  trellis,  and  must  be 
varied  accordingly.  He  says:  "In  the  suc- 
ceeding and  all  subsequent  years,  cut  away 
the  old  bearing-wood,  and  form  a  new  bow, 
or  arch,  from  the  best  branch  of  the  new 
wood  of  the  last  year,  leaving  a  spur  as 
before,  to  produce  bearing-wood  for  the 
coming  year;  thus  keeping  the  old  stalk  of 
the  vine  down  to  within  eighteen  to  twenty- 
four  inches  from  the  ground.  The  vine  is 
then  always  within  reach  and  control."  This 
is  the  renewal  system. 

Spur  pruning  consists  in  continuing  the 
old  or  main  stein,  and  annually  cutting  back 


the  laterals  to  two  or  three  good  buds.    A 
blending  of  the  two  is  often  practiced. 

For  summer  pruning,  we  can  do  no  bet- 
ter than  to  quote  from  Husmann,  a  noted 
Missourian  grape-grower  and  writer.  He 
says: 

"We  are  glad  to  see  that  the  attention  of 
the  grape-growers  of  the  country  is  thor- 
oughly aroused  to  the  importance  of  this 
subject,  and  that  the  practice  of  cutting 
and  slashing  the  young  growth  in  July  and 
August  is  generally  discountenanced.  It  has 
murdered  more  promising  vineyards  than 
any  other  practice.  But  people  are  apt  to 
run  into  extremes,  and  many  are  now  ad- 
vocating the  'let  alone'  doctrine.  We  think 
both  are  wrong,  and  that  the  true  course 
to  steer  is  in  the  middle. 

"i.  Perform  the  operation  early.  Do  it 
as  soon  as  the  shoots  are  six  inches  long. 
At  this  time  you  can  oversee  your  vine 
much  easier.  Every  young  shoot  is  soft 
and  pliable.  .  .  .  Remember  that  the  knife 
has  nothing  to  do  with  summer  pruning. 
Your  thumb  and  finger  should  perform  all 
the  work,  and  they  can  do  it  easily  if  it 
is  done  early. 

"2.  Perform  it  thoroughly  and  systemat- 
ically. Select  the  shoots  you  intend  for 
bearing  wood  for  next  year.  These  are  left 
unchecked;  but  do  not  leave  more  than  you 
really  need.  Remember  that  each  part  of 
the  vine  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated, 
and  if  you  crowd  it  too  much,  none  of  these 
canes  will  ripen  their  wood  as  thoroughly, 
nor  be  as  vigorous,  as  when  each  has  room, 
air,  and  light.  Having  selected  these,  com- 
mence at  the  bottom  of  the  vine,  rubbing 
off  all  superfluous  shoots,  and  all  which  ap- 
pear weak  and  imperfect.  Then  go  over 
each  arm  or  part  of  the  vine,  pinching  every 
fruit-bearing  branch  above  the  last  bunch 
of  grapes. 

"We  come  now  to  the  second  stage  of 
summer  pruning.  After  the  first  pinching, 
the  dormant  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves, 
on  fruit-bearing  shoots,  will  each  push  out 
a  lateral  shoot  opposite  the  young  bunches. 
Our  second  operation  consists  in  pinching 
each  of  these  laterals  back  to  one  leaf  as 
soon  as  we  can  get  hold  of  the  shoot  above 
the  first  leaf,  so  that  we  get  a  young,  vig- 
orous leaf  additional,  opposite  to  each  bunch 
of  grapes.  These  serve  as  elevators  of  the 
sap,  and  also  as  an  excellent  protection  and 
shade  to  the  fruit.  Remember,  our  aim  is 
not  to  rob  the  plant  of  its  foliage,  but  to 
make  two  leaves  grow  where  there  was  but 
one  before,  and  at  a  place  where  they  are 
of  more  benefit  to  the  fruit" 


AGRICULTURE 


629 


INSECTS   AND    DISEASES 

Mildew  and  rot  are  the  chief  diseases 
affecting  the  grape,  and  are  both  believed 
to  be  caused  by  atmospheric  influences. 
Excessive  rains  and  damp,  sultry  weather 
are  deemed  the  chief  causes  of  these  allied 
diseases.  No  specific  remedy  has  been 
found,  as  no  means  of  preventing  the  re- 
currence of  the  unfavorable  causes  are 
within  human  reach. 

Of  insects,  there  are  several  that  are 
quite  destructive  to  the  grape  plant,  among 
which  the  most  formidable  is  the  phylloxera, 
a  tiny  insect  which,  in  its  several  stages,  is 
lately  making  deadly  havoc  among  the  vine- 
yards of  both  Europe  and  America — affect- 
ing the  roots  as  well  as  the  foliage.  In  its 
work  upon  the  foliage  it  does  compara- 
tively little  injury,  but  its  work  upon  the 
roots  is  very  destructive — eating  away  the 
fibrous  portions,  and  causing  them  to  decay 
and  die. 

Not  only  is  the  phylloxera  one  of  the  most 
destructive  of  all  tree  and  plant  parasites, 
but  it  is  also  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  de- 
stroy. For  a  while,  indeed,  its  activity 
seemed  destined  to  destroy  the  vineyard  in- 
dustry of  France,  and  large  rewards  were 
offered  for  some  ready  and  efficient  method 
of  dealing  with  it.  Nearly  the  most  effec- 
tive measure  so  far  adopted  has  been  found 
in  planting  a  large  tract — nearly  1,000,000 
acres  of  vine  lands — with  American  vines, 
which  have  proved  largely  proof  against  the 
ravages  of  phylloxera.  Direct  applications 


of  carbon  bisulphide,  potassium  sulphocar- 
bonate,  and  emulsions  of  crude  petroleum 
have  accomplished  much  good  in  numerous 
cases.  Since,  however,  the  eggs  and  larvae 
are  found  both  on  the  leaves  and  in  the 
roots,  all  chemical  insecticides  must  be  very 
thoroughly  used  if  any  result  is  to  be  ex 
pected. 

The  leaf-hopper  is  a  troublesome  insect 
on  some  varieties.  It  is  an  active  little 
beetle,  and  works  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves,  causing  them  to  assume  a  deadly 
appearance  in  spots,  and  finally  killing  the 
leaf  entirely.  Soapsuds  have  been  recom- 
mended as  a  remedy;  also  tobacco  infusion 
thrown  upon  them  with  a  syringe. 

The  leaf-folder  is  a  green  worm  that 
folds  itself  up  in  the  leaf,  where  it  goes  into 
the  chrysalis  state.  The  parent  moth  ap- 
pears in  the  spring  and  deposits  her  eggs, 
which  hatch  and  fold  themselves  up  during 
the  summer.  The  increase  of  both  this  and 
the  leaf-hopper  may  be  checked  by  raking 
up  and  burning  the  leaves  in  the  fall. 

There  is  also  a  grape  curculio,  inferior 
in  size  to  the  plum  curculio,  but  with  hab- 
its somewhat  similar.  It  punctures  the  fruit 
and  deposits  an  egg,  which  hatches  a  worm 
to  live  on  the  juices.  This  larva  leaves  the 
berry  during  summer,  and  passes  into  the 
ground.  It  is  believed,  however,  to  issue 
again  in  the  fall  as  a  beetle,  and  thus  pass 
the  winter. 

Many  other  more  or  less  destructive  insect 
enemies  of  the  grape  might  be  mentioned. 


..„,„..... 


THE  early  history  and  origin  of  the  horse  is  wrapped  in  obscurity  and 
fable,  and  we  really  know  little  or  nothing  of  it,  except  that  we  have 
reason  to  believe  that  he  first  came  from  Asia,  like  man.  He  was 
used  in  Egypt  more  than  1600  years  before  Christ.  Wild  horses  exist 
to  the  present  day  in  the  interior  of  Asia  and  in  South  America.  But  both 
the  horses  of  the  Tartars  and  those  of  La  Plata  are  descended  from  the 
domesticated  animals,  and  can  scarcely  be  called  wild  in  the  ordinary  ac- 
ceptation of  the  term.  From  their  constant  state  of  liberty,  and  their  roving 
habits,  in  order  to  obtain  food  and  water,  they  are  inured  to  fatigue,  and  can 
bear  an  enormous  amount  of  long-continued  fast  work,  without  failing 
under  it,  and  without  that  training  which  the  domesticated  animal  must 
have.  The  walk  and  the  gallop  are  the  horse's  natural  paces,  and  all  others 
are  acquired;  but  nothing  can  exceed  the  fiery  animation  and  elegance 
of  movement  of  the  free  horse ;  and  in  these  two  paces  art  has  done  nothing 
to  improve  his  form,  except,  perhaps,  in  slightly  increasing  the  speed  of 
the  latter.  In  all  countries,  and  in  every  age,  the  horse  feeds  upon  grain  or 
grass,  though  it  is  said  that  in  Arabia  he  is  occasionally  supported  upon 
camel's  milk,  when  food  such  as  he  usually  lives  upon  is  not  to  be  had. 


THE      POINTS      OF      A      HORSE 


THE  two  parts  of  the  head  of  the  horse 
which  correspond  to  the  temples  in  a 
man  are  above  the  eyes.  The  eyes  them- 
selves have  a  loose  crescentiform  fold  of 
the  conjunctiva  at  the  inner  angle,  often 
erroneously  called  membrana  nictitans,  but 
it  neither  performs  its  office  nor  possesses 
its  muscular  apparatus.  The  orbit,  which 
is  formed  of  seven  bones,  four  cranial  and 
three  facial,  contains  the  globe  of  the  eye, 
on  the  inner  angle  of  which  is  situated  the 
haw.  The  eye-pits  are  deeo  indentations 
(630) 


which  lie  between  the  eye  and  the  ear, 
above  the  eyebrows  on  each  side. 

The  face  is  the  front  of  the  head  from 
the  eyes  to  the  nostrils ;  this  part  corre- 
sponds to  the  upper  part  of  a  man's  nose. 
This  name  is,  however,  generally  applied 
to  that  portion  that  surrounds  the  curl  or 
centre  on  the  forehead  from  whence  the 
hair  radiates. 

The  neck  of  the  horse  is  designated  by 
the  word  crest;  it  is  comprised  from  one 
end  to  the  other  between  the  mane  on  the 


THE   HORSE 


681 


upper  side  and  the  gullet  on  the  lower. 
The  forelock  is  the  portion  of  the  mane 
which  is  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  falls 
over  on  the  forehead  between  the  eyes. 

The  withers  is  the  spot  where  the  shoul- 
ders meet  up  above,  between  the  back  and 
the  neck,  at  the  point  where  the  neck 
and  the  mane  come  to  an  end. 

The  chest  is  that  part  which  is  in  front 
between  the  shoulders  and  below  the 
throat. 

The  back  commences  at  the  withers  and 
extends  all  along  the  spine  as  far  as  the 
crupper.  When  the  horse  is  fat,  the  whole 
length  of  the  spine  forms  a  kind  of  hollow 
Which  is  said  to  be  channeled. 

The  space  which  is  included  within  the 


place  of  the  wrist  in  man,  and  forms  an 
angle  turning  inward  when  the  leg  is  -bent 

The  shank  forms  the  second  portion  of 
the  fore-leg;  it  commences  at  the  knee-joint, 
and  corresponds  to  the  metacarpus  in  man. 

Behind  the  shank  is  a  tendon,  which  ex- 
tends from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  is 
called  the  back  sinew. 

The  fetlock  joint  is  the  articulation  im- 
mediately below  the  shank. 

The  fetlock  itself  is  a  tuft  of  hair  cov- 
ering a  sort  of  soft  horny  excrescence, 
which  is  called  the  ergot. 

The  pastern  is  the  portion  of  the  leg 
between  the  fetlock  joint  and  the  foot 

Th-  coronet  is  an  elevation  lying  below 
the  pastern,  and  is  furnished  with  long 


DIAGRAM  OF  PARTS  OF  A  HORSE 

x.  Muzzle  and  parts  about  the  muzzle;  2.  Gullet;  3.  Windpipe;  4.  Crest;  5.  Withers;  6.  Chest;  7.  Girth;  8.  Back! 
9.  Loins;  10.  Ilium  or  Hip;  it.  Croup;  12.  Haunch  or  Quarters;  13.  Thigh;  14.  Hock;  15.  Shank  or  Cannon;  16.  Fet- 
lock; 17.  Pastern;  18.  Shoulder-bone  or  Scapula;  19.  Elbow;  20.  Fore-arm;  ax.  Knee;  22.  Coronet 


ribs  is  called  the  barrel ;  the  name  of 
stomach  is  also  given  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  body  which  joins  the  os  sternum  and 
the  bottom  of  the  ribs. 

The  flanks  lie  at  the  extremity  of  the 
stomach  and  extend  as  far  as  the  hip- 
bones. The  tail  is  divided  into  two  parts : 
the  stump  or  dock,  and  the  hair. 

The  upper  part  of  the  front  leg  of  the 
horse  is  called  the  shoulder,  although  it 
corresponds  with  the  fore-arm  in  a  man; 
the  fore-arm  follows  it  lower  down. 

The  joint  which  is  below  the  fore-arm 
is  called  the  knee;  it  eorresnonds  to  the 


hair  falling  over  the  hoof,  all  round  the 
foot. 

The  hoofs  form,  so  to  speak,  the  nails 
of  the  hors.e,  and  consist  of  a  horny  sub- 
stance. 

In  order  to  describe  the  parts  which  make 
up  the  hind  legs  of  the  horse,  we  must  go 
back  to  the  haunches.  Each  of  these  con- 
tains the  femur,  and  corresponds  to  the 
thigh  of  a  man.  It  is,  therefore,  the  thigh 
of  the  horse,  which  is  joined  on  to  the 
body,  and  bears  the  name  of  buttocks. 
It  is  terminated  below  and  in  front  by 
the  stifle,  which  u;  the  joint  of  the  knee 


THE    HORSE 


containing  the  knee-pan.  It  is  situated  be- 
low the  haunch  on  a  level  with  the  flank, 
and  shifts  its  place  when  the  horse  walks. 

The  highest  part  of  the  hind-leg,  which 
is  detached  from  the  body,  is  called  the 
thigh,  or  gaskins,  and  corresponds  to  the 
leg  of  a  man.  It  extends  from  the  stifle 
and  lower  part  of  the  buttocks  down  to 
the  hock. 

The  hock  is  the  joint  which  is  below  the 
thigh,  and  bends  forward.  This  joint  rep- 
resents the  instep  in  a  man;  the  hinder  part 
of  the  hock,  which  is  called  the  point  of 
the  hock,  is  the  heel. 

Below  the  hock  are  the  shank,  the  fetlock 
joint,  the  pastern,  and  the  foot,  just  the 
same  as  in  the  fore-legs. 

We  will  now  say  a  few  words  as  to  the 
diversity  of  color  in  the  coat  of  the  horse, 
in  order  to  fix  the  meaning  of  the  terms 
•which  are  generally  employed  to  designate 
the  various  hues  which  the  coat  presents. 

Bay  is  a  reddish  nut-brown  color,  with 
various  shades.  Dark  bay  horses  are  of  a 
very  dark  brown,  almost  black,  except  on 
the  flanks  and  tip  of  the  nose,  where  they 
are  of  a  reddish  color.  The  golden,  or  light 
bay,  is  a  yellow  sunlight  hue.  Dapple- 
bay  horses  have  on  their  rumps  spots  of 
a  darker  bay  than  on  the  rest  of  their  bod- 
ies. In  bay  horses  the  extremities,  the 
mane,  and  the  tail  are  always  black. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  black  horses: 
the  rusty  black,  which  is  of  a  brownish 
tinge,  more  or  less  conspicuous  in  various 
lights;  the  black,  and  the  coal-black,  which 
is  the  darkest  of  all. 

Dun-colored  horses,  of  which  there  are 
several  shades,  are  of  a  yellowish-sandy 
hue;  the  mane  and  tail  of  these  are  either 
white  or  black.  Some  of  the  latter  have  a 
black  line  along  the  vertebrae,  which  is 
called  a  mule's,  or  eel-stripe. 

Chestnut  is  a  kind  of  reddish  or  cinna- 
mon-colored bay.  There  are  several  shades 
of  it,  among  which  are  the  bright  chestnut, 
which  is  the  color  of  a  red  cow's  coat;  the 
common  chestnut,  which  is  neither  dark  nor 
bright;  the  bay  chestnut,  which  verges  upon 
the  red;  the  burnt  chestnut,  which  is  dark, 
and  nearly  approaches  black.  Some  chest- 
nut horses  have  white  manes  and  tails,  oth- 
ers black.  The  roan  is  a  mixture  of  red 
and  white. 

Gray  horses  have  white  hair  mixed  with 
black  or  bay.  There  are  several  modifica- 
tions of  this  color;  the  dapple-gray,  the 
silver-gray,  the  iron-gray,  etc.  Dapple- 
gray  horses  have  on  the  back  and  other 
parts  of  the  body  a  number  of  round  spots; 


in  some  cases  black,  in  others  a  lighter 
hue;  these  spots  are  somewhat  irregularly 
distributed.  Gray  horses  as  they  increase 
in  age  become  lighter  in  color,  ultimately 
becoming  white. 

Piebald  and  skewbald  horses  are  white, 
with  large  irregular  spots  and  stripes  of 
some  other  color,  irregularly  arranged. 
The  different  kinds  are  distinguished  by 
the  color  that  is  combined  with  the  white, 
as  the  piebald  proper,  which  are  white  and 
black;  the  skewbald,  which  are  white  and 
bay;  the  chestnut  piebald,  which  are  white 
and  chestnut. 

The  horses  which  have  small  black  spots 
on  a  white  or  gray  coat  are  called  flea- 
bitten,  and  are  particularly  prevalent  in  In- 
dia among  Arabs. 

We  have  hitherto  considered  the  wild 
and  domestic  horse  in  common,  both  as  re- 
gards their  structure  and  their  color;  in 
short,  their  outward  appearance  generally, 
without  noticing  the  different  breeds,  which 
must  soon  occupy  our  attention.  But  be- 
fore we  enter  upon  the  study  of  the  various 
equine  races,  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  short 
explanation  as  to  th~e  way  in  which  the 
bit  regulates  the  paces  of  the  horse.  By 
this  we  are  led  to  speak  of  the  construction 
of  the  mouth,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  most 
useful. 

The  horse  either  walks,  trots,  gallops,  or 
ambles. 

The  paces  of  the  horse  are  essentially 
modified  by  means  both  of  the  bit  and  spur. 
The  spur  ex-cites  a  quickness  of  move- 
ment; the  bit  communicates  to  this  move- 
ment a  due  amount  of  precision.  The 
mouth  of  the  horse  is  so  sensitive  that 
the  least  movement  or  the  slightest  im- 
pression which  it  receives  warns  and  regu- 
lates the  motion  of  the  animal.  But  to 
preserve  the  full  delicacy  of  this  organ,  it 
is  highly  necessary  to  treat  tenderly  its 
extreme  sensibility. 

The  position  of  the  teeth  in  the  jaw 
of  the  horse  affords  to  man  the  facility 
which  exists  in  placing  a  bit  in  its  mouth, 
by  which  instrument  this  high  -  spirited 
and  vigorous  animal  is  broken  in  and 
guided.  Let  us,  therefore,  in  the  first  place, 
study  the  arrangement  of  its  mouth. 

There  are  in  each  jaw  six  incisors,  or 
fore-teeth,  followed  on  either  side  by  a 
tush,  which  is  generally  deficient  in  mares, 
especially  in  the  lower  jaw.  Next  comes 
a  series  of  six  grinders  on  each  side  in 
both  jaws;  these  teeth  have  a  square  crown, 
marked  with  four  crescents,  formed  by  the 
lamina  of  enamel  which  are  imbedded 


THE    HORSE 


633 


on  them.  Between  the  tushes  and  the 
grinders  there  is  a  considerable  space  called 
the  bar,  which  corresponds  to  the  arigle  of 
the  lips;  and  it  is  in  this  interval  that  the 
bit  is  placed. 

It  is  also  by  means  of  the  teeth  that  we 
are  enabled  to  know  a  horse's  age — a 
knowledge  which  is  of  the  highest  utility; 
for  a  horse  increases  in  value  in  proportion 
as  he  approaches  maturity,  again  decreas- 
ing in  worth  as  he  becomes  older.  Up  to 
nine  years  the  age  can  be  determined  pretty 
accurately  by  means  of  the  changes  which 
take  place  in  the  teeth. 

The  foal,  at  its  birth,  is  usually  devoid 
of  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  mouth,  and 
has  only  two  grinders  on  each  side  in 
each  jaw.  At  the  end  of  a  few  days,  the 
two  middle  fore-teeth,  or  pincers,  make 
their  appearance.  In  the  course  of  the  first 
month  a  third  grinder  shows  itself,  and  in 
four  months  more  the  two  next  fore-teeth 
also  emerge;  within  six  and  a  half  or  eight 
months  the  side  incisives,  or  corner-teeth, 
show,  •  and  also  a  fourth  grinder.  At  this 
period  the  first  dentition  is  complete.  The 
changes  which  take  place  up  to  the  age  of 
three  years  depend  only  on  the  fore-teeth 
being  worn  away  more  or  less,  and  the  black 
hollows  being  obliterated  gradually  by  con- 
tact with  food.  In  thirteen  to  sixteen 
months  the  cavities  on  the  surface  of  the 
pincers  are  effaced;  they  are  then  said  to 
be  razed.  In  sixteen  to  twenty  months  the 
intermediate  fore-teeth  are  likewise  razed, 
and  in  twenty  to  twenty-four  months  the 
same  thing  takes  places  with  the  corner- 
teeth. 

The  second  dentition  commences  at  the 
age  of  two  and  a  half  or  three  years.  The 
milk-teeth  may  be  recognized  by  their  short- 
ness, their  whiteness,  and  the  construction 
round  their  base,  called  the  neck  of  the 
tooth.  The  teeth  which  replace  them  have 
no  necks,  and  are  much  larger.  The  pincers 
are  the  first  to  fall  out  and  be  replaced  by 
new  ones.  At  the  age  of  from  three  years 
and  a  half  to  four  years  the  intermediate 
fore-teeth  experience  the  same  change,  and 
the  lower  tushes  begin  to  make  their  ap- 
pearance. The  corner-teeth  are  also  re- 
newed when  between  four  and  a  half  to  five 
years;  the  upper  tushes  likewise  pierce  the 
gums,  and  about  the  same  date  the  sixth 
grinder  shows  itself. 

A  depression,  or  small  hollow,  may  be 
noticed  on  the  surface  of  the  crown  of  the 
second  growth  of  fore-teeth,  just  as  in  the 
milk-teeth,  and  these  hollows  are  grad- 
ually worn  away  in  the  same  fashion. 


The  pincers  of  the  lower  jaw  lose  their 
cavities  when  the  horse  is  five  or  six  years 
old;  the  intermediate  fore-teeth  are  the  next 
to  raze.  The  marks  in  the  corner-teeth  are 
obliterated  at  the  age  of  seven  or  eight 
years.  The  process  of  destruction  of  the 
marks  in  the  upper  fore-teeth  goes  on  in 
the  same  order,  but  more  tardily. 

When  all  these  various  changes  have 
taken  place,  the  horse  is  looked  upon  as 
aged,  because  the  teeth  no  longer  furnish 
any  certain  indications  as  to  the  age  of  the 
animal.  Only  approximate  inferences  can 
now  be  drawn  from  the  length  and  color 
of  the  tushes,  which  become  more  and 
more  bare  and  projecting  from  the  gum, 
etc. 

The  domestication  of  the  horse  appears 
to  date  back  to  the  very  earliest  period  of 
his  appearance  on  earth ;  and  as  this  animal 
adapts  itself  to  every  necessity,  every  want, 
and  every  climate,  its  subjection  has  re- 
sulted in  a  considerable  number  of  races, 
distinguished  by  more  or  less  prominent 
characteristics  of  shape,  strength,  temper, 
and  endurance.  Although  generally  intelli- 
gent, affectionate,  and  endowed  with  con- 
siderable powers  of  memory,  these  qualities 
in  the  horse  are  essentially  modified  by  edu- 
cation and  climate.  And  for  the  full  de- 
velopment of  his  intelligence  and  his  high 
qualities,  it  is  requisite  that  man  should  be 
his  companion  and  his  friend,  as  well  as  his 
master,  but  never  his  tyrant.  Under  the 
whip  of  an  unfeeling  driver,  the  horse  be- 
comes brutalized,  and  rapidly  degenerates, 
morally  even  more  than  physically. 

The  influence  of  memory  on  the  horse  is 
shown  by  the  sense  it  retains  of  injuries 
and  ill-treatment  it  has  suffered.  Many  a 
horse  is  restive  with  persons  who  have 
misused  it,  while  perfectly  docile  with  oth- 
ers, proving  a  consciousness  of  good  and 
evil,  and  a  natural  insubordination  against 
tyranny  and  injustice. 

PRESENT    VARIETIES 

THE  ARABIAN  is  still  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinct varieties  of  this  noble  animal,  and  also 
one  of  the  most  prized,  being  eagerly  sought 
for  by  Turks  and  Christians  in  Asia,  South- 
ern Russia,  India,  and  even  in  Australia. 
In  his  native  deserts  he  is  still  sometimes 
to  be  seen  in  a  half-wild  state,  though  most 
probably  owned  by  some  of  the  "dwellers 
in  tents"  peculiar  to  that  region.  But  it  is 
the  more  domestic  breed  with  which  we 
have  chiefly  to  do,  and  which  is  carefully 
preserved  in  a  pure  state  by  the  chiefs  of 


634 


THE   HORSE 


the  various  tribes,  though  it  is  supposed  not 
so  free  from  stain  now  as  was  formerly  the 
case.  The  head  of  the  Arab  is  the  most 
beautiful  model  in  nature,  giving  the  idea 
of  courage,  tempered  with  docility  and  sub- 
mission to  man,  better  than  any  other  ani- 
mal, and  even  more  so  than  the  dog.  It 
is  seldom,  perhaps,  that  so  beautiful  a  frame 
exists;  but  examples  are  not  wanting  of 
such  a  union  of  elegance  with  perfectly 
good  and  useful  points.  The  length  and 
muscularity  of  the  fore-arm  are  also  re- 
markable, and  the  setting  on  of  the  tail  is 
peculiarly  high — points  which  have  generally 
been  transmitted  to  our  thoroughbred  horses 
descended  from  Arabian  blood.  Many  im- 
ported horses  of  this  breed  are  exceedingly 
wicked  and  full  of  tricks,  but  in  India,  as 
a  rule,  he  is  quite  the  reverse.  To  the  mod- 
ern sportsman  also  he  is  valuable,  because 
he  faces  the  elephant  and  the  tiger  better 
than  any  other  breed.  In  height,  he  is  gen- 
erally a  little  under  fifteen  hands;  and  in 
color,  either  bay,  black,  or  gray.  It  is  said 
that  there  are  three  distinct  breeds  of  Ara- 
bians even  now — the  Attechi,  a  very  supe- 
rior breed;  the  Kadischi,  mixed  with  these, 
and  of  little  value ;  and  the  Kochlani,  highly 
prized,  and  very  difficult  to  procure.  If 
this  is  true,  it  may  account  for  the  very 
different  results  produced  by  breeding  from 
modern  Arabs  and  those  introduced  in  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  BARB  is.  an  African  horse,  of  smaller 
size  but  coarser  make  than  the  Arabian, 
and  evidently  fed  upon  more  nutritious 
food.  As  his  name  implies,  his  native  land 
is  Barbary;  but  there  is  always  great  doubt 
about  the  particular  breed  to  which  im- 
ported horses  belong,  because  they  are  car- 
ried considerable  distances  from  their  na- 
tive plains,  and  are  also  even  then  much 
mixed  in  blood.  It  has  frequently  been 
said  that  the  Barb  is  the  progenitor  of  one 
root  of  the  best  English  stock,  and  that  the 
Godolphin  Arabian,  as  he  was  called,  be- 
longed to  this  blood;  but  the  disputed  point 
can  not  possibly  be  settled,  and  there  seems 
only  one  argument  in  favor  of  the  supposi- 
tion, founded  upon  his  enormously  high 
crest;  while  his  superior  size — he  was  15 
hands  high — argues  just  as  strongly  in  fa- 
vor of  Arab  descent.  But  the  Spanish  horse 
is  no  doubt  descended  from  the  Barb,  this 
breed  having  been  carried  into  Spain  by 
the  Moors  when  they  overran  the  country; 
and,  as  the  appearance  of  the  Spanish  horse 
is  totally  opposed  to  that  of  the  descendants 
of  Godolphin,  it  is  a  still  stronger  proof  of 


his  Arabian  ancestry,  or,  at  all  events,  an 
argument  against  his  claim  to  Barbary  as 
a  native  clime. 

The  DONGOLA  horse  is  another  African 
variety,  of  a  much  larger  size  than  either 
the  Arab  or  the  Barb,  but  more  leggy.  We 
are  not  aware  that  any  of  this  breed  have 
reached  this  country. 

The  PERSIAN  is  a  small-sized  horse,  and 
quite  as  elegant  as  the  Arabian,  but  not 
nearly  so  enduring. 

The  TURKOMAN,  again,  is  a  larger  breed, 
but  without  the  elegance  of  form  of  the 
Arab  and  Persian.  They  are  light  in  the 
barrel,  and  leggy,  with  coarse  heads  and 
ewe-necks;  yet  they  are  endowed  with  very 
stout  and  lasting  qualities,  and  they  are 
said  to  travel  very  long  distances  without 
distress.  This  is  only  another  instance  of 
the  oft-quoted  adage,  "that  the  horse  can 
go  in  all  forms." 

The  COSSACK  horses  are  reared  at  lib- 
erty, and  in  large  herds,  and  they  were 
long  said  to  be,  in  consequence  of  this 
fact,  of  unrivaled  speed  and  stoutness. 

The  TURKISH  horse  is  supposed  to  be 
nearly  pure  Arab,  with  a  cross  of  the  Per- 
sian and  Turkoman.  He  is  a  very  fine, 
high-spirited,  and  elegant  horse. 

The  EAST  INDIAN  and  AUSTRALIAN  horses 
are  of  various  mixed  breeds,  some  being 
Arabs,  some  Persians,  and  others  Turks 
and  Barbs;  while  others  again  are  of  En- 
glish blood,  but  these  degenerate  rapidly, 
and  though  serviceable  in  crossing  with 
the  Arabian  or  the  Barb,  yet  they  can  not 
long  be  maintained  in  their  original  purity 
without  injury. 

The  BELGIAN  and  DUTCH  horses  for  slow 
work  are  very  serviceable.  They  are,  how- 
ever, most  of  them  too  heavy  and  lumber- 
ing for  anything  but  machiners,  and  even 
in  that  department  they  require  care  not 
to  overdrive  them. 

The  NORMAN  horse,  again,  is  a  much 
more  hardy  and  compact  animal.  He  is, 
however,  gifted  with  an  excellent  consti- 
tution, and  with  legs  and  feet  which  will 
stand  rattling  to  any  extent.  These  horses 
are  generally  low  and  short-legged,  as  com- 
pared with  the  Belgians. 

The  SPANISH  horse  is  much  crossed  with 
the  Barb,  and  has  the  good  head  and  neck 
of  that  breed,  but  coupled  with  a  weak 
and  drooping  hind-quarter  and  a  very  light 
middle-piece.  The  shoulders  and  legs  are, 
however,  good. 


THE    HORSE 


635 


The  AMERICAN  and  CANADIAN  breeds 
vary  a  great  deal,  and  are  made  up  of  the 
original  Spanish  stock  crossed  with  En- 
glish, Arabian,  and  Barb  importations.  Cli- 
mate, however,  has  done  much  for  them; 
and  they  have  all  the  wiriness  of  frame  and 
elasticity  of  muscle  which  their  masters 
possess.  As  trotters  they  are  unrivaled, 
and  in  endurance  stand  very  high;  but  they 
are  not  remarkable  for  beauty,  though  not 
showing  any  peculiarly  unsightly  points. 
Some  of  the  best  breeds  of  horses  have 
been  imported  by  us,  especially  in  Virginia, 
where  Tranby,  Priam,  and  many  others 
have  done  good  service.  Our  importers 
have  always  been  careful  to  select  sound  as 
well  as  stout  blood  and  have  not  hesitated 
to  invest  large  sums  in  order  to  procure  it. 

The  ENGLISH  THOROUGHBRED. — England 
is  indebted  to  the  Stuarts  for  the  first  great 
improvement  made  in  the  breed  of  her 
horses,  James  I  and  Charles  I  having  in- 
introduced  the  Arabian  blood,  and  Charles 
II  laying  the  foundation  of  her  present 
breeds  by  importing  several  mares  (called 
Royal  Mares,  from  their  master),  to  which 
may  be  traced  the  celebrated  horses  of  the 
latter  end  of  the  last  century,  and  some  of 
her  best  modern  breeds.  Numerous  East- 
ern horses  were  also  imported  at  various 
times. 

The  THOROUGHBRED  horse  is  intended  for 
racing  only.  The  height  of  the  race  horse 
varies  from  15  hands  to  i&/2  hands,  or 
even  17  hands;  but  the  general  height  of 
our  best  horses  is  about  15  hands  3  inches. 

The  head  and  neck  should  be  character- 
ized by  lightness,  which  is  essential  to  this 
department.  Whatever  is  unnecessary  is  so 
much  dead  weight,  and  we  know  the  effect 
of  7  Ib.  in  impeding  the  horse  over  a  dis- 
tance of  ground.  Now  7  Ib.  are  easily  be- 
stowed upon  a  neck  which  may  differ  in  at 
least  20  or  30  Ib.  between  the  two  extremes 
of  lightness  and  excessive  weight.  Thus,  it 
may  be  considered  as  indubitable  that  what- 
ever is  met  with  in  the  head  and  neck, 
which  is  not  necessary  for  the  peculiar 
purposes  of  the  race  horse,  is  so  much 
weight  thrown  away,  and  yet  it  must  be 
carried  by  the  horse.  Such  is  the  general 
character  of  this  part;  but,  in  detail,  the 
head  should  be  lean  about  the  jaw,  yet  with 
a  full  development  of  forehead,  which 
should  be  convex  and  wide,  so  as  to  con- 
tain within  the  skull  a  good  volume  of 
brain.  Supposing  this  fulness  to  exist, 
all  the  rest  of  the  head  may  be  as  fine  as 
possible;  the  jaws  be;ug  reduced  to  a  fine 


muzzle,  with  a  slight  hollowing  out  in 
front,  but  with  a  width  between  the  two 
sides  of  the  lower  jaw  where  it  joins  the 
neck,  so  as  to  allow  plenty  of  room  for  the 
top  of  the  windpipe  when  the  neck  is  bent. 
The  ears  should  be  pricked  and  fine,  but 
not  too  short;  eyes  full  and  spirited;  nos- 
trils large,  and  capable  of  being  well  di- 
lated when  at  full  speed,  which  is  easily 
tested  by  the  gallop,  after  which  they  ought 
to  stand  out  firmly,  and  so  as  to  show  the 
internal  lining  fully.  The  neck  should  be 
muscular  and  yet  light;  the  windpipe  loose 
and  separate  from  the  neck — that  is,  not  too 
tightly  bound  down  by  the  fascia,  or  mem- 
brane of  the  neck.  The  crest  should  be 
thin  and  wiry,  not  thick  and  loaded,  as  is 
often  seen  in  coarse  stallions,  or  even  in 
some  mares.  Between  the  two  extremes  of 
the  ewe-neck  and  its  opposite  there  are 
many  degrees,  but  for  racing  purposes  we 
should  prefer,  of  the  two,  the  former  to 
the  latter;  for  few  horses  can  go  well  with 
their  necks  bent  so  as  to  draw  the  chin 
to  the  bosom;  but  here,  as  in  most  other 
cases,  the  happy  medium  is  to  be  desired. 

The  body,  or  middle-piece,  should  be  mod- 
erately long,  and  not  too  much  confined  be- 
tween the  last  rib  and  the  hip-bone.  So 
long  as  the  last  or  back-ribs  are  deep,  it  is 
not  of  so  much  importance  that  they  should 
be  closely  connected  to  the  hip-bone,  fot 
such  a  shape  shortens  the  stride;  and 
though  it  enables  the  horse  to  carry  great 
weight,  yet  it  prevents  him  from  attaining 
a  high  rate  of  speed.  The  back  itsell 
should  be  muscular,  and  the  hips  so  wide 
as  to  allow  of  a  good  development  of  the 
muscular  department.  The  withers  may 
rise  gently,  but  not  too  high,,  with  that  thin 
razorlike  elevation  which  many  people  call 
a  good  shoulder,  but  which  really  has  noth- 
ing to  do  with  that  part,  and  is  only  an  an- 
noyance to  the  saddler,  who  has  to  pre- 
vent its  being  pinched  by  the  saddle.  The 
chest  itself  should  be  well  developed,  but 
not  too  wide  and  deep:  no  horse  can  go  a 
distance  without  a  fair  "bellows-room"; 
but,  supposing  the  heart  to  be  sound  and  of 
good  quality,  the  amount  of  lung  will  suf- 
fice which  may  be  contained  in  a  medium- 
sized  chest:  and  all  above  that  is  wasted, 
and  is  extra  weight.  If  the  chest  be  too 
wide,  it  materially  affects  the  action  of  the 
fore-legs,  and,  therefore,  in  every  point  of 
view,  theoretically  and  practically,  there  is 
a  happy  medium  between  the  too  great  con- 
traction in  this  department  and  the  heavy, 
wide,  lumbering  chests  sometimes  seen  even 
in  the  thoroughbred  race  horse,  especially 


THE    HORSE 


when  reared  upon  rich,  succulent  herbage, 
more  fitted  for  the  bullock  than  the  East- 
ern horse.  In  the  formation  of  the  hips, 
the  essential  point  is  length  and  breadth 
of  bone  for  muscular  attachment,  and  it 
matters  little  whether  the  croup  droops  a 
little,  or  is  pretty  straight  and  level,  so  that 
there  is  a  good  length  from  the  hip  to  the 
haunch-bone;  the  line  between  which  two 
points  may  either  be  nearly  horizontal,  or 
form  a  considerable  angle  with  the  ground; 
but  still  in  both  cases  it  should  be  a  long 
line,  and  the  longer  it  is  the  more  muscular 
substance  is  attached  to  it  and  the  greater 
leverage  will  the  muscles  have. 

The  fore-quarter,  consisting  of  the  shoul- 
der, upper  and  lower  arm,  and  leg  and 
foot,  should  be  well  set  on  to  the  chest; 
and  the  shoulder-blade  should  lie  obliquely 
on  the  side  of  that  part  with  a  full  devel- 
opment of  muscle  to  move  it,  and  thrust 
it  well  forward  in  the  gallop.  Obliquity 
is  of  the  greatest  importance,  acting  as  a 
spring  in  taking  off  the  shock  of  the  gal- 
lop or  leap,  and  also  giving  a  longer  at- 
tachment to  the  muscles,  and  in  addition 
enabling  them  to  act  with  more  leverage 
upon  the  arm  and  leg.  The  shoulder  should 
be  very  muscular,  without  being  overdone 
or  loaded,  and  so  formed  as  to  play  freely 
in  the  action  of  the  horse.  The  point  of 
the  shoulder,  which  is  the  joint  correspond- 
ing to  the  human  shoulder,  should  be  free 
from  raggedness,  but  not  too  flat ;  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  development  of  the  bony  parts 
is  desirable,  but  more  than  this  leads  to 
a  defect,  and  impedes  the  action  of  this 
important  part.  The  upper  arm,  between 
this  inint  and  the  elbow,  should  be  long, 
and  well  clothed  with  muscles ;  the  elbow 
set  on  quite  straight  and  not  tied  to  the 
chest;  the  lower  arm  muscular  and  long; 
knees  broad  and  strong,  with  the  bony  pro- 
jection behind  well  developed;  legs  flat,  and 
showing  the  suspensory  ligament  large  and 
free;  pasterns  long  enough  without  being 
weak;  and  the  feet  sound,  and  neither  too 
large  nor  too  small,  and  unattended  with 
any  degree  of  contraction,  which  is  the 
bane  of  the  thoroughbred  horse. 

The  hind-quarter  is  the  chief  agent  in 
propulsion,  and  is  therefore  of  the  utmost 
consequence  in  attaining  high  speed.  It  is 
often  asserted  that  the  oblique  shoulder  is 
the  grand  requisite  in  this  object,  and  that 
it  is  the  part  upon  which  speed  mainly  de- 
pends, and  in  which  it  may  be  said  to  re- 
side. This  is  to  some  extent  true,  because 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  with  a  loaded 
shoulder  high  speed  is  impracticable;  for, 


however  powerfully  the  body  may  be  pro- 
pelled, yet  when  the  fore-quarter  touches 
the  ground,  it  does  not  bound  off  again  as 
smartly  as  it  ought  to  do,  and  the  pace  is 
consequently  slow.  For  the  full  action  of 
the  hind-quarter  two  things  are  necessary, 
viz.:  first,  length  and  volume  of  muscle; 
and,  secondly,  length  of  leverage  upon  which 
that  muscle  may  act.  Hence,  all  the  bones 
comprising  the  hind-quarter  should  be  long, 
but  the  comparative  length  must  vary  a 
good  deal,  in  order  that  the  parts  upon 
which  the  muscles  lie  may  be  long,  rather 
than  those  connected  with  the  tendons, 
which  are  mere  ropes,  and  have  no  pro- 
pelling power  residing  in  them,  but  only 
transmit  that  which  they  derive  from  the 
muscles  themselves.  Thus,  the  hips  should 
be  long  and  wide,  and  the  two  upper  di- 
visions of  the  limb — viz.,  the  stifle  and 
lower  thigh — should  be  long,  strong,  and 
fully  developed.  By  this  formation  the 
stifle-joint  is  brought  well  forward,  and 
there  is  a  considerable  angle  between  these 
two  divisions.  The  hock  should  be  bony 
and  strong,  free  from  gum  or  spavin,  and 
the  point  long,  and  so  set  on  as  to  be  free 
from  weakness  at  the  situation  of  curb. 
In  examining  the  hind-quarter  to  judge  of 
its  muscular  development,  the  horse  should 
not  be  looked  at  sidewise,  but  his  tail 
should  be  raised,  and  it  should  be  ascer- 
tained that  the  muscles  of  the  two  limbs 
meet  together  below  the  anus,  which  should 
be  in  fact  well  supported  by  them,  and  not 
left  loose,  and,  as  it  were,  in  a  deep  and 
flaccid  hollow.  The  outline  of  the  outer 
part  of  the  thigh  should  be  full  and  in  or- 
dinary horses  the  muscle  should  swell  out 
beyond  the  level  of  the  point  of  the  hip. 
This  fulness,  however,  is  not  often  seen  to 
this  extent  in  the  thoroughbred  horse  until 
he  has  arrived  at  mature  age,  and  is  taken 
out  of  training.  The  bones  below  the  hock 
should  be  flat  and  free  from  adhesions;  the 
ligaments  and  tendons  fully  developed,  and 
standing  out  free  from  the  bone;  and  the 
joints  well  formed  and  wide,  yet  without 
any  diseased  enlargement;  the  pasterns 
should  be  moderately  long  and  oblique;  the 
bones  of  good  size ;  and  lastly,  the  feet 
should  correspond  with  those  already  al- 
luded to  in  the  anterior  extremity. 

The  totality  of  these  points  should  be  in 
proportion  to  one  another — that  is  to  say, 
the  formation  of  the  horse  should  be  "true." 
He  should  not  have  long,  well-developed 
hind-quarters,  with  an  upright,  weak,  or 
confined  fore-quarter.  Nor  will  the  con- 
verse serve;  for,  however  well  formed  the 


THE    HORSE 


037 


shoulder  may  be,  the  horse  will  not  go  well 
unless  he  has  a  similar  formation  in  the 
propellers.  It  is  of  great  importance,  there- 
fore, that  the  race  horse  should  have  all 
his  various  points  in  true  relative  develop- 
ment, and  that  there  shall  not  be  the  hind- 
quarter  of  a  long  racing-like  horse  with 
the  thick,  confined  shoulder  which  would 
suit  a  stride  less  reaching  in  its  nature. 

THE    COLOR,  SKIN,  HAIR,  ETC. 

The  color  of  the  thoroughbred  horse  is 
now  generally  bay,  brown,  or  chestnut,  one 
or  other  of  which  will  occur  in  ninety-nine 
cases  out  of  a  hundred.  Gray  is  not  com- 
mon, but  sometimes  appears.  Black  also 
occasionally  makes  its  appearance,  but  not 
more  frequently  than  gray.  Roans,  duns, 
sorrels,  etc.,  are  no  longer  mentioned,  and 
the  above  five  colors  may  be  said  to  com- 
plete the  list  of  colors  seen  on  the  race- 
course. Sometimes  these  colors  are  mixed 
with  a  good  deal  of  white,  in  the  shape  of 
blazes  on  the  face,  or  white  legs  and  feet; 
or  even  both  may  occur,  and  the  horse  may 
have  little  more  than  his  body  of  a  brown, 
bay,  or  chestnut.  Most  people,  however, 
prefer  the  self  color  with  as  little  white  as 
possible;  and  nothing  but  the  great  suc- 
cess of  a  horse's  stock  would  induce  breed- 
ers to  resort  to  him  if  they  were  largely 
endowed  with  white.  Gray  hairs  mixed  in 
the  coat  as  in  the  Venisons  are  rather  ap- 
proved of  than  otherwise;  but  they  do  not 
amount  to  a  roan  in  which  the  gray  hairs 
equal,  or  even  more  than  that,  the  other 
color  mixed  with  them. 

The  texture  of  the  coat  and  skin  is  a 
great  proof  of  high  breeding,  and  in  the 
absence  of  the  pedigree  would  be  highly 
regarded ;  but  when  that  is  satisfactory  it 
is  of  no  use  descending  to  the  examination 
of  an  inferior  proof;  and  therefore,  except 
as  a  sign  of  health,  the  skin  is  seldom  con- 
sidered. In  all  thoroughbred  horses,  how- 
ever, it  is  thinner,  and  the  hair  more  silky 
than  in  common  breeds;  and  the  veins  are 
more  apparent  under  the  skin,  partly  from 
its  thinness,  but  also  from  their  extra  size 
and  number  of  branches.  "The  network  of 
veins  is  of  importance  in  allowing  the  cir- 
culation to  be  carried  on  during  high  ex- 
ertions, when,  if  the  blood  could  not  ac- 
cumulate in  them,  it  would  often  choke  the 
deep  vessels  of  the  heart  and  lungs ;  but,  by 
collecting  on  the  surface,  great  relief  is 
afforded,  and  the  horse  is  able  to  maintain 
such  a  high  and  long-continued  speed  as 
would  be  impracticable  without  their  help. 


Hence,  these  points  are  not  useful  as  a 
mere  mark  of  breed,  but  as  essential  to  the 
very  purpose  for  which  that  breed  was  es- 
tablished. 

The  mane  and  tail  should  be  silky  and 
not  curly,  though  a  slight  wave  is  often 
seen.  A  decided  curl  is  almost  universally 
a  mark  of  degradation,  and  shows  a  stain 
in  the  pedigree  as  clearly  as  any  sign  can 
do.  Here,  however,  as  in  other  cases,  the 
clear  tracing  of  that  all-powerful  proof  of 
breeding  will  upset  all  reasoning  founded 
upon  inferior  data.  The  setting  on  of  the 
tail  is  often  regarded  as  of  great  impor- 
tance, but  it  is  chiefly  with  reference  to  ap- 
pearances; for  the  horse  is  not  dependent 
for  action  or  power  upon  this  appendage. 

The  various  breeds  of  WAGON  horses  are 
exceedingly  numerous.  Most  of  the  larger 
and  heavier  breeds  of  these  animals  are 
crossed  with  the  Flemish  horses,  and  are 
thereby  rendered  heavier  and  more  capa- 
ble of  moving  heavy  weights,  which  their 
bulk  and  readiness  to  try  a  "dead  pull" 
render  them  well  adapted  for. 

CARRIAGE  horses  are  either  ponies,  gig 
horses,  brougham  horses,  or  coach  horses ; 
being  gradually  larger  and  heavier  from 
one  end  to  the  other  of  the  line,  which 
begins  at  the  size  of  a  small  pony  and  ex- 
tends up  to  the  carriage  horse  of  17  hands. 
Ponies  are  of  various  breeds,  some  of  which 
are  of  wonderful  powers  of  endurance,  with 
good  symmetry  and  action,  and  with  never- 
failing  legs  and  feet.  In  general  soundness 
they  far  excel  the  larger  varieties  of  the 
horse,  for  which  there  is  no  accounting,  as 
they  are  much  more  neglected  and  fre- 
quently very  ill-used.  A  broken-winded 
pony,  or  a  roarer,  is  a  very  uncommon 
sight,  and  even  a  lame  one  is  by  no  means 
an  every-day  occurrence.  Some  are  good 
trotters  and  yet  bad  gallopers,  and  they  are 
consequently  as  well  fitted  for  harness  work 
as  they  are  unfitted  for  hunting. 

The  SHETLAND  PONY  is  the  least  of  the 
species,  and  often  under  n  hands.  These 
ponies  are  very  quick  and  active,  and  will 
walk,  canter,  and  gallop,  with  good  action, 
but  seldom  trot  well. 

THE    STABLE-YARD 

STABLE. — Every  one  will  prefer  to  have 
the  stables  near  his  house,  if  not  on  his 
own  premises;  in  either  case,  if  they  are 
already  built,  he  must  do  the  best  he  can 
with  them.  Old  buildings  are  for  the  most 
part  very  defective,  badly  drained,  and 
badly  ventilated.  This  must  at  once  be 

41 


638 


THE    HORSE 


remedied,  and  may  generally  be  done  at  a 
moderate  expense,  which  will  be  amply  re- 
paid by  the  improved  health  and  comfort 
of  the  horses.  New  stables  are  better,  but 
they  also  frequently  require  alteration. 

ASPECT. — When  about  to  build  a  stable, 
the  first  consideration  will  naturally  be  the, 
selection  of  a  site.  We  need  not  insist  on 
the  advantages  of  a  southerly  aspect :  they 
are  almost  self-evident.  The  stables  will 
be  much  more  cheerful  and  much  warmer, 
and  enable  the  groom  to  avail  himself  of 
every  gleam  of  sunshine  to  open  the  win- 
dows and  thoroughly  ventilate  the  interior. 

Unfortunately  it  is  not  always  possible, 
from  the  disposition  of  the  ground  and 
premises,  to  manage  this.  However,  let  it 
be  borne  in  mind  that  such  is  the  best,  the 
west  the  next  best,  and  the  northeast  the 
very  worst 

It  should  not  be  forgotten,  also,  that  a 
thorough  drainage  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant points,  and  every  natural  slope 
of  the  land  should  be  taken  advantage  of 
in  this  respect. 

DRAINAGE. — Having  settled  the  site  and 
the  plans  of  the  stables,  to  which  we  will 
refer  further  on,  the  first  works  to  be  pro- 
vided for  will  be  the  drainage,  for  these 
will  have  to  be  carried  out  simultaneously 
with  the  foundations.  The  drains  will  be 
of  two  sorts,  which  should  be  kept  as  far 
away  from  one  another  as  it  is  possible  to 
manage:  first,  those  connected  with  the 
drainage  of  the  interior  of  the  stables ;  sec- 
ond, those  intended  to  carry  away  the  sur- 
face-water and  collect  the  rain-water  from 
the  roofs,  etc. 

SEWERS. — There  are  four  conditions  which 
are  to  be  regarded  as  indispensable  in  the 
construction  of  all  drains  from  all  build- 
ings whatsoever.  These  conditions  are: 
First,  that  the  entire  length  of  drain  is  to 
be  constructed  and  maintained  with  suffi- 
cient declivity  toward  the  discharge  into  the 
cesspool,  to  enable  the  average  proportion 
and  quantity  of  liquid  and  solid  matters 
committed  to  it  to  maintain  a  constant  and 
uninterrupted  motion,  so  that  stagnation 
shall  never  occur.  Secondly,  that  the  en- 
tire length  of  the  drain  is  to  be  constructed 
and  maintained  in  a  condition  of  complete 
impermeability,  so  that  no  portion  of  the 
matters  put  into  "it  shall  accidentally  es- 
cape from  it  Thirdly,  that  the  head  of 
the  drain  shall  be  so  efficiently  trapped  that 
no  gaseous  or  volatile  properties  or  prod- 
ucts can  possibly  arise  from  its  contents. 
And,  fourthly,  that  the  low  extremity  of 


the  drain  or  point  of  communication  with 
the  cesspool  shall  be  so  completely  and 
durabty  formed,  that  no  interruption  to  the 
flow  of  the  drainage  or  escape  shall  there 
take  place,  and  that  no  facility  shall  be 
offered  for  the  upward  progress  of  the 
sewage  in  case  of  the  cesspool  becoming 
surcharged. 

For  most  purposes  a  fall  of  2l/£  inches 
in  10  feet  will  be  sufficient,  and  the  drain 
should  be  of  3-inch  glazed  stoneware  pipes 
(4  inches  for  w.c.),  with  carefully  made 
socket-joints  laid  in  the  direction  of  the 
current,  and  cemented.  For  the  head  of 
the  drain  we  would  recommend  the  bell- 
trapped  horse-pots,  which  are  to  be  had  at 
all  stable-furnishing  ironmongers,  raking 
care  that  they  are  sufficiently  large  and 
of  good  strong  quality. 

The  cesspool  for  sewage  should  be  well 
away  from  the  tank  provided  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  rain-water,  and  well  puddled 
with  clay  on  the  outside  and  cemented  in- 
side. Precaution  should  also  be  further 
taken  that  all  sewage  drains  should  be  laid 
below  the  rain-water  drains,  so  that,  in 
case  of  any  accidental  defects,  no  matter 
will,  by  any  possibility,  taint  the  water 
supply. 

RAIN-WATER  DRAINS. — These  will  sub- 
divide themselves  into  two :  those  laid  to 
collect  the  drainage  of  yard,  etc.,  and  which 
may  be  common  pipes  laid  dry,  and  lead- 
ing to  an  ordinary  cesspool  made  of  bricks 
laid  without  mortar,  where  the  water  will 
collect  and  gradually  lose  itself;  the  others 
connected  with  the  down  pipes  from  roofs, 
and  leading  to  a  rain-water  tank.  These 
should  be  laid  with  the  same  care  as  the 
sewer  drains:  the  tank  constructed  in  the 
same  way,  with  an  overflow  pipe  to  lead 
to  cesspool  just  mentioned. 

PLANS. — The  plan  of  the  building  will 
vary  very  much  according  to  the  aspect, 
disposition  of  land  and  other  premises,  and 
other  local  circumstances.  These  should  be 
very  carefully  studied,  and  the  plans  well 
matured,,  as  the  success  of  the  building 
will  greatly  depend  on  the  disposition  of 
its  various  parts.*  We  will  lay  down  as 
one  of  the  first  principles  that  no  stall 
should  be  less  than  6  feet  wide  by  10  feet 
long,  no  loose  box  less  than  10  feet  square, 
and  no  stable  less  than  10  feet  high  from 
floor  to  ceiling.  Passage  in  rear  of  stalls 
5  feet  wide. 

The  doors  should  be  wide  and  high,  and 
hung  in  two  heights,  with  fanlight  over  (4 
feet  by  7  feet  at  least),  that  the  horses 


THE    HORSE 


639 


may  go  in  and  out  freely  without  a  chance 
of  knocking  themselves  about. 

The  light  should  be  full,  as  tending 
greatly  to  the  cheerfulness  of  the  interior. 
The  sashes,  also,  should  be  hung  on  cen- 
tres in  their  height,  as  the  most  advanta- 
geous method  for  ventilation. 

VENTILATION. — To  complete  the  ventila- 
tion, the  only  further  requirement  will  be 
an  opening  in  the  ceiling — not  immediately 
over  the  horses,  but  in  the  rear  over  the 
passage — fitted  with  an  ornamental  venti- 
lating grating,  to  be  shut  and  opened  at 
will,  leading  to  an  air-flue  laid  between  the 
joists,  and  conducting  the  foul  air  from 
the  stables  to  the  outside  through  an  orna- 
mental perforated  air  brick  or  iron  grating 
A  similar  ventilating  grating,  to  regulate 
the  admission  of  fresh  air,  will  only  be  nec- 
essary where  the  doors  and  windows  are 
small,  and  fit  very  accurately. 

PAVING. — The  materials  for  paving  should 
be  of  the  hardest  quality,  on  good  sound 
ballast  or  concrete  foundation.  Any  ab- 
sorbent materials  must  be  rejected.  The 
paving  of  boxes  and  stalls  should  be  laid 
with  a  regular  gentle  slope  to  the  drain, 
which  should  always  be  in  the  centre.  Ir- 
respective of  other  advantages,  the  horses 
stand  on  the  level,  and  take  their  rest 
more  comfortably. 

PARTITIONS. — The  partition  for  stalls  will 
be  match-lined  both  sides,  and  about  4 
feet  2  inches  in  rear,  with  a  ramp,  and  ris- 
ing to  6  feet  2  inches  toward  the  mangers; 
with  iron  pillar  at  the  end  next  passage, 
with  rings  for  pillar  reins.  Sometimes, 
also,  the  match-lining  will  be  carried 
through  in  a  level  line,  and  by  a  cast  iron 
the  ramp  form  ornamental  panel. 

For  loose  boxes  the  boarding  will  be 
from  5  feet  to  about  5  feet  4  inches  high 
at  most,  with  a  2-foot  ornamental  iron  pan- 
elling over. 

MANGERS. — The  best  mangers  are  those 
containing  hay-rack,  corn-manger,  and  wa- 
ter-trough in  one,  and  we  more  especially 
recommend  that  preference  should  be 
given  to  galvanized  iron. 

The  wall  over  the  manger  should  be 
match-boarded  to  the  height  of  partitions, 
and  lined  with  iron  hoop  bands,  sheet  zinc 
over  the  joints  of  match-lining,  or  enam- 
elled tiles,  to  prevent  horses  biting  at  it 
when  being  cleaned. 

The  manger  will  have  two  rings  for  hal- 
ter reins,  and  a  ring  and  galvanized  chain 
fitted  in  wall  over  same. 


HARNESS-ROOM. — This  should  be  at  least 
10  feet  square,  and  have  in  it  a  fireplace 
fitted  with  range  with  boiler  attached.  A 
handy  supply  of  hot  water  will  be  found 
most  advantageous  in  the  management  of 
the  stables,  and  we  need  not  point  out  the 
necessity  of  a  fire  for  drying  the  rugs, 
horse-cloths,  saddles,  harness,  etc.,  in  win- 
ter time. 

This  room  should  be  fitted  with  con- 
venient hooks  and  brackets  for  the  hang- 
ing and  cleaning  of  harness.  These  are  of 
all  sorts  of  designs,  in  which  individual 
taste  will  be  the  best  guide. 

HAY-LOFT  AND  CORN-CHAMBER. — In  most 
stables,  in  addition  to  the  coachman's 
rooms,  there  are  a  corn-chamber  and  hay- 
loft over  the  stable.  The  former  is  gen- 
erally boarded  off,  lined  all  round  with 
sheets  of  zinc  or  tin  to  keep  out  the  ver- 
min, and  the  door  is  provided  with  a  lock, 
of  which  the  coachman  keeps  the  key,  and 
gives  out  at  stated  times  the  corn  for  so 
many  horses  for  so  many  days.  By  this 
means  he  keeps  a  check  upon  the  consump- 
tion, and  prevents  waste  and  pilfering; 
both  of  which  are  more  likely  to  occur 
when  the  supply  is  unlimited  and  easy  of 
access.  When  there  is  not  a  regular  corn- 
chamber,  one  must  either  be  made  or  a 
large  bin  provided,  and  the  oats  bought 
from  the  corn  merchant  as  required,  in 
quantities  of  two  or  three  quarters  at  a 
time,  as  many  as  the  bin  will  contain, 
which  will  be  found  a  more  expensive  pro- 
ceeding. Hay,  from  being  bulky,  is  almost 
invariably  stowed  away  in  the  loft,  which 
should  hold  at  least  half  a  load;  it  must 
be  stored  away  carefully,  and  nothing  al- 
lowed to  run  about  or  play  on  it.  Hay 
will  keep  good  and  sweet  for  some  time, 
if  in  a  dry  place  and  not  meddled  with.  If 
the  loft  be  large  enough,  it  will  be  found 
better  and  cheaper  to  buy  a  load  at  a 
time;  if  not,  or  the  loft  be  damp,  a  smaller 
quantity  must  suffice. 

STABLE  UTENSILS. — Under  this  head  is  in- 
cluded all  that  is  used  in  dressing  the 
horse,  and  in  cleansing  the  yard  and 
stable. 

The  pitchfork  is  used  to  shake  up  the 
straw  of  which  the  horse's  bed  is  made; 
to  remove  all  that  becomes  soiled  and 
dirty;  and,  in  general,  to  set  it  fair  and 
straight.  The  handle  should  be  kept  clean 
and  the  prongs  bright. 

The  shovel  removes  the  smaller  particles 
and  the  scrapings  of  the  stable-yard. 

The  besom,  or  broom,  is  used  to  sweep 


640 


THE    HORSE 


out  the  stable  after  the  damp  soiled  litter 
has  been  removed,  and  to  keep  the  yard 
neat  and  clean.  Those  made  of  birch  are 
the  best 

A  manure  -basket  to  take  up  the  drop- 
pings. This  should  be  done  before  trodden 
about,  to  keep  the  straw  clean  and  the 
stable  sweet. 

The  stable  pail  should  be  made  of  strong 
oak,  bound  with  iron,  and  neatly  painted. 

A  sieve,  to  cleanse  the  oats  and  chaff  of 
all  dust  and  small  stones. 

A  peck  and  a  half-peck  measure,  to  meas- 
ure out  the  oats,  beans,  chaff,  etc.,  for  each 
horse's  feed. 

The  currycomb. — Horses  of  the  present 
day  are  so  much  better  bred  than  for- 
merly, that  their  coats  and  skin  are  so 
much  finer,  and  there  is  now  much  less 
use  for  the  currycomb,  except  to  remove 
the  dust  from  the  body-brush.  On  very 
rough-coated  horses  it  may  occasionally  be 
used,  but  no  other  should  ever  be  touched 
with  it  In  summer  it  is  absolutely  un- 
necessary, and,  in  these  days  of  clipping 
and  singeing,  in  the  winter  it  is  almost 
equally  so.  It  must  always  be  used  lightly, 
or  it  will  severely  punish  the  horse,  and  on 
no  account  should  the  teeth  be  sharp,  or 
more  than  one-eighth  inch  in  length. 

The  body-brush,  or  horse-brush,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  is,  in  the  hands  of  a  good 
groom,  the  most  useful  implement  used  in 
dressing  the  horse,  as  it  thoroughly  removes 
all  dust  and  dirt,  stimulates  the  skin,  and 
imparts  a  gloss  to  the  coat. 

The  water-brush  is  to  wash  all  dirt  and 
mud  from  the  feet  and  legs  of  the  horse, 
and  stains  from  his  quarters,  etc. 

The  mane-comb,  as  the  name  implies,  is 
to  comb  the  mane  and  tail.  It  should  be 
made  of  horn,  have  large  teeth,  and  be  usad 
carefully  and  only  occasionally,  as  in  a 
general  way  a  good  brushing  will  answer 
the  purpose  without  pulling  out  the  hair. 

The  picker  is  a  blunt  iron  hook  for  re- 
jnoving  the  grit  and  stones  from  the  horse's 
feet.     Some  are  made  to   fold  up  for  the 
pocket.      A    good    careful    groom    will    al- 
ways carry  one  of  these. 

A  sponge,  too,  is  always  necessary  to  dry 
the  legs,  etc.,  after  washing,  and  for  other 
purposes  of  cleanliness. 

Leathers  and  rubbers  are  also  indispen- 
sable for  drying  the  horse  after  work,  and 
wiping  him  over  after  dressing. 

An  oil-brush  and  tin  to  hold  the  oil,  to 
rub  round  the  hoofs  before  leaving  the 
stable  to  go  to  work. 

A  wooden  box  for  holding  the  stopping. 


A  singeing-lamp  and  a  pair  of  trimming- 
scissors  are  also  necessary. 

To  avoid  loss  and  confusion,  there 
should  be  a  place  for  everything  and  every- 
thing in  its  place,  and  all  the  utensils 
should  be  kept  bright  and  clean. 

CLOTHING,  ETC. — Every  horse  standing  in 
a  stable  must  have  a  head-collar,  with  two 
reins  long  enough  to  go  through  the  two 
rings  fastened  to  the  manger,  and  to  reach 
the  ground  after  being  each  attached  to  a 
weight  or  block  made  of  hard  wood  or  iron, 
heavy  enough  to  keep  the  reins  from  twist- 
ing or  curling  up,  but  not  so  heavy  as  to  be 
a  weight  or  strain  upon  the  horse's  head  as 
he  moves  it.  When  in  a  box,  too,  a  head- 
collar  is  always  handy  on  the  quietest 
horse;  on  a  tricky  or  unruly  animal  it  is 
absolutely  necessary,  as  he  can  then  be  at 
any  time  easily  secured  without  risk  or 
trouble. 

Halters. — Two  good  web-headed  hempen 
halters  are  also  requisite  in  every  stable,  to 
lead  the  horse  about  without  having  to  use 
the  head-collar. 

Clothing. — There  is  a  great  variety  of 
clothing,  from  the  comparatively  inexpen- 
sive to  the  most  expensive  in  make  and 
finish.  These  consist  of  blankets  or  rugs 
of  different  degrees  of  warmth  and  thickness 
according  to  the  time  of  year,  a  roller,  a 
suit  of  body-clothing,  and  a  set  of  flannel 
bandages.  The  best  material  will  be  the 
cheapest  in  the  end,  as  wearing  so  much 
longer  than  the  cheaper  kinds. 

The  blanket  or  rug  should  be  cut  back  at 
the  top  of  the  shoulder,  with  a  projecting 
piece  on  each  side  coming  round  and  meet- 
ing in  the  centre  of  the  chest,  where  they 
fasten  with  a  buckle  and  strap.  Each  rug, 
too,  should  be  bound  with  some  strong  ma- 
terial to  prevent  the  edges  tearing  out 
Two  rugs  will  be  found  necessary  for  each 
horse. 

A  suit  of  body-clothing  may  be  made  of 
various  materials,  but  strong  warm  serge  is 
best  for  winter,  and  a  lighter  kind  for  sum- 
mer wear.  It  consists  of  a  quarter-piece, 
hood,  and  breast-piece,  with  roller  to  match. 
The  roller  must  be  well  padded,  to  pre- 
vent bruising  or  injury  to  the  back  from 
pressure. 

In  winter,  in  a  warm  stable,  a  heavy  rug 
and  the  body-clothing  will  be  found  suffi- 
cient during  the  day,  but  at  night  the  lat- 
ter should  be  removed  to  keep  it  clean,  and 
another  rug  substituted. 

The  flannel  bandages  are  put  on  after 
the  horse  has  had  his  legs  washed,  to  keep 


THE    HORSE 


641 


them  dry  and  warm.  They  are  also  of 
great  service  in  illness,  to  keep  up  the  cir- 
culation and  warmth  in  the  extremities.  In 
hunting-stables,  where  the  horses  must  be 
occasionally  sweated,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  have  two  or  three  spare  rugs  and  hoods 
in  use  for  that  purpose,  and  which  should 
be  carefully  washed  and  dried.  The  price 
of  clothing  varies  so  much  according  to  the 
quality  and  finish  that  it  Is  difficult  to  name 
any,  but  a  respectable  saddler  will  at  any 
time  give  an  estimate  for  the  kind  required. 

HOW    TO    PURCHASE   A    HORSE 

In  his  choice  of  a  horse  the  purchaser 
will  of  course  be  guided  by  whether  he 
wants  one  for  riding  or  driving  purposes : 
if  for  the  former,  he  will  be  particular  that 
the  shoulder  lies  well  back,  and  if  strong, 
not  loaded  at  the  top  or  points — that  he 
has  a  good  back,  deep  body,  clean,  flat, 
wiry-looking  tegs,  and  free  from  large 
splints,  curbs,  spavins,  etc. ;  that  his  feet 
are  firm  and  of  moderate  size — neither  large 
and  flat,  and  therefore  necessarily  weak, 
nor  strong  and  narrow  like  those  of  a 
mule.  When  a  horse  has  natural  feet  of 
the  latter  description  they  are  generally  re- 
markably sound,  and  will  stand  a  great  deal 
of  work;  but,  as  a  rule,  that  shape  is  pro- 
duced by  internal  disease,  rendering  the 
horse  unsound  when  put  to  work. 

If  for  driving  purposes,  he  need  not  be 
so  particular  about  the  shoulders;  for  har- 
ness, they  may  be  stronger,  heavier,  and 
more  upright,  as  many  make  capital  har- 
ness horses  that  are,  from  their  formation, 
very  uncomfortable  to  ride. 

Having  met  with  one  suitable  for  his  pur- 
pose, the  purchaser  must  not  let  a  few  dol- 
lars prevent  his  buying,  if  rather  more 
than  the  price  to  which  he  had  proposed 
to  go. 

THE   HACK,  OR    RIDING    HORSE 

In  selecting  a  riding  horse  much  must 
depend  upon  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
rider.  The  best  and  most  useful  size  is 
from  15  hands  to  15  hands  2  inches.  The 
most  fashionable  colors  are  bay,  brown, 
and  dark  chestnut.  A  really  good  riding 
horse,  with  good  action  and  fine  manners, 
is  very  difficult  to  find,  as  he  must  be  good- 
looking,  well  made,  sound,  and  temperate, 
with  breeding  substance,  action,  and  cour- 
age. His  head  should  be  lean,  the  eye  bold 
and  prominent,  the  muzzle  small,  with  large 
nostrils.  The  neck  should  be  good,  and 
slightly  arched  to  benc1  to  the  bridle,  shoul- 


ders lie  well  back  and  strong,  but  not  heavy 
and  loaded  at  the  points,  the  body  deep  and 
round,  strong  back  and  loin,  with  good  deep 
quarters  and  good  firm  legs  and  feet.  He 
must  ride  lightly  in  hand,  walk  pleasantly 
and  safely,  trot  freely,  with  good  action, 
and  canter  easily,  yielding  to  the  bit  with- 
out pulling.  He  must  carry  the  saddle  well 
back  behind  the  shoulders ;  nothing  is  so 
uncomfortable  or  looks  so  badly  in  any  de- 
scription of  riding  horse  as  sitting  on  the 
top  of  the  shoulders  instead  of  behind  them. 
The  price  will  vary  according  to  his  ac- 
tion, manners,  and  appearance,  as  well  as 
the  weight  he  can  carry.  Many  horses  of 
this  class  are  very  fast  and  can  trot  up  to 
twelve  and  fourteen  miles  an  hour;  but  if 
they  do  seven  or  eight  miles  pleasantly  and 
well,  they  will  be  fast  enough,  as  few  men 
care  to  ride  faster. 

The  great  defects  to  be  avoided  in  pur- 
chasing a  riding  horse  are :  a  loose  weak 
neck — horses  so  formed  invariably  getting 
their  heads  up,  and  being  very  uncomfor- 
table to  ride ;  low  upright  shoulders ;  and 
twisted  fore-legs — rendering  the  horse  liable 
to  hit  either  the  inside  of  the  knee  or  fet- 
lock joint,  which  is  very  dangerous  and 
likely  to  cause  him  to  fall.  A  shy,  nervous 
horse,  too,  should  be  avoided,  as  well  as  a 
hot,  irritable  one.  Horses  of  a  light  chest- 
nut color  are  very  often  so,  and  in  com- 
pany will  not  settle  into  any  pace.  Fifteen 
miles  is  a  fair  average  day's  work. 

THE    LADIES'    HORSE 

A  perfect  ladies'  horse  is  of  all  descrip- 
tions the  most  difficult  to  find.  So  many 
good  qualities,  which,  though  desirable  in 
all  riding  horses,  may  be  overlooked  in 
those  for  men,  are  here  absolutely  essen- 
tial. Fine  temper  and  courage,  a  light 
level  mouth,  and  fine  manners  are  indis- 
pensable. He  should  be  from  15  hands  to 
15  hands  3  inches  high,  with  a  good  head 
and  neck,  fine  oblique  shoulders,  rather  long 
in  the  body,  with  a  good  back  and  loin, 
deep  strong  quarters,  firm  sound  legs  and 
feet.  If  the  hind-legs  are  rather  bent,  so 
much  the  better;  he  will  get  them  more 
under  him,  and  consequently  his  paces 
will  be  easier — horses  with  straight  hind- 
legs  invariably  pitching  most  unpleasantly 
in  the  canter,  which  must  be  easy  and  ele- 
gant. As  few  ladies  ride  more  than  from 
10  to  ii  stone,  including  a  19  or  20  Ib. 
saddle,  and  ease  and  lightness  in  action  are 
indispensable,  the  ladies'  horse  should  be 
very  nearly  thoroughbred,  if  not  quite  so. 


642 


THE    HORSE 


He  must  walk  well  and  freely,  step  lightly 
but  sharply  in  the  trot,  with  a  rather  long 
easy  canter.  He  must  be  high-couraged  and 
free,  but  at  the  same  time  docile  and  tem- 
perate. A  slow,  lazy  horse  is  as  objection- 
able and  disagreeable  to  ride  as  a  hot,  irrita- 
ble one.  The  latter  will  sometimes  go  quietly 
and  temperately  in  the  hands  of  a  lady, 
though  irritable  and  fidgety  when  ridden  by 
men,  owing  to  the  easier,  lighter  pull  on  their 
mouths.  From  the  position  of  the  ladies' 
seat  and  from  the  great  length  and  incum- 
brance  of  the  habit,  it  follows  they  can  not 
have  the  same  power  and  control  over  the 
horse  that  men  have,  and  accidents  to 
them  are  more  likely  to  be  attended  with 
dangerous  results ;  hence,  greater  care  is 
necessary  in  selecting  a  horse  for  their 
use  free  from  all  tricks,  nervousness,  and 
vice. 

Many  are  called  good  ladies'  horses  that 
have  no  other  recommendation  than"  their 
being  very  quiet,  which  with  very  many 
will  cover  a  multitude  of  faults. 

A  few  years  since  ladies  rode  no  pace 
but  the  walk  and  canter,  but  lately  the  trot 
has  become  a  favorite  and  fashionable  pace ; 
consequently  a  safe,  sharp,  easy  trot  is  now 
essential  in  all  horses  that  are  to  carry  a 
lady. 

The  ladies'  hunter  differs  in  some  re- 
spects from  the  riding  horse  for  the  road 
or  park;  he  may  be  less  showy  and 
stronger.  He  must  be  eight  or  nine 
years  old,  have  been  well  and  regu- 
larly ridden  in  hunts  for  at  least  two  or 
three  seasons,  and  thoroughly  understand 
his  business;  not  less  than  15  hands  2, 
inches  or  more  than  16  hands  high,  well 
above  the  weight  he  has  to  carry,  well 
bred,  and  fast,  but  thoroughly  quiet  and 
temperate  among  other  horses  and  at  his 
fences,  which  he  should  take  freely  and 
cleverly,  go  well  in  the  bridle  without  pull- 
ing, and  turn  readily  with  a  motion  of  the 
hand. 

A  hot,  irritable,  fretful  brute,  or  one 
with  a  weak,  loose  neck,  is  uncomfortable 
enough  for  a  man  to  ride,  but  it  is  abso- 
lutely dangerous  to  allow  any  lady  to  ride 
such  a  one  on  the  road — to  say  nothing  of 
riding  him  to  hounds — however  good  he 
may  be  represented  to  be. 

The  best  colors  for  ladies'  horses  are  bay, 
brown,  dark  chestnut,  or  black.  There  is 
an  old  saying,  that  "a  good  horse  can  not 
be  a  bad  color" ;  and  though  no  purchaser 
should  decline,  on  account  of  color,  to  buy 
one  that  is  likely  to  suit  him,  those  named 
are  to  be  preferred. 


The  price  of  horses  differs  so  greatly, 
and  depends  so  much  on  their  make,  style, 
and  qualifications,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
name  an  average  one. 

THE    HUNTER 

In  selecting  a  hunter  it  is  necessary  to 
bear  in  mind  the  country  in  which  he  is 
to  be  ridden. 

The  points  essential  to  a  hunter  are  a 
lean  head  and  neck,  well  set  on  to  good 
oblique  shoulders,  a  strong  back  and  loin, 
wide  hips,  a  deep  body  and  back  ribs,  good 
muscular  quarters,  and  gaskins  well  let 
down  to  the  hocks,  and  clean,  firm  legs 
and  feet.  He  must  be  temperate,  with 
plenty  of  courage,  and  have  a  good  mouth 
and  manners.  His  size  will  vary  from  15 
hands  i  inch  to  16  hands  2,  inches,  accord- 
ing to  the  weight  he  has  to  carry  and  the 
description  of  country  he  has  to  cross. 
From  15  hands  3  inches  to  16  hands  2 
inches  is  perhaps  the  best  size  for  the  fly- 
ing grass  countries,  while  from  15  hands  I 
inch  to  15  hands  3  inches  will  be  found 
better  and  handier  for  the  close  deep 
country. 

THE    CARRIAGE   HORSE 

These  horses  are  bought  by  the  principal 
dealers  and  job-masters  at  three  and  four 
years  old,  and  are  broken,  driven,  and 
matched  by  them  for  some  time  before  they 
are  fit  for  the  carriage.  They  must  be 
fully  16  hands  high,  with  rather  long  rain- 
bow necks,  strong  but  oblique  shoulders, 
deep  round  body,  with  long  muscular  quar- 
ters, carrying  a  good  tail,  clean  flat  legs, 
and  good  firm  feet.  Being  kept  more  for 
show  than  work,  grand  stylish  appearance 
and  action  are  indispensable;  and  from 
being  generally  loaded  with  flesh,  unless 
the  feet  and  legs  are  good,  they  will  soon 
wear  out. 

The  great  defects  to  which  carriage  horses 
are  liable,  from  their  size  and  general  for- 
mation, are — defect  of  the  wind,  either 
roaring  or  whistling;  horses  with  long  rain- 
bow necks  very  frequently  becoming  so 
after  a  bad  cold  or  an  attack  of  influenza. 
All  large  horses,  too,  are  more  or  less  liable 
to  their  wind  becoming  affected  after  ill- 
ness. Inflammation  of  the  feet  is  another 
common  complaint  with  horses  of  this  class. 
Loaded  with  flesh  to  improve  their  style 
and  appearance,  and  with  high  action  in 
addition  to  their  weight — two  great  causes 
of  inflammatory  attacks — they  are  very  lia- 
ble to  this  complaint,  unless  great  care 


THE    HORSE 


643 


is  taken  to  guard  against  it.  Many  car- 
riage horses,  too,  have  flat  feet,  rendering 
them  doubly  liable  to  an  attack  of  this  de- 
scription; in  them  the  sole  of  the  foot  will 
sink,  becoming  convex  instead  of  concave. 
When  such  is  the  case,  great  care  is  req- 
uisite in  shoeing,  or  the  horse  will  not  be 
workably  sound. 

HORSES    FOR   LIGHT    HARNESS 

In  this  class  may  be  included  horses  suit- 
able for  buggies,  T-carts,  light  broughams, 
dog-carts,  etc.  They  should  be  well-bred, 
neck  rather  long  and  arched,  with  good 
back  and  quarters,  strong  oblique  shoul- 
ders, carry  a  good  head  and  tail,  and  be 
of  a  generally  showy  and  stylish  appear- 
ance, with  high  grand  action.  Horses  of 
this  description  are  more  fitted  for  the  park 
and  for  show  than  for  real  work. 

The  cob  is  a  strong  little  horse,  about 
14  hands  high,  and  of  various  descriptions. 
When  well-bred  and  good-looking,  with  ac- 
tion, they  are  not  only  very  useful,  but 
-very  valuable  for  carrying  heavy  and  eld- 
erly men,  as,  being  low,  they  are  easy  to 
get  on  and  off.  A  good  cob  must  have  a 
good  head,  a  strong  but  not  heavy  neck, 
good  oblique  and  very  strong  shoulders, 
not  loaded  at  the  top  or  points,  a  deep  round 
body,  good  loin,  and  strong  muscular  quar- 
ters and  thighs — short,  flat,  firm  legs,  and 
good  round  feet;  he  should  walk  freely 
and  well ;  step  sharp  and  high  in  the  trot, 
and  canter  safely  and  freely;  if,  in  addi- 
tion to  these  qualifications,  he  is  quiet  and 
does  not  shy  or  stumble,  he  is  invaluable. 

The  faults  to  be  avoided  in  purchasing  a 
cob  are  upright  shoulders,  want  of  cour- 
age, and  want  of  action.  Particular  atten- 
tion must  be  paid  to  the  shoulders — that 
they  are  well  formed  and  oblique,  many 
horses  of  this  class  having  low,  upright 
shoulders,  which  renders  them  valueless  as 
riding  cobs,  and  useful  only  for  harness 
purposes — nothing  being  so  uncomfortable 
and  looking  so  ugly  as  riding  on  the  top 
of  the  shoulders  instead  of  well  behind 
them,  which  must  necessarily  be  the  case 
with  straight,  low  shoulders. 

STABLE  MANAGEMENT   OF   THE 
HORSE 

In  the  morning  the  first  thing  the  groom 
does  on  entering  the  stable,  which  must 
not  be  later  than  six  o'clock,  if  the  weather 
be  warm  and  fine,  will  be  to  open  the  door 
and  admit  some  fresh  air;  he  will  then 
give  each  horse  a  little  water  and  a  bit 


of  hay;  having  eaten  which,  he  will  put  on 
the  hood  and  the  watering-bridle,  and  take 
him  out  for  exercise.  While  out,  the  helpers 
will  separate  the  dry  clean  straw  from  the 
damp  and  soiled,  removing  the  latter  to  the 
manure-heap.  Thoroughly  sweep  and  cleanse 
the  floor  of  each  stall  and  box,  allowing  the 
straw  to  remain  turned  up  until  the  return 
of  the  horses,  when  it  may  be  partly  littered 
down  again.  Each  horse  will  then  have  a 
feed  of  corn,  and,  having  eaten  it,  be  well 
dressed,  and  his  stall  or  box  set  fair.  When 
one  groom  only  is  kept,  or  where  the  horses 
do  a  fair  amount  of  work  during  the  day,  *. 
early  exercise  is  impossible  and  unnecessary. 

In  dressing  the  horse  the  first  thing  the 
groom   does   is  to   turn  him  round   in  his    ' 
stall,  fold  the  rug  back  from  his  neck  and 
shoulders,  then  well  and  carefully  brush  his 
head,  neck,  and  shoulders  with  the  body- 
brush,   cleaning   it   with  the   currycomb   as 
often  as  required.     He  is  then  turned  back 
in  the  stall,  the  clothing  removed,  and  his 
body,  hind-quarters,   and  legs  undergo   the 
same   careful  and  thorough  brushing,  care 
being  taken  to  keep  the  brush  clean  with    ', 
frequent  use  of  the  currycomb.     He  is  next 
wiped  all  over  with  a  damp  wisp  made  of    , 
hay-bands,  which  entirely  removes  any  re- 
maining dust,   and  after  being  well   wiped 
over  with  a  linen  rubber  or  wash-leather, 
his  clothes  are  put  on  and  secured  by  the    - 
roller.     His  eyes,  nose,  and  anus  are  next 
sponged  clean,  his  mane  and  tail  carefully 
combed   or   brushed,   first   with   a  dry   and 
then  with  a  damp  brush;  the  feet  are  care- 
fully picked  out  and  washed,  the  legs  well    ^ 
brushed,  and  if  dirty  or  stained,  well  washed,    \ 
and  either  rubbed  dry  or  dried  in  flannel 
bandages.     The  stall   is  then  set  fair,  and     - 
the  horse  is  ready  for  use. 

With  gray  or  light-colored  horses,  or  that 
have  white  legs,  the  better  plan  will  be  to 
wash  all  stains  off  the  quarters,  etc.,  and  to 
wash  the  legs  with  warm  water  and  soap, 
rubbing  the  first  dry  and  well  bandaging 
the  latter  before  proceeding  to  dress  the 
horse,  as  by  the  time  that  operation  is  over 
the  legs  will  be  dry  and  the  horse  warm 
and  comfortable. 

In  the  spring  and  autumn,  when  the  horse 
is  shedding  his  coat  and  the  hair  is  broken 
and  thin,  the  body-brush  must  be  laid  aside, 
the  wisp  and  rubber  being  then  quite  suffi- 
cient for  the  necessary  dressing. 

Before  having  the  harness  put  on  to  go 
out,  the  horse  must  again  be  wiped  over, 
his  mane  and  tail  brushed,  and  his  hoofs 
rubbed  round  with  the  oil-brush.  Some 
people  object  to  the  use  of  the  oil-brush  to 


644 


THE    HORSE 


the  feet,  and  only  have  them  done  round 
with  a  wet  brush. 

On  returning  to  the  stable  after  work,  if 
he  be  clean  and  dry,  his  feet  should  be  well 
picked  out  and  washed,  and  he  should  again 
be  well  dressed  and  set  fair.  But. if  he  re- 
turn hot  and  tired  and  wet  and  dirty,  the 
best  and  quickest  plan  is  to  wash  him  all 
over  with  tepid  water,  scraping  him  imme- 
diately as  dry  as  possible,  clothing  him  up, 
and  bandaging  his  legs  above  his  knees  and 
hocks  with  flannel  bandages.  If  the  weather 
be  warm,  he  may  be  washed  in  the  open 
air,  and  a  light  suit  of  clothes  put  on,  to 
be  replaced  by  fresh  as  soon  as  he  is  dry; 
but  in  winter,  and  if  it  be  cold,  he  must  be 
washed  in  the  stable,  and  a  suit  of  warm 
clothing  put  on  until  he  is  dry,  when  it  must 
be  changed.  By  this  means  the  horse  will 
be  got  fresh  and  comfortable  in  a  much 
shorter  time  and  with  less  fatigue  to  himself 
than  if  the  dirt  and  sweat  were  removed  in 
any  other  way  and  he  was  rubbed  dry. 

At  seven  o'clock,  the  horses  that  have  not 
been  out  or  done  but  little  work  may  again 
have  their  clothing  removed  and  be  wiped 
over,  which  must  not  be  done  when  the 
horse  is  tired  with  work  and  has  been  once 
made  fresh. 

FEEDING 

It  is  as  difficult  to  lay  down  general  rules 
for  the  feeding  of  horses  as  it  would  be  to 
make  one  set  of  dietetic  rules  apply  to  all 
classes  of  human  beings.  The  animal's  size, 
health,  and  amount  of  work  must  all  be  con- 
sidered, and  much  depends  upon  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  groom.  A  large  horse  heavily 
worked  should  have  from  nine  to  twelve 
quarts  of  oats  daily,  divided  into  three 
meals.  A  smaller  horse,  used  for  light 
buggy  or  saddle  work,  should  do  well  on 
six  quarts.  Feed  hay  morning  and  night, 
observing  how  many  pounds  the  horse  ap- 
pears to  need.  A  mash  made  of  five  or 
six  quarts  of  bran  and  boiling  water,  and 
well  salted,  should  be  given  in  place  of  the 
evening  oats  every  fortnight  or  so.  Corn 
should  also  be  given  from  time  to  time  in 
place  of  oats. 

Turning  out  to  grass  is  useful  when  the 
health  is  injured  by  long-continued  hard 
work  and  dry  food,  or  when  the  legs  are 
sore  or  the  feet  inflamed. 

EXERCISE    AND    WORK 

Unless  the  weather  is  wet  and  bad,  every 
horse,  whether  in  a  stall  or  box,  is  better 
for  going  out  every  day. 

The  work  of  a  carriage  horse  does  not  on 


an  average  exceed  seven  or  eight  miles. 
They  are  very  often  out  for  three  or  four 
hours  in  the  day,  but  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  time  they  are  standing  about,  while 
the  occupants  of  the  carriage  are  either 
shopping  or  making  calls,  etc.  From  their 
size  and  weight  they  are  generally  unfit  for 
long  journeys  and  hard  work. 

The  work  of  a  hunter  is  to  carry  a  man 
to  hounds,  and  in  order  to  render  him  fit 
to  do  so  safely  and  well,  he  will  require 
a  great  deal  of  exercise. 

Before  the  commencement  of  the  hunting 
season  he  will  require  three  hours'  steady 
walking  and  trotting  exercise,  with  occa- 
sional sweats  and  strong  gallops ;  but  after- 
ward, supposing  he  is  ridden  to  hounds 
three  days  a  fortnight,  he  will  require  but 
little  fast  exercise — from  two  to  three  hours 
a  day  good  steady  walking  will  keep  most 
horses  quite  fit. 

The  fair  average  day's  work  for  a  hack 
or  harness  horse  is  nine  or  ten  miles,  in 
which  case  exercise  is  quite  unnecessary. 
More  harm  and  injury  are  done  to  horses 
by  the  grooms  when  at  exercise  than  in 
any  other  way;  and  unless  the  man  can  be 
fully  depended  upon,  the  less  they  are  ex- 
ercised the  better.  Where  the  horse  is 
only  occasionally  worked,  exercise  is  of 
course  absolutely  necessary,  not  only  to 
preserve  him  in  health,  but  to  keep  him 
steady  and  from  getting  above  himself. 

CLIPPING   OR    SINGEING 

The  best  time  to  clip  or  singe  a  horse 
must  depend  principally  upon  the  state  of 
his  coat.  Some  shed  their  coat  much  ear- 
lier than  others,  while  in  other  horses 
it  is  much  thicker  and  coarser.  About  the 
end  of  September  is  the  best  time  for  singe- 
ing, and  three  weeks  or  a  month  later  for 
clipping. 

Clipping  requires  much  practice  and  very 
neat  work  to  look  well;  it  is  far  more 
difficult  than  singeing,  and  consequently  is 
not  so  frequently  used.  The  effect  of  both 
is  the  same — to  shorten  the  long  rough  win- 
ter coat  to  the  length  of  the  short  summer 
one,  thereby  preventing  that  extreme  sweat- 
ing which  is  always  consequent  on  a  long 
winter  coat.  It  is  performed  with  scissors 
and  a  comb.  The  former  are  generally 
curved,  and  of  various  sizes,  to  suit  the 
different  parts  of  the  body  of  the  horse  for 
which  they  are  used. 

Singeing  is  performed  with  a  lamp  made 
for  the  purpose,  burning  naphtha  or  some 
spirit  of  the  same  description,  and  which  is 
passed  lightly  over  the  whole  body  till  the 


THE    HORSE 


645 


hair  is  reduced  to  the  required  length.  It 
may  be  commenced  as  soon  as  the  winter 
coat  is  partly  grown,  and  must  be  repeated 
about  every  ten  days  or  a  fortnight  till  the 
coat  is  set  and  done  growing,  by  which 
means  the  coat  will  not  only  be  kept  short, 
but  the  hair  will  better  retain  the  natural 
color.  After  Christmas,  about  once  in  three 
weeks  will  generally  be  found  sufficient  to 
keep  down  the  long  rough  hairs. 

MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    FEET 

This  department  of  stable  management  is 
often  sadly  neglected  by  the  groom,  who  is 
particular  enough  in  every  other  respect; 
but  if  his  master  is  only  a  judge  of  skin  and 
condition,  he  is  too  apt  to  leave  the  feet  to 
take  care  of  themselves. 

An  examination  of  the  shoes  should  be 
carefully  made  every  morning  when  the 
horse  comes  in  from  exercise;  and  if  they 
are  at  all  loose,  or  the  clenches  are  too  high, 
or  the  shoes  are  worn  out,  they  should  be 
renewed  or  removed  at  once. 

Every  night  the  feet  should  be  well 
brushed  out  and  the  picker  run  round  the 
shoe.  If  the  horn  is  hard  and  dry,  the  feet 
should  be  stopped  with  cow-dung  and  tar, 
in  the  proportion  of  3  to  I,  called  "stop- 
ping," which  ought  always  to  be  kept  by  the 
groom  in  a  box  for  the  purpose,  called 
the  "stopping-box" ;  but  it  is  seldom  neces- 
sary to  do  this  more  than  once  or  twice  a 
week ;  indeed,  in  most  feet  it  will  soften  the 
horn  too  much  if  used  more  frequently. 

STABLE    VICES 

Stable  vices  may  be  considered  to  include 
the  following  long  list  of  offences  against  the 
code  of  laws  made  for  the  stabled  horse, 
and  enforced  by  the  stablemen.  They  are : 
i,  Getting  loose  from  the  head-stall;  2, 
Hanging  back;  3,  Leaping  into  the  manger; 
4,  Turning  round  in  the  stall;  5,  Lying 
under  the  manger;  6,  Halter-casting;  7, 
Casting  in  the  stall;  8,  Kicking  the  stall- 
post;  9,  Weaving;  10,  Pawing;  n,  Eating 
the  litter;  12,  Kicking  at  man;  13,  Biting; 
14,  Crib-biting;  15,  Wind-sucking. 

Hanging  back  in  the  collar  is  an  attempt 
to  get  free  by  bursting  the  throat-lash  or 
collar-rein,  and  in  some  cases  great  force 
is  applied  in  this  way — so  much  so  that  many 
horses  have  broken  their  hips  from  the  sud- 
den giving  way  of  the  halter,  letting  them 
back  so  that  they  fall  over  and  injure  them- 
selves irremediably.  The  only  cure  is  a 
strong  chain  and  a  head-stall  that  no  force 
will  break,  after  trying  to  burst  which  a 
few  times,  the  horse  will  almost  always 


desist.  If  the  manger  is  not  very  firmly 
placed,  another  ring  should  be  fixed  in  the 
wall  by  piercing  it  and  screwing  a  nut  on 
at  the  back.  The  groom  should  likewise 
watch  for  the  attempt,  and  well  flog  the 
horse  from  behind  immediately  he  sees  him 
beginning. 

DEFECTS,    DISEASES,  AND    FAULTS 

A  loose,  weak  neck. — Horses  so  formed 
are  extremely  unpleasant  to  ride;  they  get 
their  heads  up,  can  not  see  where  they  are 
going,  and  it  is  impossible  to  feel  their 
mouths. 

Twisted  fore-legs. — Horses  with  this  de- 
fect, when  put  to  work,  hit  the  inside  of  the 
fetlock  joint,  and  very  often  under  the  knee 
as  well.  Both  are  highly  dangerous,  as  the 
parts  soon  become  swelled  and  sore  from 
repeated  blows,  rendering  the  horse  liable 
to  fall. 

Capped  hocks  are  very  unsightly,  but  sel- 
dom cause  lameness. 

Diseased  eyes,  from  any  cause,  are  sure 
to  terminate  in  blindness. 

Stringhalt. — Catching  up  one  or  both  the 
hind-legs.  When  considerable,  it  renders 
the  horse  very  unpleasant  either  to  ride 
or  drive. 

All  bony  enlargements  of  the  joints,  viz., 
spavin,  ringbone,  sidebones,  etc.,  as  causing 
lameness,  very  difficult  and  doubtful  of 
cure. 

Laminitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  laminae, 
generally  resulting  in  pumiced  or  convex 
soles  of  the  feet. 

Corns,  unless  small,  as,  if  not  properly 
treated,  they  are  very  troublesome,  often 
causing  temporary  lameness,  and  rendering 
the  horse  cramped  in  his  action,  and  liable 
to  fall. 

Chronic  cough. — Frequently  terminates  in 
broken  wind. 

Megrims. — An  attack  of  giddiness,  more 
or  less  violent,  that  frequently  attacks  some 
horses,  rendering  them  for  the  time  highly 
dangerous.  Since  condition  has  been  bet- 
ter understood,  and  horses  are  fed  more  on 
manger  food  and  do  not  have  so  much  hay, 
megrims  are  not  so  common  as  formerly. 
Fast,  free  horses  are  more  liable  to  it  than 
others.  The  cause  is  supposed  to  be  deter- 
mination of  blood  to  the  head. 

Navicular  disease. — Lameness  in  the  na- 
vicular  joint,  and  incurable. 

An  unnerved  horse,  as  showing  the  horse's 
feet  are  diseased.  Many  unnerved  horses 
will  with  care  do  a  great  deal  of  work 


646 


THE    HORSE 


either  on  the  road  or  in  the  field.  It  is 
a  merciful  operation  by  which  many  horses 
can  work  and  move  about  with  ease  and 
comfort,  that  must  otherwise  have  been 
destroyed,  or  live  in  pain  and  misery  to 
the  end  of  their  days. 

Roaring.— A  disease  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  causing  the  horse  to  make  a  noise 
when  put  to  any  exertion. 

All  enlargements  of  sinews  and  tendons, 
arising  from  breaking  down  or  violent 
strains,  unless  the  horse  has  been  properly 
fired  for  them,  and  is  intended  only  for 
light,  easy  work,  which  he  may  stand. 

All  horses  that  show  any  sort  of  vice, 
as  rearing,  kicking,  running  away,  being 
restive,  and  shying  badly,  or  are  vicious 
in  the  stable.  Such  animals  are  highly 
dangerous  to  all,  but  particularly  so  to  the 
inexperienced. 

TRICKS   AND   VICES 

Kicking  is  a  dangerous,  vicious  habit 
Like  rearing,  it  may  be  cured  by  those 
who  thoroughly  understand  horses;  but 
even  when  perfectly  quiet  and  manageable 
in  their  hands,  such  horses  are  never  to  be 
trusted  with  less  experienced  persons. 

Running  away  is  another  very  dangerous 
fault.  It  may  arise  from  vice  or  from  the 
horse  having  been  at  some  time  serious- 
ly alarmed.  In  the  former  case,  a  very 
sharp  bit  and  great  care  may  prevent  it; 
but  in  the  latter,  when  the  horse  again  be- 
comes alarmed,  nothing  will  stop  him,  as 
he  is  for  the  time  in  a  state  of  madness. 

Bucking  or  Plunging  is  another  dangerous 
habit.  Sometimes  it  arises  from  vice  and 
sometimes  only  from  freshness,  the  horse 
being  above  himself  from  want  of  work; 
in  the  latter  case  it  is  soon  cured  by  put- 
ting him  to  daily  steady  work. 

Jibbfng,  either  in  saddle  or  harness,  is  a 
very  dangerous  vice,  and  is  always  the  re- 
sult of  bad  temper.  In  saddle  the  horse 
rears,  kicks,  and  rubs  the  rider  against  any- 
thing in  his  way.  He  will  go  anywhere 
and  rush  anywhere  but  in  the  direction  in 
which  he  is  wanted  to  go.  A  good  thrash- 
ing will  sometimes  cure  him,  but  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  do  it,  as  the  horse  invaria- 
bly jibs  in  the  most  awkward  and  peril- 
ous places  in  which  to  fight  him.  In  har- 
ness the  jibber  will  not  start,  he  runs  back, 
and  if  whipped  or  punished,  will  plunge  and 
throw  himself  down.  Such  animals  are 
quite  unfitted  for  private  use. 
^  Shying. — This  bad  habit  may  arise  from 
timidity,  defective  eyesight,  or  bad  temper. 


If  from  timidity,  it  can  only  be  overcome 
by  gentle  usage  and  allowing  the  horse  to 
pass  the  object  without  taking  any  notice 
of  his  fear  beyond  patting  and  encouraging 
him;  to  chastise  him  is  worse  than  useless 
and  senseless.  If  it  arise  from  defective 
vision,  it  will  be  incurable,  as  it  will  be  im- 
possible for  the  animal  to  see  objects  other- 
wise than  through  a  distorted  medium.  If 
it  arise  from  vice,  which  is  frequently  the 
case,  the  horse  must  be  made  firmly  but 
temperately  to  pass  the  object  at  which  he 
shies ;  having,  passed  it,  continue  the  ride ; 
do  not  return  and  pass  it  again  and  again, 
as  that  only  irritates  him;  and  when  he 
finds  he  is  mastered,  he  will  daily  improve. 

HARNESS    FOR    SADDLE    HORSES 

This  consists  of  saddles,  bridles,  breast- 
plates, and  martingales. 

Saddles  may  be  had  of  almost  any  size 
and  weight.  They  may  be  made  with  either 
plain  or  padded  flaps,  according  to  the  seat 
and  fancy  of  the  rider.  Some  prefer  the 
former,  and  others  the  latter.  For  the  gen- 
erality of  riders  there  can  not  be  a  doubt 
that  the  padded  flaps  are  by  far  the  better, 
as  they  keep  the  knee  more  steadily  in  the 
proper  place,  prevent  the  leg  flying  back- 
ward and  forward,  if  the  horse  jumps  or 
plunges,  while  in  hunting  they  are  of  very 
material  assistance  in  taking  a  drop  jump, 
and  also  in  steadying  and  recovering  a  horse 
when  blundering  or  falling  at  a  fence.  The 
plain  flaps  have  perhaps  a  smarter  appear- 
ance, and  a  clever  horseman  may  be  able 
to  ride  as  well  on  tfiem  as  on  the  padded 
flaps,  but  that  is  almost  all  that  can  be  said 
for  them. 

The  saddle  should  be  of  sufficient  length 
and  breadth  that  the  weight  of  the  rider 
may  be  pretty  equally  distributed  over  it, 
or  the  back  of  the  horse  will  suffer  and 
saddle-galls  be  the  result. 

The  stirrups  should  not  be  small,  for,  in 
the  event  of  a  fall,  the  foot  is  more  likely 
to  hang  in  them.  All  well-made  saddles 
have  spring  bars,  which  should  be  occa- 
sionally oiled,  that  they  may  work  easily, 
and  release  the  stirrup-leather  should  such 
an  accident  occur.  The  stirrup  -  leather 
should  be  of  the  best,  close  and  strong,  and 
not  too  heavy,  or  it  will  look  clumsy. 

Every  saddle  requires  two  girths — which 
may  either  be  of  the  ordinary  kind  of  the 
same  width,  with  a  buckle  at  each  end,  or 
one  broad,  with  two  buckles  at  each  end, 
which  is  put  on  first,  and  a  second,  about 
half  the  width  only,  over  it,  with  one  buckle 
at  each  end. 


THE   HORSE 


647 


After  use,  the  lining  of  the  saddle  must 
be  thoroughly  dried  in  the  sun  or  before 
the  fire,  and  then  well  brushed,  which  will 
keep  it  soft  and  clean. 

This  is  particularly  necessary  with  side- 
saddles. It  is  for  want  of  this  care  and 
attention  that  so  many  horses  have  sore 
backs.  When  dirty,  the  saddle  must  be 
sponged  clean,  but  not  made  more  wet  than 
is  absolutely  necessary;  after  which  a  little 
soft  soap  rubbed  on  will  preserve  the  leather 
soft  and  pliable,  and  prevent  its  cracking. 

In  choosing  a  saddle,  go  to  a  first-rate 
maker;  he  may  be  a  little  more  expensive, 
but  you  will  get  a  good  article,  that  will 
wear  three  times  as  long  as  an  inferior  one, 
will  fit  the  generality  of  horses,  will  never 
get  out  of  form,  and  will  look  well  to  the 
last 

The  Breast-plate  or  Hunting-plate  is  used 
to  keep  the  saddle  in  its  place  when  hunt- 
ing. It  is  also  of  great  service  on  horses 
with  short  back-ribs,  to  prevent  the  saddle 
working  back,  which  it  is  very  likely  to  do. 
But  on  the  road  and  in  the  field  no  lady 
should  ride  without  one,  as  it  will  keep  the 
side-saddle  securely  in  its  place,  and  pre- 
vent its  turning  round  should  the  girth  get 
loosened  or  break. 

The  Martingale  is  used  to  steady  the 
horse's  head,  and  keep  it  in  its  proper 
place. 

It  is  generally  used  on  loose  weak-necked 
horses,  and  though  of  service  in  the  hands 
of  the  experienced,  it  is  often  dangerous 
when  used  by  others,  as  being  apt  to  catch 
on  the  bit  or  buckles  of  the  bridle,  and  so 
cause  serious  accidents. 

The  Bridle. — There  is  a  great  variety  of 
bits  suitable  for  different  descriptions  and 
tempers  of  horses,  but  it  is  impossible  to 
describe  them  all  in  so  limited  a  space. 
They  all  belong  to  one  of  two  classes — the 
snaffle  or  the  curb,  and  are  of  different  de- 
grees of  severity  and  power. 

The  Snaffle  is  a  piece  of  steel  with  a  joint 
in  the  middle;  it  may  be  smooth  and  plain, 
twisted,  or  double- jointed.  The  smooth 
snaffle  is  the  mildest  form  of  bit  there  is, 
and,  except  just  for  exercise,  few  horses 
ride  pleasantly  in  one.  The  twisted  bit  is 
sharper,  and  if  drawn  quickly  backward 
and  forward  through  the  mouth,  is  very 
punishing.  The  double- jointed  is  the  most 
severe;  it  is  formed  of  two  plain  snaffles 
one  above  the  other;  but  the  joints  in  each 
not  being  opposite  each  other,  cause  a  sharp- 
er and  more  narrow  pressure  on  the  tongue 
and  lower  jaw.  Very  few  horses  ride  well 
and  pleasantly  in  a  snaffle  of  any  kind,  as 


they  all  cause  a  horse  to  raise  his  head  and 
open  his  mouth  to  take  the  pressure  off  his 
tongue.  In  addition  to  this  there  are  the 
Chain-snaffle,  which  is  a  very  light  bit,  and 
the  Gag,  used  for  horses  that  get  their  heads 
down. 

The  Curb-bit  is  a  lever  that,  by  means  oi 
a  curb-chain,  acts  upon  the  lower  jaw,  and 
may  be  made  very  easy  or  very  severe,  ac- 
cording to  the  length  of  cheek  or  leverage, 
and  the  height  of  the  port  or  arch  in  the 
centre  of  the  mouthpiece.  It  is  very  sel- 
dom used  singly,  but  in  conjunction  with 
some  kind  of  snaffle,  when  it-  forms  a 
double-rein  bridle,  and  is  by  far  the  most 
useful  bit.  All  horses  go  better  in  it,  when 
properly  handled,  than  in  any  other;  as  by 
lengthening  or  shortening  the  curb-chain, 
and  taking  up  or  dropping  the  bit  in  the 
mouth,  it  can  be  made  either  less  or  more 
severe,  to  suit  most  horses. 

The  Pelham  is  a  curb  and  snaffle  in  one; 
it  is  a  curb-bit  with  a  joint  in  the  middle, 
instead  of  a  port  It  forms  a  double-rein 
bridle,  and  is  very  light  and  easy. 

Like  saddles,  the  bridles  should  be  of 
first-rate  material  and  workmanship;  the 
bits  sewn  on  to  the  headpieces  and  reins, 
as  being  much  neater  and  lighter  than  the 
buckles.  The  leather  must  be  kept  clean 
and  pliable  with  soft  soap,  and  the  bits 
clean  and  bright  with  silver-sand  and  oil. 

HARNESSING  AND   PUTTING-TO 

Harnessing. — In  all  cases,  the  first  thing 
to  be  done,  after  the  horse  is  dressed,  is  to 
put  on  the  collar,  which  is  effected  by  turn- 
ing the  horse  round  in  his  stall,  and  slip- 
ping it  over  his  head,  with  the  large  end 
upward.  This  inversion  is  required  be- 
cause the  front  of  the  head  is  the  widest 
part,  and  is  in  this  way  adapted  to  the 
widest  part  of  the  collar,  which,  even  with 
this  arrangement,  will  in  coarsely  bred 
horses  hardly  pass  over  the  cheek-bones. 
Before  the  collar  is  put  in  its  place,  the 
hames  are  put  on  and  buckled;  for  if  this 
were  delayed  until  after  it  had  been  re- 
versed, they  would  have  to  be  held  on 
while  the  name-straps  were  being  drawn 
together,  whereas  in  this  way  their  own 
weight  keeps  them  in  place.  They  are  now 
reversed  altogether,  and  the  pad  put  in  its 
place,  before  buckling  the  belly-band,  of 
which  the  crupper  is  slipped  over  tfie  tail 
by  doubling  up  all  the  hair,  grasping  it 
carefully  in  the  left  hand  while  the  right 
adapts  the  crupper.  A  careful  examination 
should  always  be  made  that  no  hairs  are 
left  under  it,  for  if  they  are  they  irritate 


648 


THE    HORSE 


the  skin,  and  often  cause  a  fit  of  kicking. 
After  the  crupper  is  set  right  the  pad  is 
drawn  forward,  and  its  belly-band  buckled 
up  pretty  tightly;  the  bridle  is  now  put  on, 
and  the  curb-chain  properly  applied;  the 
reins  being  slipped  through  the  terrets  and 
buckled  on  both  sides,  if  for  single  harness, 
or  on  the  outside  only  if  for  double,  and 
the  driving-rein  folded  back  and  tied  in 
the  pad  terret. 

Putting-to  is  managed  very  differently, 
According  to  whether  the  horse  is  going  in 
shafts  or  with  a  pole.  If  for  shafts,  they 
are  tilted  up  and  held  there  by  one  person, 
while  the  other  backs  the  horse  until  he  is 
under  them,  when  they  are  dropped  down, 
and  the  tugs  slipped  under  or  over  the 
ends  of  the  shafts,  according  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  tugs,  some  being  hooks  and  oth- 
ers merely  leather  loops.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  they  do  not  slip  beyond  the  pins 
on  the  shafts.  The  traces  are  now  attached 
to  the  drawing-bar,  the  breechen  or  kicl:- 
ing-strap  buckled,  and  the  false  belly-band 
buckled  up  pretty  tightly,  so  as  to  keep 
the  shafts  steady.  In  four-wheeled  carriages 
it  should  be  left  tolerably  loose  when  a 
breechen  is  used,  to  allow  of  this  having 


free  play.     The   reins  are  now   untwisted 

from  the  terret,  and  the  horse  is  put-to. 
For  double  harness,  the  first  thing  is  to 
bring  the  horse  round  by  the  side  of  the 
pole,  and  put  the  pole-piece  through  the 
sliding  ring  of  the  names,  the  groom  hold- 
ing it,  or  else  buckling  it  at  the  longest  hole 
while  the  traces  are  being  put-to;  as  soon 
as  this  is  done,  the  pole-piece  is  buckled  up 
to  its  proper  length,  each  coupling-rein 
buckled  to  the  opposite  horse's  bit,  the  driv- 
ing-reins untwisted  from  the  terret,  and  the 
two  buckled  together,  and  the  horses  are 
ready.  The  leaders  of  a  tandem  or  four- 
in-hand  are  easily  attached,  and  their  reins 
are  passed  through  the  rings  on  the  head 
of  the  wheelers,  and  through  the  upper 
half  of  the  pad  terret. 

Unharnessing  is  exactly  the  reverse  of 
the  above,  everything  being  undone  exactly 
in  the  same  order  in  which  it  was  done. 
The  chief  errors  in  either  are — in  double 
harness,  in  not  attaching  the  pole-pieces  at 
once  in  putting-to,  or  in  unbuckling  it  al- 
together too  soon,  by  which  the  horse  is 
at  liberty  to  get  back  upon  the  bars,  and 
then  often  does  considerable  damage  by  his 
kicking. 


ORDINARY    DRUGS,  AND    THEIR    ADMINISTRATION 


FORMS    IN    WHICH    THEY  ARE 
PRESCRIBED 

ALTERATIVES 

A  LTERATIVES  are  intended  to  pro- 
•*»  duce  a  fresh  and  healthy  action,  in- 
stead of  the  previously  disordered  func- 
tion. The  precise  mode  of  action  is  not 
well  understood,  and  it  is  only  by  the 
results  that  the  utility  of  these  medicines  is 
recognized : 

(i.)  Stinking  hellebore,  5  to  8  grs. ;  pow- 
dered rhubarb,  2  to  4  grs.  Mix,  and  form 
into  a  pill,  to  be  given  every  night. 

(2.)  In  Disordered  States  of  the  Skin.— 
Emetic  tartar,  5  oz. ;  powdered  ginger,  3  oz. ; 
opium,  i  oz.  Syrup  enough  to  form  16 
balls ;  one  to  be  given  every  night. 

(3.)  Simply  Cooling. — Barbadoes  aloes,  I 
oz. ;  castile  soap,  \l/2  oz. ;  ginger,  Yt  oz. 
Syrup  enough  to  form  6  balls;  one  to  be 
given  every  morning. 

(4.)  In  Strangles. — Barbadoes  aloes,  I 
oz. ;  emetic  tartar,  2  drms. ;  castile  soap,  2 
drms.  Mix. 

(5.)  Alterative  Ball  for  General  Use.— 
Black  sulphuret  of  antimony,  2  to  4  drms. ; 


sulphur,  2  drms. ;  nitre,  2  drms.  Linseed 
meal  and  water  enough  to  form  a  ball. 

(6.)  For  Generally  Defective  Secretions. 
— Flowers  of  sulphur,  6  oz. ;  emetic  tartar, 
5  to  8  drms. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  10  grs. 
Linseed  meal  mixed  with  hot  water,  enough 
to  form  six  balls,  one  of  which  may  be  given 
two  or  three  times  a  week. 

(7.)  In  Debility  of  Stomach. — Calomel, 
i  scruple ;  aloes,  I  drm. ;  cascarilla,  gentian, 
and  ginger,  of  each  in  powder,  I  drm. ;  cas- 
tile soap,  3  drms.  Syrup  enough  to  make  a 
ball,  which  may  be  given  twice  a  week,  or 
every  other  night. 

ANODYNES 

Anodyne  medicines  are  given  either  to 
soothe  the  general  nervous  .system,  or  to 
stop  diarrhoea;  or  sometimes  to  relieve 
spasm,  as  in  colic  or  tetanus.  Opium  is  the 
chief  anodyne  used  in  veterinary  medicine, 
and  it  may  be  employed  in  very  large  doses. 

(i.)  In  Colic. — Powdered  opium,  J/2  to  2 
drms.;  castile  soap  and  camphor,  of  each  2 
drms.;  ginger,  \y2  drms.  Make  into  a  ball 
with  liquorice  powder  and  treacle,  and  give 


THE   HORSE 


649 


every  hour  while  the  pain  lasts.  It  should 
be  kept  in  a  bottle  or  bladder. 

(2.)  Anodyne  Ball  (ordinary). — Opium, 
YZ  to  i  drm. ;  castile  soap,  2  to  4  drms. ; 
ginger,  i  to  2  drms.;  powdered  aniseed,  l/t 
to  i  oz. ;  oil  of  caraway  seeds,  l/z  drm. 
Syrup  enough  to  form  a  ball,  to  be  dis- 
solved in  a  half-pint  of  warm  ale,  and  given 
as  a  drench. 

(3.)  Anodyne  Drench  in  Superpurgation, 
or  Ordinary  Diarrhoea. — Gum  arabic,  2  oz. ; 
boiling  water,  i  pint;  dissolve,  and  then 
add  oil  of  peppermintj  25  drops ;  tincture  of 
opium,  l/2  oz.  Mix,  and  give  night  and 
morning,  if  necessary. 

(4.)  In  Chronic  Diarrhoea.  —  Powdered 
chalk  and  gum  arabic,  of  each  I  oz. ;  tinc- 
ture of  opium,  Yz  oz. ;  peppermint  water,  10 
oz.  Mix,  and  give  night  and  morning. 

ANTISPASMODIC 

Antispasmodics,  as  their  name  implies, 
are  medicines  which  are  intended  to  coun- 
teract excessive  muscular  action,  called 
spasm,  or,  in  the  limbs,  cramp.  This  de- 
ranged condition  depends  upon  a  variety 
of  causes,  which  are  generally  of  an  irritat- 
ing nature ;  and  its  successful  treatment  will 
often  depend  upon  the  employment  of  reme- 
dies calculated  to  remove  the  cause,  rather 
than  directly  to  relieve  the  effect.  It  there- 
fore follows  that,  in  many  cases,  the  medi- 
cines most  successful  in  removing  spasm 
will  be  derived  from  widely  separate  di- 
visions of  the  materia  medico,  such  as 
aperients,  anodynes,  alteratives,  stimulants, 
and  tonics.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  give 
many  formulas  for  their  exhibition;  but 
there  are  one  or  two  medicines  which  ex- 
ercise a  peculiar  control  over  spasm,  and  we 
shall  give  them  without  attempting  to  ana- 
lyze their  mode  of  operation. 

(i.)  For  Colic — Spirits  of  turpentine,  3 
oz. ;  tincture  of  opium,  I  oz.  Mix  with  a 
pint  of  warm  ale,  and  give  as  a  drench. 

(2.)  Spirits  of  turpentine,  3^2  oz. ;  tinc- 
ture of  opium,  1^2  oz. ;  Barbadoes  aloes,  I 
oz.  Powder  the  aloes,  and  dissolve  in 
warm  water;  then  add  the  other  ingredi- 
ents, and  give  as  a  drench. 

(3-)  Clyster  in  Colic. — Spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, 6  oz. ;  aloes,  2  drms.  Dissolve  in  3 
quarts  of  warm  water,  and  stir  the  turpen- 
tine well  into  it. 

(4.)  Anti spasmodic  Drench. — Gin,  4  to  6 
oz. ;  tincture  of  capsicum,  2  drms. ;  tincture 
of  opium,  3  drms.;  warm  water,  15^  pint. 
Mix,  and  give  as  a  drench,  when  there  is 
no  inflammation. 


APERIENTS 

Aperients,  or  physics,  are  those  medicines 
which  quicken  or  increase  the  evacuations 
from  the  bowels,  varying,  however,  a  good 
deal  in  their  mode  of  operation.  Some  act 
merely  by  exciting  the  muscular  coat  of 
the  bowels  to  contract;  others  cause  an  im- 
mense watery  discharge,  which,  as  it  were, 
washes  out  the  bowels;  while  a  third  set 
combine  the  action  of  the  two.  The  vari- 
ous purges  also  act  upon  different  parts  of 
the  canal,  some  stimulating  the  small  in- 
testines, while  others  pass  through  them 
without  affecting  them,  and  only  act  upon 
the  large  bowels;  and  others,  again,  act 
upon  the  whole  canal.  There  is  a  third 
point  of  difference  in  purges,  depending 
upon  their  influencing  the  liver  in  addition, 
which  mercurial  purgatives  certainly  do,  as 
well  as  rhubarb  and  some  others,  and  which 
effect  is  partly  due  to  their  absorption  into 
the  circulation,  so  that  they  may  be  made 
to  act,  by  injecting  into  the  veins,  as  strong- 
ly as  by  actual  swallowing,  and  their  sub- 
sequent passage  into  the  bowels.  Purga- 
tives are  likewise  classed,  according  to  the 
degree  of  their  effect,  into  laxatives,  acting 
mildly,  and  drastic  purges,  acting  severely. 

(i.)  Ordinary  Physic  Balls. — Barbadoes 
aloes,  3  to  8  drms. ;  hard  soap,  4  drms. ;  gin- 
ger, i  drm.  Dissolve  in  as  small  a  quantity 
of  boiling  water  as  will  suffice;  then  slowly 
evaporate  to  the  proper  consistence,  by  which 
means  griping  is  avoided. 

(2.)  A  Wanner  Physic  Ball. — Barbadoes 
aloes,  3  to  8  drms. ;  carbonate  of  soda,  J4   > 
drm. ;  aromatic  powder,  i  drm. ;  oil  of  cara-   , 
way,  12  drops.    Dissolve  as  above,  and  then 
add  the  oil. 

(3.)  Gently  Laxative  Ball.  —  Barbadoes 
aloes,  3  to  5  drms.;  rhubarb  powder,  i  to 
2  drms.;  ginger,  2  drms.;  oil  of  caraway, 
15  drops.  Mix,  and  form  into  a  ball,  as 
in  No.  i. 

(4.)  Stomachic  Laxative  Balls,  for  Washy 
Horses. — Barbadoes  aloes,  3  drms. ;  rhubarb, 

2  drms. ;  ginger  and  cascarilla  powder,  of 
each  i  drm. ;  oil  of  caraway,  15  drops ;  car- 
bonate of  soda,  1 1/2  drms.  Dissolve  the  aloes 
as  in  No.  i,  and  then  add  the  other  ingre- 
dients. 

(5.)  Purging  Balls,  with  Calomel.— Bar- 
badoes aloes,  3  to  6  drms. ;  calomel,  Y2  to  t 
drm. ;  rhubarb,  I  to  2  drms. ;  ginger,  l/t  to 
i  drm.;  castile  soap,  2  drms.  Mix  as  in 
No.  i. 

(6.)  Laxative  Drench. — Barbadoes  aloes, 

3  to  4  drms. ;  canella  alba,  I  to  2  drms. ;  salt 
of  tartar,  i  drm. ;  mint  water,  8  oz.    Mix. 


Sol) 


v . 


THE    HORSE 


(7.)  Another  Laxative  Drench. — Castor 
oil,  3  to  6  oz. ;  Barbadoes  aloes,  3  to  5 
drms. ;  carbonate  of  soda,  2  drms.;  mint 
water,  8  oz.  Mix,  by  dissolving  the  aloes 
in  the  mint  water,  by  the  aid  of  heat,  and 
then  adding  the  other  ingredients. 

(8.)  A  Mild  Opening  Drench.  —  Castor 
oil,  4  oz. ;  Epsom  salts,  3  to  S  oz. ;  gruel,  2 
pints.  Mix. 

(9.)  A  Very  Mild  Laxative. — Castor  oil 
and  linseed  oil,  4  oz.  of  each;  warm  water, 
or  gruel,  i  pint.  Mix. 

(10.)  Used  in  the  Staggers. — Barbadoes 
aloes,  6  drms. ;  common  salt,  6  oz. ;  flour  of 
mustard,  i  oz. ;  water,  2  pints.  Mix. 

(li.)  A  Gently  Cooling  Drench  in  Slight 
Attacks  of  Cold. — Epsom  salts,  6  to  8  oz. ; 
whey,  2  pints.  Mix. 

(12.)  Purgative  Clyster. — Common  salt, 
4  to  8  oz. ;  warm  water,  8  to  16  pints. 

ASTRINGENTS 

Astringents  are  supposed  to  produce  con- 
traction in  all  living  animal  tissues  with 
which  they  come  in  contact,  whether  in 
the  interior  or  exterior  of  the  body,  and 
whether  immediately  applied  or  taken  by 
absorption  into  the  circulation.  But  great 
doubt  exists  as  to  the  exact  mode  in  which 
they  act;  and,  as  in  many  other  cases,  we 
are  obliged  to  content  ourselves  with  their 
effects,  and  to  prescribe  them  empirically. 
They  are  divided  into  astringents  adminis- 
tered by  the  mouth,  and  those  applied  lo- 
cally to  external  ulcerated  or  wounded  sur- 
faces. 

(i.)  Astringent  Wash  for  the  Eyes. — Sul- 
phate of  zinc,  5  to  8  grs. ;  water,  2  oz.  Mix. 

(2.)  Goulard  extract,  I  drm. ;  water,  I 
oz.  Mix. 

(3.)  Astringent  Remedies  for  the  Horse. 
F*r  Bloody  Urine. — Powdered  catechu,  Y* 
oz. ;  alum,  y2  oz. ;  cascarilla  bark  in  powder, 
I  to  2  drms.  Licorice  powder  and  treacle, 
enough  to  form  a  ball,  to  be  given  twice 
a  day. 

(4.)  For  Diabetes. — Opium,  y2  drm. ;  gin- 
ger powdered,  2  drms. ;  oak  bark  powdered, 
I  oz. ;  alum,  as  much  as  the  tea  will  dis- 
•  solve ;  camomile  tea,  I  pint.  Mix  for  drench. 

(5.)  External  Astringent  Powder  for  Ul- 
cerated Surfaces. — Powdered  alum,  4  oz. ; 
Armenian  bole,  I  oz. 

(6.)  White  vitriol,  4  oz. ;  oxide  of  zinc, 

1  oz.     Mix. 

(7.)  Astringent  Lotion. — Goulard  extract, 

2  to  3  drms. ;  water,  Y*  pint. 

(8.)  Sulphate  of  copper,   i  to  2  drms.; 
(  water,  y3  pint.     Mix. 


(9.)  Astringent  Ointment  for  Sore  Heela 
— Superacetate  of  lead,  i  drm. ;  lard,  i  oz. 
Mix. 

(10.)  Another  for  the  same. — Nitrate  of 
silver  powdered,  l/t  drm. ;  goulard  extract, 
i  drm.;  lard,  I  oz.  Mix. 

BLISTERS 

Blisters  are  applications  which  inflame 
the  skin,  and  cause  watery  bladders  to  form 
upon  it;  they  consist  of  two  kinds,  one  for 
the  sake  of  counter-irritation,  by  which  the 
original  disease  is  lessened,  in  consequence 
of  the  establishment  of  this  irritation  at  a 
short  distance  from  it.  The  other,  com- 
monly called  "Sweating"  in  veterinary  sur- 
gery, by  which  a  discharge  is  obtained  from 
the  vessels  of  the  part  itself,  which  are  in 
that  way  relieved  and  unloaded;  there  is 
also  a  subsequent  process  of  absorption  in 
consequence  of  the  peculiar  stimulus  ap- 
plied. 

BLISTERS     FOR    HORSES 

(i.)  Mild  Blister  Ointment  (counter- 
irritant). — Hog's  lard,  4  oz. ;  Venice  tur- 
pentine, i  oz. ;  powdered  cantharides,  6 
drms.  Mix  and  spread. 

(2.)  Stronger  Blister  Ointment  (counter- 
irritant). — Spirits  of  turpentine,  I  oz.;  sul- 
phuric acid,  by  measure,  2  drms.  Mix  care- 
fully in  an  open  place,  and  add  hog's  lard, 
4  oz. ;  powdered  cantharides,  I  oz.  Mix 
and  spread. 

(3.)  Very  Strong  Blister  (counter-irri- 
tant).— Strong  mercurial  ointment,  4  oz. ; 
oil  of  origanum,  l/2  oz. ;  finely  powdered 
euphorbium,  3  drms. ;  powdered  cantharides, 
l/2  oz.  Mix  and  spread. 

(4.)  Rapidly  Acting  Blister  (counter-irri- 
tant).— Best  flour  of  mustard,  8  oz.,  made 
into  a  paste  with  water.  Add  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, 2  oz. ;  strong  liquor  of  ammonia,  I 
oz.  This  is  to  be  well  rubbed  into  the 
chest,  belly,  or  back,  in  cases  of  acute  in- 
flammation. 

(5.)  Sweating  Blister. — Strong  mercurial 
ointment,  2  oz. ;  oil  of  origanum,  2  drms. ; 
corrosive  sublimate,  2  drms. ;  cantharides, 
powdered,  3  drms.  Mix,  and  rub  in  with 
the  hand. 

(6.)  Strong  Sweating  Blister,  for  Splints, 
Ring-Bones,  Spavins,  etc. — Red  iodide  of 
mercury,  I  to  1^2  drms.;  lard,  I  oz.  To  be 
well  rubbed  in  the  legs  after  cutting  the 
hair  short,  and  followed  by  the  daily  use  of 
arnica,  in  the  shape  of  a  wash,  as  follows, 
which  is  to  be  painted  on  with  a  brush: 
tincture  of  arnica,  i  oz. ;  water,  12  to  15 
oz.  Mix. 


THE    HORSE 


651 


(7.)  Tincture  of  Iodine,  which  should  be 
painted  on  with  a  brush  daily,  until  it 
causes  the  cuticle  to  exfoliate.  It  may  then 
be  omitted  for  a  few  days,  to  be  resumed 
after  that  interval. 

CAUSTICS 

Caustics  are  substances  which  burn  away 
the  living  tissues  of  the  body,  by  the  de- 
composition of  their  elements.  They  are 
of  two  kinds,  viz. — first,  the  actual  cautery, 
consisting  in  the  application  of  the  burning 
iron,  and  called  Firing;  and,  secondly,  the 
potential  cautery,  by  means  of  the  powers 
of  mineral  caustics,  such  as  potash,  lunar- 
caustic,  etc, 

Firing  is  used  extensively  upon  horses 
for  inflammation  of  the  legs.  A  set  of 
firing-irons  are  heated  to  a  great  heat,  and, 
one  at  a  time,  are  lightly  applied  across 
the  limb,  or  in  'lines  up  and  down,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  disease.  This  ex- 
cites a  very  great  amount  of  swelling  and 
inflammation,  by  which  the  mischief  is  often 
abated,  and  is  followed  also  by  a  contrac- 
tion of  the  skin,  which  appears  to  act  as  a 
bandage  in  the  weak  state  of  the  vessels 
of  the  legs,  which  often  occurs.  The  firing 
is  generally  followed  by  blistering,  in  order 
to  keep  up  the  inflammation,  and  at  least 
three  months  must  be  consumed  before  the 
fired  horse,  if  thoroughly  operated  on,  will 
be  fit  for  work. 

Strong  solid  caustics  are  as  follows: 
I     (i.)  Fused    Potass,   difficult   to  manage, 
because  it  runs  about  in  all  directions,  and 
little  used  in  veterinary  medicine. 

(2.)  Lunar-Caustic,  or  nitrate  of  silver, 
very  valuable  to  the  veterinary  surgeon, 
and  constantly  used  to  apply  to  profuse 
granulations. 

(3.)  Sulphate  of  Copper,  almost  equally 
useful,  but  not  so  strong  as  lunar-caustic; 
it  may  be  well  rubbed  in  to  all  high  granu- 
lations, as  in  broken  knees,  and  similar 
growths. 

(4.)  Corrosive  Sublimate  in  powder,  which 
acts  most  energetically  upon  warty  growths, 
but  should  be  used  with  great  care  and  dis- 
cretion. It  may  safely  be  applied  to  small 
surfaces,  but  not  without  a  regular  practi- 
tioner to  large  ones.  It  should  be  washed 
off  after  remaining  on  a  few  minutes. 

(5.)  Yellow  Orpiment,  not  so  strong  as 
the  corrosive  sublimate,  and  may  be  used 
with  more  freedom.  It  will  generally  re- 
move warty  growths,  by  picking  off  their 
heads  and  rubbing  it  in. 

Strong  liquid  caustics: 


(6.)  Sulphuric  Acid,  or  nitric  acid,  may 
be  used  either  in  full  strength  or  diluted 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  water;  but  it 
must  be  used  with  great  caution,  as  it  de- 
stroys the  skin  rapidly. 

(7.)  In  Canker  of  the  Foot — Quicksil- 
ver, i  oz.;  nitric  acid,  2  oz.  Mix  in  an 
earthen  vessel,  and  when  cold  put  into  a 
wide  glass  bottle,  and  cork  it.  It  may  be 
mixed  with  lard,  in  the  proportion  of  I 

to  3. 

(8.)  A  similar  application,  which  may  be 
used  alternately  with  the  last — Copper  fil- 
Jngs>  /^  oz. ;  nitric  acid,  I  oz.  Mix,  and 
use  in  the  same  way. 

(9.)  Muriate  of  antimony,  called  butter 
of  antimony;  a  strong  but  rather  unman- 
ageable caustic,  and  used  either  by  itself 
or  mixed  with  more  or  less  water. 

Mild  solid  caustics : 

(10.)  Verdigris,  either  in  powder  or 
mixed  with  lard  as  an  ointment,  in  the 
proportion  of  i  to  3. 

(n.)  Red  precipitate,  do.,  do. 

(12.)  Burned  alum,  used  dry. 

(13.)  Powdered  white  sugar, 

Mild  liquid  caustics: 

(14.)  Solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  5  to 
15  grains  to  the  ounce  of  distilled  water. 

(15.)  Solution  of  blue  vitriols  of  about 
double  the  above  strength. 

(16.)  Chloride  of  zinc,  3  grains  to  the 
ounce  of  water. 

CHARGES 

Charges  are  adhesive  plasters  which  while 
hot  are  spread  on  the  legs,  and  at  once 
covered  with  short  tow,  so  as  to  form  a 
strong  and  unyielding  support  while  the 
horse  is  at  grass. 

(i.)  Ordinary  Charge. — Burgundy  pitch, 
4  oz. ;  Barbadoes  tar,  6  oz. ;  beeswax,  2  oz. ; 
red  lead,  4  oz.  The  first  three  are  to  be 
melted  together,  and  afterward  the  lead  is 
to  be  added.  The  mixture  is  to  be  kept 
constantly  stirred  until  sufficiently  cold  to 
be  applied.  If  too  stiff  (which  will  depend 
upon  the  weather)  it  may  be  softened  by 
the  addition  of  a  little  lard  or  oil. 

(2.)  Arnica  Charge. — Canada  balsam,  2 
oz. ;  powdered  arnica  leaves,  Yi  oz.  The 
balsam  to  be  melted  and  worked  up  with 
the  leaves,  adding  spirits  of  turpentine  if 
necessary.  When  thoroughly  mixed,  to  be 
well  rubbed  into  the  whole  leg  in  a  thin 
layer,  and  to  be  covered  over  with  the 
Charge  No.  i,  which  will  set  on  its  outside 
and  act  as  a  bandage,  while  the  arnica  acts 
as  a  restorative  to  the  weakened  vessels. 
This  is  an  excellent  application. 


653 


THE    HORSE 


CORDIALS 

Cordials  are  medicines  which  act  as 
warm,  temporary  stimulants,  augmenting 
the  strength  and  spirits  when  depressed, 
and  often  relieving  an  animal  from  the  ill 
effects  of  over-exertion.  They  act  much 
in  the  same  way  on  the  horse  and  dog,  but 
require  to  be  given  in  different  doses. 

(i.)  Cordial  Balls.— Powdered  caraway 
seeds,  6  drms. ;  ginger,  2  drms. ;  oil  of 
cloves,  20  drops.  Treacle  enough  to  make 
into  a  ball. 

(2.)  Powdered  aniseed,  6  drms.;  pow- 
dered cardamoms,  2  drms. ;  powdered  cassia, 
I  drm. ;  oil  of  caraway,  20  drops.  Mix  with 
treacle  into  a  ball. 

(3.)  Cordial  Drench.— A  quart  of  good 
ale  warmed  and  with  plenty  of  grated 
ginger. 

(4.)  Cordial  and  Expectorant.  —  Pow- 
dered aniseed,  y2  oz. ;  powdered  squills,  I 
drm. ;  powdered  myrrh,  I  y2  drms. ;  Balsam 
of  Peru,  enough  to  form  a  ball. 

(5.)  Licorice  powder,  y2  oz. ;  gum  am- 
moniacum,  3  drms.;  balsam  of  Tolu,  Ij4 
drms. ;  powdered  squills,  I  drm.  Linseed 
meal  and  boiling  water,  enough  to  form 
into  a  mass. 

DEMULCENTS 

Demulcents  are  medicines  which  are  used 
in  irritations  of  the  bowels,  kidneys,  and 
bladder. 

(i.)  Demulcent  Drench.  —  Gum  arabic, 
1/2  oz. ;  water  I  pint.  The  whole  to  be 
given. 

(2.)  Linseed,  4  oz. ;  water,  i  quart.  Sim- 
mer till  a  strong  and  thick  decoction  is 
obtained,  and  give  as  above. 

(3.)  Marshmallow  Drench.  —  Marshmal- 
lows,  a  double  handful;  water,  I  quart. 
Simmer  as  in  No.  2,  and  use  in  the  same 
way. 

DIAPHORETICS 

Diaphoretics  are  medicines  which  increase 
the  insensible  perspiration. 

(i.)  In  Hide-Bound.— Emetic  tartar,  \y>, 
drms.;  camphor,  l/2  drm.;  ginger,  2  drms.; 
opium,  l/2  drm.;  oil  of  caraway,  15  drops. 
Linseed  meal  and  boiling  water,  to  form  a 
ball,  which  is  to  be  given  twice  or  thrice 
a  week. 

(2.)  In  Hide-Bound  (but  not  so  effica- 
cious).— Antimonial  powder,  2  drms.;  gin- 
ger, i  drm. ;  powdered  caraway,  6  drms. ; 
oil  of  aniseed,  20  drops.  Mix  as  above. 

These  remedies  require  exercise  in  cloth- 
ing to  bring  out  their  effects,  after  which 
the  horse  should  be  wisped  till  quite  dry. 


DIGESTIVES 

Digestives  are  applications  which  pro- 
mote suppuration,  and  the  healing  of 
wounds  or  ulcers. 

(i.)  Digestive  Ointment  —  Red  precipi- 
tate, 2  oz. ;  Venice  turpentine,  3  oz. ;  bees- 
wax, i  oz. ;  hog's  lard,  4  oz.  Melt  the  last 
three  ingredients  over  a  slow  fire,  and,  when 
nearly  cold,  stir  in  the  powder. 

DIURETICS 

Diuretics  are  medicines  which  promote 
the  secretion  and  discharge  of  urine,  the 
effect  being  produced  in  a  different  man- 
ner by  different  medicines ;  some  acting  di- 
rectly upon  the  kidneys  by  sympathy  with 
the  stomach,  while  others  are  taken  up  by 
the  blood-vessels,  and  in  their  elimination 
from  the  blood  cause  an  extra  secretion  of 
the  urine.  In  either  case  their  effect  is  to 
diminish  the  watery  part  of  the  blood,  and 
thus  promote  the  absorption  of  fluid  effused 
into  any  of  the  cavities,  or  into  the  cellular 
membrane,  in  the  various  forms  of  dropsy. 

(i.)  Stimulating  Diuretic  Ball  for  the 
Horse. — Powdered  resin,  sal  prunelle,  cas- 
tile  soap,  of  each  3  drms.;  oil  of  juniper,  I 
drm.  Mix. 

(2.)  A  More  Cooling  Diuretic  Ball. — 
Powdered  nitre,  l/2  to  I  oz. ;  camphor  and 
oil  of  juniper,  of  each  i  drm.;  soap,  3  drms. 
Mix,  adding  linseed  meal  enough  to  form  a 
ball. 

(3.)  Diuretic  Powder  for  a  Mash. — Ni- 
tre, 6  drms. ;  camphor,  1 l/2  drms.  Mix. 

(4.)  Another  More  Active  Powder. — Ni- 
tre, 6  drms.;  camphor,  il/2  drms.  Mix. 

EMBROCATIONS 

Embrocations  or  liniments  are  stimulat- 
ing or  sedative  external  applications,  in- 
tended to  reduce  the  pain  and  inflammation 
of  internal  parts  when  rubbed  into  the  skin 
with  the  hands. 

(i.)  Mustard  Embrocation.  —  Best  flour 
of  mustard,  6  oz. ;  liquor  of  ammonia,  il/i 
oz. ;  oil  of  turpentine,  il/2  oz.  Mix  with 
sufficient  water  to  form  a  thin  paste. 

(2.)  Stimulating  Embrocation.— Camphor, 
y2  oz. ;  oil  of  turpentine  and  spirits  of  wine, 
of  each  i  oz.  Mix. 

(3.)  Sweating  Embrocation  for  Wind- 
galls,  etc. — Strong  mercurial  ointment,  2 
oz. ;  camphor,  l/2  oz. ;  oil  of  rosemary,  2 
drms. ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  i  oz.  Mix. 

(4.)  Another,  but  stronger. — Strong  mer- 
curial ointment,  2  oz. ;  oil  of  bay,  I  oz. ; 
oil  of  origanum,  l/2  oz. ;  powdered  canthar- 
ides  ^t  oz.  Mix. 


THE    HORSE 


653 


(5.)  A  Most  Active  Sweating  Embroca- 
tion.— Red  iodide  of  mercury,  l/2  to  i  drm. ; 
powdered  arnica  leaves,  i  drm. ;  soap  lini- 
ment, 2  oz.  Mix. 

(6.)  This  must  be  repeated  until  a  blis- 
ter is  raised,  which  usually  takes  two  or 
three  applications.  It  may  then  be  omitted 
for  a  week. 

EMULSIONS 

Emulsions  are  very  useful  in  the  chronic 
cough  of  the  horse. 

(i.)  Simple  Emulsion.  —  Linseed  oil,  2 
oz. ;  honey,  3  oz. ;  soft  water,  I  pint ;  sub- 
carbonate  of  potass,  i  drm.  Dissolve  the 
honey  and  potass  in  the  water;  then  add 
the  linseed  oil  by  degrees  in  a  large  mor- 
tar, when  it  should  assume  a  milky  appear- 
ance. It  may  be  given  night  and  morn- 
ing. 

(-2.)  Another  More  Active  Emulsion. — 
Simple  emulsion,  No.  I,  8  oz. ;  camphor,  I 
drm. ;  opium  in  powder,  l/2  drm. ;  oil  of 
aniseed,  30  drops.  Rub  the  last  three  in- 
gredients together  in  a  mortar  with  some 
white  sugar;  then  add  the  emulsion  by 
degrees. 

EXPECTORANTS 

Expectorants  excite  or  promote  discharge 
of  mucus  from  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
bronchial  tubes,  thereby  relieving  inflam- 
mation and  allaying  cough. 

(r.)  In  Ordinary  Cough  Without  In- 
flammation. —  Gum  ammoniacum,  y2  oz. ; 
powdered  squills,  i  drm. ;  castile  soap,  2 
drms.  Honey  enough  to  form  a  ball. 

(2.)  In  Old  Standing  Cough  (Stomach). 
Assafoetida,  3  drms. ;  galbanum,  i  drm. ; 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  Y2  drm.;  ginger,  \l/z 
drms.  Honey  enough  to  form  a  ball. 

(3.)  A  Strong  Expectorant  Ball. — Emetic 
tartar,  y2  drm. ;  calomel,  15  grs. ;  digitalis, 
Yt  drm. ;  powdered  squills,  l/2  drm.  Linseed 
meal  and  water  enough  to  form  a  ball, 
which  is  not  to  be  repeated  without  great 
care. 

FEBRIFUGES 

Fever  medicines  are  given  to  allay  fever, 
which  they  do  by  increasing  the  secretions 
of  urine  and  sweat,  and  also  by  reducing 
the  action  of  the  heart. 

(i.)  Fever  Ball. — Nitre,  4  drms.;  cam- 
phor, i  dr. ;  calomel  and  opium,  of  each  i 
scruple.  Linseed  meal  and  water  enough 
to  form  a  ball. 

(2.)  Another. — Emetic  tartar,  1^2  to  2 
drms. ;  compound  powder  of  tragacanth,  2 
drms.  Linseed  meal  as  above. 


(3.)  Another. — Nitre,  i  oz. ;  camphor,  2 
drms.  Mix  as  above. 

(4.)  Cooling  Mash. — Nitre,  I  oz. ;  may 
be  given  in  a  bran  mash. 

(5.)  Cooling  Drench.  —  Nitre,  I  oz.; 
sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  2  oz. ;  tincture  of 
digitalis,  2  drms. ;  whey,  I  pint. 

CLYSTERS 

Clysters  are  intended  either  to  relieve 
obstructions  or  spasm  of  the  bowels,  and 
are  of  great  use.  They  may,  in  the  general 
way,  be  of  warm  water  or  gruel,  of  which 
some  quarts  will  be  required  in  colic.  They 
should  be  thrown  up  with  the  proper 
syringe,  provided  with  valves  and  a  flexible 
tube. 

(i.)  Turpentine  clyster  in  colic,  see 
ANTISPASMODICS. 

(2.)  Aperient  clysters,  see  APERIENTS. 

(3.)  Anodyne  Clyster  in  Diarrhoea. — 
Starch,  made  as  for  washing,  i  quart;  pow- 
dered opium,  2  drms.  The  opium  is  to  be 
boiled  in  water,  and  added  to  the  starch. 

LOTIONS 

Lotions  are  liquids  applied  to  the  exter- 
nal parts  when  inflamed,  and  they  act  by 
reducing  the  temperature,  and  by  giving 
tone  to  the  vessels  of  the  part. 

(i.)  Cooling  Lotion  in  Stiffness  from 
Bruises  or  Work. — Tincture  of  arnica,  I 
drm. ;  spirits  of  wine,  7  drms.  Mix  and  rub 
well  into  the  parts,  before  the  fire,  with  the 
hand. 

(2.)  For  Internal  Canker.  —  Nitrate  of 
silver,  10  grs. ;  distilled  water,  i  oz.  Mix, 
and  drop  in  every  night. 

(3.)  Cooling  Lotion  for  External  In- 
flammation.— Goulard  extract,  i  oz. ;  vine- 
gar, 2  oz. ;  spirits  of  wine,  or  gin,  3  oz. ; 
water,  i1/*  pints.  Mix,  and  apply  with  a 
calico  bandage. 

(4.)  Another,  Useful  for  Inflamed  Legs 
or  for  Galled  Shoulders  or  Back. — Sal  am- 
moniac, i  oz. ;  vinegar,  4  oz. ;  spirits  of 
wine,  2  oz. ;  tincture  of  arnica,  2  drms. ; 
water,  l/2  pint.  Mix. 

(5.)  Lotion  for  Foul  Ulcers. — Sulphate 
of  copper,  i  oz. ;  nitric  acid,  l/2  oz. ;  water, 
8  to  12  oz. 

OINTMENTS 

Ointments  are  greasy  applications,  con- 
sisting of  a  powerful  drug  mixed  with  lard, 
or  some  similar  substance,  and  thus  applied 
to  the  sore;  they  are  generally  more  prop- 
erly described  under  the  several  heads  for 
which  they  are  used.  (See  ASTRINGENTSV 
ANODYNES,  etc.)  43 


654 


THE    HORSE 


STIMULANTS 

By  this  term  are  understood  those  sub- 
stances which  excite  the  action  of  the 
whole  nervous  and  vascular  systems ;  al- 
most all  medicines  are  stimulants  to  some 
part  or  other;  as,  for  instance,  aperients, 
which  stimulate  the  lining  of  the  bowels, 
but  to  the  general  system  are  lowering. 
On  the  other  hand,  stimulants,  so  called, 
excite  and  raise  the  action  of  the  brain  and 
heart. 

(i.)  Old  ale,  I  quart;  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, l/t  to  2  dims. ;  tincture  of  ginger,  4 
drms.  Mix,  and  give  as  a  drench. 

(2.)  For  other  stimulants,  see  CORDIALS. 

STOMACHICS 

Stomachics  are  medicines  given  to  im- 
prove the  tone  of  the  stomach  when  im- 
paired by  bad  management  or  disease. 

(l).  Stomachic  Ball. — Powdered  gentian, 
l/2  oz. ;  powdered  ginger,  \l/2  drms.;  car- 
bonate of  soda,  i  drm.  Syrup  to  form  ball. 

(2.)  Another.  —  Cascarilla  powdered,  I 
oz. ;  myrrh,  \l/t  drms.;  castile  soap,  i  drm. 
Mix,  with  syrup  or  treacle,  into  a  ball. 

(3.)  Another. — Powdered  Colombo,  l/t  to 
i  oz. ;  powdered  cassia,  i  drm. ;  powdered 
rhubarb,  2  drms.  Mix  as  in  No.  2. 


TONICS 

Tonics  augment  the  vigor  of  the  whole 
body  permanently,  while  stimulants  only 
act  for  a  short  time.  They  are  chiefly  use- 
ful after  low  fever. 

(i.)  Tonic  Ball. — Powdered  yellow  bark, 
i  oz. ;  ginger,  2  drms.;  carbonate  of  soda, 
l/2  drm.  Form  into  a  ball  with  linseed  meal 
and  water. 

Another. — Sulphate  of  iron,  l/2  oz. ;  ex- 
tract of  camomile,  I  oz.  Mix,  and  form 
into  a  ball. 

Another.  —  Arsenic,  10  grs. ;  ginger,  I 
drm. ;  powdered  aniseed,  i  oz. ;  compound 
powder  of  tragacanth,  2  drms. ;  syrup  enough 
to  form  a  ball.  It  is  a  very  powerful  tonic. 

WORM    MEDICINES 

Worm  medicines  are  given  in  order  to 
expel  worms,  which  they  do  partly  from 
their  specific  action  upon  the  worm  itself, 
and  partly  by  their  purgative  qualities, 
which  all  ought  to  possess,  or  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  medicines  of  that  class. 

(i.)  Calomel,  I  to  2  drms.;  Barbadoes 
aloes,  3  to  6  drms.;  ginger,  i  drm.;  soap, 
3  drms.  Mix. 

(2.)  Worm  Drench. — A  pint  of  linseed 
oil  every  day. 


CATTLE 


THE  Ox  belongs  to  the  order  oi  Ruminants,  or  cud-chewers.     It  has 
hollow  horns,  which  are  directed  sidewise,  and  then  twine  upward 
in  form  of  a  crescent ;  has  a  broad  muzzle,  low  stature,  and  stout  legs. 
It  is  also  distinguished  by  a  fold  of  skin  which  hangs  beneath  the  neck,  and 
is  called  the  dewlap.     The  male  and  female  of  this  species  are  respectively 
the  Bull  and  the  Cow.     The  young  males  are  called  Steers,  and  the  females 
Heifers. 

The  problem  of  utilizing  the  ox  to  the  greatest  extent  simply  consists 
in  producing,  as  quickly  and  economically  as  possible,  an  animal  excelling 
to  the  highest  degree  both  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  its  meat.  Care, 
therefore,  must  be  taken  particularly  to  develop  those  parts  which  furnish 
the  joints  that  are  most  esteemed. 


VARIETIES    OF    DOMESTIC    CATTLE 


THE  type  of  the  ox  best  fitted  for  the 
butcher  is  that  in  which  flesh  surpasses 
bone  in  proportion,  and  in  which  the  hinder 
parts  are  more  fully  developed  even  at  the 
expense  of  the  neck  and  shoulders;  for  tho 
latter  joints  furnish  an  inferior  article  of 
food,  so  that  their  reduction,  if  compensated 
for  by  an  increase  of  the  more  valuable 
portions,  must  be  a  great  desideratum. 

What,  therefore,  are  the  points  by  which 
we  can  discern  when  an  ox  approaches  the 
butcher's  ideal?  The  answer  is,  great  width 
combined  with  depth  and  length. 

"The  deeper  the  animal  is  in  the  thorax, 
in  proportion  to  its  size,  the  closer  it  is 
to  the  ground,  in  vulgar  terms;  added  to 
this,  the  longer  it  is  in  body  and  rump ;  and 
the  thicker  it  is,  or,  as  is  commonly  said, 
'the  better  it  is  made  up,'  the  greater  amount 
of  clear  meat  it  gives  in  comparison  with 
its  absolute  or  living  weight,  and  the  better 
it  approaches  to  the  desired  type." 

There  are  certain  accessory  characteris- 
tics which  must  have  their  due  importance, 


as  likewise  forming  a  prominent  feature  in 
the  type  of  the  ox  which  is  intended  for  the 
butcher.  It  must  have  slenderly  made  bones, 
a  fine  head,  skin  supple  and  not  too  thick, 
moderate  dewlap,  thin  and  downy  hair,  calm 
visage,  quiet  and  mild  look.  It  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  certainty  that  the  ox  which 
combines  these  and  the  former  attributes 
possesses  a  special  fitness  for  becoming  good 
beef. 

Next  to  meat,  milk  is  the  most  valuable 
product  with  which  this  race  furnishes  us 
—a  source  of  wealth  to  the  producers,  for 
it  is  an  article  of  universal  consumption. 
Thus  it  may  be  easily  understood  how  im- 
portant it  is  for  the  buyer  to  be  able  to  dis- 
tinguish, d  priori,  in  the  market,  from  cer- 
tain outward  signs,  what  are  the  milking 
qualities  of  a  cow,  and  to  be  able  to  arrive 
at  a  correct  conclusion,  even  in  a  heifer, 
whether  she  will  be  a  good  or  bad  milker. 

There  are  both  good  and  bad  milkers  in 
every  race ;  the  proportion,  however,  of  each' 
presents  a  certain  constant  character,  by 

(655) 


CATTLE 


which  some  breeds  may  be  recognized  as 
possessing  a  decided  milking  superiority. 
Climate  and  nature  of  pasturage  have  also 
great  influence  on  the  lacteous  qualities  of 
different  races. 

The  principal  breeds  of  oxen  and  cows 
are  the  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  and  Devon; 
and  besides  these  we  have  the  Sussex,  the 
Longhorned,  the  Galloway,  the  Angus,  and 
the  Kyloe. 

The  Shorthorn  is  now  undoubtedly  the 
dominant  breed.  Originating  in  Teeswater, 
and  carefully  bred  years  before  the  exist- 
ence of  any  herd-book  recording  descent, 
it  soon  reached  the  highest  reputation  for 
its  early  precocity  and  meat-producing  quali- 
ties. 

The  Herefords,  another  leading  breed  of 
cattle,  characterized  by  red  body  and  white 
or  mottled  face,  come  almost  as  early  to 
maturity  as  the  Shorthorn,  and,  attaining 
great  weight,  are  certainly  one  of  the  best 
breeds.  They  have  as  great  an  antiquity  as 
the  Shorthorn.  As  much  as  $5,000  has  been 
given  for  a  Hereford  bull  and  cow;  and 
high  prices  are  fetched  still,  though  not  so 
high  as  those  of  the  Shorthorn  stock,  for 
well-bred  bulls  and  cows. 

The  breed  has  now  a  herd-book  of  its 
own,  and  it  is  in  the  hands  of  as  much 
enthusiasm  and  ability  as  has  characterized 
the  history  of  the  Shorthorns.  For  early 
maturity  and  large  size,  accordingly,  it  now 
almost  equals  the  Shorthorn ;  and  for  quality 
of  meat  it  probably  excels  it. 

The  Devon. — The  North  Devon  ox  is  a 
small  animal,  of  a  light  red  color,  without 
any  white,  with  long  yellowish  horns,  and 
a  well-made  symmetrical  frame.  Hardy, 
light  and  active,  it  is  an  excellent  worker, 
and  is  worked  in  harness  until  five  or  six 
years  old,  and  then  fattened. 

The  Sussex  is  a  larger,  coarser  animal 
than  the  Devon,  but  otherwise  resembles  it. 

The  Longhorned,  a  dairy  breed,  rather 
than  one  adapted  for  the  feeding-house,  is 
gradually  disappearing  from  English  middle 
and  western  counties,  where  it  prevailed. 

The  Kyloe,  or  West  Highlander,  adapted 
to  the  rough  pastures  of  the  districts  where 
it  is  bred,  is  driven  south  to  be  fattened  on 
English  grazing-grounds,  where  it  yields  the 
very  best  of  beef  at  four  and  five  years  old. 
It  is  characterized  by  long,  upturned  horns, 
a  shaggy  coat  of  a  yellow,  dun,  or  black 
color,  and  well-made,  compact  little  body. 

The  Galloway,  resembling  a  Kyloe  with- 
out horns,  with  a  less  shaggy  coat,  is,  when 
well-bred,  one  of  the  best-made  and  most 
symmetrical  of  Enelish  breeds  of  cattle. 


It,  too,  is  driven  south  in  large  numbers  to 
be  fattened,  and  yields  excellent  beef. 

The  Angus,  also  a  polled  breed,  of  a  red 
or  black  color,  is  a  much  larger  animal,  and 
when  crossed  with  the  pure-bred  Shorthorn 
breed,  furnishes  one  of  the  best  crosses  for 
the  feeding-stall  that  we  have. 

Besides  these,  there  are  other  sorts  es- 
pecially adapted  to  the  dairy. 

Different  Kinds  of  Cows. — The  large  kinds 
of  cows  are  generally  chosen  where  there 
are  rich  fertile  pastures;  and  no  doubt  the 
dominant  breed  throughout  the  country,  both 
for  indoor  and  outdoor  feeding,  is,  as  has 
been  said,  the  Shorthorn.  This  breed  is  di- 
vided into  several  varieties — the  Holderness, 
Northumberland,  Durham,  Yorkshire,  etc. 
The  Yorkshire  is  thought  to  be  the  best 
for  the  dairy.  These  fine  animals  appear  to 
have  descended  from  the  Teeswater  breed. 
There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  the 
large  cows  in  England  that  have  been 
bred  by  Shorthorn  bulls.  An  excellent  cross 
is  common  in  the  eastern  counties  between 
the  best  Suffolk  cows  and  shorthorn  animals 
of  the  best  blood.  They  are  good  milkers, 
harmless,  and  very  quiet,  and  consequently 
much  approved  of  for  pasture-feeding.  Cows 
of  this  breed  will  produce  from  ten  to 
twelve  pounds  of  butter  per  week  each, 
when  well  managed;  and  for  butter  dairy- 
ing the  quantity  and  quality  of  cream  pro- 
duced is  of  greater  importance  than  the 
quantity  of  milk. 

Cheshire  Cows. — The  Cheshire  dairy  farms 
are  mostly  stocked  with  a  mixed  breed  of 
cows,  between  the  Cheshire,  Lancashire,  and 
other  crosses. 

Lancashire. — The  Lancashire  are  distin- 
guished by  their  long  horns,  deep  fore- 
quarters,  and  long  hair.  They,  as  well  as 
other  long-horned  cows,  are  said  to  give 
richer  milk  than  polled  cows,  but  not  so 
much  of  it.  Besides  the  milking  properties 
of  a  breed  of  cows,  their  hardy  qualities 
must  be  thought  of,  where  they  are  exposed 
to  bleak  situations;  and  no  doubt  the  long- 
horned  Lancashire  and  other  coarse-skinned 
animals  are  the  most  hardy. 

Devons. — The  middle-horned  breed  of 
cows  may  include  the  Devons,  the  Here- 
fords,  and  the  S"ussex.  The  two  latter  are 
the  largest,  but  neither  of  them  excel  the 
best  Shorthorn  in  their  produce  of  milk. 
The  Devons  are  of  a  light  red  color,  with 
yellowish  colored  horns,  well  made,  and 
their  milk  is  rich — or  there  would  not  be 
such  rich  Devonshire  cream. 

Hereford. — The  Hereford,  next  in  size  to 


CATTLE 


657 


the  Shorthorn  breed,  is  a  fine  animal  and  a 
pretty  good  one  for  dairy  stock,  but  better, 
perhaps,  for  fattening  purposes.  The  Sus- 
sex do  not  differ  much  from  the  Herefords ; 
they  are  both  of  a  darker  color  than  the 
Devons,  with  horns  of  a  moderate  length, 
turning  up  at  the  points,  having  wide  hips 
and  smallish  bones.  They  are  middling 
cows  for  the  dairy. 

Galloway. — The  polled  Galloways  are  very 
nice  animals  for  grazing  purposes;  they  are 
mostly  black,  well  proportioned  in  form, 
and  yield  an  average  quantity  of  milk,  when 
carefully  used,  for  dairy  purposes. 

Highland. — The  Highland  are  not  thought 
to  be  better  milk-producers  than  the  Gallo- 
ways, but  more  hardy. 

Ayrshire. — The  Ayrshire  cow  is  a  favorite 
in  some  places,  but  not  preferred  by  cow- 
keepers  in  general.  It  is,  however,  a  good 
animal  for  the  dairy,  and  almost  equal  to 
the  Alderney  in  the  richness  of  its  milk.  It 
has  fine  wrinkled  horns,  is  larger  than  the 
Alderney,  and  somewhat  like  it  in  appear- 
ance. Its  color  is  usually  red  and  white. 

Shetland. — The  Shetland  cattle  are  very 
small,  and  inferior  in  shape  to  those  of  the 
Western  Highlands.  They  are  hardy,  small 
consumers  of  food,  and  yield  about  two 
quarts  of  milk  a  day. 

Welsh. — The  Pembrokeshire  cow  is  small 
and  hardy.  It  is  fine-boned,  with  clean  light 
head  and  neck,  small  yellow  horn,  good 
chine,  long  round  barrel,  thin  thigh,  and 
short  fine  legs,  always  in  good  condition  if 
tolerably  kept,  and  has  a  rich  wave  in  her 
hair  which  ever  denotes  thriftiness  of  kine. 
Its  produce  is  from  five  to  seven  pounds  of 
butter  a  week  during  the  dairy  season. 

Irish. — The  Kerry  cattle,  in  size  and  shape, 
resemble  some  of  those  from  the  Western 
Islands,  of  a  high-bred  deer-like  shape,  not 
so  broad  or  so  low  in  the  leg  as  the  native 
Highland  Scots.  These  cattle  are  very 
hardy,  being  reared  in  a  country  of  rocks 
and  hills.  Their  properties  are  said  to  be 
that  of  giving  the  largest  quantity  of  milk, 
which  is  also  of  the  richest  quality  for  the 
amount  of  sustenance  they  require. 

Alderney. — The  little  Alderney  cow  is  a 
slender-made  animal,  not  very  well  shaped, 
though  admired  for  its  deer-like  mild  face 
and  fine  bone;  it  is  mostly  of  a  red  and 
white  color,  with  a  mottled  face.  The  Al- 
derney gives  the  richest  milk  of  any  kine, 
and  some  of  them  have  been  known  to  pro- 
duce ten  and  eleven  pounds  of  butter  a  week 
of  the  finest  quality.  They  are  rather  ten- 


der, and  require  to  be  well  housed  in  the 
winter. 

Suffolk. — The  Suffolk  cow  is  believed  to 
be  the  best  of  the  polled  breeds  for  the  dairy 
where  the  pastures  are  not  very  rich.  They 
are  quiet,  hardy,  and  suitable  for  upland 
fields. 

It  is  thought  that  the  Dun-colored  origi- 
nally descended  from  the  Galloway ;  they  do 
not,  however,  generally  appear  to  be  so  uni- 
formly well-shaped  as  the  Galloway,  although 
they  have  been  vastly  improved  of  late 
years  by  careful  breeders.  Various  crosses 
between  them  and  the  Ayrshire,  and  other 
varieties,  have  increased  the  produce  of  the 
dairy  in  many  places ;  but  it  is  believed  that 
for  large  dairies  no  cross  is  superior  to  that 
of  the  Suffolk  cow  and  the  Shorthorn  bull. 

Whichever  breed  is  made  choice  of  to  im- 
prove the  stock,  both  male  and  female  should 
be  of  the  best  animals.  By  a  first-class  bull 
a  hardy,  well-formed,  and  abundant  milk- 
producing  cow  is  almost  sure  to  produce 
valuable  calves  to  bring  up  for  the  future 
supply  of  the  dairy. 

THE    COW    AND    CALF 

Rearing  Cow  Stock. — Where  there  is  ac- 
commodation for  rearing  young  cow  stock, 
the  best  males  and  females  should  be  se- 
lected for  propagating  a  good  breed.  It 
would  not  do,  however,  for  those  who  ex- 
pect to  make  a  profit  by  dairy-farming  to 
purchase  animals  at  the  fabulous  price  of 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  dollars,  such  as 
we  read  of  at  the  sales  of  first-class  breeders. 
Very  excellent  animals  can  be  found  now  of 
various  breeds,  and  calves  chosen  from  the 
best  of  them,  though  not  very  high  in  price, 
will  be  as  good  for  dairy  purposes  as  the 
most  celebrated  stock.  A  selection  should 
be  carefully  made  from  mothers  which  are 
the  best  milkers,  with  full-size  udders,  wide 
rounded  hips,  straight  backs,  and  broad 
chests,  with  small  tapering  legs ;  and  bulls 
with  broad  breast,  projecting  a  little  before 
their  legs,  with  neck  rising  from  their  shoul- 
ders, moderate-sized  heads,  flat,  broad, 
straight  backs,  well  filled  up  behind  their 
shoulders  and  between  their  ribs  and  hips, 
with  small  straight  legs  and  rounded  bodies. 
Large  sunken  bodies  are  generally  brought 
on  by  poor  keep.  Animals  kept  on  straw 
and  sedgy  meadows  only,  while  young,  are 
usually  disfigured  by  their  bodies  becoming 
unnaturally  protruded. 

Watchfulness  required. — When  cows  are 
expected  to  calve  (at  the  end  of  forty 
weeks)  they  should  be  carefully  watched 
night  and  day,  and  where  the  weaning  of 


658 


CATTLE 


the  calf  is  intended,  it  would  be  best  for 
them  to  calve  at  the  beginning  of  March, 
as  they  would  then  have  the  whole  of  the 
grass  season  before  them.  When  the  cow 
has  had  a  protracted  and  difficult  calving 
time,  she  will  require  careful  treatment.  In 
common  natural  cases  she  will  soon  be  all 
right;  but  in  difficult  cases  brushing  of  the 
belly  and  loins  with  a  wisp  is 'serviceable — 
gentle  walking  exercise  for  a  short  time  in 
fine  weather  is  useful.  Gruels  and  cordial 
drinks  should  also  occasionally  be  given. 
The  latter  might  consist  of  a  quart  of  ale 
mixed  with  sugar  or  treacle,  and  diluted 
with  water,  to  be  given  warm.  She  must 
have  her  warm  water  mixed  with  a  little 
meal.  Should  fever  intervene,  it  is  best  to 
send  for  the  veterinary  surgeon,  and  com- 
mit the  case  to  his  care. 

Cows  after  calving  should  be  carefully 
fed  with  nutritious  food,  in  small  quantities 
often  repeated;  and  it  is  certainly  best  to 
give  cooked  or  boiled  food,  as  it  prevents 
more  generally  indigestion  and  flatulent 
colic.  At  all  events,  sweet  and  easily  di- 
gested food  should  be  given,  or  material 
injury  may  arise.  Should  the  udder  swell 
from  excess  of  milk,  or  the  incapacity  of 
the  calf  to  draw  it  all  away,  frequent  milk- 
ing is  requisite,  and  it  should  be  hand- 
rubbed  well,  with  frequent  washings  of 
warm  water  and  soft  soap,  or  with  warm 
bran-water.  The  teats  occasionally  become 
sore;  the  same  applications  should  be  re- 
sorted to,  and,  in  addition,  a  little  lard,  olive- 
oil,  or  even  cream,  should  be  gently  rubbed 
on,  particularly  in  cases  of  pustules  arising, 
or  scab. 

Calves  will  soon  learn  to  drink  from  a 
pail;  but  it  is  generally  thought  best  to 
allow  them  to  suck  from  their  mothers  for 
a  few  days,  while  the  herdsman  milks  on 
the  opposite  side.  The  cow  will  give  down 
her  milk  the  better  for  it,  and  become  rec- 
onciled to  his  milking  her  without  the  calf 
afterward,  if  treated  with  gentle  kindness. 

The  calf  should  have  new  milk  for  a  fort- 
night twice  a  day;  then  skimmed  milk 
mixed  with  oatmeal  or  linseed  meal,  boiled 
for  half  an  hour,  during  another  fortnight  or 
three  weeks.  It  will  require  about  two  gal- 
lons a  day  till  it  begins  to  eat  well,  which 
it  will  do  when  it  is  five  or  six  weeks  old, 
if  some  sweet  hay  be  given  it  daily,  or  some 
hay  chaff  with  pulped  mangold  or  swedes 
mixed  with  it.  Skimmed  milk,  or  whey 
mixed  with  a  little  linseed  meal,  will  then 
do  for  its  drink,*  which  may  be  continued 

•The  milk  may  be  taken  from  the  quantity  set 
up  for  butter  and  once  skimmed  after  standing 
twelve  hours. 


till  it  is  twelve  weeks  old,  when  it  will 
live  very  well  on  a  pasture  or  on  natural 
food.  Some  people  wean  calves  almost 
entirely  on  linseed  tea. 

Summer  Treatment — When  the  weather 
is  warm  and  the  flies  become  troublesome, 
they  ought  not  to  be  left  in  their  pasture 
without  shade  or  shelter.  If  well  shaded 
during  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  supplied 
with  pure  water  and  some  green  food  in 
their  cribs,  they  will  most  likely  continue  to 
thrive;  but  if  left  -to  be  tormented  with 
flies,  huddled  together  in  a  corner  of  their 
pasture,  or  in  a  wet  ditch,  they  will  probably 
become  unhealthy.  It  may  here  be  remarked 
that,  on  first  leaving  the  cow-house,  the 
calf  should  be  confined  in  a  safe  place  in 
the  yard  or  elsewhere  for  a  day  or  two,  until 
it  becomes  accustomed  to  the  bright  light 
of  day,  as  on  its  first  introduction  it  ap- 
pears almost  blind,  and  would  be  likely  to 
run  into  danger. 

A  change  of  pasture  now  and  then  is  de- 
sirable, but  calves  should  not  be  put  into 
low  wet  meadows,  as  it  is  generally  in  such 
situations  that  they  get  diseased  with  a 
husky  cough.  As  the  fall  approaches  the 
grass  will  be  less  nutritious;  it  will  then 
be  necessary  to  give  them  some  food  in 
their  yard  or  shed,  such  as  pulped  roots 
mixed  with  cut  straw  chaff,  every  night.  A 
little  salt  mixed  with  their  chaff  is  a  good 
thing,  and  is  believed  by  some  people  to 
prevent  "hove." 

When  frost  begins  they  should  not  be 
turned  into  their  pasture  till  nine  or  ten 
o'clock,  or  till  it  disappears.  Their  racks, 
cribs,  and  mangers,  or  whatever  they  feed 
or  drink  from,  should  constantly  be  kept 
clean,  and  the  herdsman  should  be  urged 
to  feed  and  water  them  regularly,  and  to 
keep  them  well  supplied  with  dry  bedding. 

As  winter  approaches  they  would  be  best 
confined  to  the  yard  and  shed,  where,  if 
well  sheltered  and  fed  regularly  with  a 
proper  quantity  of  pulped  roots,  turnips,  or 
mangold,  mixed  with  straw  chaff  sprinkled 
with  a  little  salt,  they  will  thrive  fast  enough 
till  the  spring,  when  they  can  return  to  their 
pastures,  or  be  provided  with  green  food; 
they  should  be  carefully  treated  as  before 
recommended.  The  upland  pastures  are 
best  for  young  stock. 

Some  people  allow  heifers  to  have  calves 
when  only  two  years  old,  but  they  seldom 
(if  ever)  make  such  good  cows  as  those 
that  are  left  free  till  they  are  three  years  of 
age. 

Young  stock  brought  up  as  here  recom- 
mended will  generally  thrive  fast,  and  be 
free  from  disease. 


CATTLE 


659 


Cost  of  Keep. — Cows  are  large  consumers 
of  food,  and  should  not  be  stinted  when  in 
milk.  Heifers  will  require  nothing  but  green 
food  in  the  dry  summer  months ;  but  as 
the  winter  approaches  they  should  be  shel- 
tered in  a  yard  at  night,  and  a  little  fresh 
barley  or  oat  straw  given  them  in  their 
cribs;  whenever  the  pastures  become  in- 
jured by  frost,  both  young  and  old  cows  re- 
quire improved  food  in  their  sheds.  A  few 
Swedish  turnips  or  mangold  roots  should 
then  be  given  them,  which,  if  pulped  and 
mixed  with  sweet  chaff  (one- fourth  hay), 
would  be  sufficient  to  keep  them  in  healthy 
condition;  but  this  applies  only  to  those 
that  are  not  in  milk.  When  within  two 
mon-ths  of  calving,  all  cows  should  be  dried, 
for,  if  not  then  dried,  they  will  not  produce 
so  much  milk  the  next  year.  They  should 
afterward  have  their  food  improved  by  an 
additional  weight  of  roots  with  their  chaff, 
which  should  be  mixed  in  a  heap  over- 
night. By  the  morning  it  will  be  found  to 
have  heated  a  little,  which  imparts  a  flavor 
that  is  much  relished  by  the  cows. 

Consumption  of  Food. — As  was  before 
remarked,  cows  are  large  consumers  of 
food,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  should 
require  an  abundance,  to  enable  them  to 
supply  so  rich  a  sustenance  for  mankind,  as 
well  as  to  support  themselves.  Where  there 
are  no  good  dry  pastures  to  provide  them 
with  plenty  for  their  summer  keep,  they 
would  do  very  well  in  a  proper  feeding- 
house  (inclosed  on  the  north  and  south 
sides)  with  a  door  at  each  end,  if  they  were 
liberally  supplied  with  green  food,  cut  for 
them  and  put  in  racks :  such  as  rye  grass, 
clover,  tares.  It  has  been  found  that  milk 
as  abundant  and  butter  quite  as  good  have 
been  produced  by  cows  so  fed,  as  by  those 
which  had  the  run  of  rich  pastures.  But 
where  there  are  pastures  it  would  be  well 
to  have  the  cows  housed  in  hot  weather, 
when  insects  are  troublesome;  or  else  they 
will  be  worried  and  heated  and  unable  to 
feed,  and  will  fall  off  in  their  produce  of 
milk. 

A  large  cow  will  consume  a  hundred- 
weight of  green  food  per  day. 

When  green  food  is  scarce,  as  is  generally 
the  case  at  the  end  of  a  dry  summer,  a  little 
linseed-cake  or  bean-meal,  mixed  with  cut 


chaff  (one-third  hay),  should  be  given  them 
to  keep  up  the  produce  of  milk,  lest  part  of 
the  best  season  for  dairying  should  be  lost 
by  its  failure. 

It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  feed  cows  on  much 
uncut  hay,  for  they  would  consume  and  spoil 
a  hundredweight  a  day,  if  fed  entirely  on  it. 
Much  less  expensive  and  more  natural  con- 
diments can  be  made  by  a  mixture  of  bean, 
barley,  maize,  or  linseed-meal,  and  other 
produce  of  the  soil  by  cow-keepers  them- 
selves. 

Milk  Dairies. — When  cows  are  kept  only 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  large  quan- 
tity of  milk,  brewers'  grains  are  given  them, 
with  a  small  portion  of  hay,  for  ruminating 
purposes.  On  this  they  do  tolerably  well, 
but  it  will  be  found  to  their  advantage  if 
about  three  or  four  pounds  of  bean-meal  be 
mixed  with  the  grains  for  each  cow  per  day. 

Winter  Food.  —  In  winter  and  spring, 
Swedish  turnips,  mangold,  and  other  root 
crops  would  be  found  more  economical  food 
than  the  grains,  meal,  and  hay  last  mentioned. 
A  bushel  of  pulped  roots  mixed  with  about 
fourteen  pounds  of  cut  chaff  (one-third  hay), 
and  given  them  twice  a  day,  would  be  found 
sufficient  to  satisfy  a  moderate-sized  cow, 
but  they  should  not  be  stinted  or  confined 
to  any  quantity  if  they  are  found  to  require 
more.  Cabbages,  carrots,  and  parsnips  are 
very  good  food  for  milch  cows  if  given  in 
moderate  quantities  with  other  food.  It  is 
important  that  all  roots  should  be  freed 
from  earth  before  pulping,  or  given  to  the 
cows,  otherwise  it  would  impart  an  unpleas- 
ant flavor  to  the  cream.  When  cows  are 
fed  on  pulped  roots,  with  cut  chaff,  a  peck 
or  two  of  malt-dust  ("combs")  would  be  a 
nice  addition,  as  it  would  give  a  zest  to  the 
mixture.  A  sufficient  quantity  for  the  whole 
herd  should  be  put  into  a  heap  about  twelve 
hours  before  it  would  be  wanted,  when  it 
would  be  found  to  have  acquired  a  little 
warmth  and  a  fragrant  smell,  which  would 
give  the  cows  a  greater  relish  for  it. 

A  change  of  green  or  succulent  food  ap- 
pears to  promote  the  secretions  of  the  sys- 
tem, and  to  give  stimulus  to  their  action. 
Such  as  would  injure  the  flavor  of  milk 
should  be  avoided.  .White  turnips  and  cab- 
bages will  do  this,  if  given  without  a  good 
supply  of  other  food  with  them. 


AMONG  the  important  advances  of  recent  times  may  be  mentioned 
the  elevation   of  agriculture  in  all   its  branches  to  the  dignity 
of  a  science.     Formerly  the  tilling  of  the  soil  and  the  raising  of 
live-stock  of  various  kinds  were  scarcely   rated  among  skilled  callings. 
Nearly  any  one  with  the  inclination  was  supposed  to  be  amply  qualified 
for  the  business,  and  that  good  results  were  accomplished  under  such  con- 
ditions was  very  greatly  to  the  credit  of  the  farmers  themselves.     Probably, 
also,  the  economic  conditions  of  former  times  had  much  to  do  with  the 
successes  reaped  by  conservative  methods. 

At  the  present  time  the  need  of  exact  knowledge  and  careful  training 
is  nowhere  more  marked  than  in  agriculture,  and  nowhere  is  such  knowl- 
edge of  greater  utility  than  in  the  raising  of  domestic  fowls  for  profit.  The 
"college-bred  farmer"  may  be  a  character  who  provokes  ridicule  in  some 
minds,  but  his  success  is  worthy  the  emulation  of  all.  At  any  rate,  the 
following  scientific  treatise  on  practical  poultry-raising  should  convince 
would-be  "fanciers"  that  there  is  a  "scientific"  way  of  making  the  poultry 
yard  pay,  and  that  it  is,  in  a  large  number  of  respects,  superior  to  the 
former  method  of  allowing  nature  and  chance  to  supplement,  if  they  will, 
the  deficiencies  of  our  own  knowledge  of  this  important  subject. 


HOW  TO  KEEP  POULTRY  IN  GOOD    CONDITION 


THE  state  of  thriving  prosperity  in  poultry 
so  well  known  to  connoisseurs  as  con- 
dition is  of  such  primary  importance  that 
it  may  justly  claim  first  attention. 

When  fowls  get  ill  and  die,  without  any 
apparent  cause,  careful  observation  may  gen- 
erally trace  it  to  one  or  other  .of  a  few 
fertile  sources  of  evil  to  them.  They  have 
been  overcrowded,  they  have  had  too  much 
pampering,  or  they  have  had  too  little  care. 
All  fatal  faults  in  feeding  come  under  one 
of  the  last  two  heads. 

If  the  apparent  health  and  appearance  of 
the  fowls  be  not  satisfactory,  visit  th«-  hen- 
(660) 


house  after  it  has  been  some  hours  shut  up 
at  night,  and  if  the  air  be  offensive  there 
need  be  no  further  quest  after  the  cause  ol 
illness  or  other  evil  there  may  be  among  the 
living  beings  breathing  its  close  atmosphere 
for  many  hours. 

The  remedy  should  at  once  be  applied  by 
decreasing  the  number  of  fowls,  and  by  giv- 
ing increased  ventilation. 

A  hen-house  6  or  8  feet  square  will  do 
well  for  seven  old  fowls,  or  one  large  brood 
of  chickens.  More  crowding  will  not  lead 
to  a  good  result;  so  if  the  increase  of  the 
stock  seems  to  render  it  necessary,  consider 


POULTRY 


661 


means  for  housing  the  youngsters  out  of 
doors,  in  coops  or  by  other  contrivances, 
rather  than  overfill  the  houses. 

Fowls,  even  the  tallest,  live  and  breathe 
very  near  the  surface  of  the  ground;  and 
when  the  earth  becomes  foul  from  having 
had  live  stock  on  it  for  some  time,  they 
can  not  fail  to  inhale  the  malaria  engen- 
dered by  it.  Human  beings  in  such  an 
atmosphere  would  fall  in  as  great  propor- 
tional numbers  as  do  the  fowls  of  the  most 
unfortunate  amateurs ;  sanitary  measures  in 
their  case  stop  epidemics,  and  they  are  the 
remedies  to  use  with  our  fowls,  or  we 
must  not  look  to  have  them  prosperous  and 
healthy. 

The  most  valuable  sanitary  measure  for 
the  fowls  is  to  renew  the  surface  of  the 
runs  by  paring  from  time  to  time.  Spring 
is  a  good  time  to  do  it,  when  the  pared-off 
surface,  rich  with  guano-like  manure,  is  a 
valuable  strong  fertilizer.  Duck  and  pigeon 
manure  are  the  strongest. 

Means  must  be  taken  to  dry  the  runs, 
made  pure  by  paring.  Low  damp  ground 
should  be  drained.  Excellent  runs  may  be 
made  by  paring  the  ground  one  spit  deep, 
i.e.,  a  foot,  good  measure,  and  filling  in 
with  a  depth  of  nine  inches  of  chalk  and 
three  of  gravel. 

Sometimes,  when  paring  would  be  too 
troublesome,  a  sprinkle  of  lime  over  the 
surface  will  purify  it,  but  the  fowls  should 
be  kept  off  it  until  after  rain.  Where  the 
fowls  have  extensive  ranges  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  houses  only  will  need 
this  cleansing  process;  but  the  floors  of  the 
hen-houses  require  renewal  from  time  to 
time. 

The  kind  of  pampering  which  leads  to 
overfeeding  fowls,  giving  them  dainties, 
such  as  meat,  greaves,  hemp-seed,  Indian 
corn,  and  other  fattening  food,  and  keeping 
them  too  warmly  housed,  is  a  fertile  source 
of  ill-health.  Poultry,  to  remain  thoroughly 
healthy,  and  not  to  become  unhealthily  fat, 
should  never  have  a  grain  more  of  food 
given  than  they  can  eat  up  at  once  with  a 
hungry,  healthy  appetite ;  they  should  not  be 
fed  too  often,  they  should  not  have  a  va- 
riety of  food  given  at  the  same  time,  and 
they  should  have  to  run  for  all  the  food 
they  eat,  and  have  it  so  thrown  abroad  that 
they  shall  have  plenty  of  work,  and  conse- 
quently plenty  of  amusement,  to  find  it. 

The  well-being  of  fowls  requires  that  they 
have  regular  care  as  well  as  judicious  eco- 
nomical feeding,  regular  meals,  a  regular 
supply  of  water,  and  regular  cleaning.  The 
real  care  that  they  require  is  not  pampering 


and  superabundant,  almost  incessant,  feed- 
ing, and  sometimes  the  less  they  are  run, 
after  the  better  they  will  thrive ;  but  the  lit- 
tle care  they  need  should  be  administered 
with  regularity.  This  is  the  kind  of  care 
that  will  keep  poultry  in  the  perfect  health 
and  good  looks  which  amateurs  know  so 
well,  and  so  fully  appreciate  as  good  condi- 
tion. 

A  fowl  in  good  condition  is  free  and  bold 
in  gait,  brisk  in  movement,  and  bright  in 
the  eye.  The  plumage  is  full,  firm,  crisp, 
and  glossy;  the  bird  feels  firm  in  handling; 
it  is  neither  too  lean  nor  too  fat,  and  the 
comb  is  clear  and  bright  in  color,  accord- 
ing to  the  season. 

When  a  bird  is  out  of  condition,  in  which 
case  it  will  do  no  good  service  to  its  owner, 
its  flesh  is  flabby,  however  fat  it  may  be; 
it  is  heavy  and  listless  in  movement,  often 
craves  continually  for  food,  and  seems  too 
lazy  to  wander  far  to  seek  any  for  itself. 
The  comb  and  eye  lack  brightness,  but  the 
plumage  tells  the  tale  most  unmistakably;  it 
is  dull,  ruffled,  and  broken,  sets  away  from 
the  body,  and  either  comes  out  with  a 
touch,  or  adheres  to  the  skin  with  unnatu- 
ral tenacity,  fixed  by  a  kind  of  leprous 
scurfiness.  A  tendency  to  roup  is  often 
seen. 

ARRANGEMENT   OF   STOCK 

The  cheapest  way  to  get  up  a  stock,  allow- 
ing time  and  work  for  the  matter,  is  to  buy 
really  first-class  reliable  eggs,  from  sellers 
of  established  character.  We  must  neither 
expect  all  the  eggs  to  hatch,  all  the  chick- 
ens which  are  hatched  to  turn  out  espe- 
cially good,  nor  find  fault  with  the  seller 
if  this  be  not  the  case;  for  if  he  is  honest 
he  will  tell  you  that  when  eggs  are  set  at 
home,  without  the  no  small  trial  of  a  jour- 
ney, the  hatching  of  two  out  of  three  is  a 
pretty  good  proportion,  and  a  first-class 
pair  from  each  brood  is  ample  return  for 
the  outlay,  reckoning  the  value  of  the  eggs 
at  the  usual  price  charged  for  eggs  for  set- 
ting, and  the  trouble  of  rearing. 

If  it  be  wished  to  get  a  good  stock 
together,  without  the  delay  of  rearing 
chickens,  it  may  be  done  by  purchasing 
fowls. 

In-breeding,  i.e.,  breeding  among  rela- 
tions, must  be  carefully  avoided.  However 
fine  the  stock,  it  is  altogether  against  the 
laws  of  good  breeding  to  keep  the  pullets 
and  the  cockerels,  and  go  on  year  after 
year  breeding  from  them  without  the  in- 


POULTRY 


troduction  of  fresh  blood.  Doing  so  will 
produce  decrease  of  size  and  weakly  consti- 
tutions. In-breeding  must,  on  no  account, 
be  carried  beyond  the  first  remove.  The 
mother  may  be  mated  with  her  son,  but 
the  old  game  breeders  did  not  consider  the 
union  of  a  rooster  with  the  pullets  bred 
from  him  nearly  so  good. 

In  the  purchase  of  stock,  therefore,  take 
care  to  get  hens  and  roosters  which  are  not 
related,  either  by  buying  from  different 
persons,  or  by  asking  the  person  of  whom 
you  purchase  for  roosters  and  hens  of  dif- 
ferent families,  which  most  amateurs,  and 
all  dealers,  are  able  to  manage. 

It  has  not  unfrequently  happened  that 
well-established,  good  stocks  of  fowls  have 
been  greatly  injured  by  a  carelessly  intro- 
duced cross.  When  the  introduction  of 
fresh  blood  becomes  necessary,  the  stock 
with  which  to  cross  should  be  chosen  with 
•eference  to  the  qualities  most  wanted,  and 
great  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  in- 
crease of  present  failings  by  it.  The  pur- 
ity of  the  breed  and  its  stamina  must 
also  be  especially  considered;  for  mongrel 
crosses,  or  a  weakly  constitution,  may  be 
introduced  in  one  year,  and  may  take  a 
great  many  to  eradicate. 

With  regard  to  the  number  of  hens  to 
be  allowed  to  run  with  one  rooster,  various 
opinions  have  been  given;  but  while  ten  or 
a  dozen  may  form  one  group  for  the  pro- 
duction of  eggs,  for  that  of  really  fine  chick- 
ens the  number  should  be  limited  to  four, 
or  at  most  six.  With  four  hens,  almost  all 
the  eggs  which  are  laid  will  prove  produc- 
tive of  fine,  strong  chickens,  provided,  of 
course,  the  stock  birds  are  good. 

At  the  breeding  season  the  breeding  stock 
should  most  decidedly  be  confined  to  runs, 
if  purity  and  precision  in  breeding  be  a  de- 
sideratum ;  and  each  family,  consisting  of 
a  male  bird  and  his  harem,  should  be  kept 
distinct.  This  separation  from  stock  birds 
less  to  be  depended  upon  than  those  which 
are  selected  should  be  arranged  before 
Christmas,  and  continue  until  eggs  are  no 
longer  wanted  for  setting,  after  which  they 
may  have  a  fuller  range,  when  the  houses 
they  have  occupied  will  be  valuable  for  other 
purposes. 

So  particular  have  some  game  breeders 
been  in  that  important  point,  purity  of  race, 
that  they  considered  that  the  character  of 
the  chickens  might  be  influenced  by  the  hen 
that  hatched  them,  and  would  set  eggs  only 
under  the  hen  that  laid  them,  or  one  of  the 


same  breed,  saying  that  roosters  lost  pluck 
by  being  hatched  by  common  hens. 

HOUSES 

A  simple  construction  is  better  for  a 
hen-house  than  a  very  elaborate  air-tight 
building;  for  too  confined  air,  while  the 
fowls  are  at  roost,  makes  the  place  offen- 
sive, and  is  more  prone  to  engender  disease 
than  almost  anything. 

Poultry  amateurs  would  be  much  at  a 
loss  in  their  building  operations  if  they 
could  not  have  that  useful  commodity,  the 
patent  felt  roofing.  It  measures  32  inches 
wide,  and  is  a  capital  water-tight  covering 
for  a  roof,  or  any  other  part  of  a  hen- 
house; it  is  like  wood  and  brickwork  to 
the  builder  of  hen-houses,  and  cheap  withal. 

About  the  cheapest  regularly  formed 
house  may  be  made  with  it,  stretched  over 
a  wooden  frame,  which  should  be  rather 
stout,  and  well  put  together.  The  roof 
should  be  made  of  common  boards,  under 
the  felt,  which  without  that  support  is  apt 
to  bag,  make  hollows  for  water  to  lodge 
in,  and  become  rotten  in  consequence.  It 
nails  most  easily  with  iron  tacks  heated  in. 
a  frying-pan;  when  up,  it  requires  tarring 
and  thickly  sprinkling  with  sand,  which 
should  be  repeated  every  year  to  make  it 
durable.  In  sunny  weather  a  felt  house  is 
apt  to  be  hot,  so  that,  to  keep  it  refresh- 
ingly cool,  as  well  as  for  appearance'  sake, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  plant  quick-growing 
trees  round  it. 

Tolerably  stout  wooden  houses  have  done 
hundreds  of  amateurs  excellent  service. 
For  the  house  to  keep  in  good  order,  the 
wood  should  be  well  seasoned,  and  any 
amateur  carpenter  can  put  it  up  at  small 
cost  and  trouble.  Shape  the  house  with  a 
framework  of  battens.  The  lowest  part 
may  be  five  feet  high,  and  the  roof  should 
have  a  good  pitch,  both  to  throw  off  the 
wet,  and  to  make  it  airy.  The  cheapest  de- 
ascription  of  boards  will  do  for  the  roof 
under  the  felt,  and  scarcely  any  wooden 
roof  is  good  without  that  covering,  from 
its  being  liable,  after  being  swelled  with 
wet,  to  crack  with  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and 
so  let  in  water.  If  it  be  entirely  of  wood, 
the  boards  can  either  be  placed  horizon- 
tally, with  an  overlap  of  at  least  an  inch 
and  a  half,  or  vertically,  edge  to  edge,  with 
fillets  of  wood  nailed  over  the  joints.  A 
cheap  roof,  yet  one  which  is  tolerably  last- 
ing, may  be  made  by  covering  the  boards 
with  gas  tar  &nd  coarse  brown  paper.  Lay 


POULTRY 


663 


on  a  coat  of  tar,  then  the  brown  paper, 
lapping  it  over  a  full  inch  where  the  sheets 
meet,  and  finish  with  another  coat  of  tar. 
When  the  wooden  roof  is  to  be  covered 
with  either  felt  or  brown  paper,  there  need 
be  no  overlap  of  the  boards,  but  they  may 
lie  edge  to  edge,  either  from  ridge  to  eaves, 
or  across.  The  boards,  too,  for  covering 
the  framework  of  sides,  back,  and  front  of 
the  house  can  go  either  upright  or  across, 
whichever  will  use  the  wood  to  the  best 
economy.  Eaves  should  project  well,  to 
carry  off  wet. 

If  the  boards  are  used  rough,  three- 
quarter-inch  planks  will  do,  but  if  they  are 
planed,  inch  deal  will  be  required  to  make 
up  for  the  waste. 

A  hatch  for  the  fowls  to  go  in  and  out, 
with  a  door  to  slip  down  over  it,  should 
be  made  when  the  house  is  built ;  some- 
times two  on  different  sides  are  found 
very  useful,  in  case  of  changes  in  the  run, 
which  can  then  be  put  to  one  side  of  the 
house,  instead  of  the  other,  without  further 
alteration. 

A  more  solid  kind  of  house,  as  well  as 
one  which  will  be  more  costly,  can  be  built 
with  regular  walls  of  brick,  stone,  rough 
stone,  or  earth.  These  may  be  more  last- 
ing, and  the  first  three  more  secure  from 
the  attacks  of  vermin,  but,  of  course,  the 
cost  both  in  material  and  labor  will  be 
greater. 

For  a  brick  wall,  what  bricklayers  call 
half  a  brick  thick  is  sufficient,  as  very  great 
strength  is  not  required.  A  pattern  of  a 
few  feet  square,  made  by  leaving  out  alter- 
nate bricks  high  up  on  the  side  of  the 
house,  which  will  admit  air  that  will  not 
be  too  cold,  is  a  good  means  of  ventila- 
tion, and  of  giving  light  also. 

Few  amateurs  would  go  to  the  expense 
of  walls  of  hewn  stone,  but  in  neighbor- 
hoods where  rough  blasted  rock  or  stone 
is  plentiful,  and  consequently  cheap,  it 
makes  good  walls,  which  come  rather 
cheaper  than  brickwork.  To  be  sufficiently 
solid  and  stable  these  walls  should  be 
rather  over  than  under  a  foot  thick,  and 
the  stones  fitted  together  with  judgment, 
to  avoid  interstices  causing  weakness,  or 
great  consumption  of  mortar,  of  which, 
however  well  the  stones  may  be  fitted,  a 
great  deal  will  be  used.  While  building 
this  kind  of  wall  it  should  be  brought  to 
a  level  of  surface  at  the  top  every  16  inches 
or  so,  which  gives  the  stone  a  look  of  or- 
der in  the  arrangement,  greatly  improving 


the  appearance,  and  also  giving  strength. 
All  laminated  stone,  i.e.,  stone  which  has 
an  appearance  of  being  formed  in  layers, 
should  have  these  layers  placed  horizon- 
tally. 

Where  building  materials  of  most  kinds 
are  difficult  to  obtain,  earth  walls  may  be 
used  with  advantage,  requiring,  if  the  ma- 
terial be  at  hand,  little  outlay  except  labor. 
The  proper  earth  is  neither  sand  nor  clay, 
but  partaking  of  both.  Clay,  chalk,  any 
calcareous  earth,  or  sand,  is  bad  for  the 
purpose.  The  earlier  in  the  season  the 
building  can  be  done  the  better,  that  it  may 
have  time  to  dry;  but  a  time  must  be 
chosen  when  the  earth  is  sufficiently  dry 
for  working,  and  the  coarser  and  bolder  it 
is  the  better.  A  foundation  of  brick  or 
stone  must  be  used,  which  can  be  brought 
9  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
or  less  if  preferred.  The  wall  is  made  by 
ramming  in  the  earth,  supported  during 
the  process  by  a  mold  formed  of  two  planks 
of  inch  board.  These  planks  for  a  cottage 
or  similar  building  should  be  12  feet  long 
and  20  inches  wide,  formed  of  two  breadths, 
and  strengthened  with  cross-pieces  strongly 
nailed  outside;  but  for  a  hen-house,  sum- 
mer-house, or  similar  edifice  of  less  impor- 
tance, they  might  be  shorter.  Cross-bolts 
fix  these  planks  together  (two  near  each 
end),  with  as  many  inches  between  the  two 
boards  as  the  wall  is  to  be  thick,  say  14 
or  16  inches,  and  the  bolts  have  large  heads 
at  one  end  to  fix  them,  and  eyelet  holes  and 
cross-pegs  at  the  other.  Place  the  planks 
above  the  brick  foundation,  bolt  them  to- 
gether, and  fit  bits  of  board  into  the  ends, 
to  prevent  the  building  material  running 
out  there,  the  little  boards  fitting  in  be- 
tween the  top  and  bottom  bolts,  and  mak- 
ing  (with  them)  the  mold  into  a  sort  of 
box.  Then  work  the  earth  up  well,  a  little 
at  a  time,  mixing  in  cut  straw  or  some  sim- 
ilar material  to  make  it  bind ;  and  when  it 
is  used  it  should  have  just  moisture  enough 
to  adhere  together,  under  the  pressure  of 
the  thumb  and  finger.  Ram  in  no  more  at 
a  time  than  will  make  an  inch  and  a  half 
when  well  rammed ;  and  the  rammer,  to  do 
its  work  well,  should  be  no  more  than  an 
inch  and  a  half  wide.  When  the  earth  is 
well  rammed  down,  as  high  as  the  mold 
will  allow,  draw  out  the  cross-bolts,  re- 
move the  planks,  and  fix  the  mold  further 
on,  the  bolt  at  one  end  being  fitted  into 
the  hole  left  by  that  at  the  other,  only  one 
end  board  being  of  course  required.  When 


664 


POULTRY 


each  layer  of  the  wall  is  completed  the 
mold  must  be  placed  higher,  fitting  the  bot- 
tom bolts  into  the  holes  left  by  the  top 
ones,  and  after  each  course  pour  over  the 
surface  (to  make  the  next  course  adhere, 
and  also  to  give  a  nice  appearance)  a 
small  quantity  of  thick  grout  composed  of 
one-fifth  lime  and  four-fifths  earth. 

Before  the  wall  dries,  the  holes  left  by 
the  bolts  must  be  carefully  filled  up  with 
mortar  made  of  one-fourth  lime  and  three- 
fourths  earth.  If  the  same  mixture  be  used 
for  the  wall,  it  will  dry  almost  like  stone. 

A  stout  frame  of  wood  must  be  fixed  to 
shape  the  door,  hatch,  and  windows,  and 
the  building  may  have  a  smooth  facing 
given  to  it  of  the  mortar  above  named, 
or  one  made  with  more  lime,  or  even  a  lit- 
tle cement.  As  a  finish  it  may  be  washed 
with  a  mixture  of  lime  and  sharp  sand, 
mixed  in  small  quantities,  and  used  while 
hot,  which  may  easily  be  done  by  adding 
a  knob  of  lime  and  the  sand  a  little  at  a 
time,  as  it  is  used. 

The  roofing  for  houses  of  regular  walls, 
like  those  of  brick,  stone,  or  earth,  should 
be  slates  or  tiles. 

A  slate  or  tile  roof  will  be  cold  in  win- 
ter and  hot  in  summer  unless  it  has  a  lin- 
ing of  some  kind,  for  which  any  of  the 
following  substances  will  do,  unless  a  reg- 
ular ceiling  of  plaster  be  preferred:  felt 
nailed  to  the  under  side  of  the  rafters,  and 
tarred;  a  kind  of  inner  thatch  of  straw, 
kept  in  its  place  by  laths  nailed  to  the  raf- 
ters ;  stout  brown  paper  oiled  or  painted  and 
nailed  to  the  rafters. 

Every  hen-house  should  have  a  good 
wide  door,  as  it  may  sometimes  be  useful 
to  carry  a  hen-coop  through  it,  especially 
in  wet,  ungenial  seasons ;  and  the  door 
should  be  so  placed,  and  so  fixed  on  its 
hinges,  that  it  will  open  back  thoroughly. 
A  window,  too,  is  necessary,  as  light  within 
is  quite  wanted;  and  it  may  not  be  advis- 
able to  fix  the  door  open  at  all  times  in 
our  climate.  Perforated  zinc,  or  close  lat- 
tice, is  good,  and  will  give  no  more  air 
than  enough,  except  in  very  intense  weather, 
•when  it  may  be  covered  with  a  bit  of  thin 
board  or  a  sheet  of  brown  paper. 

Give  the  hen-houses  a  good  lime- wash- 
ing at  first,  to  prevent  vermin  making  a 
settlement  in  the  wood  or  small  cracks  to 
be  found  about,  and  repeat  it  once  a  year 
at  furthest. 

When  the  house  is  complete — with  door 
and  window  for  convenient  access  and  VP**- 


tilation,  a  hatch  for  the  use  of  the  fowls, 
a  good  firm  floor,  which  can  neither  be  too 
cold,  too  easily  saturated  with  impurity, 
nor  too  facile  a  harbor  for  vermin,  and 
which  can  be  kept  clean  without  difficulty, 
all  sweet  from  the  hand  of  the  whitewasher 
— it  must  be  fitted  with  perches  and  nests. 
All  heavy  fowls  should  have  the  perch 
made  of  a  fir  pole,  not  less  than  4  inches 
across.  One  pole  sawed  in  halves  will 
make  two  perches;  they  should  be  about 
2  feet,  or  a  little  more,  from  the  ground, 
and  they  should  drop  into  sockets,  so  that 
they  can  be  taken  down  to  clean  or  lime- 
wash.  Light  active  fowls  often  crave  to 
soar  higher  for  roosting,  but  heavy  birds 
should  on  no  account  be  allowed  to  do  so. 
Almost  anything,  provided  it  be  steady 
and  clean,  does  for  a  nest.  Some  wild  fowls 
like  it  to  be  secret  and  out  of  the  way,  but 
those  that  are  tame  and  much  noticed  care 
little  about  that;  only  take  care  that  it 
stands  firm  (to  provide  against  losses), 
and  that  it  is  filled  with  clean  straw  or 
hay.  Straw  is  best  in  warm  weather,  as 
hay  is  said  to  be  heating,  and  consequently 
to  encourage  vermin. 

HOUSES    AND    RUNS 

With  regard  to  the  size  of  the  hen-house, 
the  important  point  is  that  it  should  be  suf- 
ficiently large  for  the  air  to  keep  pure  and 
sweet  when  the  fowls  are  shut  up  at  night. 
A  house  of  medium  size,  with  a  few  fowls, 
is  preferable  to  a  large  one  with  a  great 
many. 

One  favorite  form  for  poultry  houses, 
with  many  extensive  amateurs,  has  always 
been  ranges  of  houses,  side  by  side,  each 
having  a  run  belonging  to  it.  Another 
plan  has  been  a  circular,  octagonal,  or  square 
building,  of  large  size,  parted  into  several 
poultry  houses,  and  with  a  run  to  each  di- 
vision arranged  round  the  building. 

Every  poultry  run  should  have  a  shed. 
A  felt  roof  on  fixed  supports,  with  a  pitch 
from  4  feet  at  the  back  to  3  feet  in  front, 
will  do.  A  little  common  boarding  under 
the  felt  will  make  it  very  good,  or  a  roof 
of  feather-edged  board  will  do  exceedingly 
well.  It  should  have  a  warm  aspect;  under 
it  should  be  spread  fine  dust  in  which  the 
fowls  may  roll  and  cleanse  their  feathers, 
gravel  to  give  small  stones,  without  which 
fowls  can  not  remain  healthy,  and  lime 
rubbish,  or  lime  in  some  shape  for  egg- 
shell, without  a  due  supply  of  which  they 
v'U  not  lay  welL 


POULTRY 


665 


Where  the  range  is  necessarily  small,  the 
important  point  is  to  have  a  small  number 
of  fowls  in  proportion  to  its  size,  and  to 
clear  off  all  supernumeraries  before,  winter. 
Grass  is  excellent  for  fowls,  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  keep  a  small  run  in  grass,  as 
the  constant  tramp  and  scratching  of  even 
half  a  dozen  grown  birds  will  make  it  bare. 

A  well-laid  run,  kept  clean,  infill  do  for 
fowls,  but  a  grass  run  is  far  preferable,  if 
it  can  be  managed. 

FEEDING 

Perhaps  there  is  no  method  of  poultry 
feeding  so  injurious  as  throwing  down  a 
lot  of  food,  from  which  they  can  fill  their 
crops,  scarcely  moving  from  the  spot  where 
they  stand.  Fowls  thus  fed  will  grow  fat 
internally,  but  they  will  not  put  on  good 
firm  meat,  and  strong  useful  muscle,  nor 
will  they  acquire  stamina  and  good  consti- 
tutions. 

Good  feeding  rather  requires  good  space, 
but  if  the  run  be  small,  it  must  be  made 
the  most  of  by  throwing  the  food  as  far  as 
can  be,  and  making  the  fowls  run  the  whole 
distance,  as  many  times  as  possible. 

In  a  small  run,  where  the  green  food 
must  be  given  to  the  fowls,  instead  of  their 
going  afar  to  seek  it  for  themselves,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  tie  up  cabbage  stumps  and 
lettuces  for  them  to  pull  at,  rather  than  to 
throw  them  on  the  ground. 

Three  meals  a  day  are  quite  enough  for 
any  grown  fowls;  those  that  have  range 
enough  to  enable  them  to  pick  up  much  for 
themselves  will  do  well  with  two. 

A  good  supply  of  clean,  pure  water  is  as 
necessary  as  a  regular  supply  of  food.  Per- 
haps there  is  nothing  better  in  which  to  give 
the  water  than  firm-standing  crockery  pans. 
They  should  be  placed  a  little  sunk  in  the 
ground,  very  firm  and  steady,  in  some  out- 
of-the-way  corner,  where  the  fowls  are 
least  likely  to  step  into  them  or  overturn 
them,  washed  thoroughly  inside  and  out 
once  a  day,  filled  once  a  day,  and  filled  up 
whenever  they  require  it.  Each  pan  should 
hold  as  much  water  as  the  fowls  for  whose 
use  it  is  intended  could  consume  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  but  it  should  be  replenished 
oftener  in  case  of  accidents. 

The  different  kinds  of  food  used  in  feed- 
ing poultry  are:  grain  of  many  varieties, 
the  meal  made  from  them  by  grinding,  root 
and  green  vegetables,  and  meat,  either  giv- 
en by  hand,  or  found  by  themselves  in  the 
shape  of  worms,  grubs,  and  such  like.  It 


is  the  best  economy  to  buy  food  of  the  best 
quality,  for  poor  or  damaged  things  are 
dear  at  any  price.  The  food,  of  what- 
ever sort,  should  be  fine  of  its  kind,  and 
in  good  condition.  Worm-eaten  corn,  and 
meal  which  is  full  of  mites,  is  deficient  in 
nourishing  properties  and  unwholesome. 

Next  in  importance  to  good  food  is  good 
variety  in  diet.  Animals  need  change  of 
food,  and  always  thrive  best  and  produce 
best  upon  it.  Barley,  oats,  wheat,  buck- 
wheat, Indian  corn,  the  meal  made  from 
all  these;  potatoes,  lettuces,  and  all  kinds 
of  garden  stuff  offer  a  good  variety,  and 
may  be  yet  further  varied  with  rice,  man- 
gold, linseed,  vetches,  turnips,  etc.  A 
change,  altered  week  about,  has  often  been 
found  to  succeed. 

Barley  is  used  as  whole  corn  more  than 
almost  any  other  kind  of  food,  and  it  is 
good,  but  the  stock  will  not  thrive  on  it  or 
any  other  grain  without  variation. 

Wheat  is  very  nourishing,  but  rather  too 
heating  for  poultry  which  has  not  full  lib- 
erty. 

Buckwheat  makes  an  excellent  change, 
and  promotes  laying;  on  the  Continent  it  is 
more  used  than  any  other  grain.  Fowls 
like  it  very  much  when  they  get  used  to  it, 
but  when  it  is  strange  they  will  sometimes 
overlook  it  on  account  of  its  dark  color. 

Indian  corn  is  good  as  an  occasional 
change;  its  fault  is  that  it  promotes  internal 
fat  rather  than  general  plumpness,  on  which 
account  it  should  be  used  with  caution,  and 
not  for  too  long  at  a  time. 

The  diet  of  fowls  should  never,  however, 
be  entirely  corn.  Since  their  gizzards  are 
made  for  getting  nutriment  from  corn,  we 
do  not  think  the  use  of  it  should  be  ex- 
cluded, but  they  are  omnivorous,  and  it  is 
best  to  feed  them  at  all  times  partly  on  soft 
food,  i.e.  meal,  and  such  like,  and  partly 
on  corn.  If  two  meals  a  day  are  given, 
we  would  give  one  of  meal  and  other  soft 
food,  and  one  of  corn;  if  three,  one  of 
corn  and  two  of  soft  food  generally,  and 
sometimes,  for  a  change,  two  of  corn  and 
one  of  soft  food. 

Meal  of  different  kinds  is  the  staple  ma- 
terial for  soft  food.  Perhaps  the  best  of 
all  is  oats  ground  up,  as  already  mentioned. 

Barley  meal  is  a  good  plain  meal  of  mod- 
erate price,  for  common  use,  and  one  which 
the  fowls  always  seem  to  relish  well. 

Oatmeal  is  dearer.  Good  round  Scotch 
oatmeal  is  excellent  from  its  nourishing 
properties. 


666 


POULTRY 


Malt  dust  is  said  to  be  very  nourishing 
and  good. 

In  buying  meal,  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  get  it  good,  as  if  it  be  old,  stale,  and 
mity,  or  made  from  bad  corn,  no  stock  can 
thrive  upon  it.  It  should  be  newly  ground, 
from  good  corn,  and  kept,  until  used,  in  a 
cool,  dry  place. 

Potatoes  are  very  good  poultry  food,  in 
change  with  food  of  other  kinds.  The  more 
mealy  they  are  the  better  they  are  for  food, 
so  that  if  they  are  boiled  they  should  be 
cooked  in  an  iron  pot,  and  put  to  dry  after 
the  water  is  strained  from  them.  When 
they  are  given  they  may  be  broken  to  pieces, 
anO  scattered  far  and  wide,  like  other  food. 
For  developing  the  mealiness,  they  may  be 
better  steamed  than  boiled,  and  yet  better, 
by  far,  baked. 

In  feeding  young  stock,  take  care  that 
the  food  is  thoroughly  good  and  appetiz- 
mg,  fresh  and  well  made.  Satisfy  hunger 
at  every  meal,  leave  time  between  the  meals 
for  hunger  to  return,  and  never  pamper 
appetite.  If  the  chickens  refuse  to  eat, 
they  often  know  better  what  is  good  for 
them  than  we  do,  when  we  try  to  press  or 
force  them. 

As  the  chickens  approach  maturity  they 
will  eat  enormously.  Let  them  do  so. 
Let  them  have  as  much  exercise  as  you  can 
provide,  and  plenty  of  food  will  not  hurt 
them.  If  they  become  too  expensive,  eat 
or  sell  them;  clear  them  off  any  way  you 
can,  and  leave  space  at  liberty  for  future  use. 

All  fowls,  old  and  young,  want  green 
food.  Giving  them  free  access  to  grass  is 
the  best  way  of  supplying  it,  and  if  we  have 
not  the  opportunity,  we  may  give  them  turfs 
of  grass  in  their  runs.  If  the  turfs  are  too 
large  and  heavy  for  the  fowls  to  knock  to 
pieces,  they  may  be  removed  to  a  safe  place 
and  watered,  and  used  again  and  again  as 
often  as  the  grass  grows.  Fresh  cuttings 
of  a  lawn  may  be  thrown  into  the  runs,  and 
will  be  relished. 

Lettuces  may  be  given  to  fowls  and 
ducks;  turnip  greens  are  good  for  them, 
and  cabbage  leaves,  and  any  refuse  from 
the  garden  may  be  given,  if  grass,  lettuce, 
or  turnip  greens  are  not  to  be  had.  In  the 
absence  of  green,  boiled  roots  are  better 
than  no  vegetable  food. 

Animal  food  also  is  necessary.  That 
which  they  get  for  themselves  in  the  shape 
of  worms,  grubs,  etc.,  is  the  best,  and  in  its 
absence  the  want  must  be  supplied  with  a 
little  cooked  meat,  cut  small. 


Forcing  breeding — wheat,  beans,  peas,  and 
meat — may  induce  fowls  to  lay  abundantly, 
but  will  not  produce  lastingly  strong, 
healthy  fowls;  and  those  thus  fed  will  sel- 
dom either  live  out  their  natural  term  of 
life,  or  produce  chickens  of  natural  strength 
and  stamina. 

EGGS    AND    HATCHING 

Warm  housing  and  abundant  feeding 
make  the  hens  lay  early,  provided  they  do 
not  become  too  fat.  Meat  will  bring  them 
on  to  lay,  and  buckwheat,  oats  fried  in  fat, 
and  brewers'  grains  are  all  good  stimulants. 

As  the  chicken  season  approaches,  the 
best  hens  should  be  watched,  that  their 
eggs  may  be  known,  written  on,  and  put 
aside  in  order,  as  they  are  laid.  If  any 
have  imperfect  shells — a  smooth,  round  mark 
on  one  side,  an  appearance  of  a  grown-up 
crack,  a  look  of  weakness  anywhere,  or  any 
irregularity  of  shape — they  had  better  be  re- 
jected for  setting,  as  they  would  be  little 
likely  to  hatch,  and  very  likely  to  break  in 
the  nest  before  the  term  of  incubation  was 
up,  thus  doing  harm  by  soiling  the  other 
eggs,  and  possibly  inducing  the  sitter  to 
become  an  egg-eater  by  the  temptation  of 
a  cracked  egg,  too  strong  to  be  resisted. 
The  eggs,  until  they  are  wanted  for  setting, 
may  be  arranged  in  a  box,  according  to 
freshness,  and  kept  in  a  place  where  they 
will  be  cool,  if  the  weather  be  hot,  and  safe 
from  frost  if  the  weather  be  severe. 

Eggs  should  on  no  account  be  stale  when 
they  are  set,  as,  if  they  are,  they  will  very 
likely  not  hatch,  and  if  they  do  hatch,  the 
produce  will  be  weakly.  If  the  eggs  are  set 
at  once,  without  becoming  cold  after  they 
are  laid,  they  will  often  hatch  a  day  sooner. 

There  is  no  doubt  as  to  its  being  best 
for  a  hen  to  let  her  sit  once  a  year,  or 
even  twice,  especially  if  she  be  a  good  layer, 
as  the  rest  and  good  feeding  she  gets  while 
she  is  on  the  nest  and  rearing  her  chickens 
prove  very  restorative.  If,  however,  it  is 
necessary  to  break  her  of  the  wish  to  sit, 
it  may  best  be  done  by  changing  her  to  a 
grass  run,  where  she  can  find  no  nest  to 
take  possession  of,  or  coop  her  on  the  grass, 
out  of  sight  of  her  nest,  and  avoid  over- 
feeding. 

If  the  broody  hens  are  to  be  set,  an  ap- 
propriate place  must  be  prepared  for  them. 
It  never  answers  to  let  hens  sit  in  the  hen- 
house where  other  fowls  are  kept,  as  they 
will  be  continually  interfering  with  them, 
and  interrupting  their  work.  They  must, 


POULTRY 


667. 


therefore,  be  removed  to  some  quiet  place 
which  they  can  have  to  themselves;  and 
even  then  they  will  want  watching  until 
each  one  gets  thoroughly  established  on 
her  own  nest,  lest  they  squabble  together. 
The  place  for  the  sitters  should  be  warm  in 
spring,  and  not  excessively  hot  in  summer, 
as  heat  occasions  too  much  evaporation  for 
the  well-being  of  the  eggs,  and  often  be- 
sides makes  the  hen  feverish  and  ill,  and 
consequently  restless,  and  apt  to  come  off 
too  often  and  to  break  or  crack  her  eggs 
by  fidgeting.  A  damp,  warm  atmosphere 
is  most  favorable  to  incubation. 

A  box  or  basket  well  filled  with  clean 
straw,  rammed  down  tight,  a  foot  or  more 
in  thickness,  under  the  hen  at  first,  is  good. 
Never  use  a  nest,  unless  it  be  a  hole  in  the 
earth,  which  has  not  a  good,  massive  thick- 
ness of  straw  under  the  hen;  for  if  her 
attention  to  her  own  arrangements  dis- 
places the  straw,  and  leaves  the  eggs  on 
the  bare  bottom  of  the  nest,  there  is  posi- 
tively no  chance  of  success.  A  good  sod 
of  turf,  covered  with  grass  or  close  heather, 
the  size  of  the  nest,  fitted  to  the  bottom  of 
it,  with  a  nest  of  straw  over,  makes  a  very 
good  nest. 

Let  every  sitter  have  a  clean,  new-made 
nest,  as  one  taken  from  the  hen-house,  or 
which  has  been  in  use  before,  may  be  in- 
fested with  insects;  and  never  let  the  same 
nest  be  used  twice  for  sitting  without  hav- 
ing it  thoroughly  cleaned,  washed,  and  filled 
with  fresh  straw.  The  nest  should  be 
quite  full  to  the  top,  so  that  the  hen  may 
never  run  the  risk  of  breaking  the  eggs  by 
having  to  jump  down  upon  them. 

When  the  sitting  place  and  nests  are 
duly  prepared,  the  sitters  must  be  removed 
to  them.  Place  them  on  the  new  nests,  with 
not  less  than  four  nest  eggs,  or  hard-boiled 
eggs,  under  each,  and  cover  them  up,  or 
hang  things  round  them,  so  as  to  keep  them 
in  the  dark,  until  they  are  settled  to  the 
new  nests.  Let  them  keep  to  the  nest  eggs 
until  they  have  been  off  to  feed  once  only 
in  the  day,  and  returned  to  the  right  nests 
steadily  of  their  own  accord.  Then  the  eggs 
may  be  given  to  each,  from  nine  to  thir- 
teen, according  to  the  size,  with  some  cer- 
tainty that  the  sitters  will  do  well.  It  is 
a  good  plan  to  set  two  hens  at  once,  and 
three  are  still  better,  as,  if  the  broods  are 
not  large,  they  may  be  put  together,  or  if 
any  accident  happen  to  one  hen  the  eggs 
may  be  saved.  If  two  broods  be  given  to 
one  hen  to  bring  up,  to  save  trouble,  the 


second  hen  may  be  broken  off  from  sitting, 
taking  care  to  place  her  where  she  can  not 
hear  the  chickens ;  it  does  not  often  answer 
to  set  a  hen  on  a  second  time  with  fresh 
eggs. 

INCUBATION 

The  setting  of  hens,  however,  is  but  little 
resorted  to  nowadays.  Such  excellent  in- 
cubators are  sold,  and  at  prices  so  low,  that 
there  is  a  great  saving  of  time,  labor,  and 
money  in  employing  the  method  of  artificial 
hatching.  Incubators  can  be  bought  at 
prices  ranging  from  $5  up  to  $40. 

All  of  the  old-style  machines  that  had  to 
supply  moisture  are  now  going  rapidly  out 
of  the  market.  So  also  are  all  the  old 
styles  of  hot-water  machines,  hot-air  in- 
cubation being  regarded  by  the  latest  ex- 
perts as  the  most  successful.  The  machine 
should  be  one  that  preserves  the  natural 
moisture  of  the  egg  by  taking  off  direct 
air  currents,  thus  avoiding  the  necessity 
of  putting  in  water  to  make  up  the  moisture 
deducted. 

The  art  of  artificially  hatching  hens'  eggs 
has  been  known  from  the  remotest  ages. 
In  Egypt,  tradition  attributes  the  invention 
to  the  priests  of  the  Temple  of  Isis. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  at  what  pe- 
riod or  to  what  nation  the  construction  of 
the  first  eccaleobion  should  be  credited. 
The  first  authentic  account  of  the  early 
methods  is  in  "The  Voiage  and  Travaile  of 
Sir  John  Maundeville,  Kt,"  in  his  descrip- 
tion of  the  River  Nile,  Egypt,  its  geography, 
productions,  etc.,  written  at  some  time  pre- 
vious to  1336,  in  which  he  tells  of  the  bak- 
ing ovens  at  Cairo,  which  are  now  only 
found  in  Mausoura,  in  the  village  of  Berma, 
situated  in  the  Delta  of  the  Nile.  The  Chi- 
nese have  practiced  the  art  for  centuries, 
but  do  not  seem  to  be  able  to  duplicate  the 
results  when  imported  to  other  countries, 
on  account  of  the  climatic  conditions  being 
different. 

The  Egyptians  must  have  had  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  details  of  their  method, 
for  we  find  those  having  ovens,  and  making 
artificial  hatching  a  business,  giving  sixty 
newly  hatched  chicks  in  exchange  for  one 
hundred  eggs, 

To  John  Champion,  Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
England,  1770,  however,  probably  belongs 
the  credit  of  first  hatching  eggs  by  the  aid 
of  fire.  He  used  a  room  through  which 
passed  two  heated  .flues,  the  eggs  being 
placed  on  a  large,  round  table  in  the  centre. 
He  claimed  that  the  incubation  was  per- 


668 


POULTRY 


formed  as  well  as  if  they  had  been  sat  upon 
by  a  hen. 

From  this  time  on  to  1846  little  was  ac- 
complished, though  Bucknell  and  others  at- 
tempted the  artificial  process.  James  Can- 
teto  was  more  successful,  and  gave  the  sub- 
ject considerable  study.  The  theories  that 
he  put  forward  at  that  time  have  been  used 
as  a  basis  for  the  construction  of  the  vari- 
ous incubators  to  the  present  time. 

Messrs.  Jacob  and  Henry  Graves,  of 
Reading  and  Boston,  Mass.,  were  among 
the  pioneers  of  this  line  of  invention  in  this 
country  (1870),  followed  closely  by  H.  J. 
Haight,  of  New  York  City,  and  Messrs. 
Woodward  and  Millet,  of  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  in  1871. 

It  is  most  remarkable  that,  though  the 
various  modifications  of  the  incubator  came 
thick  and  fast  from  1875,  none  of  the  in- 
ventors for  some  time  considered  it  of 
enough  importance  to  investigate  the  old 
and  formulate  new  principles  based  on  re- 
liable data,  interpreted  by  the  aid  of  the 
known  laws  of  physics,  a  popular  knowl- 
edge of  which  has  increased  rapidly  during 
the  last  half-century.  There  have  been 
sufficient  time  and  money  expended  in  per- 
fecting various  machines  for  incubating 
purposes,  but  the  workers  in  this  line  had 
to  grope  their  way  in  the  dark,  and  in  con- 
sequence many  of  the  contrivances  which, 
have  encumbered  the  patent  list  have  been 
based  on  no  principle,  justified  by  no  proof, 
while  some,  even,  are  still  in  direct  oppo- 
sition to  the  laws  of  nature.  Upon  a 
knowledge  of  these  laws  depends  the  whole 
question  of  right  and  wrong,  of  success  or 
failure. 

However,  the  modern  incubator  was  in- 
troduced less  than  thirty  years  ago,  but 
in  that  period  its  influence  on  the  poultry 
industry  has  been  marked.  For  instance, 
in  1898,  the  State  of  Missouri  alone  pro- 
duced 70,000,000  pounds  of  poultry,  and 
nearly  36,000,000  dozens  of  eggs,  with  ag- 
gregate cash  returns  of  $8,298,232,  in  value 
exceeding  the  combined  shipment  of  wheat, 
corn,  oats,  and  hay,  and  the  combined  value 
of  the  shipment  of  lumber,  logs,  cross-ties, 
piling,  cooperage,  and  cordwood,  for  that 
State.  This  remarkable  showing  is  largely 
due  to  the  modern  incubator,  for  it  has  in- 
directly given  the  farmer  and  professional 
poultryman  first  -  class  poultry  houses  in 
which  to  keep  first-class  stock. 

It  has  taught  them  clea'nliness,  both  with 
buildings  and  stock.  It  has  developed  their 


gray  matter  in  endeavoring  to  solve  the  dif- 
ficult problems  in  feeding  and  in  operation 
of  incubators.  It  has  made  early  spring 
broilers  and  early  summer  roasters  possi- 
ble. Most  important  of  all,  it  has  taught 
them  to  look  upon  the  hen,  as  a  producer, 
as  one  of  the  world's  greatest  commercial 
factors. 

To  run  an  incubator  requires  about  ten 
gallons  of  oil,  and  about  ten  minutes  of 
labor  per  day  for  twenty-one  days,  this  be- 
ing the  period  of  incubation.  The  cost  of 
raising  a  chicken  to  the  age  for  a  two-pound 
broiler  is  about  twelve  cents  per  pound, 
while  the  price  for  which  such -broilers  may 
be  sold  runs  from  twenty  to  forty-five  cents 
per  pound. 

Adult  hens  cost,  when  properly  kept, 
about  a  dollar  a  year  eack  The  average 
yield  of  eggs  is  120  to  175  per  annum.  Leg- 
horns are  the  most  prolific  layers.  For 
broiling  purposes,  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks 
and  White  Wyandottes  are  preferred  be- 
cause of  their  early  development,  the  latter 
being  especially  excellent  on  account  of 
their  rich,  golden  flesh  and  absence  of 
black  pin  feathers. 

When  selecting  eggs  for  incubation,  the 
poultryman  should  pay  especial  heed  to  the 
purpose  for  which  he  requires  the  chickens. 

REARING   CHICKENS 

When  a  hen  is  set,  the  sooner  she  can 
be  removed  to  a  clean  nest,  free  from  ver- 
min, the  better.  That  which  has  been  set 
in  three  weeks  will  have  chickens'  fleas, 
encouraged  and  increased  by  the  unusual 
warmth,  and  if  the  chickens  remain  in  it, 
they  will  swarm  to  their  soft  down  in  a 
manner  to  preclude  the  comfort  and  health 
of  the  brood.  So,  as  soon  as  the  eggs  are 
all  hatched,  or  found  not  likely  to  hatch, 
put  the  mother  and  her  brood  into  a  com- 
fortable, warm,  clean  nest. 

If  the  weather  be  cold,  warm  the  straw 
before  the  fire  for  a  few  minutes,  or  warm 
it  in  the  sunshine  if  there  be  any,  that 
the  latest  hatched — some  of  them  possibly 
scarcely  dry — may  not  be  chilled  by  the 
change ;  and  when  the  hen  has  settled  down 
quietly,  with  her  little  ones  under  her,  place 
food  and  water  before  her,  that  she  may 
eat  and  feed  her  young  family.  The  food 
thus  early  may  be  chopped  eggs  (shell 
and  all),  bread-crumbs,  sop,  oatmeal  and 
barley  meal  mixed,  dry  and  crumbly,  and 
crushed  corn,  giving  now  as  later  only  one 
thing  at  a  time.  The  drinking-pan  should 


POULTRY 


be  shallow  that  the  chickens  may  not  get 
wet  by  going  into  it,  or  turning  it  over; 
and  constantly  replenished. 

If  the  weather  is  mild  and  dry,  the  soon- 
er mother  and  family  can  be  placed  on  the 
gravel,  out  of  doors,  the  better;  but  at  first 
it  must  not  be  for  long  at  a  time.  They 
may  be  put  down,  with  Advantage  to  them- 
selves, on  the  floor  of  a  greenhouse;  and  if 
the  hen  can  be  allowed  a  roll  in  some  dust 
in  one  corner,  it  will  be  good  for  her  and 
for  her  chickens,  too. 

Under  a  shed,  where  the  ground  is  clean 
dust  mixed  with  small  stones,  is  a  good 
place  for  cooping  the  hen  for  the  first  ten 
days  or  so ;  and  she  may  after  that  be  placed 
on  the  grass  in  dry  weather,  but  not  before 
the  dew  is  off  it.  During  a  portion  of  each 
day  she  should  be  cooped  where  she  and 
her  little  ones  may  enjoy  a  roll  in  dry, 
dusty  earth. 

In  choosing  a  place  for  cooping  the  hen, 
care  should  be  taken  that  she  can  have  the 
shelter  necessary  for  comfort.  When  she 
is  loose  she  can  lead  her  chickens  into  the 
shade,  or  into  the  sunshine,  or  to  warm 
nooks  sheltered  from  cold  winds;  and  it 
is  cruel  to  confine  her  to  one  spot.  In  the 
kind  of  coop  used,  and  in  placing  the  coop, 
take  care  that  there  is  ample  and  complete 
shelter  from  wet.  When  the  wind  is  cold, 
place  the  coop  where  the  hen  and  her  chick- 
ens may  be  sheltered  from  its  chilling  in- 
fluence. During  the  heat  of  the  day,  shade 
from  the  broiling  heat  of  the  sun  is  as  nec- 
essary as  shelter  from  wet  and  cold. 

If  the  brood  is  housed  at  night,  the  hen 
may  brood  them  on  the  ground,  if  it  be 
bare  earth,  not  cold  pavement.  She  may 
either  have  a  little  straw  thrown  down,  or 
take  the  chickens  into  a  large,  shallow,  firm- 
standing  basket.  The  main  thing  is,  what- 
ever the  bed  be,  let  it  be  clean  and  sweet ; 
whether  it  be  the  earth  or  straw,  let  it  be 
well  cleaned  every  day,  and  renewed  when 
it  becomes  soiled. 

If  two  or  more  broods  are  put  to  roost 
in  one  hen-house,  the  old  hens  should  be 
confined  within  coops,  or  they  may  interfere 
with  each  other  or  injure  one  another's 
chickens. 

The  spite  of  hens  toward  chickens  not 
belonging  to  them  must  always  be  guarded 
against.  The  best  way  is,  if  it  can  be  man- 
aged, to  place  the  coops  so  that  they  can 
not  see  each  other. 

From  the  time  the  hen  is  cooped  out, 
especially  after  the  wing  feathers  begin  to 


show,  the  chickens  must  be  plentifully  fed 
on  good  food,  well  varied.  Rice  pudding, 
made  of  rice,  sharps,  or  Indian  meal,  and 
milk,  and  baked,  makes  excellent  nourish^ 
ing  food,  to  which  eggs  and  chopped  meat, 
one  or  both,  may  be  added.  Rice,  boiled, 
and  rolled  in  sharps  or  Indian  meal,  in- 
stead of  the  pudding,  is  good.  Other  kinds 
of  food  are  oatmeal  and  barley  meal,  mixed 
into  a  dry,  friable  mass,  canary  seed, 
crushed  oats,  and  crushed  barley.  These 
may  be  varied  with  cooked  potatoes  (baked 
are  best),  bread  sopped  in  milk  or  in  wa- 
ter (brown  bread  is  preferable  to  white), 
and  buckwheat.  To  get  size,  meat  may  be 
given  every  other  day.  They  should  have 
green  food  of  some  kind  every  day.  Vary- 
ing the  meals,  and  sometimes  giving  an 
entire  change,  feed  the  chickens  constantly, 
as  often  as  they  get  hungry,  with  as  much 
food  as  they  and  the  mother  like,  leaving 
none  to  get  stale,  waste  upon  the  ground, 
and  encourage  hosts  of  sparrows.  When 
they  no  longer  eat  eagerly,  with  a  good  ap- 
petite, throw  no  more  down.  At  first,  they 
will  want  a  bit  about  every  hour,  and  by 
degrees  they  will  get  hungry  less  often,  un- 
til six  meals  a  day  will  be  enough. 

Chickens  which  are  hatched  before  the 
natural  time — tihat  is  to  say,  before  the 
nights  become  mild  and  the  days  sunny, 
and  before  the  earth  teems  with  insects 
which  they  can  catch  for  themselves,  and 
the  absence  of  which  no  meat  will  compen- 
sate— must  have  a  little  artificial  warmth. 

Chickens  hatched  thus  early  must  be  fed 
after  dark,  as  fast  from  dark  to  daylight 
is  too  long.  About  ten  o'clock  at  night  put 
down  a  candle  or  a  lantern,  and  place  food 
and  water  before  the  hen,  and  the  little  ones 
soon  get  into  the  habit  of  expecting  a  meal 
at  that  time,  and  of  making  a  good  one. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  feed  chickens  on  plenty 
of  excellent  food  for  the  first  three  weeks, 
and  then  to  some  extent  leave  them  to  take 
their  chance.  As  the  fledging  advances, 
they  require  better  and  more  nourishing 
food  than  they  do  while  in  the  down.  The 
call  which  the  growth  of  the  feathers  makes 
on  the  resources  of  the  chickens  is  attested 
by  the  wonderfully  rapid  growth  which  im- 
mediately commences  as  soon  as  they  are 
fledged,  and  this  increased  rate  of  growth 
renders  good  feeding  still  no  less  neces- 
sary, and  so  on  until  growth  is  complete. 

About  the  best  kind  of  coop  is  a  wooden 
box,  with  a  span  roof  (either  2  or  3  feet 
square,  according  to  the  space  at  command, 

43 


670 


POULTRY 


and  the  sire  of  the  stock  kept),  to  give  shel- 
ter and  shade,  with  a  run  of  wirework 
rather  larger  to  place  in  front  of  it,  to 
increase  the  range  for  the  hen.  She  may 
make  use  of  both  and  the  chickens  have  full 
liberty,  running  in  and  out  through  the 
wirework. 

By  the  time  the  chickens  are  turned  off 
by  their  mothers,  it  is  generally  necessary 
to  clear  them  from  the  ground  they  have 
hitherto  occupied,  to  make  room  for  more 
young  broods.  It  is  far  better  if  each 
brood  can  then  have  a  house  and  run  to 
itself.  If  so  much  room  can  not  be  spared, 
care  must,  at  any  rate,  be  taken  only  to  put 
together  chickens  of  about  the  same  age. 

A  few  chickens  well  bred,  well  accom- 
modated, well  cared  for,  and  well  fed,  will 
turn  out  a  pleasure  and  a  credit;  a  good 
many  chickens  crowded  together,  however 
carefully  looked  after  and  fed,  will  give  a 
great  deal  of  trouble,  constant  work,  con- 
stant care,  and  constant  disappointment,  and 
make  no  commensurate  return,  either  in 
satisfaction  or  profit. 

The  difference  between  cockerels  and 
pullets  may  sometimes  be  detected  while 
they  are  very  young.  In  some,  the  cock's 
comb  soon  shows.  In  most  kinds,  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  first  wing  feathers  is 
rounder  and  wider  in  pullets  than  in  cock- 
erels, whose  first  wing  feathers  come  more 
to  a  point;  the  pullets'  heads  are  often  nar- 
rower and  finer  than  the  roosters',  and  they 
fledge  earlier  on  the  back,  down  the  sides 
of  the  breast,  and  at  the  back  of  the  head. 
In  fine,  robust  chickens  it  is  sometimes  dif- 
ficult to  pick  out  the  cockerels  and  pullets 
until  the  back  is  partly  feathered,  when  the 
pointed  saddle  hackle  feathers  soon  begin 
to  sprout — the  surest  test  of  alL 

As  the  chickens  approach  maturity,  good 
feeding  must  still  be  continued,  supplying 
the  place  of  the  rice  puddings,  canary  seed, 
and  other  young  chicken  dainties  with  abun- 
dant supplies  of  oatmeal,  barley  meal,  and 
good  corn,  and  using  discretion  as  to  the 
supply  of  meat  The  bits  from  the  table 
may  always  be  collected  and  divided  among 
the  chickens. 

As  they  approach  maturity,  too,  they 
must  be  allotted  to  their  destinations. 

The  young  birds  which  are  picked  out 
for  the  table  may  also  be  put  to  their  desti- 
nation. Plenty  of  exercise  develops  strength 
and  firmness  of  muscle,  and  is  good  for 
chickens  which  have  the  duties  of  a  long 
life  before  them;  i.e.,  a  life  which  is 


for  chickens,  four  or  five  years  or  so.  For 
eating,  we  want  tender,  not  strong,  firm 
muscle;  therefore  the  chickens  which  are 
to  be  eaten  need  not  have  an  extensive 
range.  They  may  be  made  happy  in  a 
small  run,  and  well  fed  with  several  meals 
a  day  of  oatmeal  and  barley  meal  mixed, 
just  so  dry  that  the  balls  will  fall  to  pieces 
when  they  are  thrown  down,  and  a  little 
corn,  with  good  supplies  of  clean,  fresh 
water.  Those  who  like  good  chickens  in 
natural  condition  may  follow  this  plan,  giv- 
ing them,  for  a  little  time  before  they  are 
wanted,  rice  boiled  in  water,  in  milk,  or 
made  into  puddings,  as  for  young  chickens; 
but  those  who  like  to  fatten  their  fowls  for 
the  table  can  put  them  up  in  fattening  coops. 

When  they  are  put  up,  feed  with  moder- 
ation at  first,  as  repletion  then,  or  at  any 
time,  would  retard  the  fattening  process. 
As  soon  as  they  are  reconciled  to  captiv- 
ity, feed  them  on  oatmeal  three  times  a 
day.  Milk  for  mixing  the  oatmeal  is  best; 
every  meal  must  be  given  in  a  well  scalded, 
clean  trough;  keep  the  coops  supplied  with 
clean  water,  and  between  the  meals  place 
down  gravel,  for  them  to  peck  at,  and 
a  turf  of  grass.  Keep  the  coops  scru- 
pulously clean;  give  the  first  meal  at  sun- 
rise, or  thereabout,  and  the  last  at  roosting 
time,  and  the  chickens  will  be  ready  to 
kill  in  about  ten  days  or  a  fortnight.  As 
soon  as  they  are  fat  enough  they  must  be 
killed,  or  they  will  become  unhealthy. 
When  one  lot  is  fatted,  take  down  the  fat- 
tening coops,  scrub  and  limewash  them, 
and  put  them  out  in  the  air  for  a  time  be- 
fore using  them  again. 

Those  who  wish  to  make  fowls  very  fat 
by  the  unpleasant  process  of  cramming, 
may  either  choose  the  finest  and  healthiest 
from  the  fattening  coop,  or  any  good  fleshy 
young  fowls.  The  food  used  is  oatmeal, 
mixed  stiff  with  milk,  made  up  into  boluses 
of  a  size  that  may  be  put  down  the  chicken's 
throat  without  danger  of  choking.  To  fatten 
more  rapidly,  mutton  suet  may  be  boiled 
in  the  milk  used  to  mix  the  oatmeaL  The 
person  employed  in  the  cramming  process 
opens  the  chicken's  beak,  and  puts  six  or 
eight  boluses  down  its  throat  morning  and 
evening.  If  it  seem  to  wish  for  food  at 
noon,  a  little  can  be  given  it  in  the  trough, 
which  must  be  supplied  also  with  water 
and  gravel.  Those  which  have  been  put 
up  will  be  finished  off  in  a  week;  those 
which  have  to  be  fattened  by  the  cramming 
will  take  fourteen  or  sixteen  days.  While 


POULTRY 


671 


they  are  fattening  by  either  process  they 
must  be  kept  free  from  draught,  as  they 
will  fatten  all  the  better  for  being  com- 
fortably warm. 

Some  persons  kill  fowls  by  bleeding 
them  in  the  mouth;  others  wring  their 
necks.  The  quickest  and  most  merciful 
way  is  with  a  dexterous  jerk  to  break  the 
neck. 

FANCY   VARIETIES 

DORKINGS,   SPANISH,   AND  COCHINS 

The  chief  large  fowls  occupying  the  at- 
tention of  fanciers  are  Dorkings,  Spanish, 
Cochins,  Brahmas,  Malays,  and  Crevecoeurs, 
and  the  other  French  breeds. 

It' is  not  necessary  to  notice  here  the  va- 
rious breeds  commonly  found  in  barnyards, 
since  these  are  generally  familiar  and  in  no 
sense  "fancy  varieties." 

Dorkings. — The  chickens  are  delicate  un- 
til they  get  into  their  feathers,  and  Dork- 
ings of  all  ages  are  more  subject  to  roup 
than  most  kinds.  Unless  they  have  a  good 
or  well-drained  soil,  or  an  extensive  grass 
range,  they  do  not  lay  well,  and  do  not 
thrive  well.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are 
excellent  and  economical  for  persons  to  keep 
who  supply  the  markets,  provided  they  pos- 
sess facilities  for  keeping  and  rearing  them 
with  success,  because  they  come  forward 
early ;  they  make  their  growth  early  in 
life,  may  be  fattened  off,  and  cleared  off  early, 
and  thus  leave  the  ground  at  liberty  soon, 
and  enable  the  owner  to  realize  his  returns 
in  a  short  time.  If  Dorkings  are  kept,  they 
must  have  great  care  in  feeding,  and  per- 
fect cleanliness.  The  stamina  of  the  chick- 
ens may  be  improved  by  crossing  with 
Brahmas,  Cochins,  or  Game. 

The  hens  are  good  sitters,  and  attentive, 
good  mothers,  and  where  the  locality  suits 
them  they  are  very  good  layers  of  nice, 
well-flavored,  and  rather  large  eggs.  There 
are  few  kinds  which  vary  more,  as  layers, 
than  they. 

The  white  Dorking  is  the  original  type 
of  the  race.  It  should  have  a  square,  plump, 
compact  form,  plumage  of  spotless  white, 
delicate  white  skin,  white  legs,  which  should 
be  delicate,  not  coarse,  five  toes  well  de- 
veloped, clear  white  or  pale  yellow  beak, 
and  a  well-formed,  full-colored  rose-comb. 
Size  is  an  important  point,  and  one  in  which 
white  Dorkings  have  sometimes  failed,  but 
which  the  careful  introduction  of  fresh 
blood  from  time  to  time  improves. 

The   fifth  toe  on   each   feet  is  a  matter 


of  primary  importance  in  all  Dorkings, 
white  and  colored.  Careful  breeding  has 
firmly  fixed  this  property  in  the  Dorking; 
and  no  fowl  without  it  would  have  a  chance 
of  success  at  an  exhibition,  or  of  being 
purchased  as  a  Dorking  fowl  anywhere. 
The  fifth  toe  should  be  distinct  and  well 
developed  on  each  foot;  a  sixth  is  no  merit. 
The  legs  must  have  no  feathering. 

The  colored  Dorkings,  like  the  white, 
must  be  plumply  made,  compact,  and  wide, 
with  plenty  of  meat  on  the  breast,  short 
legs,  and  little  offal.  The  comb  may  be 
single  or  rose,  but  all  the  combs  in  a  pen 
must  match  well.  The  legs  must  be  short, 
white,  and  delicate;  i.e.,  not  coarse  in  the 
scales. 

The  plumage  of  colored  Dorkings  va- 
ries much,  as  may  be  expected  in  fowls 
which  have  been  bred  chiefly  with  refer- 
ence to  useful  properties. 

Spanish. — Brilliant  black  plumage,  bright 
scarlet  combs  and  wattles,  and  distinct  and 
clear  white  faces  make  these  fowls  very 
attractive,  and  they  are  among  the  oldest 
as  well  as  greatest  favorites  of  poultry 
lovers ;  for  early  in  last  century,  specimens 
which  were  at  the  time  thought  very  choice, 
were  imported  into  England  from  Holland. 
It  seems  probable  that  the  kind  may  have 
been  introduced  into  Holland  from  Spain, 
and  ta4cen  up  and  improved  by  the  keen 
Dutch  fanciers,  but  now  amateurs  can 
find  no  vestige  of  the  kind  in  the  country 
which  gives  them  their  name. 

Spanish  roosters,  especially,  have  a  tall, 
majestic  carriage,  and  this  kind  have  the 
merit  of  doing  well,  and  looking  handsome 
and  ornamental,  if  kept  in  a  confined  place, 
provided  it  be  not  overcrowded.  The  hens 
lay  eggs  which  are  very  fine  in  size,  but 
they  are  apt  to  be  more  woolly  and  less 
delicate  in  the  white  than  those  of  many 
other  fowls. 

Cold,  especially  if  it  be  damp  cold,  spoils 
the  appearance  of  the  old  birds,  by  injuring 
the  combs  and  turning  them  black.  The 
combs  of  the  hens  shrink  very  much,  and 
lose  their  beauty,  while  they  are  moulting, 
or  when  they  are  laying. 

Spanish  hens  do  not  sit,  so  other  sitters 
must  be  provided  to  hatch  and  rear  the 
chickens ;  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  best  to 
choose  Dorkings,  if  possible,  or,  at  any 
rate,  some  kind  which  does  not  throw  off 
the  chickens  early.  Spanish  chickens  had 
better  not  be  hatched  very  early  in  the 
season,  as  they  fledge  late,  and  are  delicate 


672 


POULTRY 


until  they  get  into  feathers;  from  March 
to  May  is  the  best  time. 

The  Minorca  is  a  variety  of  the  Spanish, 
which,  although  wanting  in  valuable  fancy 
points,  is  a  good-looking,  useful  fowl,  large 
in  size,  better  for  the  table  than  Spanish, 
and  a  good  layer  of  fine,  large  eggs. 

The  Andalusian  fowl  is  rather  an  attrac- 
tive-looking bird;  in  form  and  carriage 
much  like  the  Spanish,  and  evidently  of  the 
same  family,  with  plumage  either  of  a  uni- 
form slate  color,  or  slate  shaded  or  laced 
with  black,  and  showy,  well-developed  scar- 
let combs  and  wattles.  It  has  been  stated 
that  they  were  brought  from  Andalusia,  but 
some  affirm  that  they  have  been  bred  from 
the  Spanish — an  accidental  sport. 

Cochins  have  the  merit  of  being  excellent 
layers.  Good  Cochin  hens  wiH  lay  every 
day,  or  two  days  out  of  three,  until  they 
want  to  sit;  and  they  have  the  merit  of 
being  good  layers  in  the  winter,  when  fresh 
eggs  are  rarities. 

The  thing  which  most  interferes  with  the 
production  of  eggs  is  the  Cochin's  constant 
habit  of  wanting  to  sit;  but  if  she  is  al- 
lowed to  sit,  she  very  soon  lays  again. 

Cochins  are  tame,  docile,  and  manage- 
able; little  children  may  tend  them  without 
a  chance  of  getting  hurt,  and  they  are 
friendly  among  themselves.  When  the  hens 
sit,  we  may  do  what  we  like  with  them,  and 
they  are  kind  mothers  as  long  as  their  nice 
little,  hardy  chickens  require  their  care. 
We  can  keep  Cochins  where  we  can  keep 
no  other  fowls,  and  make  them  profitable 
with  no  other  drawback  to  counteract  all 
their  merits  than  a  too  .frequent  wish  to  sit, 
and  the  character  they  have  of  not  being 
good  for  the  table,  which  any  careful 
breeder  might  remedy  to  a  great  extent. 

Cochins,  like  all  fowls  that  lay  so  many 
eggs,  are  rather  greedy  eaters,  and  they  are 
very  ready  to  fatten  internally  (hence  often 
the  shelless  eggs,  and  two  eggs  a  day)  ; 
so  that  in  feeding  them  care  must  be  taken 
to  feed  moderately,  and  to  avoid  food  of 
too  fattening  a  nature.  The  fowls  and  the 
chickens  will  do  well  if  fed  and  treated  as 
recommended  in  the  chapters  on  feeding 
and  chicken-rearing.  The  dangerous  time 
is  from  the  time  the  wing-feathers  are 
grown  until  the  head  is  covered ;  and  then 
they  want  plenty  of  good  nourishing  food. 
They  are  nicest  for  the  table  at  from  five 
to  seven  or  eight  months  old;  as  young 
chickens,  they  are  not  nearly  so  good,  but 
are  better  fowls  when  nearer  maturitv. 


COCHINS,   BRAHMAS,    MALAYS,    AND   THE 
FRENCH  FOWLS 

White  Cochins  must,  of  course,  be  per- 
fectly white  in  plumage,  and  shown  very 
clean. 

Black  Cochins  have  almost  disappeared, 
on  account  of  their  incorrigible  habit  of 
moulting  to  a  mixture  of  colored  feathers 
among  the  black.  The  hens  remain  black, 
but  the  roosters  almost  invariably  display 
a  mixture  of  red  or  yellow  after  the  first 
moult,  if  not  before. 

Brahmas. —  No  one  knows  the  original 
stock;  no  one  knows  whence  they  came 
originally;  this  is  the  accusation  that  is 
brought  against  the  Brahmas,  the  best  fowls 
we  have  ever  had,  as  regards  the  number 
of  useful  properties  they  possess. 

The  Brahmas  are  tame,  docile,  of  a  con- 
tented disposition,  and  almost  as  easy  to 
keep  in  as  the  Cochins;  but  they  like  a 
good  range  when  they  can  get  it,  and  make 
the  most  of  it  far  more  industriously.  The 
pullets  do  not  lay  so  early  as  Cochin  pul- 
lets, but  taking  the  year  round,  the  Brahmas 
produce  more  eggs  than  Cochins  do,  from 
not  wanting  to  sit  so  often.  They  are  good 
sitters  and  mothers,  lay  early  after  hatch- 
ing, and  often  tend  their  chickens  for  weeks 
after  they  begin  to  lay. 

They  are  good  table  fowls,  being  ready 
in  putting  on  flesh,  compact  in  make,  full 
in  the  breast,  juicy,  and  good  in  flavor. 
They  should  be  large  and  heavy,  of  a  free, 
majestic  bearing,  removed  alike  from  the 
waddle  of  the  Cochin  and  the  upright  car- 
riage of  the  Malay,  compactly  made,  not 
long  in  the  leg  or  neck,  wide  and  full  in 
the  breast,  wide  and  deep  in  make ;  legs 
are  yellow  and  well  feathered.  The  head 
is  delicate  in  character,  with  a  fulness  over 
the  eye  which  gives  breadth  to  the  top  ot 
the  head,  and  a  full,  clear  eye.  The  tail  is 
short  and  full. 

In  color,  Brahmas  range  from  an  almost 
white  plumage,  with  more  or  less  black  pen- 
ciling on  the  hackle,  and  black  in  the 
feathers  of  the  tail  and  wings,  to  dark- 
gray  plumage.  Perfection  in  a  light  Brahma 
is  a  white  surface,  with  well-marked  hackle, 
wings,  and  tail,  and  such  uniform  pearly- 
gray  under-color  that  the  feathers  can  not 
ruffle  without  showing  it. 

The  Malay. — Malays  are  great  favorites 
with  a  few,  but  from  their  peculiar  gaunt 
form  they  are  by  no  means  generally  liked 
or  kept.  They  are  large,  heavy  birds,  with 
such  hard,  close  feathers  that  they  are  more 


POULTRY 


673 


bulky  and  weighty  than  they  look.  They 
are  tall,  with  an  upright  gait;  the  tail  is 
drooping  and  small,  with  beautiful,  but  not 
long,  sickle  feathers.  The  thighs  are  re- 
markably long,  strong,  and  firm,  and  the 
tarsi  round,  stout,  and  yellow.  Their  head 
is  snake-like,  with  great  fulness  over  the 
'jye,  giving  it  a  flattened  form  on  the 
top.  The  Malay  has  a  bold  eye,  a  red, 
skinny  face,  and  a  strong,  curved  hawk- 
beak.  The  comb  is  short,  small,  very  thick, 
and  close  to  the  head,  resembling  half  a 
strawberry;  the  wattles  are  very  small, 
and  the  wings  rather  set  up. 

The  favorite  colors  are  different  shades 
of  rich  chestnut  brown,  or  cinnamon. 
There  are  also  black-breasted  reds,  black, 
and  white. 

As  fowls  to  keep,  they  have  the  great 
merit  of  doing  well  in  any  back-yard,  and 
looking  handsomer  there  than  at  a  show. 
The  hens  are  often  pretty  good  winter 
layers.  The  eggs  are  of  medium  size 
with  tinted  shells ;  they  are  good  in 
flavor  and  hatch  well.  The  Malay  hen  is 
a  good  sitter  and  a  good  mother,  that  will 
hold  her  own,  and  defend  her  brood  with 
her  good  strong  beak,  if  necessary.  The 
chickens  are  hardy  little  things,  if  well 
bred,  but  they  fledge  late,  and  look  gaunt 
and  ugly  when  half  grown. 

Crevecoeurs  and  some  other  French  breeds 
fill  up  our  list  of  large  fowls.  It  is  cu- 
rious that  the  change  from  a  more  favor- 
able to  a  worse  climate  should  seem  to 
affect  the  well-being  of  fowls  detrimentally, 
in  going  only  across  the  Channel,  as 
the  Crevecoeurs,  La  Fleche,  and  Houdans 
do,  and  not  in  going  half  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  globe,  as  in  the  case  of  Cochins, 
Malays,  and  other  Asiatics :  but  so  it  is. 
As  far  as  we  have  had  an  opportunity  of 
judging  fowls  that  have  been  imported  from 
the  further  side  of  Asia  do  well  from 
the  time  of  their  arrival ;  but  many  who 
have  had  the  French  fowls  have  found  the 
Crevecoeurs  more  subject  to  roup  than 
even  the  Dorkings,  and  the  La  Fleche 
change  from  the  good  productive  fowls, 
which  we  suppose  they  are  in  their  own 
country,  to  but  indifferent  layers. 

The  Crevecoeur,  when  it  thrives,  is  an 
excellent  fowl  for  the  table,  being  square, 
plump-made,  and  large,  ready  to  fatten 
easily  (if  in  thorough  health  and  good 
condition),  compactly  formed,  and  short  in 
the  leg.  The  hens  are  said  to  be  good 
layers;  their  eggs  are  very  large,  and  they 


are  not  sitters.  The  chickens  come  to  ma- 
turity early,  and  one  authority  says  the 
pullets  often  exceed  the  cockerels  in  size. 
They  are  evidently  allied  to  the  Polish, 
which  are  nice  tame  fowls  to  keep,  but 
delicate  in  a  damp,  chilly,  variable  cli- 
mate. For  exhibition,  the  color  of  cocks 
and  hens  should  be  unvarying  black 
throughout,  with  metallic  lustre  on  the 
feathers,  but  to  breed  them  so  requires 
great  care  as  they  are  very  apt  to  have  a 
mixture  of  colored  or  white  feathers.  As 
in  black  Cochins  and  some  other  black 
fowls,  it  is  easier  to  breed  the  pullets  quite 
black  than  the  cockerels.  The  crest  is  full, 
large,  and  globular,  and  in  front  of  it  is 
a  comb  in  the  form  of  two  well-defined 
pikes,  and  these  horns  sometimes  grow 
large  and  spread  into  branches.  The  fowls 
are  bearded,  and  the  legs  blue  and  short. 

The  La  Flechf  is  also  a  black  fowl 
with  metallic  lustre,  large  and  plump-made 
It  is  good  for  the  table,  but  the  legs  are 
long  and  dark — a  great  objection.  The  eggs 
are  very  large,  but  the  hen  does  not  pro- 
duce well,  and  she  is  a  non-sitter.  The 
head  is  very  peculiar,  being  graced  with  a 
comb  in  the  form  of  upstanding  sipkes,  in 
front  of  a  dark-crest,  a  peculiar  rising 
over  the  nostrils,  large  white  ear-lobes,  red 
face,  and  long  red  wattles.  The  plumage 
is  very  close  and  firm;  the  tail  large.  The 
legs  dark-blue  or  slate. 

The  Houdan  is  the  last  of  the  French 
fowls  which  have  gained  a  certain  popu- 
larity among  fanciers.  It  is  compactly 
made,  the  body  round  and  well- formed,  the 
legs  short,  thick,  and  blue,  or  slate-col- 
ored, and  five-toed.  It  is  good  for  the 
table. 

HAMBURGHS 

The  Hamburgh  family  is  a  large  one,  in- 
cluding two  totally  distinct  races  of  fowls, 
the  Spangled  and  the  Pencilled — Ham- 
burghs  they  are  both  called — but  they  are 
about  as  distinct  as  Cochins  and  Dorkings. 
Both  kinds  are  divided  into  two — the  Gold- 
en and  the  Silver. 

The  Golden-Spangled  Hamburghs,  or 
Golden  Pheasant  Fowls,  were  very  gen- 
erally known  by  the  last  name  until  recent 
fancy  dubbed  them  Hamburghs. 

They  are  good  useful  fowls  to  keep,  and 
excellent  layers,  but  non-sitters.  The  eggs 
are  not  large,  but  larger  than  those  of  the 
Pencilled  Hamburghs.  The  fowls  are  pretty 
hardy,  and  easy  to  keep  in  condition,  but 


674 


POULTRY 


the  chickens  are  rather  tender.  They  are 
nice  plump  fowls  for  the  table,  although 
small.  In  breeding  them  the  parents  should 
be  exact  in  the  marking  and  rich  in  color, 
the  rooster  darker  than  the  hen :  it  is  best, 
for  maintaining  precision  in  marking  and 
other  points,  to  give  the  cock  very  few 
mates. 

It  is  well  to  avoid  stimulating  food,  when 
giving  it  may  induce  precocious  laying.  A 
young  fowl,  be  it  pullet  or  cockerel,  should 
be  well  developed  in  firmness  of  bone,  mus- 
cle, size,  and  furnishing,  before  it  assumes 
the  position  of  a  productive  adult,  that  it 
may  turn  out  one  which  will  do  us  good 
service  for  the  natural  term  of  its  life. 

All  the  Hamburghs  are  inherently  fond 
of  liberty;  they  want  a  good  range,  a  trifle 
will  not  prevent  their  breaking  bounds  to 
obtain  it  for  themselves,  and  their  lightness 
and  agility  enable  them  to  fly  like  sparrows. 

Silver-Spangled  Hamburghs  are  the  same 
as  the  Golden  in  general  properties.  If 
there  is  any  difference  between  them,  the 
Silver  are  the  stronger;  they  are  the  best 
layers,  and  the  eggs  are  rather  the  larger. 

Golden  and  Silver  Pencilled  Hamburghs. 
— The  Pencilled  Hamburghs  are  so  distinct 
from  the  Spangled  in  some  important  char- 
acteristics, that  it  seems  wrong  to  include 
both  under  one  general  name.  They  are 
more  fragile  in  form  and  constitution,  and 
different  in  shape  and  in  plumage,  although 
all  the  Hamburghs  agree  in  comb,  and  sev- 
eral other  points  before  mentioned.  The 
Pencilled  fowls  are  known  under  the  differ- 
ent names  of  Bolton  Bays  and  Grays  (the 
gold  and  silver),  Chittiprats,  Corals,  Cre- 
oles, Dutch  every-day  layers,  everlasting 
layers,  and  many  others. 

THE  POLISH    AND  THE  VARIOUS   CLASS 

The  Polish  fowls  are  pretty,  compactly 
made  fowls,  rather  under  than  over  medium 
size ;  for  the  Polish  of  the  present  time  are 
decidedly  smaller  than  these  fowls  used  to 
be  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  years  back. 
The  eggs,  too,  are  smaller.  This  degener- 
acy may  be  the  result  of  in-and-in-breeding, 
which  may  also  account  for  their  exceeding 
delicacy  of  constitution. 

Their  beauty  renders  them  great  favor- 
ites; they  are  mild-tempered,  timid  birds, 
loving  a  genial,  sunny  spot,  and  much  dis- 
liking to  be  handled.  They  are  good  layers 
of  white  eggs,  which  are  large  for  the  size 
of  the  hens;  and  for  the  table  the  flesh  is 
white  and  tender,  but  the  chickens  are  small 


for  that  purpose.  The  hens  are  non-sitters. 
All  the  Polish  sub-varieties  are  decidedly 
fancy  fowls,  requiring  and  repaying  great 
care  on  the  part  of  the  amateur. 

Silver-Spangled  Polish. — The  crest  of  the 
cock  should  be  white  streaked  with  black; 
that  of  the  hen  white  laced  with  black.  The 
hackle  of  both  cock  and  hen  white  streaked 
with  black,  and  the  wings  accurately  barred 
and  laced.  In  the  cock,  the  more  the  re- 
mainder of  the  plumage  can  be  spangled  the 
better,  and  the  tail  should  be  white,  with  a 
rich,  well  defined  spangle  at  the  end  of  each 
feather.  In  the  hen,  the  remainder  of  the 
plumage  should  be  accurately  spangled,  and 
the  tail  white,  each  feather  spangled  with 
black.  The  legs  are  blue,  and  the  head  free 
from  comb  or  gills. 

Golden  -  Spangled  Polish.  —  The  ground 
color  throughout  is  a  rich  golden  brown, 
the  hackle  of  both  cock  and  hen  streaked 
with  black,  the  wings  barred  and  laced,  the 
breast  spangled,  and  the  tails  black,  so  well 
bronzed  with  the  rich  ground  color  of  the 
plumage  as  to  harmonize  with  it.  If  there 
be  a  beard,  a  good  mixture  of  the  ground 
color  is  better  than  a  prevalence  of  black. 
The  top-knot,  too,  should  be  streaked  in  the 
cock  and  laced  in  the  hen.  Black  feathers 
and  white  in  the  crest  are  faults,  but  the 
white  feathers  will  come  in  both  cocks  and 
hens  as  they  grow  old. 

The  original  Spangled  Polish  fowl  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  bird  in  character  like 
the  Polish,  the  ground  color  of  the  plumage 
of  a  rich  golden  brown,  with  spangles  of 
white  and  black  united  in  each  spot,  and 
white  legs.  These  and  two  other  beautiful 
varieties  are  entirely  or  almost  lost. 

BANTAMS 

The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the 
Sebright  bantams,  besides  their  exactly  laced 
plumage,  are  diminutive  beauty,  and  jaunty, 
impudent  carriage.  Roosters  of  a  year  old 
should  not  exceed  21  oz.  in  weight,  nor  hens 
18  oz. ;  and  some  advocate  much  smaller  size 
still.  Smallness  of  size  is  an  important 
point  in  all  Bantams,  so  that  the  smaller 
they  are  the  better.  To  gain  this  point  they 
are  generally  bred  late  in  the  season,  some- 
times very  late,  but  seldom  earlier  than  July. 
Many  have  been  so  dwarfed  as  to  interfere 
with  their  reproductive  qualities,  and  the 
breeders  have  had  recourse  to  larger  speci- 
mens as  home  stock-birds,  reserving  the  very 
small  ones  for  exhibition  and  for  show. 
To  breed  productive  stock-birds,  the  in- 


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675 


breeding,  which  favors  small  size,  must  be 
avoided. 

The  proud  gait  of  the  Sebright  is  like 
that  of  the  fantail  pigeon;  the  head  and  tail 
are  held  erect  until  they  almost  touch  each 
other;  the  wing  is  not  closely  packed  away, 
but  is  allowed  to  droop  with  jaunty  gallan- 
try; the  body  is  plump,  and  the  breast  pro- 
tuberant. 

The  head  should  be  small  and  delicate, 
with  a  well-formed,  firmly  set  rose-comb, 
close  to  the  head,  exactly  in  the  centre,  with 
a  well-defined  pike,  a  little  turned  up  at  the 
end.  The  legs  should  be  blue. 

The  rooster  must  have  no  hackle  on  neck 
or  saddle,  and  no  sickle  feathers  in  the  tail. 

The  chickens  should  be  bred  from  mature 
birds.  They  must  be  kept  from  damp,  but 
in  a  dry  spot  they  are  tolerably  hardy.  Their 
diminutive  size  and  compact  beauty  render 
them  the  prettiest  among  chickens.  There 
is  scarcely  a  prettier  sight  than  a  Sebright 
mother  and  her  little  brood.  The  little  ones 
fledge  quickly,  and  require  constant  good 
feeding  during  the  process. 

The  Booted  Bantam  is  probably  the  ear- 
liest type  of  the  Bantam  race;  it  is,  at  any 
rate,  the  one  which  has  been  the  longest 
known,  having  been  introduced  in  England 
as  far  back  as  the  beginning  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  It  is  a,  small,  com- 
pactly made,  jaunty  little  bird,  with  abun- 
dant furnishing  in  hackle,  flowing  tail,  and 
heavily  booted  legs.  The  plumage  is  gen- 
erally perfectly  white,  but  there  are  also 
some  of  other  colors.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  Booted  Bantams  were 
more  thought  of  than  any  others  ;  afterward 
they  were  almost  lost  sight  of;  but  within 
the  last  very  few  years  they  have  appeared 
again,  and  often  win  prizes  in  a  Bantam 
class  for  other  varieties. 

White  and  Black  Bantams  are  beautifully 
diminutive,  bold  and  saucy  in  gait,  plenti- 
fully furnished  in  hackle  and  tail,  and  spot- 
lessly white  in  plumage,  or  perfectly  black, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  white  and  the 
black  have  each  a  distinct  class  at  the  shows, 
where  they  are  always  well  represented. 
The  white  bantam  rooster  must  have  a  fully 
sickled  tail  of  snowy  whiteness,  brilliantly 
red  rose-comb  and  wattles,  and  white  beak 
and  legs, — the  last  perfectly  free  from  feath- 
ers. The  hen  must  agree.  Many  may  be 
seen  weighing,  the  rooster  not  more  than  15 
ounces,  and  the  hen  12  ounces,  and  smaller 
weights  are  mentioned.  The  black  Bantams 
are  compact  in  form  and  bold  in  carriage. 


They  are  hardier  than  the  whites,  very  pro- 
lific, and  often  very  small.  .  The  plumage 
should  be  unmixed  black  with  metallic  lus- 
tre. Other  points  are  a  rose-comb,  small 
but  rather  wide  wattles,  and  rather  short 
blue  or  black  legs.  In  both  the  white  and 
the  black  the  ear-lobes  should  be  white,  but 
in  the  black  especially;  they  must  be  pure 
in  the  white,  and  free  from  any  tinge  of  red. 
Game  Bantams  must  be  exact  Game  fowls 
in  miniature. 

TURKEYS    AND    WATERFOWL 

•-•••      TURKEYS 

When  America  was  discovered,  turkeys 
were  found  in  a  domesticated  as  well  as  in 
a  wild  state,  and  the  French  name,  Dinde 
(D'Inde),  seems  to  indicate  that  they  came 
from  the  West  Indies,  the  East  Indies  pos- 
sessing no  such  bird. 

Turkeys  do  not  attain  full  growth  and  ma- 
turity until  they  moult  after  they  are  two 
years  old.  The  stock-birds  should  there- 
fore be  not  less  than  three  years  old,  for 
poults  bred  from  young  birds  are  sure  to 
be  tender.  To  obtain  fine  turkey  poults,  let 
the  hen  sit  on  the  first  eggs  she  lays  in  the 
season,  as  soon  as  she  will,  that  the  brood 
may  have  all  the  best  of  the  year  in  which 
to  make  their  growth.  Some  turkey-cocks 
are  very  spiteful  to  their  hens,  and  to 
the  young  ones,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to 
put  the  nest  in  a  place  of  safety.  The 
presence  of  the  gobbler  is  not  necessary 
after  the  early  part  of  the  season,  as  the 
entire  clutch  of  eggs  is  said,  on  good  au- 
thority, to  be  fertilized  at  once. 

The  turkey-cock  should  be  vigorous  and 
healthy,  broad  in  the  chest,  clean  in  the 
legs,  and  with  well-developed  wings  and 
tail.  His  eyes  should  be  bright,  and  the 
corunculated  skin  of  the  neck  full,  and 
rapid  in  its  changes  of  color.  He  is  in  his 
prime  from  three  years  old  to  seven  or 
more.  The  year  he  is  appointed  as  master 
at  home,  or  the  year  after,  a  fine  cock  poult 
should  be  selected  and  reared  to  take  his 
place  when  necessary.  From  the  peculiar 
property  in  turkeys  of  the  whole  batch  of 
eggs  being  fertilized  at  once,  one  turkey- 
cock  would  well  serve  a  whole  neighbor- 
hood; but  that  he  should  be  a  first-class 
mature  bird  is  all-important. 

The  hen  should,  of  course,  match  her 
lord ;  she  should  be  plump,  lively,  and  ani- 
mated, and  her  plumage  should  be  correct. 
If  she  be  black  white  feathers  are  a  fault. 


676 


POULTRY 


Her  eggs  will  produce  the  hardiest  poults 
after  she  is  three  years  old. 

A  number  of  companions  may  be  allowed 
one  cock  In  the  course  of  a  year,  but  never 
let  him  have  more  than  two  mates  at  the 
same  time. 

The  hen  foretells  laying  by  a  peculiar 
note  and  strut,  and  by  hunting  about  for 
A  sly  corner  to  lay  in.  In  the  domesticated 
as  in  the  wild  state,  the  cock  is  apt  to  de- 
stroy the  eggs,  and  the  hen  is  commensu- 
rately  anxious  to  hide  them  from  danger. 
She  should  be  watched  and  humored  to  the 
nest  prepared  for  her. 

If  the  turkey  hen  is  well  settled  to  the 
nest  before  the  eggs  are  given  to  her,  the 
poults  may  be  looked  for  on  the  twenty- 
sixth  day;  but  four  weeks  is  the  time  of 
incubation  usually  reckoned  on  for  turkeys' 
eggs,  and  some  persons  say  thirty-one  days. 
Whether  the  sitter  is  interfered  with  or 
not,  when  she  hatches  must  depend  on  her 
disposition. 

The  hen  turkey  will  sometimes  lay  and 
hatch  a  second  time  in  the  season,  but  late 
broods  require  great  care. 

Even  in  a  wild  state  the  turkey  poults 
are  delicate,  and  unable  to  endure  wet:  the 
young  of  the  domesticated  race  are  yet  more 
so,  and  must  be  kept  from  wet  and  cold. 
The  little  poults  will  peck  for  themselves 
as  soon  as  nature  prompts  the  necessity: 
until  then  leave  them  with  what  appears  to 
be  their  only  requirement — their  mother's 
warmth. 

At  first  the  little  ones  may  be  fed  on 
hard-boiled  eggs,  chopped  fine  and  mixed 
with  bread-crumbs  and  herbs  finely  minced, 
or  on  curd  and  bread-crumbs.  The  herbs 
to  use  with  their  food  are  chives,  young 
onion  tops,  fennel,  lettuce,  nettles,  and  pars- 
ley. The  water  should  be  given  in  shallow 
pans,  that  they  may  not  get  the  down  wet. 
As  they  get  older  they  will  feed  on  food 
made  of  barley-meal  and  oatmeal,  and  on 
grain.  Meal  boiled  in  milk  until  quite  thick 
is  good  food. 

The  little  turkey  poults  want  a  tolerably 
free  range,  and  they  must  be  so  constantly 
•well  fed  from  the  first  as  never  to  lose 
condition;  for  if  they  once  get  poor  they 
can  never  be  restored. 

The  most  important  thing  of  all  is  never 
to  let  the  little  turkeys  get  wet,  or  even 
damp.  Keep  them  in  in  the  morning  until 
the  dew  is  off  the  grass,  put  them  up  before 
the  damp  of  evening,  and  never  let  them 
be  out  in  the  rain.  Cottagers  in  the  coun- 


try, who  think  it  worth  while  to  keep  in 
the  brood  in  wet  weather,  and  to  drive  them 
in  when  rain  threatens,  rear  them  success- 
fully, as  it  is  generally  after  a  wetting  that 
the  little  poults  go  bad. 

When  the  turkeys  are  finished  up  with 
cramming,  it  may  be  done  by  giving  about 
six  rolls  of  barley-meal  and  sugar  before 
roosting-time  every  night  for  a  week  or  ten 
days.  In  France,  the  usual  food  is  meal 
paste  mixed  with  chopped  suet  and  milk, 
or  with  ale  and  molasses.  Whole  pepper, 
garlic,  aniseed,  and  tonic  herbs  are  also 
given.  Whole  walnuts  given  daily,  from 
4  to  40,  are  said  to  fatten  well.  If  turkey 
chicks  look  heavy  and  ruffled,"  a  little 
crushed  malt,  or  caraway  or  coriander 
seed,  will  do  good.  Let  them  be  fed  very 
constantly,  and  never  be  in  want  for  an 
hour.  If  they  do  not  run  at  large,  they 
must  have  a  little  meat,  turfs  of  grass, 
and  gravel.  Most  hens  require  cooping 
to  prevent  their  running  the  chicks  too 
far.  The  old  turkeys  are  very  fond  of  In- 
dian corn. 

GEESE 

Common  Goose. — It  is  almost  superflu- 
ous to  say  that  the  usual  mode  of  keeping 
geese  is  to  drive  them  out  to  pasture  in 
the  morning  and  to  house  them  at  night. 
If  there  be  any  right  of  common  to  which 
the  flock  can  be  turned  out,  they  will  al- 
most get  their  own  living,  as  grass  is  their 
main  food.  Turning  their  heads  sidewise, 
they  nip  it  off  quite  close,  and  consume  a 
good  quantity.  Whether  it  is  worth  while 
to  keep  geese  on  land  that  would  feed 
larger  stock,  is  a  question  for  economists: 
but  they  are  worth  keeping  where  they  can 
partly  live  on  grass  which  can  not  be 
turned  to  better  account. 

It  is  well  to  have  a  house  for  the  geese 
and  one  for  the  young  stock,  but  any  shed 
will  do,  and  it  need  not  be  too  closely  shut 
in.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  roof 
does  not  let  in  rain,  and  that  the  shelter 
which  the  house  affords  excludes  bitter, 
windy  draughts  upon  the  geese  at  night 
The  floors  should  be  dry,  and  if  litter  is 
used  it  must  be  renewed  as  often  as  clean- 
liness requires.  If  the  geese  can  have  a 
pond  at  command  within  the  day's  range, 
so  much  the  better ;  but  they  will  do  -with- 
out it. 

Geese  are  essentially  vegetable  feeders; 
they  will  eat  any  kind  of  corn,  pulse,  or 
greens,  such  as  cabbage,  lettuce,  mangold, 


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<i 


677 


lucerne,  tares,  and  now  and  then  sliced  car- 
rots and  turnips. 

The  old  geese  require  a  little  corn  twice 
a  day:  a  mere  sprinkle  in  the  morning,  if 
they  have  the  opportunity  of  doing  much 
for  themselves,  and  a  good  feed  at  night. 
In  mild  seasons  the  goose  will  lay  early : 
she  should  have  a  good,  large  nest,  in  a 
secure,  quiet  corner,  and  she  will  cover 
about  fifteen  eggs:  the  time  of  incubation 
is  thirty  days.  Give  her  plenty  of  food  and 
water,  to  which  to  help  herself,  when  she 
leaves  the  nest.  She  is  a  patient,  good  sit- 
ter, and  a  good  mother. 

In  choosing  stock-birds,  select  those 
which  are  long  in  the  body  and  small  in 
bone.  The  pouch  sagging  down  loose  be- 
hind is  generally  a  mark  of  age.  Allow 
three  geese  to  a  gander;  let  all  be  of  ma- 
ture age,  and  they  will  all  do  well  up  to 
twenty  years  old,  if  not  longer. 


DUCKS 

Ducks  are  very  hardy,  and  easy  to  feed, 
as  regards  quality  of  food;  for  they  will 
eat  almost  anything  with  appetite  and 
relish. 

The  humble  accommodation  of  a  mere 
shed  offers  quite  good  enough  housing. 
The  roof  should  be  water-tight,  and  the 
ground  of  the  shed  pretty  dry,  to  render  it 
a  good  place  for  the  sitters;  as,  if  the  nest 
be  very  damp,  the  eggs  are  apt  to  break, 
however  quiet  the  sitter  may  be. 

Four  ducks  to  a  drake  are  better  than  a 
larger  number.  The  stock-birds  should  be 
long  in  the  frame,  fleshy  (not  fat),  and 
small  in  bone. 

A  good-sized  duck  will  cover  fourteen 
eggs  well :  according  to  the  size  of  the 
duck,  the  number  allotted  her  may  be  from 
eleven  to  fifteen.  Give  her  oats  and  water 
near  her  nest,  that  she  may  come  off  and 
feed  when  she  likes ;  and  a  run  down  to  the 
pond  and  dip  therein  will  do  no  harm  to 
her  eggs,  but  rather  the  contrary,  by  im- 
parting from  the  sitter's  moist  feathers  the 
ttarm  damp  which  is  favorable  to  incuba- 
tion. 

Hens  may  be  set  on  ducks'  eggs,  when 
it  is  considered  that  the  extra  care  which 
can  be  bestowed  on  them  may  realize  greater 
size  for  exhibition  purposes;  but  ducklings 
so  reared  had  better  not  be  kept  as  stock- 
birds. 

For  the  first  few  weeks  it  is  better  to 
let  the  ducklings  have  no  pan  of  water  in 


which  they  can  immerse  themselves,  so  as 
to  wet  the  down  underneath  them. 

The  bill  of  fare  for  young  ducks  may  in- 
clude cold  boiled  oatmeal  porridge,  cooked 
vegetables,  mixed  up  with  barley-meal  or 
sharps,  crushed  oats  thrown  into  water, 
and  a  little  milk  when  convenient;  but  in 
giving  milk  to  young  things,  scouring  must 
always  be  guarded  against. 

Ducks,  old  and  young,  should  have  a  lit- 
tle litter  for  a  bed — straw,  dry  fern,  pea- 
haulm,  rushes,  or  anything  which  is  dry 
will  do.  The  eggs  do  not  keep  as  well  as 
hens'  eggs,  so  they  should  be  set  as  fresh 
as  possible. 

Aylesbury  Ducks  must  be  very  large, 
perfectly  white  in  plumage,  with  yellow  legs 
and  feet,  and  flesh-colored  bills.  Dark 
spots  or  streaks  on  the  bills  have  lost  many 
fine  pens  their  prizes.  Such  blemishes  may 
arise  from  the  ducks  frequenting  peaty 
land ;  to  get  fair,  unsullied  bills  is  a  great 
trouble  to  exhibitors.  A  good  pen  of  three 
drakes  and  two  ducks  will  weigh  23  Ib.  or 
24  Ib.,  and  26  1-4  Ib.  have  been  reached. 

Rouen  Ducks,  in  plumage,  resemble  the 
wild  duck,  but  they  are  of  splendid  size. 

The  Buenos  Ayres,  or  East  Indian  ducks, 
like  Bantams  among  fowls,  are  the  dwarfs 
among  ducks,  and  are  bred  as  small  as  pos- 
sible, and  shown  young,  to  make  the  most 
of  this  important  point  —  diminutive  size. 
They  must  be  very  small,  and  quite  black, 
with  brilliant  green  metallic  lustre  on  the 
plumage.  They  have  dark  legs  and  bills. 
They  often  incline  to  mate  in  pairs,  so  that 
if  only  one  drake  is  kept  to  two  or  more 
ducks,  many  eggs  will  prove  infertile;  the 
eggs  are  colored,  and,  of  course,  small. 

The  Musk,  Muscovy,  or  Brazilian  Duck 
is  very  distinct.  They  vary  in  color,  the 
usual  color  being  a  dull  black,  with  white 
on  the  under  surface,  and  some  other  por- 
tions of  their  bodies.  A  curious  red  warty 
cere  near  the  bill  characterizes  them;  and 
the  great  difference  of  size  between  the 
drake  and  the  duck  is  peculiar. 

A  large  black  duck,  with  brilliant  lustre 
on  the  plumage,  called  the  Cayuga  Black 
Duck,  is  mentioned.  It  is  a  native  of 
America,  and  is  said  to  have  been  domesti- 
cated from  some  wild  stock. 

Call  Ducks.— The  beautiful  little  Call  or 
Decoy  ducks  are  ornamental  and  very  small. 

These  are  the  kinds  most  frequently  seen. 
There  are  occasionally  sent  to  the  shows  the 
Hook-billed,  the  Penguin,  and  the  Top- 
knotted  Ducks* 


678 


POULTRY 


DISEASES 

There  is  little  economy  in  an  attempt  to 
doctor  sick  fowls;  as  a  labor  of  love  and 
a  matter  of  humanity,  the  case  may  be  dif- 
ferent, and  we  often  like  to  cure  or  lessen 
the  sufferings  of  a  favorite. 

Warmth,  shelter,  and  safety  from  the  mo- 
lestation of  other  fowls  is  often  a  main 
remedial  measure.  A  bask  by  a  kitchen 
fire,  for  a  few  days,  a  retreat  where  ty- 
rants can  not  hunt  or  peck  the  sufferer, 
and  simple  or  nourishing  food,  according 
to  whether  the  patient  is  suffering  from 
weakness  or  repletion,  is  frequently  by  it- 
self a  curative  treatment. 

If  little  chickens  pine  and  droop  the 
wings,  a  pill  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  the  size 
of  a  pea,  or  a  pellet  of  rue  and  butter,  may 
do  good  if  the  ailment  be  taken  in  good 
time.  Insects  must  always  be  duly  looked 
after,  dislodged  with  a  dusting  of  flour  of 
sulphur,  and  guarded  against  by  cleanliness, 
and  a  good  provision  of  dust-bath.  Most 
poultry  diseases  may  be  traced  to  the  effect 
of  chilly,  damp,  and  variable  climate,  so 
that  a  warm,  sheltered  locality,  and  good 
shelter  for  young  chickens,  are  all  impor- 
tant. 


Douglass'  mixture  is  excellent  for  giving 
strength  and  stamina  to  old  fowls,  or 
young.  Dissolve  together  with  a  little 
water  1-2  Ib.  of  sulphate  of  iron  and  i  oz. 
of  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  add  spring  water 
enough  to  make  up  two  gallons,  let  it  stand 
for  a  fortnight,  mix  a  teaspoonful  of  the 
mixture  with  a  pint  of  water,  and  give  it  to 
fowls  or  chickens  to  drink  instead  of  water. 

Decoction  of  citrate  of  iron  mixed  with 
water  in  the  proportion  to  give  it  a  very 
perceptible  taste  of  iron,  is  also  good  as  a 
strengthener. 

If  inflammation  in  the  egg  passage  be 
denoted  by  the  production  of  soft  or  mis- 
shapen eggs,  give  one  grain  of  calomel, 
with  i-i2th  of  a  grain  of  tartar  emetic.  It 
should  be  repeated  three  times  in  a  week 
at  intervals. 

If  mature  fowls  appear  feverish  and 
drooping,  and  seem  to  require  a  dose  of 
medicine,  give  one  of  Plummer's  pill,  a  bit 
of  Barbadoes  aloes  the  size  of  a  large  pea, 
or  five  grains  of  jalap  in  a  bolus  of  barley- 
meal,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  dose 
required.  If,  however,  they  are  judiciously 
fed  and  properly  cared  for,  medical  treat- 
ment will  rarely  be  required. 


INDOOR  GARDENING 


NO  ARTICLES  of  home  decoration  are  cheaper  or  more  effective 
than  living  plants,  nor  is  there  any  means  of  diversion  more 
within  the  reach  of  all  classes  of  people.  It  must  be  admitted,  also, 
that  nothing  is  quicker  than  an  indoor  plant  to  resent  neglect  or  other  bad 
treatment. 

In  the  warmer  months  of  the  year  almost  all  kinds  of  plants  that  can  be 
cultivated  in  pots  may  be  successfully  grown  on  window  ledges;  to  give 
sufficient  water  to  avoid  the  baking  of  the  soil  by  the  fierce  rays  of  the 
sun  is  almost  the  only  necessary  attention.  It  is  in  winter,  however,  when 
flowers  can  not  be  grown  out-of-doors,  and  when  the  cheapest  at  the  florist's 
seem  costly,  that  plants  are  most  desirable  for  the  house  and  require  most 
care. 

All  varieties  of  plants  that  flourish  in  greenhouses  have  been  grown 
successfully  in  residences,  but  the  amateur  with  little  or  no  experience  would 
do  well  to  begin  with  varieties  that  require  least  care  and  that  are  least 
susceptible  to  the  house-enemies  of  all  life,  human  as  well  as  vegetable — 
foul,  overdried  and  overheated  air,  and  darkness.  Precautions  against 
these,  for  the  sake  of  plants,  will  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  inmates  of  the 
house;  large  house-gardens  have  often  saved  more  than  their  cost  in 
reducing  the  demand  for  physicians  and  medicines. 


THE    CHOICE   AND   CARE   OF   INDOOR   PLANTS 


BEGINNERS  at  indoor  culture  of  plants 
should  start  by  buying  potted  stock 
from  florists.  The  cheapest,  most  endur- 
ing, and  most  floriferous  plant  is  the  flower- 
ing geranium,  which  may  be  obtained  in 
many  varieties  of  color;  some  kinds  are 
beautiful  merely  through  the  variegations 
of  their  leaves.  For  indoor  decoration, 
through  foliage  alone,  the  plant  that  best 
endures  house  air  is  the  palm;  this  is  now 


to  be  had  in  great  variety;  small  specimens 
are  cheap,  and  may  be  obtained,  even  by 
mail,  from  any  prominent  florist.  They  grow 
rapidly,  and  confer  an  air  of  distinction  on 
their  surroundings.  The  India-rubber  plant, 
naturally  a  vine,  but  trained  for  indoor  use 
as  a  bush  or  single  stem,  never  fails  to 
please;  its  leaves  are  very  large,  thick,  and 
glossy,  and  they  endure  dry,  hot  air  well. 
For  a  mass  of  foliage,  however,  nothing  is 

(679) 


680 


INDOOR    GARDENING 


cheaper  or  of  more  rapid  growth  than  the 
vine  best  known  as  the  German  ivy;  so 
long  as  the  earth  about  the  roots  is  not  al- 
lowed to  become  dry,  the  shoots  will  grow 
several  inches  a  week,  and  in  sunny  win- 
dows the  plant  will  often  bloom,  the  blos- 
soms being  in  small,  yellowish-white  clus- 
ters. The  shoots  of  this  ivy  may  be  trained 
about  picture-frames  and  over  windows  and 
cornices,  but  they  are  so  brittle  that  great 
care  must  be  observed  when  the  plant  is 
taken  down  to  be  washed,  as  will  be  de- 
scribed hereafter.  A  stronger  and  more 
rapidly  growing  vine  is  that  of  the  passion- 
flower; it  will  not  bloom  in  the  house  ex- 
cept in  highly  favoring  circumstances,  but 
it  is  a  rampant  grower.  The  variety  known 
as  Pfordii  has  a  large,  light-green  leaf; 
Constance  Elliott,  with  a  smaller  and  very 
dark  leaf,  is  a  stronger  variety. 

The  flowering  plants  most  desired  in- 
doors are  roses,  violets,  and  carnations; 
they  are  also  the  most  difficult  to  rear. 
l  They  require  more  light  and  fresher  air 
than  can  be  found  in  residences  in  general; 
they  manifest  discontent  with  their  sur- 
roundings by  becoming  covered  with  in- 
sects that  are  not  easily  .disposed  of ;  never- 
theless, roses,  violets,  and  carnations  have 
been  successfully  raised  in  houses  that  have 
open  fires,  loose-jointed  windows,  and  sunny 
exposure.  A  free-blooming  plant  that  does 
not  demand  strong  light  is  the  fuchsia,  of 
which  there  are  many  beautiful  varieties, 
and  all  are  cheap.  Begonias,  too,  deserve 
the  attention  of  any  amateur;  they  are 
quick-growing  and  of  abundant  bloom ;  even 
while  "resting"  they  are  interesting  through 
their  foliage,  every  leaf  of  which  looks  as 
if  newly  varnished.  The  bloom  is  in  pan- 
icles, or  clusters,  and  the  plant  roots  so 
readily  from  cuttings  that  the  stock  may 
be  easily  increased  without  cost.  The  pe- 
riod of  bloom  of  new  plants  of  the  begonia 
or  fuchsia  is  quite  long.  In  a  sunny  win- 
dow of  any  room  that  is  not  heated  above 
seventy  degrees,  that  is  properly  aired  sev- 
eral times  a  day,  the  Chinese  primrose  and 
the  Cyclamen  will  bloom  for  several  suc- 
cessive weeks.  The  leaves  of  the  primrose 
seem  to  resent  wetting  when  the  plant  is 
grown  indoors. 

If  in  the  house  there  is  a  window  that 
need  not  be  disturbed,  it  can  be  made  a 
thing  of  beauty  by  growing  two  or  three 
plants  of  climbing  asparagus  in  it  and  train- 
ing them  on  strings ;  the  foliage  is  extremely 
delicate,  and  well-grown  plants  can  often 
spare  some  sprays  for  table  decoration.  For 
this  same .  purpose  nothing  is  more  useful 


than  ferns,  and  these  grow  best  in  the  cool- 
est, least-lighted  rooms,  from  which  they 
can  be  brought  for  special  decoration  when 
required.  The  finer  varieties  will  not  en- 
dure heat,  but  any  one  can  transplant  and 
grow  the  "shield"  fern,  native  and  wild  in 
almost  all  the  States;  and  the  leaf,  when 
mature,  contains  so  much  silex  that  it  will 
endure  the  air  of  almost  any  living-room. 

For  many  reasons,  the  plants  commer- 
cially known  as  "Holland  bulbs"  are  most 
desirable  for  indoor  culture  by  amateurs. 
They  are  cheaper  than  any  other  plants, 
many  of  them  are  extremely  fragrant,  some 
are  entirely  free  of  the  insect  enemies,  and 
most  of  them  are  so  easy  of  culture  that 
only  lack  of  water  can  bring  failure.  Their 
botanical  structure  is  so  simple  and,  at  the  , 
same  time,  so  advanced,  that  while  the  bulb 
is  still  dry  it  contains  the  flower-bud;  and 
so  susceptible  is  this  to  moisture  and 
warmth,  that  many  hastily  packed  bulbs 
have  bloomed  in  their  cases  in  the  depths 
of  a  steamship's  hull  while  en  route  from 
Holland  to  this  country.  Like  most  other 
plants,  they  detest  the  hot,  dry  rooms  and 
stale  air  in  which  some  human  beings  ex- 
ist, but  unless  killed  by  thirst  they  will,  in 
their  proper  time,  bloom  anywhere,  whether 
in  darkness  or  daylight,  in  heat  or  in  any 
cold  that  is  not  below  freezing.  Extreme 
heat  will  cause  their  stems  to  droop,  their 
flowers  to  fade  rapidly,  and  their  leaves  to 
elongate  and  bend;  but  there  will  be  no 
diminution  in  the  number  of  flowers  or  in 
the  volume  of  perfume. 

Holland  bulbs — which  are  imported  in 
early  autumn  and  remain  fit  for  use  until 
New  Year's  Day,  perhaps  longer — may  be 
purchased  and  planted  by  any  amateur,  and 
cared  for  with  little  or  no  trouble  until 
they  are  ready  to  bloom.  In  appearance 
they  greatly  resemble  onions  of  different 
sizes.  They  will  grow  in  any  soil,  or  even 
in  water,  yet  will  repay  special  treatment 
according  to  suggestions  given  on  follow- 
ing pages. 

The  leader  of  this  class  of  bulbous  plants 
is  the  hyacinth,  the  florets  of  which  may 
be  had  in  many  shades  of  any  color  but 
green.  In  most  varieties  the  bulb  sends  up 
a  single  stem,  which  has  from  twenty-five 
to  fifty  florets.  In  some  varieties,  and  es- 
pecially the  Roman,  the  bulb  sends  up  sev- 
eral stalks,  each  displaying  a  few  small 
florets,  of  high  perfume.  The  single  va- 
rieties are  preferable  for  house  culture; 
double  florets  seem  to  require  cooler,  moist- 
er  air.  Prices  of  hyacinths  vary  according 
to  size  of  the  bulbs  and  comparative  rarity 


INDOOR    GARDENING 


681 


of  varieties,  but  good,  standard  kinds,  and 
of  average  size,  may  be  had  at  ten  cents 
each  or  a  dollar  per  dozen;  unnamed  bulbs 
sell  by  the  dozen  at  five  cents  each;  and 
professional  florists  usually  content  them- 
selves with  hyacinth  bulbs  costing  not  more 
than  two  cents  each  by  the  hundred. 

Next  in  value  to  the  hyacinth,  for  home 
culture,  comes  the  narcissus  family.  Here 
the  colors  are  restricted  to  yellow  and  white, 
except  that  one  variety  has  a  tiny  cir- 
clet of  red  on  the  edge  of  its  cup.  The 
narcissi  are  divided  into  classes,  according 
to  shapes  of  flower  and  other  peculiarities 
of  bloom;  any  prominent  florist's  autumn 
catalogue  will  contain  illustrations  showing 
differences  of  size  and  form.  The  flowers 
differ,  also,  in  quantity  and  quality  of  per- 
fume; some  are  highly  scented,  while  oth- 
ers are  entirely  devoid  of  odor. 

After  hyacinths  and  narcissi,  the  amateur 
should  pay  some  attention  to  the  tulip,  se- 
lecting double  varieties,  unless  he  has  a 
cool  room  in  which  to  forward  his  plants. 
Tulips  are  unequaled  for  brilliancy  of  color 
and  perfection  of  form,  but  the  latter,  in 
the  single  varieties,  is  quickly  marred  by 
heat  and  by  dry  air.  Insect  pests  seldom 
or  never  appear  on  the  hyacinth  and  nar- 
cissus, but  they  delight  in  the  tulip,  al- 
though very  rich  soil  usually  prevents  their 
appearance.  Were  it  not  for  .its  attractive- 
ness to  insects,  the  crocus  would  also  be  a 
valuable  bulb  for  indoor  use.  Freesias, 
scillas,  and  snowdrops  are  also  likely  to  be- 
come covered  with  insects  when  grown  in- 
doors. All  bulb  dealers  advertise  the  ra- 
nunculus and  anemone,  but  not  one  ama- 
teur in  a  hundred  ever  succeeds  in  coaxing 
flowers  from  these  roots  indoors.  Aside 
from  Holland  bulbs,  there  are  two  bulbous 
plants — the  "Bermuda"  lily  and  the  Lilium 
longiflorum  —  that  should  be  planted  in 
autumn  and  that  usually  do  well  indoors. 

Bulbous  plants  will  root  and  bloom  in 
any  kind  of  soil  except  stiff  clay;  most  of 
them  will  do  fairly  well  even  in  water, 
but  to  get  the  best  results  the  soil  should 
be  both  light  and  rich  without  rankness. 
If  potting  soil  can  be  purchased  from  a 
florist  it  will  answer  the  purpose,  particu- 
larly if  the  florist  pays  special  attention  to 
bulbs.  Amateurs  who  must  prepare  soil  for 
themselves  may  try  any  of  several  ways, 
according  to  the  materials  available;  the 
best  plan  is  to  mix  equal  parts,  by  weight, 
of  leaf-mould  or  genuine  muck,  sand,  and 
thoroughly  rotted  manure;  if  the  latter  is 
at  all  "fresh"  it  should  not  be  used,  for 
bulbs  are  ruined  by  any  stimulation  that 


is  not  gentle.  If  leaf-mould  or  muck  can 
not  be  had,  use  the  best  garden  soil  ob- 
tainable; well-rotted  turf  is  so  desirable, 
instead,  that  many  amateurs  begin  a  year 
in  advance  to  prepare  it,  but  it  can  seldom 
be  had  to  order.  If  sand  can  not  be  got, 
use  sifted  coal  ashes  to  lighten  the  soil. 
The  soil  should  be  sifted  or  otherwise  han- 
dled, so  as  to  make  sure  that  worms  are 
excluded. 

Bulbs  will  do  fairly  well  in  boxes,  tin 
cans,  or  any  kind  of  crockery;  but  they 
flourish  best  when  planted  in  ordinary  flow- 
er-pots. These  should  be  soaked  before 
they  are  used;  if  they  are  old,  they  should 
be  scrubbed,  inside  and  outside,  to  clear  the 
pores,  for  no  plant  does  well  in  a  dirty  pot. 
For  one  ordinary  hyacinth,  or  large  narcis- 
sus bulb,  the  pot  should  be  not  less  than 
four  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top;  five 
inches  is  a  better  size.  In  potting  a  hya- 
cinth, fill  the  pot  with  earth,  scoop  a  hole 
in  the  centre  and  bury  only  the  bottom  half 
of  the  bulb ;  this  is  to  prevent  the  bulb  from 
opening  and  sending  up  several  small  flower 
stalks  instead  of  one  large  one.  A  narcissus 
bulb  may  be  entirely  covered,  or  a  portion 
of  the  blossom-end  may  remain  exposed  if 
the  pot  is  small.  In  a  five-inch  pot  three 
or  four  tulips  may  be  planted,  close  to  the 
side  of  the  pot,  with  their  tops  entirely 
covered.  Any  lily  bulb  larger  than  a  hya- 
cinth should  have  a  six-inch  pot  and  be 
covered  to  the  depth  of  an  inch. 

After  planting,  water  thoroughly  and  set 
the  pots  in  a  dark  corner  of  a  cellar,  or  in 
a  dark  room  or  closet,  otherwise  the  tops 
will  start  before  the  roots  and  the  bloom 
will  be  small.  For  more  than  a  month  they 
will  require  no  attention  but  a  thorough  wa- 
tering about  once  a  week. 

More  satisfactory  than  potting,  to  per- 
sons who  can  buy  bulbs  freely,  is  to  use 
seed-pans.  One  of  these,  made  of  ordinary 
pot-clay,  but  far  wider  in  proportion  to 
depth,  and  ten  inches  in  diameter,  will  ac- 
commodate half  a  dozen  hyacinths  or  large 
narcissi,  or  a  dozen  tulips;  the  cost  will 
be  less  than  that  of  six  pots  and  the  effect 
much  finer.  All  bulbs  planted  in  a  seed- 
pan  should  be  of  the  same  variety,  so  that 
all  may  be  of  equal  height  as  well  as  of  the 
same  period  of  blooming. 

In  ordering  hyacinths,  the  novic?  will  do 
well  to  leave  the  selection  of  varieties  to 
the  dealers,  specifying  that  they  are  for  in- 
door planting.  Roman  hyacinths  should  be 
named  if  wanted,  for  they  are  a  class  by 
themselves;  they  are  cheaper  as  well  as 
smaller  than  the  Dutch  hyacinths  proper; 


682 


INDOOR   GARDENING 


they  have  the  special  merit  of  blooming 
several  weeks  earlier  than  other  varieties, 
and  of  producing  flower  -  clusters  small 
enough  to  wear.  Three  of  them  may  be 
planted  in  a  five-inch  pot  They  are  sold 
by  color,  not  by  special  name;  they  may 
be  had  in  yellow,  pink,  rose,  light-blue,  and 
white,  the  latter  being  the  earliest. 

Hyacinths  grow  freely  and  bloom  well 
in  water  alone.  Glasses  made  for  the  pur- 
pose should  be  used;  they  are  in  several 
shapes,  the  best  and  most  effective  in  ap- 
pearance being  of  what  is  known  in  the 
trade  as  "Tye's  shape" — a  low  vase  with  a 
broad  bottom.  The  glass  should  be  so 
nearly  filled  with  clear  water  that  the 
top  of  the  bulb  almost  touches  the  sur- 
face. The  glass  should  be  set  in  a  dark, 
cool  place  until  the  roots  reach  the  bottom; 
then  it  may  be  brought  to  the  light.  A 
hyacinth  grown  in  water  will  be  useless  for 
subsequent  planting;  potted  hyacinths  may 
be  used  a  second  year,  but  their  bloom  will 
be  smaller. 

Hyacinths  in  pots  should  remain  in  a 
dark,  cool  place  until  the  leaves  are  well 
started  and  the  flower-head  has  been  forced 
so  high  that  the  stem  may  be  seen.  When 
brought  into  rooms  they  should  be  kept 
from  the  sun  and  strong  light  for  several 
days.  At  first  their  leaves  and  buds  will 
appear  pallid — almost  white — but  they  rap- 
idly regain  their  proper  color.  They  should 
also  be  placed  in  saucers  or  trays,  which 
should  never  be  without  water  while  the 
plants  are  in  bloom.  They  do  not  require 
sunshine. 

The  narcissi  should  receive  the  same  gen- 
eral treatment  as  hyacinths,  except  that 
they  may  be  brought  to  the  light  earlier, 
for  as  their  flowers  appear  at  tips  of  long 
stalks  they  can  not  easily  bloom  before  get- 
ting above  their  sheathing  of  leaves,  as  hy- 
acinths will  do  if  too  soon  exposed. 

Not  all  the  narcissi  do  well  indoors.  One 
of  the  best  varieties  for  beginners  is  also 
one  of  the  cheapest  and  is  of  rich  fra- 
grance; it  is  called  the  campernel,  and  bears 
two  or  more  large,  single  yellow  flowers 
on  each  stalk.  By  the  dozen  it  costs  about 
two  cents  per  bulb,  or  one  cent  by  the  hun- 
dred. Three  may  be  planted  in  a  five-inch 
pot  or  a  dozen  in  a  ten-inch  pan,  and  each 
will  send  up  several  flower-stalks  in  suc- 
cession. The  campernel  is  of  the  jonquil 
class,  which  contains  also  the  single  and 
double  jonquil,  both  yielding  small  flowers 
of  exquisite  perfume;  half  a  dozen  of  these 
may  be  planted  in  a  single  pot  Of  "show" 


varieties,  more  remarkable  for  beauty  and 
size  than  for  fragrance,  the  finest  are  Em- 
peror, Empress,  Golden  Spur,  Horsfieldii, 
and  Sir  Watkin;  they  cost  from  ten  to 
twenty  cents  each,  and  will  delight  any  one 
who  plants  them.  They  should  have  about 
as  much  space  as  hyacinths.  Cheap  and 
satisfactory  double  varieties  are  Orange 
Phoenix  (white)  and  Von  Sion  (yellow,); 
either  costs  about  five  cents  per  bulb. 

All  amateurs  should  try  the  water  nar- 
cissus, commonly  called  the  "Chinese  Lily"; 
the  bulbs,  which  are  very  large  and  cost 
about  ten  cents  each,  should  be  set  on 
stones  in  a  pan  or  dish  of  water,  singly  or 
several  together,  with  bits  of  stone  about 
them  to  keep  them  from  moving.  Each 
bulb  throws  up  several  stalks  of  fragrant 
flowers,  and  the  foliage  remains  luxuriant 
and  ornamental  long  after  the  flowers  have 
faded. 

Still  another  section  of  narcissi — the  poly- 
anthus, or  many-flowered — is  cheap  and  in- 
teresting. All  the  narcissi — except  the  so- 
called  Chinese  Lily,  which  does  not  bloom 
a  second  time — improve  with  age,  the  bulbs 
slowly  increasing  by  division. 

The  flower-stalks  of  bulbs  should  be  cut 
away  as  soon  as  the  bloom  fades  and  water 
should  be  given  more  sparingly;  the  plants 
will  be  ornamental,  through  their  foliage 
alone,  for  several  weeks,  but  they  can  at 
once  be  removed  to  cellar  or  elsewhere  if 
their  places  are  needed  for  blooming  plants. 
When  the  leaves  begin  to  turn  yellow,  water 
should  be  almost  entirely  withheld.  In  the 
late  spring  the  leaves  and  roots  will  have 
died;  the  bulbs  should  then  be  taken  from 
the  earth  and  kept  in  as  dry  and  cool  a 
place  as  possible  until  the  following  au- 
tumn. 

The  blooming  season  of  even  a  small 
collection  of  bulbs  may  be  made  to  extend 
over  almost  half  a  year  by  successive  plant- 
ings. If  some  bulbs  are  purchased  and 
planted  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  market 
(in  late  August  or  early  September),  some 
of  the  white  Roman  hyacinths  may  be  hur- 
ried into  bloom  at  Thanksgiving  by  bring- 
ing them  to  the  light  three  weeks  after 
planting.  Others  will  rapidly  succeed  these, 
after  which  will  bloom  the  Chinese  lilies, 
followed  by  other  narcissi,  which  will  be 
succeeded  by  early  varieties  of  the  Dutch 
hyacinths.  Successive  plantings  in  mid- 
October — at  Thanksgiving  and  at  Christ- 
mas— will  provide  for  succession.  From  a 
do7en  hyacinths  or  narcissi  of  various 


INDOOR    GARDENING 


683 


kinds,  planted  at  one  time,  not  more  than 
three  plants  are  likely  to  endeavor  to  bloom 
in  a  single  week.  Of  all  the  bulbous  plants 
named,  tulips  are  of  slowest  growth. 

All  house-plants  mentioned  above,  whether 
bulbous  or  otherwise  (except  the  primrose), 
need  and  deserve  an  occasional  washing  to 
remove  dust  from  their  .leaves  and  stems. 
The  best  method  is  to  place  pot  and  plant 
in  a  bathtub  or  washtub  and  sprinkle  thor- 
oughly; any  method  of  sprinkling  will  an- 
swer, although  the  work  can  be  done  easiest 
and  best  with  the  rubber  bulb  sprinkler  that 
is  made  for  the  purpose. 

A  sharp  watch  should  be  kept  for  insects, 
although  not  many  of  the  plants  above 
named  are  subject  to  them.  The  most 
common  one  is  the  plant-louse,  a  light- 
green  bug  a  little  larger  than  the  head 
of  a  pin;  it  appears  first  on  the  youngest, 
tenderest  shoots  of  soft-wooded  plants  and 
vines  and  multiplies  with  great  rapidity. 


It  may  be  banished  by  frequent  use  of  a 
strong  decoction  of  tobacco — say  an  ounce 
to  a  quart  of  hot  water;  this  water,  when 
cold,  can  be  applied  to  the  affected  parts 
of  small  plants  with  a 'camel's-hair  brush. 
Should  the  plant  be  large  and  badly  af- 
fected, it  should  be  sprinkled  with  tobacco 
solution  or  dipped  in  it. 

Many  lovers  of  indoor  gardening  are 
tempted  to  try  the  culture  of  the  dainty, 
delicate  orchid.  Unless  the  amateur  thor- 
oughly understands  this  seductive  plant,  or 
can  secure  the  frequent  advice  of  one  who 
does,  he  will  do  well  to  leave  the  orchid 
alone.  Even  the  commonest  varieties  per- 
ish without  the  most  constant  and  skilful 
care.  The  rarest  varieties  are  not  only  per- 
ishable, but  very  expensive.  This  plant 
should  not  be  purchased  except  by  the 
amateur  who  has  both  a  great  deal  of 
time  and  of  money  to  devote  to  the  pur- 
suit of  his  fad. 


HEAI         HINTS  FOR  WOMEN 


MUCH  attention  has  been  bestowed  in  recent  years  upon  the  various 
means  of  improving  the  personal  appearance.  Skilled  physicians, 
chemists,  and  surgeons  have  devoted  their  attention  to  a  subject 
formerly  left  to  quacks  and  charlatans,  and  the  work  of  preserving  or 
restoring  beauty  has  been  brought  within  the  province  of  legitimate  practice. 

A  brief  consideration  of  the  nature  and  functions  of  the  skin  will 
demonstrate  the  relationship  which  exists  between  a  healthy  and  pleasing 
appearance  and  the  health  generally.  The  primary  purposes  of  the  skin  are 
the  protection  of  the  external  surface  of  the  body  and  the  support  of  the 
internal  organs.  The  sensations  are  also  realized  by  us  through  the  nerves 
by  means  of  the  skin,  which  also  supplements  the  lungs  as  an  organ  of 
respiration.  It  has  powers  of  absorption  and  secretion,  and  in  its  filter- 
like  capacity  acts  as  a  purifier  to  the  entire  system.  By  means  of  perspira- 
tion it  regulates  the  heat  of  the  body  and  keeps  it  at  an  almost  equable 
temperature.  It  will  thus  be  seen  how  imperative  it  is  in  the  first  instance 
to  keep  the  skin  in  a  healthy  and  active  condition. 

The  heart  in  pumping  the  blood  through  the  system  forces  it  outward 
to  the  skin,  at  which  point  it  becomes  charged  with  oxygen  and  distributes 
this  vitalizing  agent  through  the  body,  repairing  by  this  means  the  con- 
tinual waste  of  the  fabric. 

The  microscope  reveals  millions  of  small  thread-like  tubes,  known  as 
capillaries,  which  penetrate  from  the  surface  inward  to  all  parts  of  the 
body,  forming  the  most  delicate  mechanism  imaginable. 

It  is  therefore  easily  seen  that  cleanliness  is  as  essential  to  health  as 
to  beauty,  and  that  the  bath  is  the  most  important  of  all  things  as  an  aid 
to  securing  both. 

To  daub  up  the  face  with  cosmetics  without  most  thoroughly  washing 
it  is  to  invite  the  very  ills  which  the  person  so  doing  is  attempting  to  shun. 
In  fact,  as  a  rule,  most  of  the  preparations  upon  the  market  for  treating 
the  skin  are  dangerous,  and  many  a  complexion  has  been  ruined  .by  the 
use  of  them.  The  greatest  discretion  should  be  practiced  in  dealing  with 
the  skin,  for  nothing  is  so  easy  as  to  ruin  forever  a  complexion  which  by 
the  proper  means  might  have  been  made  either  tolerable  or  beautiful. 

(684) 


HEALTH    HINTS    FOR   WOMEN 


685 


There  are  any  number  of  formulas,  the  ingredients  of  which  are  pure 
and  harmless,  and  these  often  prove  efficient  in  various  ways.  They  can 
be  put  up  by  any  good  druggist,  and  will  be  found  not  only  beneficial,  but 
far  more  economical  than  the  patent  nostrum. 


BENEFICIAL    TREATMENTS    AND    EXERCISES 


THE   BATH 

THE  fundamental  point  in  the  ethics  of 
beauty  being  the  path,  it  may  be  well 
to  make  a  few  remarks  at  the  outset  in 
regard  to  bathing. 

It  has  been  found  that  while  the  cold 
plunge  bath  is  suited  to  some  constitutions 
and  skins,  the  warm  bath  is  more  advan- 
tageous to  others.  In  this  respect,  there- 
fore, one  must  follow  the  needs  of  his 
own  particular  case;  for  no  consideration, 
however,  failing  to  use  one  or  the  other 
with  regularity.  If  the  bath  be  omitted 
the  pores  of  the  skin  become  clogged  up, 
and  its  natural  purpose  of  expelling  the 
waste  of  the  system  is  interfered  with. 
The  circulation  of  the  blood  is  impeded, 
and  neither  health  nor  good  looks  can  be 
expected  to  come  from  any  system  of 
treatment. 

For  persons  of  a  hardy  constitution  the 
cold  bath  is  most  desirable.  It  should, 
preferably,  be  taken  in  the  morning  imme- 
diately upon  arising.  When  the  spray  or 
plunge  can  not  be  borne,  a  good  sponging 
from  head  to  feet  can  be  resorted  to.  The 
skin  should  be  dried  by  rubbing  with  a 
rough  towel,  which  will  give  the  blood 
a  healthy  rousing  and  bring  all  the  organs 
into  activity. 

The  hot  or  warm  bath  has  its  purposes 
as  certainly  as  the  cold  bath. 

Persons  with  delicate  constitutions,  and 
those  suffering  from  over-fatigue,  find  it 
very  beneficial;  in  the  latter  instance  re- 
laxation of  the  muscles  is  produced  and 
the  body  prepared  for  a  healthy  sleep. 

In  cases  where  a  dry  hard  skin  is  the 
cause  of  annoyance,  the  hot  bath  will  be 
found  invaluable,  and  its  regular  use  is 
recommended. 

The  objection  to  a  too  frequent  use  of 
the  warm  bath  is  that  it  is  enervating,  and 
especially  so  when  a  long  time  is  spent  in 
the  water.  Unlike  the  cold  bath,  it  does 
not  stimulate  the  skin  and  its  accessories 
to  healthy  action,  and  when  used  to  excess 
it  causes  the  epidermis  to  become  wrinkled 
and  flabby.  The  warm  bath  decreases  the 
circulation  and  impairs  tfie  nervous  force 


also,  making  those  who  indulge  in  it  very 
susceptible  to  atmospheric  changes. 

The  top  of  the  head  should  invariably  be 
wetted  first  when  the  entire  body  is  to  be 
immersed. 

The  rationale  of  the  bath  is  one  of  the 
most  important  things  to  have  clearly  un- 
derstood. A  distinguished  English  physi- 
cian says  of  it:  "Doubtless,  when  judi- 
ciously employed  and  when  a  proper  glow 
follows,  it  is  a  beneficial  tonic.  The  blood, 
driven  from  the  surface  by  the  contraction 
of  the  blood  vessels,  is  returned  to  the 
heart  and  the  circulation  is  quickened.  But 
where  no  reaction  takes  place,  where  the 
skin  remains  blue,  the  cold  bath  has  done 
positive  mischief,  and  the  next  time  tepid 
water  should  be  used.  The  truth  is  that 
warm  and  cold  water  have  precisely  the 
same  results  in  different  people.  In  the 
strong,  cold  water  secures  a  reaction,  and 
the  same  warmth  is  obtained  as  is  ob- 
tained directly  and  without  reaction  when 
a  less  sturdy  person  uses  warm  water. 
The  effect  is  to  quicken  the  circulation.  In 
one  case  the  blood  is  driven  in  upon  the 
internal  organs,  which  in  their  turn  propel 
it  again  to  the  extremities ;  and  in  the 
other  case  the  blood  is  drawn  to  the  sur- 
face and  extremities,  the  vessels  in  the  skin 
being  relaxed  and  opened  by  the  genial 
warmth.  And  I  would  remark  that  in 
cases  where  there  is  a  tendency  to  lose  the 
hair  the  friction  with  the  rough  towel  that 
is  so  useful  in  assisting  circulation  after  a 
bath,  and  therefore  so  salutary  to  the  skin, 
is  by  no  means  advantageous  to  the  hair, 
which  it  loosens  and  causes  to  fall  in  greater 
quantities." 

A  hard  cracking  skin  can  not  receive  too 
much  moisture,  and  the  latest  method  of 
treating  extreme  cases  of  this  kind  is  to 
subject  the  patient  to  complete  immersion 
for  weeks  and  months  at  a  time. 

The  thin,  delicate,  sensitive  cuticle,  on 
the  other  hand,  can  be  speedily  harmed  by 
injudicious  excess  in  the  use  of  the  bath. 
Hard  water  or  alkali  soaps  will  often  pro- 
duce cutaneous  trouble,  the  true  cause  of 
wh'i.'h  will  be  unsuspected  by  the  sufferer. 

44 


HEALTH    HINTS   FOR   WOMEN 


Rain  water,  or  water  softened  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  few  drops  of  ammonia,  and 
distilled  water,  are  also  very  soothing  and 
agreeable  to  tender  skins.  Among  the  va- 
rieties of  soap  which  are  desirable,  white 
castile  probably  ranks  first.  In  making 
this  soap,  olive  and  linseed  oils  are  com- 
bined, the  other  ingredient  being  poppy  or 
ground  nut.  Palm  oil,  castor  oil,  and  co- 
coanut  oil  soaps  are  also  favored  by  derma- 
tologists. 

In  order  to  wash  the  face  properly  a 
lather  should  be  made  with  soap  and  warm 
water,  which  should  be  rubbed  in  with  the 
hand  preferably  to  using  a  towel  or  flannel. 
The  face  should  next  be  washed  with  tepid 
water  until  every  particle  of  soap  is  re- 
moved, and  then  finally  a  bathing  with  cold 
water  should  complete  the  operation. 

In  order  that  the  constitution  of  the 
skin  and  its  organism  may  be  perfectly 
comprehended,  it  may  be  stated  that,  ac- 
cording to  scientific  analysis,  complexion  is 
known  to  be  the  result  of  a  certain  ar- 
rangement of  pigment  molecules.  This 
molecular  deposit  develops  from  the  blood 
by  a  certain  chemical  process,  and  in  due 
course  forms  the  hue  of  the  complexion, 
hair,  and  eyes. 

Dark  and  light  complexions  are  due  to 
the  greater  or  less  amount  of  this  pigment 
deposited  by  the  system,  the  former  being 
due  to  the  excess  of  the  molecules. 

We  thus  find  that  the  various  styles  of 
complexion  are  due  to  the  greater  or  less 
quantity  of  blood  driven  into  the  small 
vessels  near  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and 
to  the  character  of  the  blood. 

Paleness  or  flushing  are  due  either  to  the 
abrupt  contraction  or  expansion  of  these 
channels,  caused  by  the  action  of  the  nerves 
upon  them,  whose  function  it  is  to  regulate 
the  condition  of  the  epidermis. 

PHYSICAL  EXERCISES 

The  pallid,  sickly  looking  person  is  never 
addicted  to  indulgence  in  physical  exercise. 
Beauty  as  it  is  admired  to-day  bears  the 
insignia  of  health,  and  rosy  cheeks  will  win 
more  appreciative  glances  than  sallow  ones. 
Hygiene  is  therefore  so  closely  allied  to  the 
question  of  preserving  personal  charms  that 
it  enters  at  every  stage  into  the  curriculum. 
The  languid  and  sentimental  miss  of  a 
quarter-century  ago  has  given  place  to  a 
style  which  is  more  dashing  than  it  is 
statuesque,  and  more  inclined  to  go  to  the 
extremes  in  an  opposite  direction.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  race  is  a  gainer  hy 
the  change,  both  in  appearance  and  health. 


The  question  of  physical  exercise  is  much 
like  that  of  the  bath,  depending  to  a  large 
extent  upon  the  constitution  of  the  indi- 
vidual. 

Many  women  find  bicycling  to  be  bene- 
ficial in  the  highest  degree,  while  others 
become  physical  wrecks  from  the  use  of  the 
wheel.  Outdoor  exercise  of  some  kind  is 
of  course  essential  to  perfect  health  and  its 
usual  concomitant,  beauty. 

At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  and  under 
certain  circumstances  it  may  not,  however, 
be  convenient  to  indulge  in  it  as  often  as 
desirable,  and  there  are  also  other  reasons 
of  a  more  general  character  for  the  prac- 
tice of  those  exercises  which  come  under 
the  classification  of  calisthenics. 

For  the  expansion  of  the  chest  the  fol- 
lowing simple  movement  has  been  devised: 
Upon  arising  from  bed  walk  several  times 
briskly  round  the  chamber.  Next  stand  in 
as  absolutely  erect  a  position  as  possible,  ex- 
tending the  arms  backward  and  forward 
from  the  shoulders  to  their  full  length  for 
a  number  of  times. 

This  movement  should  be  executed  slowly 
and  no  unusual  exertion  is  necessary.  The 
breath  should  be  drawn  gently  through  the 
nostrils  while  the  exercise  is  being  taken. 
The  next  thing  is  to  drop  the  hands  straight 
down  beside  the  body,  raising  them  slowly 
and  extending  them  outward  until  the  mo- 
tion brings  the  finger-tips  together  at  the 
top  of  the  head.  This  movement  should  be 
repeated  several  times,  and  may  be  followed 
by  another  one  equally  simple.  Place  the 
hands  upon  the  hips  first,  and  then  stretch 
them  out  straight,  bringing  them  together 
in  front  by  a  meeting  of  the  tips  of  the 
fingers.  The  same  movement  can  be  prac- 
ticed in  the  opposite  direction  and  the 
fingers  made  to  meet  at  the  back. 

A  better  movement  still  is  supposed  to 
be  the  following:  Assume  an  erect  pose 
and  elevate  the  arms  over  the  head.  Keep- 
ing them  straight  outward,  bend  the  body 
forward  until  the  finger-tips,  descending, 
touch  the  floor.  This  can  be  repeated  as 
many  times  as  will  not  fatigue.  Follow 
this  by  returning  the  body  to  its  erect 
posture,  and,  using  the  base  of  the  body 
as  a  pivot,  turn  it  at  the  hips  as  far  both 
to  right  and  left  as  possible  without  chang- 
ing the  position  of  the  feet.  Again  re- 
suming the  vertical  poise,  lean  the  body 
alternately  to  left  and  right  a  number  of 
times  and  as  far  as  possible  without  losi'.ig 
the  balance.  A  finishing  touch  is  to  lift 
one  knee  at  a  time  as  high  as  possible 
and  swing  it  back  and  forth  in  the  hip 


HEALTH    HINTS    FOR   WOMEN 


687 


socket.  This  movement  will  lend  supple- 
ness to  the  joints  and  consequent  grace- 
fulness to  the  carriage,  besides  promoting 
the  general  health. 

One  "of  the  most  valuable  exercises  for 
the  development  of  grace  and  symmetry  is 
fencing,  now  so  much  practiced  by  women. 
Too  much  can  not  be  said  in  favor  of  this 
diversion,  which  brings  into  play  all  the 
muscles  of  the  body  and  trains  both  eye 
and  hand  to  unerring  accuracy. 

Dumbbells  may  be  used  to  great  advan- 
tage by  women,  but  their  weight  should 
not  exceed  one-half  to  one  pound,  nor 
should  they  be  used  for  a  longer  period 
than  ten  minutes,  once  or  twice  a  day. 

The  art  »f  being  graceful  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  to  acquire,  either  by  women 
or  men,  and  the  only  royal  road  to  it 
is  by  means  of  a  course  of  calisthenics. 

Suppleness  of  the  joints  may  be  secured 
by  using  an  ointment  composed  of  venison 
fat,  eight  ounces ;  musk,  one  grain ;  white 
brandy,  half  a  pint;  rosewater,  four  ounces. 
Rub  on  at  bedtime  and  remove  with  a 
sponge  and  water  in  the  morning. 

Women  who  wish  to  reduce  weight  can 
not  do  better  than  use  some  form  of  the 
many  "exercisers"  that  are  sold  in  the 
stores  that  deal  in  athletic  goods.  These 
"exercisers"  consist  of  an  arrangement  of 


FIG.  i. 


FIG.  2. 


pulleys,  elastic  bands  and  handles,  and  are 
intended  merely  to  give  zest  and  a  notion 
of  resistance  in  exercises  that  might  as 
well  be  pursued  without  apparatus. 

Figure  i  depicts  what  is  termed  the  "al- 
ternation." Standing  with  the  back  to  the 
exerciser,  the  arms  are  lifted,  in  turn,  over 
the  head,  and  back  again.  The  body  should 
not  move  during  this  operation.  There  is 


no  royal  road  to  the  reduction  of  obesity, 
but  the  use  of  these  movements  week  after 
week  acts  upon  the  arms,  the  chest,  the  ab- 
dominal and  intercostal  muscles. 

There  is  more  fatigue,  though  no  less 
benefit,  in  the  exercise  shown  in  Figure  2. 
Standing  with  back  to  the  exerciser,  and 
with  some  tension,  bend  the  arms  forward 


FIG.  3. 

until  they  are  horizontal,  then  throw  the 
hands  backward  over  the  head,  bending  the 
body  as  far  backward  as  possible,  throwing 
the  head  backward  at  the  same  time.  At 
the  beginning,  ten  of  these  movements  will 
suffice,  but  the  number  may  be  gradually  in- 
creased to  from  fifty  to  one  hutidved  times, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  subject. 

Without  a  doubt  the  severest  and  most 
beneficial  exercise,  if  persisted  in,  is  the  one 
pictured  in  Figure  3.  Stand  with  heels 
together,  toes  forty-five  degrees  apart. 
Throw  the  hands,  together,  over  the  head 
as  far  backward  as  possible.  Still  keeping 
the  hands  together,  but  without  bending 
the  knees,  bring  the  hands  down  so  that 
they  touch  the  floor.  While  it  is  at  first 
impossible  to  so  touch  the  floor,  practice  is 
necessary  for  a  few  days  only  before  it 
is  possible  to  make  the  complete  manoeuvre 
from  thirty  to  fifty  times  in  succession. 

"Swimming,"  as  explained  by  Figure  4, 
is  another  useful  exercise.  It  is  performed 
preferably  with  an  "exerciser,"  although  it 
may  be  done  without  apparatus.  In  the 
former  case,  with  one  foot  forward,  bend 
slightly  to  the  front,  and  imitate  with  the 
arms  the  movements  of  swimming.  The 
abdominal  and  side  muscles  are  brought 
greatly  into  play  by  this  work. 

All  the  above  movements  should  be  car- 
ried out  with  the  utmost  gentleness.  The 
tendency  to  rough  or  severe  work  must  be 
suppressed  from  the  start.  When  any  one 
of  the  foregoing  exercises  has  been  carried 


688 


HEALTH    HINTS   FOR   WOMEN 


to  a  point  where  the  subject  finds  herself 
inclined  to  pant  she  should  desist  until 
after  a  satisfactory  breathing  spell  has  been 
indulged  in.  All  these  exercises  are  vastly 
more  beneficial  when  the  room  is  filled  with 
the  greatest  possible  abundance  of  fresh 
outdoor  air. 

Exercise  of  a  fitful  kind,  taken  once  in 
a  while,  is  effort  wasted.  Each  subject 
must  determine  how  much  she  can  endure 
daily,  and  she  should  follow  this  schedule 
regularly,  if  at  all. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,. the  road  to  the 
increase  of  weight  is  also  through  exer- 
cise. Yet  it  must  be  remembered  that, 
while  the  body  should  be  active,  the  mind 
must  be  as  much  as  possible  at  rest  Thin 
women,  who  are  excessively  nervous,  and 


FIG.  4. 

who  can  not  crush  out  this  tendency,  will 
strive  in  vain  for  rotundity.  Mental  stress 
must  not  be  attempted  by  the  woman  who 
seeks  increase  of  weight  Absolute  rest 
after  meals  is  requisite,  and  at  least  two 
short  naps  a  day  should  be  taken.  The 
slender  woman  in  quest  of  greater  weight 
must  dodge  extra  fatigue  and  hurry  as  she 
would  the  pest.  Insomnia  at  night  must  be 
provided  against ;  a  light  lunch  of  crackers, 
combined  with  applications  of  cold  water 
to  the  head  and  neck,  will  generally  prove 
efficacious. 

Sugar,  fat  meat,  soups,  candy,  cornstarch, 
tapioca,  chocolate,  milk,  cream,  eggs  and 
butter  should  form  important  items  of  diet. 
Yet  while  paying  due  attention  to  dieting, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  the  greatest  aid  to 
weight  is  the  possession  of  a  contented 
mind- 


THE   STANDARD   OF   BEAUTY 

The  ancients  regarded  the  Venus  de 
Medici  as  the  true  standard  of  proportion 
in  form  and  feature!  Her  measurements 
were  as  follows :  Height,  63  inches ;  breadth 
of  neck,  4  inches;  of  shoulders,  16  inches; 
of  waist,  9l/2  inches;  and  of  hip^,  13  inches. 

The  standard  upheld  by  the  Berlin  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts  varies  slightly  from  this. 
Its  measurements  are:  Height,  63^  inches; 
breadth  of  neck,  3^  inches;  of  shoulders, 
15  inches;  of  waist,  9  inches;  of  hips,  13^ 
inches. 

The  composite  measurement  of  the 
American  college  girl  is  as  follows :  Height, 
63^2  inches ;  breadth  of  neck,  3.8  inches ; 
girth  of  neck,  12.1  inches;  breadth  of  shoul- 
ders, 14.7  inches ;  breadth  of  waist,  8.6 
inches ;  girth  of  waist,  24.6  inches ;  breadth 
of  hips,  13.1  inches;  girth  of  hips,  35.4 
inches;  girth  of  upper  part  of  arm,  10.1 
inches;  girth  of  thigh,  21.4  inches;  and  of 
forearm,  9.2  inches. 

The  rules  given  for  assuming  the  proper 
posture  and  attitude  while  in  a  standing  po- 
sition are  as  follows :  In  the  first  place  the 
corresponding  halves  of  the  body  must  be 
in  the  same  anatomical  relation,  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  whole  body  falling  just  in 
front  of  the  last  lumbar  vertebrae.  In  order 
to  admit  of  this  pose  being  the  natural  one, 
and  capable  of  being  sustained  for  the  great- 
est length  of  time  without  inconvenience, 
there  must  be  perfect  symmetry  of  the  bony 
structure  and  an  equal  development  of  the 
muscles  on  the  back  and  front  of  the  body. 
Any  exercise  which  tends  to  bring  about  an 
unequal  development  of  the  muscles  will 
have  a  deterrent  influence  on  the  health 
and  gracefulness  of  the  body.  Such  physi- 
cal defects  as  curvature  of  the  spine,  droop- 
ing shoulders,  and  oblique  poise  of  the  head 
are  due  to  this  inequality  or  to  structural 
malformation. 

It  is  within  the  province  of  the  physical 
trainer  to  remedy  any  irregular  muscular 
development,  and  the  latter  ills,  which  are 
mostly  deformities  at  birth,  are  now  fre- 
quently remedied  by  the  aid  of  surgical 
skill. 

The  normal  weights  in  proportion  to  the 
height  of  the  body  of  any  individual  are  as 
follows : 

5  feet  tall,   120  Ib. 
5   feet   I   in.,  125  Ib. 
5  feet  5  in.,  145  Ib. 
5  feet  8  in.,   160  Ib. 

5  feet  10  in.,  170  Ib. 

6  feet,  180  Ib. 


HEALTH   HINTS    FOR   WOMEN 


689 


A  scale  has  recently  been  compiled  for  in- 
fants,  as    follows : 


At    birth,  7 

2    days,  6 

4        "  6 

7  7 

2   weeks,  7 


Ib. 


4 
6 

8 
10 

12 
14 

16 
18 

20 
22 


8 

9 
10 


13/2  " 

14     " 


24  weeks,  14^  Ib. 

26      "      15       " 

7  m'ths,  16       " 


8 

9 
10 
ii 

12 
14 

16 

18 
20 

22 

24 


17 

18 

19 
20 

21 
22 

23 

24 

25 
26 

27 


Many  malformations  which  were  formerly 
considered  incurable  can  be  easily  over- 
come while  the  child's  bones  are  soft  and 
the  muscles  flexible.  The  number  of 
cripples  can,  owing  to  the  advance  in  sur- 
gical science,  be  greatly  reduced  by  prompt 
attention  to  these  natal  defects,  and  years 
of  after  torture  can  thus  be  avoided  for  the 
unfortunate  victim. 

COSMETICS  AND  THE  COMPLEXION 

The  preparations  advertised  by  quacks  for 
remedying  defects  of  the  complexion  are  as 
a  rule  worthless,  and  generally  cost  many 
times  the  intrinsic  or  market  value  of  the 
ingredients. 

The  two  radical  remedies  which  the 
chemist  offers  for  this  purpose  are  the 
astringent  and  the  emollient.  The  dry, 
hard  skin,  which  results  in  many  minor  sur- 
face disorders  and  abnormal  desquamation 
finds  its  remedy  in  the  latter,  while  the 
wrinkled,  flabby,  and  tender  skin  will  be 
remedied,  at  least  superficially,  by  the  ap- 
plication of  an  astringent. 

The  principal  astringents  are  the  acids, 
alum,  lime-water,  chalk,  and  certain  prep- 
arations of  copper,  zinc,  iron,  and  lead. 
The  last  four  metals,  and,  indeed,  all  metals, 
are  dangerous  to  the  true  health  of  the 
skin,  and  their  use  is  to  be  discouraged. 

Emollients  are  derived  from  natural  oils 
and  fatty  substances. 

The  basis' of  most  of  the  astringent  prep- 
arations on  the  market  is  either  alum  or 
corrosive  sublimate. 

Neither  should  be  used  except  by  direc- 
tion of  the  family  physician. 

The  indiscriminate  use  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate has  ruined  the  complexions  of  thou- 
sands of  unfortunate  victims  of  irrespon- 
sible nostrum  venders. 


Peroxide  of  hydrogen  and  sulphur  are 
new  agents  in  the  treatment  of  the  com- 
plexion. 

The  value  of  sulphur  used  both  inwardly 
and  externally  has  long  been  known  to  au- 
thorities on  the  skin. 

Peroxide  of  hydrogen  is  of  more  recent 
introduction.  Although  known  in  chem- 
istry for  nearly  a  century  it  has  only  of  late 
years  become  popular  in  the  hands  of  the 
dermatologist. 

Brown  patches  and  discolorations  of  all 
kinds  which  will  yield  to  no  other  treat- 
ment can  be  removed  by  its  use.  Many 
forms  of  cutaneous  trouble  that  can  not  be 
reached  by  other  agencies  yield  to  tkis  drug, 
which  is  also  used  for  bleaching  the  hair, 
finger-nails,  hands  and  other  parts  which 
are  stained  or  discolored  from  any  cause. 
It  is  an  antiseptic,  and  has  been  used  inter- 
nally for  diphtheria,  as  well  as  for  many 
other  purposes. 

The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  in  using 
this  chemical,  so  that  the  eyebrows  and  hair 
are  not  touched,  as  it  will  immediately 
bleach  them  white. 

The  desideratum  in  the  way  of  complex- 
ion is  a  firm,  healthily  tinted  skin,  and  the 
frequent  use  of  cold  water  will  do  more  to 
secure  it  than  anything  else  when  the  cuticle 
is  fairly  healthy.  The  face  should  be  dried 
first  with  a  rough  towel  and  then  gently 
rubbed  with  a  chamois  leather.  Warm  wa- 
ter is  best  used  when  the  face  is  not  going 
to  be  immediately  exposed  to  outside  air, 
and  should  be  as  tepid  as  possible  under  such 
circumstances,  because  the  hotter  it  is  the 
more  it  contracts  the  pores  and  prevents 
healthy  action  of  the  skin. 

A  glycerine  or  almond  soap  used  in  wash- 
ing will  prepare  the  skin  better  for  exposure 
outdoors,  and  a  little  powdered  chalk  may 
be  used  without  detriment. 

When  returning  to  the  house,  in  order  to 
remove  all  traces  of  perspiration  a  little 
borax  may  be  added  to  the  water  used  for 
washing  in.  It  does  more  than  this,  leaving 
a  soft,  white  glow  to  the  skin  which  it  acts 
upon  in  all  ways  beneficially. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  indulge  in 
too  frequent  ablutions,  as  the  skin  is  ex- 
tremely susceptible  and  is  not  benefited 
when  healthy  by  absorbing  too  much  mois- 
ture. 

Sun  baths,  with  the  whole  body  abso- 
lutely exposed  to  the  unrestricted  rays,  can 
not  be  too  highly  recommended,  the  effect 
being  to  increase  the  elasticity  of  the  skin 
so  necessary  in  preserving  the  perfect  con- 
tcurs.  For  very  oily  skins  a  little  tincture 


HEALTH    HINTS    FOR   WOMEN 


of  benzion  dropped  in  the  water  will  be 
found  beneficial,  and  alum  can  be  used  when 
necessary  to  stop  temporarily  a  too  pro- 
fuse perspiration.  A  prescription  which  has 
been  advantageously  used  in  such  cases  is 
the  following:  Blanched  Jordan  almonds, 
one  ounce,  blanched  bitter  almonds,  three 
drams.  Put  these  into  a  pint  of  distilled 
water,  form  into  an  emulsion  and  then 
strain.  To  this  add  fifteen  grains  of  cor- 
rosive sublimate  dissolved  in  another  half- 
pint  of  distilled  water.  Yet  this  emulsion 
should  be  used  only  on  a  physician's  advice. 

The  following  will  be  found  a  cheap  and 
harmless  bleach  for  the  face  and  neck :  To 
one  pint  of  distilled  water  put  ten  grains 
of  powdered  corrosive  sublimate.  When 
fully  dissolved  add  an  ounce  of  pure  glyce- 
rine. This  may  be  used  two  or  three  times 
a  day. 

The  following  formula  for  an  astringent 
skin  lotion  is  also  recommended  by  some 
chemists :  To  four  ounces  each  of  white 
wine  vinegar  and  rosewater  add  half  an 
ounce  of  dried  rose  leaves.  Dilute  with  dis- 
tilled water. 

Oily  skins  need  an  astringent  lotion  made 
up  as  follows :  Benzine,  four  ounces ;  rose- 
water,  two  ounces,  and  five  grains  of  alum. 

Cold  cream  for  tender  face  and  lips  may 
be  made  as  follows : 

One  ounce  of  pure  white  wax  melted  in 
four  ounces  of  oil  of  sweet  almonds  over 
a  very  slow  fire,  to  which  add  gradually 
a  quarter-pint  of  distilled  rosewater,  stir- 
ring until  cold. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  study  the  char- 
acter of  the  skin  so  that  proper  treatment 
may  be  applied  to  it. 

Every  woman  can  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances be  her  own  complexion  specialist, 
but  the  treatment  must  be  appropriate  to 
the  case  or  successful  results  will  not  be 
achieved. 

Cocoa  buttermilk,  which  is  much  used  by 
some  ladies,  can  be  made  from  the  follow- 
ing :  Powdered  borax,  2j^  drams ;  powdered 
castile  soap,  5  drams ;  cocoamit  oil,  2  ounces 
and  2  drams ;  distilled  water,  2  fl.  ounces ; 
rosewater,  26  fl.  ounces ;  oil  of  bergamot,  10 
drops ;  oil  of  neroli,  5  drops ;  oil  of  winter- 
green,  12  drops ;  oil  of  ylang-ylang,  I  drop ; 
oil  of  almonds,  I  drop. 

The  first  four  articles  should  be  pounded 
together  in  a  mortar  for  ten  minutes,  then 
the  rosewater  be  gradually  poured  on.  the 
mixture  well  compounded,  and  perfumes 
subsequently  added. 

Compared  with  the  simpler  methods  used 
for  bleaching  the  skin  in  the  present  day 


some  of  the  old-time  formulas  appear  to  be 
very  elaborate.  The  following  was  a  fa- 
vorite formula  at  the  Spanish  court: 

"To  a  pint  of  white  wine  vinegar  put  a 
full  handful  of  well-sifted  wheat  bran, 
steeping  it  for  several  hours,  and  adding  the 
yelks  of  five  eggs  with  two  grains  of  am- 
bergris. Distil,  and  bottle  for  fourteen  days. 
Use  when  making  the  toilet,  and  a  polished 
whiteness  of  the  complexion  will  ensue." 

For  a  dry,  hard  skin,  lanoline,  which  is 
made  from  the  wool  of  sheep,  is  now  exten- 
sively used  in  various  combinations,  com- 
monly known  as  skin  food.  Mutton  tallow 
is  a  fair  substitute  for  lanoline,  but  not  so 
rich  in  animal  oil.  These  should  be  used 
at  retiring,  being  rubbed  gently  into  the 
skin  until  the  cuticle  is  thoroughly  impreg- 
nated. 

To  produce  a  bright  and  rosy  complexion 
the  following  formula  should  be  used :  One 
ounce  of  powdered  benzoin,  soaked  in  four 
ounces  of  alcohol  for  a  week  and  filtered, 
then  added  to  a  pint  of  water. 

A  skin  lustre  which  can  not  be  surpassed 
is  much  used  in  St.  Petersburg.  The  for- 
mula is  given  by  a  Russian  court  beauty. 
It  somewhat  resembles  one  previously 
stated.  Take  a  pint  of  white  wine  vinegar 
and  four  ounces  of  sifted  wheat  bran.  Al- 
low the  bran  to  infuse  for  four  hours,  then 
add  the  yelks  of  four  eggs  and  two  grains 
of  musk.  Apply  at  night,  and  when  the 
morning  bath  has  been  taken  the  skin  will 
be  bright  and  polished  like  ivory. 

Delicate  skins  suffer  greatly  from  sun- 
burn, and  much  inconvenience  is  experi- 
enced if  proper  treatment  is  not  given.  In 
the  first  place,  washes  of  a  cooling  and 
evaporative  nature  should  be  applied  on 
cloths,  which  will  require  constant  chang- 
ing until  the  heat  is  all  drawn  out  of  the 
cuticle.  Lime  juice  or  lemon  juice  mixed 
with  either  milk  or  cream  should  be  used 
during  the  night  to  bring  the  skin  back 
to  its  normal  condition.  The  cocoa  butter- 
milk, or  even  plain  buttermilk,  will  be 
found  beneficial  where  the  burn  is  not 
severe. 

Another  remedy  for  sunburn  which  can 
be  used  in  place  of  the  previously  described 
treatment  is  as  follows :  Two  drams  of 
borax,  one  dram  burnt  alum,  one  dram 
camphor,  half  an  ounce  of  sugar  candy,  one 
pound  of  ox  gall.  Mix  and  stir  these  well 
for  ten  minutes  and  repeat  the  stirring 
three  or  four  times  a  day  for  two  weeks. 
When  it  becomes  clear  and  transparent, 
strain  through  blotting  paper  and  bottle  for 
use. 


HEALTH   HINTS   FOR   WOMEN 


691 


A  much  simpler  prescription  is  made 
from  the  juice  of  a  lemon  combined  with 
half  a  teaspoonful  of  borax  dissolved  in  an 
ounce  of  distilled  water.  This  may  be  used 
frequently,  and  steaming  the  face  is  advised 
in  order  to  prevent  the  sunburn  from  be- 
coming permanent. 

In  order  to  steam  the  face,  take  a  basin 
filled  with  boiling  water  and  drape  a  towel 
over  the  head  so  as  to  prevent  the  steam 
from  escaping  when  the  face  is  held  over 
the  water. 

The  steaming  should  be  the  first  treat- 
ment, and  if  the  burn  is  painful  a  careful 
rubbing  with  good  cold  cream  will  relieve  it. 

Perhaps  the  simplest  and  most  easily  ob- 
tained sunburn  remedy  is  talcum  powder. 
In  ordinary  cases  it  is  all  that  is  necessary. 

Freckles  are  another  source  of  annoyance 
to  many  women.  ' 

Buttermilk  taken  fresh  from  the  churn 
will  sometimes  destroy  them.  It  should  be 
spread  over  the  face  after  the  manner  of  a 
plaster  and  allowed  to  remain  on  for  several 
hours,  if  possible.  Remove  it  with  warm 
water  and  see  that  the  skin  is  carefully 
dried.  To  secure  a  cure  several  applica- 
tions may  be  necessary. 

A  famous  French  prescription  for  re- 
moving freckles  is  composed  of  "green 
soap,"  one  ounce;  lemon  juice,  half  ounce; 
oil  of  bitter  almonds,  quarter  ounce;  pure 
oil  of  lavender,  quarter  ounce,  and  three 
drops  of  rhodium  oil.  Dissolve  the  soap  in 
the  lemon  juice  and  add  the  two  oils.  Place 
in  the  sun  until  an  ointment  results  and 
then  add  the  rhodium.  Anoint  the  face 
nightly  and  cleanse  in  the  morning  with  a 
mixture  of  elder-flower  and  rosewater. 

Other  simple  prescriptions  for  freckles 
are  lemon  juice  with  salt  dissolved  in  it,  or 
a  combination  of  glycerine  and  benzine, 
both  of  which  are  to  be  used  after  washing 
the  face  at  night  before  retiring. 

An  excellent  formula  for  tan  or  freckles 
is  made  as  follows :  Four  ounces  lactic 
acid,  two  ounces  glycerine,  one  ounce  rose- 
water.  Apply  several  times  a  day  and  sup- 
plement with  a  cream  made  as  per  formula : 
Four  ounces  almond  oil,  one  ounce  each 
white  wax  and  spermaceti.  Melt  together 
and  gradually  add  three  ounces  of  rose- 
water  and  one  ounce  witch-hazel.  Stir  in- 
gredients until  an  emulsion  is  made,  then 
allow  to  cool.  Make  the  applications  less 
frequent  if  this  lotion  is  too  strong  for 
the  skin  treated. 

A  simple  pomade  for  the  cure  of  tan  is 
made  from  equal  parts  of  lemon  juice  and 
white  of  eggs  stirred  slowly  over  a  slow 


fire  and  used  night  and  morning.     Wash- 
ing with  rice  water  will  hasten  results. 

Women  who  desire  to  possess  anything 
like  a  clear  and  healthy  skin  should  care- 
fully avoid  the  use  of  certain  drugs  that  are" 
only  too  commonly  used  by  some  members 
of  their  sex.  The  use  of  arsenic  for  the  ' 
complexion  is  productive  of  boils  and  car- 
buncles. To  persons  with  delicate  skin  and 
fair  complexion  it  causes  desquamation  of 
the  skin  on  the  parts  of  the  body  covered 
by  clothing.  It  is  generally  detrimental  to 
the  health,  although  it  lightens  the  pigment 
on  the  face  and  hands. 

Acne  and  other  pustular  eruptions  and 
detrimental  results  to  the  hair  have  been 
traced  to  the  continued  use  of  bromides, 
which  many  women  take  for  sleeplessness 
and  some  nervous  affections.  Since,  how- 
ever, the  appearance  of  these  disfigurements 
indicates  an  impure  state  of  the  blood,  it  is 
far  better  to  consult  a  reputable  physician, 
allowing  him  to  prescribe  for  the  disorder 
than  to  use  unguents  or  ointments  for  the 
skin.  Such  direct  applications,  unless  of  the 
simplest  character,  are  liable  to  increase, 
rather  than  diminish,  the  eruption. 

TREATMENT   FOR   WRINKLES 

The  question  of  wrinkles  is  a  most  seri- 
ous one  to  all  women  sooner  or  later  in 
life.  That  they  can  be  dealt  with  satisfac- 
torily by  several  methods  is  a  matter  of 
self-congratulation  to  the  sex  generally. 

The  primary  cause  of  wrinkles  is  the  re- 
laxation of  the  muscles  of  the  face  and 
thickening  of  the  epidermis,  combined  with 
decrease  of  cellular  tissue. 

The  replacement  of  this  cellular  tissue  by 
artificial  means  and  the  strengthening  of 
the  facial  muscles  are  fundamental  points 
of  treatment. 

The  outer  layers  of  the  skin  are,  in 
young  and  healthy  persons,  being  constantly 
renewed.  While  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
remains  active,  tissue  is  renewed  contin- 
ually, and  the  skin  performs  its  work,  show- 
ing no  degeneration  in  either  its  functions 
or  appearance.  When  this  machinery  be- 
comes clogged,  the  opportunity  for  the 
deadly  wrinkle  to  appear  occurs.  There 
is  but  one  thing  to  be  done  by  the  person 
who  is  particular  as  to  a  comely  appear- 
ance, and  that  is  to  fight  the  intruder  by 
every  means  known  to  the  dermatologist. 

The  simplest  method  of  doing  this  is  the 
application  of  astringent  lotions  and  creams ; 
the  most  elaborate  is  electricity.  Massage 
is  a  useful  means,  often  successfully  em- 
ployed at  a  stage  when  the  crows  feet  hare 


HEALTH    HINTS   FOR   WOMEN 


got  beyond  the  possible  help  of  the  astrin- 
gent It  is  more  commonly  employed  than 
any  other  system  of  rejuvenation. 

Facial  massage  can  not  be  performed  so 
well  by  one's  self  as  by  another  person,  and 
a  practical  masseur  at  that;  however,  with 
patience  and  the  aid  of  a  mirror,  much  can 
be  done  to  subdue  the  wrinkles. 

In  manipulating  the  face  a  firm  and  gen- 
tle touch  is  necessary,  and  the  tips  of  the 
forefinger  and  thumb  only  should  be  used. 
The  motion  of  the  finger-tips  is  always  out- 
ward and  never  receding.  For  instance, 
when  the  wrinkles  are  on  the  forehead  an 
upward  stroke  is  necessary,  because  the 
contraction  of  the  skin  in  that  direction  is 
needed  to  offset  the  expansion  which  has 
produced  them. 

The  location  of  the  facial  muscles  must 
fir,st  be  determined,  and  along  their  lines 
in  a  contrary  direction  passes  must  be 
made  for  at  least  half  an  hour  each  day. 

Massaging  around  the  mouth  and  eyes 
is  performed  by  a  circular  movement.  To 
bring  out  fulness  of  the  chin  and  cheeks 
upward  and  lateral  movements  are  correct, 
in  the  latter  case  proceeding  outward  from 
the  nose  toward  the  ears. 

It  will  take  long  and  persistent  opera- 
tions to  remove  well-established  wrinkles, 
and  professional  masseurs  invariably  use 
skin  food  and  other  ingredients  in  the 
course  of  their  manipulations. 

Before  commencing  operations,  the  pores 
of  the  skin  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed 
and  opened,  so  that  the  skin  food  can  en- 
ter through  the  orifices  and  sink  into  the 


FIG.  5. 


fatty  glands,  where  it  is  intended  to  sup- 
plement the  failing  supply  of  nature  and 
furnish  material  to  develop  new  muscle 
and  tissue. 

The  best  skin  food  is  made  as  follows: 
Three  ounces  of  lanoline,  three  ounces  of 
sweet  almond  oil.  one  ounce  of  cocoa  butter, 
a  dram  each  of  spermaceti  and  white  wax/j 
These    should   he   melted   together   over   a 


quick  fire,  in  a  metal  vessel,  and  pounded 
into  a  fine  paste,  to  which  forty  drops  of 
benzoin  tincture  and  a  few  drops  of  es- 
sence of  jasmin  should  be  added.  The  lat- 
ter is  intended  as  perfume.  Almond  oil 
can  be  substituted  for  the  cocoa  butter,  and 
any  essence  will  do  in  place  of  the  jasmin, 
which  has  an  agreeable  odor.  This  prep- 


FIG.  6. 


aration  may  be  used  as  the  unguent,  or  a 
special  one  may  be  made  by  melting  nine 
parts  of  lanoline  and  two  parts  of  sweet 
almond  oil,  these  latter  ingredients  to  be 
stirred  continuously  from  melting-point  to 
solidification. 

It  is  of  little  benefit  to  use  either  prep- 
aration without  the  massaging  process,  as 
merely  spreading  it  on  the  face  will  do 
little  or  no  good. 

When  the  unguent  has  been  applied,  and 
well  rubbed  in,  the  operator  should  give  a 
steady,  gentle  upward  rubbing  with  the  tips 
of  the  first  and  second  fingers,  first  together 
and  then  in  alternation.  (See  Figure  5.) 

Perhaps  no  feature  of  overstoutness  is 
more  distressing  than  the  double  chin.  At 
the  first  sign  of  appearance  of  this  blemish, 
one  of  the  unguents  above  mentioned  should 
be  liberally  applied.  The  first  movement  of 
massage  consists  of  a  lateral  movement  of 
both  hands,  as  portrayed  in  Figure  6,  fol- 
lowed by  a  steady  kneading  of  the  roll 
under  the  chin  with  the  thumbs  and  fore- 
fingers ;  after  this  use  the  two  hands  in 
brisk  alternation  with  downward  strokes. 

In  Figure  7  a  practical  method  is  shown 
of  eradicating  "puffiness  and  wrinkles"  un- 
der the  eyes.  With  the  second  finger  of 
each  hand  begin  just  above  the  inner  cor- 
ner of  either  eye,  and  make  a  rotary  move- 
ment, following  the  little  circles  under  either 
eye.  The  essential  feature  of  this  move- 
ment should  be  gentleness,  and  the  duration 
should  be  seven  or  eight  minutes. 

After  any  one  of  these  massage  opera- 
tions, the  unguent  should  be  removed  by 
the  application  of  a  towel  dipped  in  hot 
water,  this  to  be  followed  by  the  use  of 
a  towel  soaked  in  cold  water,  in  order  to 


HEALTH    HINTS    FOR   WOMEN 


close  the  pores.  After  this,  a  final  appli- 
cation may  be  made  of  milk  of  benzoin,  the 
formula  of  which  is  given  in  the  chapter  on 
Cosmetics. 

Where  it  is  impossible  to  pursue  this  elab- 
orate course  a  simpler  method  can  be  tried. 
If  the  paste  of  half  an  ounce  of  alum  and 
half  an  ounce  of  sweet  almonds  be  added 
to  the  whites  of  five  eggs  beaten  up  in  rose- 
water,  and  the  compound  spread  upon  a 
cloth  firmly  fixed  upon  the  face  every  night, 
for  a  few  weeks,  the  wrinkles  will  be  con- 
siderably diminished. 

A  beautiful  throat  and  neck  are  as  essen- 
tial to  the  appearance  as  anything,  and 
wrinkles  not  infrequently  invade  this  con- 
spicuous section. 

In  order  to  do  away  with  wrinkles  and 
scragginess  below  the  chin,  the  skin  food 
should  be  rubbed  in  assiduously ;  and  the 
muscles  of  the  throat  can  be  strengthened 
better  by  balancing  a  fairly  heavy  package 
on  the  head  and  walking  round  the  room 
with  it  there  a  dozen  times  daily  than  by 
any  other  means.  The  combined  treatment 


FIG.  7. 


will  secure  a  beautiful  poise  for  the  head 
and  a  throat  as  graceful  as  that  of  a  swan. 

The  effect  of  the  disposition  in  the  pro- 
duction of  wrinkles  is  exceedingly  marked. 
A  sunny  and  volatile  temperament  is  the 
greatest  preventive  of  them,  while  a  scowl- 
ing, fretful,  and  discontented  nature  de- 
velops them  prematurely.  Gum-chewing 
is  credited  with  being  the  unwitting  cause 
of  their  appearance  on  many  faces. 

The  most  thorough  and  heroic  treatment 
for  the  destruction  of  wrinkles  is  by  means 
of  electricity. 

This  is  one  of  the  cures,  however,  which 
can  scarcely  be  conducted  at  home.  It  re- 
quires the  most  skilful  of  operators,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  risk  of  disfiguring  marks 
which  may  last  for  life.  The  number  of 
persons  practicing  this  method  safely  and 
successfully  is  probably  under  a  dozen,  and 
American  experts  have  been  paid  large 
sums  to  go  to  Europe  and  treat  members 


of  the  wealthy  classes  there  by  the  process. 
The  method  pursued  is  to  apply  the  electric 
current,  running  from  the  positive  to  the 
negative  pole,  to  the  fleshy  part  of  the 
cheeks,  neck,  or  bosom. 

The  stimulation  furnished  by  the  current 
renews  the  healthy  action  of  the  capillary 
glands,  gives  an  impetus  to  the  flesh  growth, 
and  by  this  means  fills  the  shrunken  folds 
of  skin  up  with  healthy  tissue,  completely 
removing  the  wrinkles. 

This  treatment  is  costly,  but  produces, 
when  skilfully  given,  marvellous  restorative 
results. 

A  combination  process  is  often  resorted 
to  by  specialists,  which  includes  electrical 
treatment,  massage,  and  -the  use  of  drugs. 
One  of  these  methods  is  as  follows : 

First  a  thorough  massaging  of  the  face 
is  given,  which  literally  pulls  the  wrinkles 
out  of  their  places  and  puts  the  face  into 
a  healthy  glow,  very  often  producing  a 
slight  perspiration.  The  face  is  then 
sponged  off  and  a  skin  food  applied  by 
a  renewal  of  the  massaging  process.  When 
sufficient  of  this  preparation  has  been  ab- 
sorbed a  soft  cloth  and  some  distilled  wa- 
ter are  produced,  the  surface  being  gently 
rubbed  until  all  the  exudations  forced  by 
the  massaging  process  have  been  wiped 
away. 

The  next  step  is  a  vigorous  rubbing- 
with  a  tonic  designed  to  harden  the  flesh, 
muscle,  and  skin.  The  tonic  is  the  last 
thing  in  the  morning  process,  and  prepares 
the  skin  to  withstand  either  winter  storm 
or  summer  sun.  It  is  an  English  prepara- 
tion. 

The  evening  course  consists  of  the  ap- 
plication of  electricity,  followed  by  wash- 
ing in  distilled  or  soft  water  and  anointing 
with  a  cream  composed  of  cucumber,  let- 
tuce, and  other  herbs,  added  to  rosewater 
and  cocoanut  oil  or  butter.  This  remains 
on  all  night,  and  when  it  is  necessary  for 
the  party  treated  to  spend  the  evening  out 
a  make-up  is  added  in  addition. 

This  process  is  taken  for  a  course  of  three 
weeks  and  ther  discontinued  for  some  time, 
until  the  warning  signs  of  nature  suggest 
the  necessity  of  its  renewal. 

A  new  method  of  curing  wrinkles  which 
has  been  introduced  in  the  last  few  years 
consists  of  surgical  operations,  by  means  of 
which  they  are  positively  banished  for 
a  considerable  time.  The  method  pursued 
is  simple  enough.  A  transverse  incision  is 
made  across  the  wrinkles  and  a  piece  of 
skin  taken  out  sufficient  to  leave  the  cuticle 
fitting  tightly  over  the  forehead  or  cheeks 


694 


HEALTH   HINTS   FOR   WOMEN 


where  the  wrinkles  formerly  were,  after  the 
two  edges  are  sewn  together. 

Provision  is  made  to  ensure  the  healing 
of  the  flesh  without  leaving  a  scar,  and 
many  successful  operations  have  been  made. 

Wrinkles  of  the  nose  or  throat  are  treated 
by  means  of  incisions  made  contrariwise  to 
the  direction  in  which  they  run,  the  opera- 
tion being  little  more  painful  than  other 
systems. 

PIMPLES    AND    BLOTCHES 

Many  women  suffer  untold  tortures  from 
disfiguring  eruptions  on  the  face,  arms,  and 
other  parts  of  the  body. 

Some  of  these  skin  diseases  are  extremely 
difficult  to  handle,  and  tax  the  skill  of  the 
cleverest  specialists.  Others  will  often  yield 
to  simple  remedies,  careful  dieting,  and 
other  hygienic  precautions.  As  a  rule,  they 
have  their  origin  in  some  organic  disturb- 
ance, such  as  improper  condition  of  the 
stomach,  liver,  or  kidneys,  which  expresses 
itself  locally  through  inflammation  of  the 
fatty  glands,  and  the  skin  is  thereby  af- 
fected. 

In  other  cases  the  cause  of  the  trouble 
is  purely  local,  and  no  amount  of  internal 
physicking  will  act  as  a  panacea.  Such  is 
the  case,  for  instance,  in  eczema,  and  sev- 
eral forms  of  pimples  and  sores. 

Eczema  is  one  of  the  most  general  and 
painful  of  diseases  attacking  the  face.  It 
is  purely  a  cutaneous  trouble,  having  its 
origin  in  a  catarrhal  condition  of  the  skin. 
It  is  of  several  varieties,  and  manifested 
by  a  breaking  of  the  skin,  principally  on 
the  face,  scalp,  hands,  and  feet.  The  fis- 
sures are  caused  by  the  exudation  of  al- 
buminous serum,  a  liquid  which  is  produced 
3y  an  imperfect  development  of  the  blood 
corpuscle.  Intense  itching  is  the  first 
symptom  of  the  disease,  and  the  greatest 
care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  breaking  the 
skin  in  scratching.  When  it  does  break, 
zinc  ointment  will  heal  it  more  quickly  than 
anything  else.  The  same  remedy  may  be 
applied  with  success  to  blotches  and  sores 
of  all  kinds.  A  novel  treatment  is  advo- 
cated by  a  prominent  physician  for  the  cure 
of  pimples  on  the  face.  The  application 
of  remedies,  he  believes,  should  be  to  all 
parts  of  the  body  but  the  face,  thus  creat- 
ing a  reaction  on  that  part  of  the  skin 
where  the  irritation  exists.  His  method  is 
to  sponge  the  body  thoroughly  once  a  week, 
under  the  bed  clothes,  with  acetic  acid,  in 
a  weak  and  well  diluted  form.  In  case  of 
fever,  the  acid  only  ;s  to  be  used,  but 
when  a  chilliness  is  experienced,  the  body 


should  be  well  rubbed  with  hot  olive  oil. 
At  other  times  the  skin  must  be  kept  cleaa 
with  hot  water  and  castile  soap.  The  only 
treatment  of  the  face  recommended  is  to 
wash  it  once  or  twice  daily  with  buttermilk 
and  to  restrict  the  patient  to  a  light,  easily 
digestible  diet 

The  use  of  sulphur,  both  internally  and 
externally,  is  strongly  recommended  for 
most  kinds  of  eruptions.  A  lotion  made 
as  follows  can  often  be  used  beneficially 
for  pimples:  One  ounce  of  sulphur  water, 
quarter  ounce  acetated  liquor  of  ammonia, 
one  grain  liquor  of  potassa,  two  ounces 
white  wine  vinegar,  and  two  ounces  of  dis- 
tilled water.  Another  good  formula  for 
pimples  is  made  of:  Lanoline,  five  grams; 
sweet  almond  oil,  five  grams;  precipi- 
tated sulphur,  five  grams;  oxide  of  zinc, 
two  and  a  half  grams;  and  extract  of 
violet,  half  a  gram.  Pimples  on  the  nose 
can  be  treated  with  the  ointment  composed 
as  follows:  One  ounce  of  benzoinated  lard 
and  one  dram  of  ichthyol.  Another  for- 
mula which  is  good  for  either  blackheads 
or  pimples  is :  Oxide  of  zinc,  one  dram ; 
resorcin,  one  dram;  starch,  one  dram; 
petrolatum  (yellow),  two  and  a  half  drams. 
This  should  be  applied  at  bedtime  in  a 
thin  coating  to  the  affected  parts.  It  can 
be  rubbed  off  with  oil  in  the  morning. 

Acne  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of 
eruptive  complaints.  Its  origin  is  due  to 
stomach,  liver,  and  kidney  troubles,  and 
medical  treatment  is  essential  in  connection 
with  it. 

The  following  are  prescribed  for  chronic 
eczema:  Salicylic  acid,  5  grains;  ichthyol, 
10  grains;  glycerine,  10  grains;  spir.  menth. 
pip,  20  grains;  spirit  lavender,  20  grains; 
rect.  spirit  wine,  60.  This  liquid  should  be 
applied  with  a  brush  several  times  daily. 

If  the  disease  has  assumed  an  acute 
form:  Bismuth  oxid  dr.j.,  ac.  oleic  oz.j., 
cera  albe  dr.iij.,  vaseline  dr.ix.,  ol.  rose 
m.ij. 

For  a  dusting  powder  use:  Pr.  amyli 
oz.j.,  pr.  zinci  oxidi.  dr.ij.,  pr.  camphor  dr.ss. 
Also  try  the  use  of  pine  tar  soap  in  wash- 
ing the  affected  parts. 

Alkaline  baths  are  also  strongly  recom- 
mended for  these  and  nearly  all  other  erup- 
tive disorders  of  the  skin. 

Rosacea,  a  kind  of  yellow  pustular  forma- 
tion with  a  deep  red  base  occurring  on  the 
nose,  cheeks,  and  forehead,  is  another  com- 
mon form  of  eruption  due  to  stomach 
trouble  and  coming  within  the  scope  of  the 
physician's  treatment. 

Warts  are  a  common  cause  of  disfigure- 


HEALTH   HINTS   FOR  WOMEN 


695 


ment  to  the  female  face.  They  are  re- 
moved generally  either  with  the  lunar  caus- 
tic pencil  or  by  the  electric  needle.  The 
following  prescription  can  be  applied  night 
and  morning:  Salicylic  acid,  I  part;  lactic 
acid,  I  part;  collodion,  4  parts. 

Chloasma  or  liver  spot  is  a  yellow  dis- 
coloration frequently  appearing  upon  the 
face.  It  needs  internal  treatment,  for  which 
the  following  old-time  liver  remedy  may 
prove  useful :  Pulv.  gentian,  I  dram ;  pulv. 
Columbo,  i  dram;  pulv.  quassia,  i  dram; 
pulv.  dandelion,  I  dram;  spts.  frumenti,  half 
a  pint 

For  local  treatment,  rub  with  flour  of 
sulphur  several  times  a  day  or  wash  with 
a  lotion  composed  of  one  ounce  sulphur 
water,  quarter  ounce  lemon  juice,  and  one 
dram  cinnamon. 

Acne  Rosacea  is  a  similar  trouble  to  sim- 
ple Rosacea,  except  that  it  is  spread  be- 
yond the  nose,  often  resulting  in  a  fiery  red 
discoloration  of  the  nasal  organ  and  con- 
tiguous parts. 

Dieting  and  abstention  from  condiments 
or  stimulants  are  absolutely  essential  to 
cure.  Local  treatment  will  be  of  little  or 
no  service  until  the  blood  is  brought  into 
proper  condition. 

Flesh  worms  are  an  annoying  and  irritat- 
ing infliction.  To  remove  them  soak  the 
face  thoroughly  with  soft  water  and  apply 
a  lotion  composed  of  four  ounces  of  white 
brandy,  two  ounces  of  cologne,  and  one 
ounce  of  potash  solution.  Use  a  coarse 
towel  for  rubbing  the  face,  and  the  worms 
will  soon  yield  to  this  treatment. 

CARE  OF  THE  TEETH 

The  preservation  of  the  teeth  is  a  ques- 
tion of  leading  importance  when  the  ap- 
pearance is  considered,  not  to  mention  it  as 
a  factor  in  the  general  health  proposition. 

A  set  of  shining  white  teeth,  set  be- 
tween rosy  lips,  is  almost  as  attractive  aa 
a  beaming  smile  or  a  flashing  eye. 

Cleanliness,  absolute  and  unremitting,  is 
the  first  essential  in  preserving  the  pearl- 
like  purity  of  these  natural  gems. 

When  once  in  good  condition,  a  steady 
brushing  of  the  teeth  night  and  morning, 
and,  when  possible,  after  each  meal,  will 
keep  them  in  proper  order.  Cold  water  is 
safer  and  better  to  use  than  the  majority 
of  dentifrices  on  the  market.  Where  one 
is  preferred,  however,  precipitated  chalk 
may  be  used.  To  this  can  be  add.ed  some 
ground  orris  root  and  a  few  drops  of  oil 
of  rose. 

The  teeth  should  be  cleaned  "iderneath 


as  well  as  outside,  because  secretions  are 
apt  to  form  there  more  than  elsewhere. 
Two  or  three  drops  of  myrrh  in  a  half 
tumbler  of  cold  water  makes  a  pleasant 
wash,  and  the  teeth  should  be  brushed  per- 
pendicularly. Charcoal  and  cream  of  tar- 
tar are  also  used  for  tooth  powder. 

An  excellent  plan  to  prevent  sensitive- 
ness of  the  gums  and  to  whiten  the  teeth 
is  to  paint  them  with  milk  of  magnesia 
each  night  before  retiring. 

The  acid  deposits  are  what  ruin  the 
foundations  of  the  teeth.  To  avoid  perma- 
nent discoloration  and  decay,  it  is  well  to 
visit  a  good  dental  establishment  once  or 
twice  a  year  and  have  the  teeth  properly 
cleaned.  The  greatest  danger  to  the  teeth 
comes  from  the  lodgment  of  small  particles 
of  food  in  the  interstices.  These  should 
be  carefully  removed  with  a  wooden  tooth- 
pick after  each  meal,  as  when  allowed  to 
remain  they  form  acid  deposits  which  eat 
into  the  gums  and  subsequently  penetrate 
the  teeth. 

Tartar  deposits  should  be  closely  watched, 
as  they  are  the  cause  of  destruction  to  the 
teeth  unless  removed  promptly. 

Discolored  teeth  may  often  be  cleaned 
without  danger  to  the  enamel  by  brushing 
them  well  with  lemon  juice. 

Borax  is  also  used  with  great  satisfac- 
tion to  cleanse  the  teeth  and  harden  the 
gums;  in  fact,  it  is  an  invaluable  toilet  ad- 
junct for  more  than  one  purpose.  Brandy 
may  also  be  used  safely  for  cleaning  the 
teeth,  as  it  destroys  the  animalculae  which 
serve  as  parasites  to  them.  The  acid  of 
strawberries  and  oranges  will  remove  stains 
from  the  teeth  without  producing  detri- 
mental  results. 

Areca  nut  charcoal  is  favorably  consid- 
ered by  dentists  as  a  dentifrice,  as  it  is  an 
excellent  antiseptic. 

For  painless  extraction  of  teeth  the  fol- 
lowing lotion  may  be  used.  It  can  be  ap- 
plied on  cotton,  pressed  to  each  side  of  the 
tooth :  Oil  of  wintergreen,  2  drams ;  chloro- 
form, i  dram;  sulphuric  ether,  i  dram; 
chloral  hydrate,  2  drams;  oil  of  cloves,  4 
drams;  alcohol,  12  drams. 

Cocaine  and  cocaine  solutions  are  also 
used  widely  for  this  purpose,  but  many  den- 
tists prefer  preparations  that  involve  no  un- 
pleasant after-effects. 

CARE  OF  THE  HANDS 

The  hands  are  generally  an  indication  of 
the  degree  of  refinement  of  the  individual. 
We  can  not  all  have  long,  tapering  fingers. 
but  with  due  care  and  cleanliness  the  hands 


696 


HEALTH    HINTS    FOR   WOMEN 


even  of  a  person  who  is  compelled  to  do 
moderately  rough  work  with  them  may 
look  well. 

Here  is  a  set  of  rules  which  carefully 
followed  will  preserve  the  hands  even  when 
rough  housework  has  to  be  done  by  their 
owner. 

In  washing  dishes  never  plunge  the 
hands  into  very  warm  water.  Use  a  mop, 
as  far  as  possible,  and  wear  rubber 
gloves;  when  handling  a  broom  or  doing 
other  rough  work  wear  housemaids'  gloves 
with  wadded  palms.  Clean  off  any  stains 
that  appear  on  the  hands  as  promptly  as 
possible.  A  piece  of  lemon  is  far  superior 
to  pumice  stone  for  this  purpose. 

Do  not  wash  the  hands  any  oftener  than 
necessary,  and  always  dry  them  thoroughly. 
Use  oatmeal  in  place  of  soap,  or  good  oat- 
meal soap.  Before  retiring,  wash  the  hands 
in  moderately  warm  water  with  oatmeal. 
When  dry,  rub  into  them  some  of  the 
cocoa  buttermilk  cream,  according  to  pre- 
scription given,  or  any  equally  good  cream. 
Then  put  on  loose  kid  gloves  and  wear 
them  all  night. 

Oatmeal  is  an  invaluable  article  for  the 
hands.  It  should  be  kept  in  a  convenient 
receptacle  on  the  washstand,  and  as  often 
as  the  hands  are  washed  some  of  it  should 
be  rubbed  on,  allowed  to  remain  a  few 
minutes  and  then  rinsed  away.  Afterward 
an  emollient  cream  may  be  used  com- 
pounded as  follows:  White  wax,  sperma- 
ceti, and  powdered  camphor,  five  cents' 
-worth  each;  olive  oil  sufficient  to  bring 
these  ingredients  to  the  thickness  of  soap. 
They  can  be  melted  and  mixed  in  an  or- 
dinary pot  on  the  stove  and  will  make  a 
good  ointment  for  the  hands. 

Another  recipe  is :  One  wineglassful  each 
of  eau-de-cologne  and  lemon  juice;  two 
cakes  of  brown  Windsor  soap  scraped  fine 
and  powdered.  Mix  well  and  remold  into 
soap  cakes  for  whitening  the  hands. 

For  rough  hands  the  following  recipe 
can  be  used :  Three  ounces  white  vinegar, 
three  ounces  lemon  juice,  and  half  a  pint 
of  white  brandy.  This  will  heal  either 
rough  or  chapped  hands.  Glycerine  slightly 
flavored  with  rosewater  is  a  good  emollient 
to  use  for  the  hands  at  night  after  washing 
in  soft  warm  water. 

The  nails  are  a  subject  of  particular  in- 
terest in  the  economy  of  the  hand,  and  can 
be  made  either  a  disfigurement  or  an  orna- 
ment, according  .to  the  attention  given 
them.  A  soft  nail-brush  is  essential,  and 
should  be  used  with  soap  each  time  the 
hands  are  cleansed. 


Twice  a  day  the  skin  around  the  nails 
should  be  pressed  back  with  the  orange- 
wood  stick  furnished  in  each  manicure  set 
This  skin  should  never  be  cut,  as  it  will 
not  grow  long  if  not  developed  by  paring. 
Before  attempting  to  trim  the  nails,  the 
points  of  the  fingers  should  be  steeped  in 
water.  Having  been  cut  to  a  point  level 
with  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  the  nails  will 
require  filing  only  every  morning  to  keep 
them  the  desired  length  and  to  make  them 
strong.  Putty  powder  is  generally  used  to 
polish  the  nails,  being  accompanied  by  a 
vigorous  rubbing  with  a  chamois  leather 
pad  fixed  on  a  handle.  If  necessary  to 
whiten  the  nails,  first  cleanse  them  thor- 
oughly with  castile  soap  and  then  dip  in  a 
solution  made  as  follows :  Diluted  sulphuric 
acid,  two  drams;  tincture  of  myrrh,  one 
dram,  and  four  ounces  of  spring  water,  well 
mixed. 

Whitlows  and  hangnails  may  be  greatly 
benefited  by  frequent  bathing  in  warm  wa- 
ter. Soap  poultices  will  be  found  very 
soothing  and  helpful,  zinc  ointment  being 
used  afterward  to  heal  completely.  The 
latter  can  be  put  on  at  night  under  the 
sleeping  gloves. 

Hair  on  the  hands  can  be  destroyed  by 
the  use  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  zinc 
oxide,  barium  sulphide,  and  starch.  This 
should  be  moistened  with  water,  applied  as 
a  paste,  dried,  and  then  scraped  off.  This 
preparation  should  not  be  used  oftener  than 
once  in  three  days.  The  hair  comes  off  read- 
ily with  the  dried  paste.  There  is  a  somewhat 
disagreeable  odor,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
the  barium  sulphide,  but  warm  water  only 
is  necessary  to  drive  the  odor  from  the  skin. 

Felons  are  often  a  source  of  great  annoy- 
ance and  should  be  taken  in  hand  very 
promptly.  When  the  felon  first  appears, 
cut  off  the  end  of  a  lemon  and  thrust  the 
finger  into  it;  keeping  it  there  as  long  as 
possible. 

CARE    OF  .THE    FEET 

Something  approaching  to  the  care  be- 
stowed upon  the  feet  in  ancient  times  is 
noticeable  among  society  people  to-day. 
Pedicure  establishments  have  increased  rap- 
idly, and  ladies  of  means  visit  them  as  regu- 
larly as  they  do  the  manicures.  With  the 
use  of  the  sandal  we  should  doubtless  at- 
tain again  to  that  general  beauty  and  sym- 
metry of  the  foot  common  in  Greece  dur- 
ing the  classical  age. 

Bathing  the  feet  is,  of  course,  as  neces- 
sary as  bathing  the  hands  and  face.  The 
same  care  should  be  used  about  the  acces- 


HEALTH    HINTS    FOR   WOMEN 


697 


series ;  on  no  occasion  allowing  a  common 
alkali  soap  to  enter  the  foot  bath.  The 
skin  on  the  feet  is  more  delicate  than  that 
of  the  hands  and  needs  proportionately 
more  tender  care,  as  it  callouses  much  more 
readily.  A  little  ammonia  in  the  foot-bath  is 
desirable,  and  palm-oil  soap  is  strongly  rec- 
ommended. The  ointment  prescribed  for 
the  hands  may  be  used  with  equal  benefit 
on  the  feet,  and  the  same  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  nails  as  to  those  on  the 
former. 

Tender  feet  are  the  cause  of  much  dis- 
comfort, and  so  long  as  people  persist  in 
not  going  barefoot  or  not  wearing  sandals 
this  will  probably  be  so. 

A  good  powder  for  softening  the  feet, 
and  at  the  same  time  rendering  the  flesh 
firm,  is  composed  of  French  chalk  and 
alum,  equal  parts,  which  has  the  additional 
virtue  of  removing  the  odor  due  to  per- 
spiration. 

For  the  latter  purpose,  and  where  the 
offensiveness  is  very  pronounced,  the  pow- 
der made  as  follows  may  be  used  by  dust- 
ing it  on  the  feet  each  morning: 

Three  ounces  boracic  acid,  four  ounces 
oxide  of  zinc,  three  ounces  salicylic  acid, 
and  ten  grains  carbolic  acid. 

Abrasions  of  the  feet  or  hands  may  be 
healed  with  the  following  salve,  which  is 
also  good  for  chilblains  and  chapped  parts : 
Boric  acid,  2  parts ;  vaseline,  30  parts ;  glyc- 
erine, 3  parts.  Perfume  as  desired.  Other 
remedies  for  tender  feet  are  to  bathe  them 
in  tepid  water  with  a  handful  of  bran 
added,  also  a  small  quantity  of  borax. 

Unpleasantness  arising  from  over-per- 
spiration may  also  be  remedied  by  thor- 
oughly washing  each  night  and  morning 
and  cleansing  with  soap.  When  thoroughly 
clean  place  them  in  fresh  wQter  to  which 
a  teaspoonful  of  chloride  of  lime  or  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  salts  of  ammonia  have  been 
added. 

Ingrowing  nails  are  generally  met  with 
more  frequently  on  the  feet  than  on  the 
hands.  The  easiest  way  to  relieve  is  by 
filing  the  centre  of  the  nail  slightly,  and  by 
carefully  cutting  the  troublesome  end. 

Corns  are  another  of  the  nuisances  of  civ- 
ilization. 

They  are  treated  in  a  great  many  differ- 
ent ways.  Burning  them  out  with  lunar 
caustic  or  nitrate  of  silver  is  a  method  com- 
monly employed.  A  fresh  piece  of  lemon 
tied  on  to  the  corn  daily  is  said  to  so  eat 
into  its  roots  that  in  a  short  time  the  corn 
will  come  out.  Another  method  is  to 
place  the  feet  for  half  an  hour,  two  or 


three  nights  in  succession,  in  a  strong  so- 
lution of  common  soda.  The  alkali  dis- 
solves the  corn,  which  ultimately  drops  out, 
leaving  a  cavity  into  which  the  natural 
flesh  quickly  grows. 

Tincture  of  iodine  or  aromatic  vinegar 
applied  with  a  wooden  toothpick  to  the  corn 
each  night  will  loosen  it  so  that  after 
a  few  days,  when  bathed  in  hot  water,  it 
will  loosen  and  come  out.  To  remove 
effectually,  the  remaining  scales  should  be 
treated  with  the  vinegar  or  tincture  until 
the  last  vestige  has  disappeared. 

Soft  corns  are  even  more  troublesome 
than  hard  ones.  Soap  cerate  spread  on  a 
small  piece  of  rag  and  placed  between  the 
toes  will  usually  give  relief.  The  dressing 
must  be  continued  daily.  Ivy  leaves  are 
said  to  be  very  efficacious  for  the  same 
purpose,  and  the  aromatic  vinegar  or  tinc- 
ture of  iodine  will  also  kill  the  soft  corn. 
Another  corn  cure  is:  Half  an  ounce  of 
collodion,  half  a  dram  of  borate  of  so- 
dium, and  half  a  scruple  of  extract  of  can- 
nabis. 

For  bunions  make  a  lotion  of  one  dram 
each  of  glycerine,  tincture  of  iodine,  and 
carbolic  acid. 

CARE  OF   THE   HAIR 

A  beautiful  head  of  hair  is  justly  re- 
garded as  a  crowning  adornment  by  wo- 
man. How  seldom  is  this  ornament,  how- 
ever, retained  as  long  as  might  be  possible 
in  all  its  beauty!  Even  before  middle  age 
is  reached  most  persons  have  seen  with 
regret  the  premature  decay  and  loss  of  their 
hair,  due,  unfortunately,  in  nine  cases  out 
of  ten,  to  ignorance  of  the  manner  of  treat- 
ment necessary  to  preserve  it. 

The  proper  care  of  the  hair  rightly  com- 
mences with  its  growth  in  infancy,  because, 
if  due  attention  be  given  it  then,  many  of 
the  diseases  which  prey  upon  the  scalp  and 
undermine  the  follicle  will  be  given  no  op- 
portunity to  gain  a  footing.  The  indis- 
criminate use  of  oils  and  pomades  on  the 
child's  head  is  always  to  be  condemned. 
They  only  serve  to  block  up  the  pores  and 
interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  hair.  The 
brushes  and  combs  used  on  young  heads 
should  be  soft  and  free  from  roughness, 
and  when  the  hair  is  tangled  a  few  min- 
utes' bathing  in  warm  water,  to  which  spir- 
its of  ammonia  has  been  added,  will  quickly 
straighten  it  out. 

In  the  early  stages  of  its  development 
the  hair  needs  great  attention,  and  the 
scalp  should  be  bathed  almost  daily  with  an 
infusion  of  Murillo  bark.  It  should  always 


698 


HEALTH    HINTS    FOR   WOMEN 


be  most  thoroughly  dried  after  cleansing. 
After  this  a  gentle  but  firm  brushing  will 
be  necessary.  The  brushing  should  always 
be  in  the  direction  of  the  hair  growth,  and 
never  be  done  roughly.  The  oily  matter  in 
the  hair  will  not  then  be  forced  out  too 
quickly,  and  there  will  be  no  need  for  arti- 
ficial oils  or  greases.  When  this  secretion, 
however,  is  insufficient  to  render  the  hair 
flexible,  soft,  and  glossy,  the  following  for- 
mula should  be  used :  Four  ounces  of  co- 
logne water,  one  ounce  glycerine,  one-eighth 
ounce  of  ammonia  water,  thirty  drops  oil  of 
origanum.  Clip  the  ends  of  the  hair  every 
two  or  three  weeks. 

A  shampoo  should  be  given  every  two 
weeks  when  the  child  is  advanced  a  little 
more  in  years.  It  may  be  made  of  two 
quarts  of  warm  water  with  a  half  dram  of 
borax  and  two  drams  of  water  of  ammonia 
added.  Tight  braiding  of  the  hair  is  very 
-detrimental  to  it,  and  will  result  in  ulti- 
mate loss  of  strength  and  glossiness. 

In  all  cases  it  is  best  to  avoid  using  the 
public  hairdresser,  either  for  children  or 
adults.  Nine-tenths  of  the  bald  heads  are 
caused  by  scalp  diseases,  the  seeds  of 
which  are  sown  broadcast  by  the  hair- 
dressers' brushes,  which  are  transferred  in- 
discriminately from  head  to  head.  When 
the  brush  is  formed  of  hard  bristles,  a  slight 
puncture  is  easily  made  in  the  scalp,  and 
then  the  parasitical  germs  are  dropped  in 
to  take  root  and  bear  abundant  fruit  for 
decay. 

Constant  brushing  will  do  more  to  im- 
prove the  condition  and  appearance  of  the 
hair  than  any  wash  ever  invented.  The 
morning  is  the  best  time  for  this  to  be 
done,  as  the  hair  is  then  more  supple.  Not 
more  than  twenty  minutes  should  be  occu- 
pied in  the  process,  and  the  brushing  should 
not  extend  beyond  the  hair.  The  scalp 
should  be  washed  only,  and  at  least  once 
a  week.  White  soap  dissolved  in  spirits  of 
wine  should  be  used  in  this  operation,  the 
head  afterward  being  rinsed  in  tepid  water. 
To  prevent  bleaching  of  the  hair  from  too 
much  washing,  it  may  subsequently  be  rinsed 
in  water  to  which  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
common  salt  have  been  added.  Careful 
dressers  frequently  use  a  sponge  for  the 
hair  when  rinsing  it,  and  invariably  dry  it 
carefully  with  a  cloth  after  each  operation. 

The  number  of  diseases  to  which  the 
scalp  is  subject,  and  all  of  which  have  a 
serious  result  on  the  hair,  is  legion. 

Dandruff  is  one  of  the  most  common 
causes  of  the  loss  of  hair.  There  are  many 
remedies  advocated  for  its  cure,  but  none 


seems  to  be  so  efficacious  as  common  flowers 
of  sulphur  dissolved  in  water,  with  which 
the  head  should  be  saturated  night  and 
morning.  The  advantage  of  this  remedy 
seems  to  be  that  it  does  not  impair  the 
hair  as  certain  other  compounds  do.  Cas- 
tor oil  and  alcohol  or  carbonate  of  potash 
and  borax  have  both  been  considered  spe- 
cifics for  dandruff. 

A  remedy  for  falling  hair  when  not  trace- 
able to  any  direct  cause  is  to  soak  the 
scalp  before  going  to  bed  with  one  part  of 
crude  white  birch  oil  and  five  parts  of  al- 
cohol. The  treatment  must  sometimes  be 
continued  for  a  couple  of  months,  during 
which  time  the  hair  should  be  kept  cut 
short  and  the  head  left  uncovered  as  much 
as  possible. 

Another  method  is  to  shampoo  the  scalp 
with  green  soap  and  tepid  water  several 
times  a  week,  after  which  a  lotion  should 
be  well  rubbed  in,  which  is  composed  as 
follows :  Four  ounces  bay  rum,  half  ounce 
glycerine,  two  drams  spirit  of  rosemary, 
and  one  dram  tincture  of  cantharides.  An- 
other hair  grower  is  made  of:  Cologne  wa- 
ter, three  ounces^  glycerine,  one  ounce; 
tincture  of  cantharides,  one  ounce;  camphor 
water,  three  ounces ;  rosemary  oil,  one  dram. 
Apply  morning  and  night.  Also  four 
ounces  of  boxwood  shavings  steeped  in 
eight  ounces  of  proof  spirit  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  sixty  degrees  for  twelve  days. 
Strain  and  add  half  an  ounce  each  of  rose- 
mary and  spirits  of  nutmeg. 

Loss  of  hair  may  often  be  traced  to 
scurf  in  the  scalp.  For  this  take  a  quarter 
pint  of  lemon  juice,  dissolve  therein  two 
drams  of  salt  of  tartar,  and  add  fifteen 
drops  each  of  tincture  of  cantharides  and 
spirits  of  camphor.  Keep  this  tightly 
corked. 

The  whites  of  eggs  beaten  up  thoroughly 
and  applied  to  the  scalp  will  render  the 
hair  rich  and  glossy  if  the  hair  is  afterward 
cleansed  with  bay  rum. 

Clipping  the  ends  of  the  hair  occasionally, 
and  always  when  it  is  broken,  will  be  found 
conducive  to  its  development.  The  brushes 
and  combs  should  always  be  kept  clean. 

An  excellent  plan  for  keeping  black  hair 
from  turning  gray  is  to  take  small  doses  of 
iron  periodically.  It  is  said  that  this  pre- 
vents the  hair  from  ever  losing  its  original 
color. 

Another  method  of  preventing  the  hair 
from  turning  gray  or  restoring  it  to  its 
pristine  color  is  to  take  half  a  tumblerful 
of  strong  tea  and  apply  it  to  the  hair  with 
maiden-hair  fern,  as  if  the  latter  were  a 


HEALTH    HINTS    FOR   WOMEN 


sponge.  A  little  licorice  may  be  advan- 
tageously added  to  the  tea.  The  tea  and 
fern  combined  are  certain  restorers  of  the 
coloring  matter.  The  roots  of  the  hair 
should  be  thoroughly  rubbed  every  day  for 
two  months  with  this  decoction,  when  the 
good  results  will  begin  to  be  visible,  if  not 
sooner. 

Black  hair  can  be  readily  changed  to  a 
golden  hue  by  the  use  of  peroxide  of  hy- 
drogen. The  hue  changes  gradually,  pass- 
ing through  the  various  shades  of  brown 
until  the  golden  tint  is  reached.  Red  or 
auburn  hair  can  be  produced  by  the  use  of 
henna. 

An  infallible  method  of  coloring  the  hair 
either  black  or  brown  can  be  found  in  the 
following  formula :  Two  ounces  of  tincture 
of  sesqui-chloride  of  iron,  two  ounces  of 
acetic  acid,  and  five  grains  of  acid  of  gall. 
Add  the  acetic  acid  to  the  others  after  the 
gall  has  been  dissolved  in  tincture  of  iron, 
and  apply  after  thoroughly  washing  the 
head. 

To  apply  this  dip  the  points  of  a  fine 
tooth  comb  into  the  fluid  and  draw  the 
comb  slowly  through  the  hair,  from  the 
roots  downward,  until  the  hair  is  thor- 
oughly saturated.  If  the  dressing  be  ap- 
plied while  the  -hair  is  moist,  the  hair  will 
change  to  black,  but  if  not  put  on  until 
thoroughly  dry,  it  will  assume  a  brown 
shade.  It  is  safer,  however,  to  use  no  color 
for  the  hair. 

With  reference  to  superfluous  hair,  an 
excellent  specific  has  been  given  in  the  sec- 
tion on  hands.  The  undesirable  growth  on 
the  face  has  baffled  physicians  and  derma- 
tologists for  years,  and  most  modern  works 
on  this  subject  contain  descriptions  of  more 
or  less  barbarous  methods  for  removing  it. 
Many  recommend  the  use  of  the  tweezers, 
entailing  the  removal  of  each  hair  individ- 
ually. But  the  tweezer  is  not  infallible,  as 
a  recurring  growth  generally  shows.  Plas- 
ters made  of  galbanum  and  pitch  spread 
upon  leather  and  laid  upon  the  hair  growth 
are  also  used.  They  are  said  to  bring  away 
the  hair,  and  generally  the  roots,  if  laid 
on  carefully,  and  allowed  to  remain  for 
several  minutes.  They  should  be  drawn  off 
slowly. 

The  electrolytic  needle  is  probably  the 
most  popular  means  of  removing  superflu- 
ous hairs.  If  used  properly  it  undoubtedly 
destroys  the  individual  hair  follicle  treated, 
but  it  is  said  that  a  weaker  and  thicker 
growth  of  hair  appears  on  the  same  sur- 
face as  the  operations  have  covered. 

Some  authorities  recommend  the  use  of  a 


compress  made  from  the  evaporated  leaves 
and  roots  of  celadine  prepared  in  boiling 
water,  which  is  applied  to  the  face  and  al 
lowed  to  remain  on  all  night.  Particular 
care  should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  any 
depilatory,  however,  and  it  is  always  best 
to  act  only  under  the  advice  of  a  competent 
specialist. 

For  curling  the  hair  take  two  ounces  of 
borax,  one  dram  of  gum  arabic,  one  quart 
of  hot  water,  not  boiling.  When  the  ingre- 
dients are  amalgamated,  add  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  strong  spirits  of  camphor. 
Wet  the  hair  with  this  wash  at  night  and 
do  it  up  in  curling  paper. 

THE  EYEBROWS  AND  EYELASHES 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  strengthen- 
ing and  brightening  the  eyes  is  to  indulge 
freely  in  the  use  of  the  cold  water  douche 
for  them.  This  will  render  them  bright 
and  sparkling  unless  some  serious  defect 
exists.  Plenty  of  sleep  in  a  pure  atmos- 
phere, and  as  much  as  possible  before  mid- 
night, will  enhance  their  brightness.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  reflections  of  the 
sunlight  from  water,  which  often  produces 
lasting  trouble  to  the  eyes.  Sudden  awak- 
ening in  a  glare  of  sunlight  is  as  danger- 
ous as  to  have  the  moonlight  playing  on 
one's  eyes  while  asleep. 

The  glare  of  the  ballroom  and  the  effect 
of  long  periods  spent  under  the  study  lamp 
are  bound  to  impair  the  natural  brilliance 
of  the  eyes. 

As  a  soothing  and  restorative  agent  when 
the  eyes  are  overtired,  there  is  nothing  to 
excel  a  gentle  bathing  with  opodeldoc. 
Witch  hazel  is  sometimes  substituted  for 
this,  but  is  not  so  efficacious. 

The  following  is  recommended  as  an  eye- 
lash or  eyebrow  developer:  Two  ounces  of 
vaseline,  one  ounce  of  glycerine,  quarter 
ounce  of  cantharides,  and  ten  drops  each 
of  rosemary  and  lavender  water.  The  eyes 
must  not  be  touched  with  this  lotion. 

The  eyebrows  can  be  dyed  by  any  of  the 
formulas  given  for  the  hair. 

The  custom  of  clipping  the  eyelashes  is 
believed  to  be  conducive  to  their  beauty, 
as  it  has  been  followed  in  the  Orient  for 
ages  with  well-known  results. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that 
no  part  of  the  body  will  endure  as  little  tam- 
pering with  as  the  eyes.  The  use  of  am- 
monia in  the  water  with  which  the  face  is 
bathed  has  caused  many  troubles  that  eye 
specialists  have  found  themselves  unable  to 
cure.  Nor  has  any  woman  a  right  to  use 


700 


HEALTH    HINTS   FOR   WOMEN 


belladonna.  Indeed,  no  lotion,  dressing,  or 
ointment  of  any  kind  should  be  used  on  the 
eyes  except  by  prescription  of  a  competent 
physician. 

TREATMENT    FOR    SKIN    DISEASES 

It  must  be  steadily  borne  in  mind  that 
many  of  the  imperfections  of  the  skin  are 
due  to  derangements  of  the  internal  organs, 
and  will  entirely  disappear  when  proper 
medical  attention  has  been  given  to  such 
diseases. 

There  are  other  conditions  under  which 
the  skin  affection  may  be  partially  due  to 
such  internal  troubles;  while  there  are  yet 
others  which  are  entirely  of  a  local  nature, 
and  where  medicine  would  naturally  be 
superfluous. 

Eczema,  many  forms  of  pimples,  sallow- 
ness,  paleness,  redness  of  the  face,  boils, 
and  many  less  common  forms  of  skin  dis- 
order, frequently  come  from  dyspepsia. 

In  these  cases  the  dyspepsia  must  be 
cured  before  any  permanent  results  can  be 
received  from  external  treatment. 

Biliousness  causes  many  of  the  same  out- 
ward symptoms. 

Many  more  skin  affections  are  the  direct 
result  of  liver  and  kidney  troubles,  while 
yet  others  are  due  to  an  impoverished  con- 
dition of  the  blood. 

Sometimes  in  females  they  are  due  to  con- 
ditions peculiar  to  certain  ages  of  women. 

A  disordered  liver  is  apt  to  be  responsi- 
ble for  yellow  and  muddy  skin,  one  particu- 
lar form  of  which  is  chloasma  or  liver  spot, 
which  is  a  very  great  disfigurement  to  the 
face,  especially  in  the  case  of  a  blond  com- 
plexion. It  is  caused  by  an  irregular  dis- 
tribution of  the  coloring  matter  in  the  skin. 
Blotchy  faces  are  very  often  due,  especially 
in  the  case  of  middle-aged  persons,  to  liver 
disorder. 

Defective  action  of  the  kidneys  will  fre- 
quently produce  roughness  of  the  skin,  pal- 
lor, and  blackheads. 

Acne,  on  the  other  hand,  is  often  the  re- 
sult of  impoverished  blood,  due  either  to 
non-assimilation  of  healthy  food,  or  too 
rapid  growth  or  overwork. 

Again,  certain  forms  of  pimples,  more 
especially  the  white  ones,  flesh  -  worms, 
blackheads,  freckles,  tan,  and  even  boils, 
may  be  due  to  no  internal  disturbance  what- 
ever. 

If  the  soreness  be  due  to  lack  of  action 
of  the  sebaceous  glands,  or  to  oversuscepti- 
bility  of  the  cuticle,  it  may  develop  into 
permanent  disfigurement  from  exposure  to 
sun,  wind,  dust,  or  bacterial  germs. 


There  are  many  simple  remedies  which 
can  be  used  when  the  correct  diagnosis  has 
been  made  of  a  case.  To  do  this  usually 
calls  for  the  interference  of  a  physician. 

A  good  general  rule,  however,  is  to  keep 
the  bowels  well  open,  that  being  the  first 
essential  to  health  and  beauty,  and  the 
blood  as  pure  as  possible. 

The  household  scrap-book  generally  con- 
tains a  good  many  of  these  simple  reme- 
dies, but  so  many  new  substances  are  being 
continually  added  to  the  materia  medica 
that  a  first-class  physician  should  be  con- 
sulted when  practicable,  for  obvious  rea- 
sons. The  same  local  conditions  in  persons 
of  different  habits  and  temperament  would 
vary  the  efficacy  of  any  general  treatment 
prescribed. 

Many  persons  are  cured  of  constipation, 
after  having  exhausted  the  skill  of  the  best 
physicians,  by  simply  drinking  a  glass  of 
hot  water  in  the  morning  upon  arising. 
Others  have  found  the  same  results  from 
taking  the  hot  water  before  retiring. 

In  the  latter  case,  relief  from  insomnia 
has  often  been  experienced  from  drinking 
the  hot  water,  sometimes  accompanied  by 
a  warm  foot  bath. 

Many  modern  physicians,  however,  pre- 
scribe the  drinking  of  cold  water. 

A  good  laxative  for  temporary  constipa- 
tion is  fluid  extract  of  cascara  sagrada, 
twenty  or  thirty  drops  of  which  can  be 
taken  in  water,  morning  and  evening. 

The  constipation  may  be,  and  generally 
is,  accompanied  by  biliousness,  in  which  case 
a  lemon  squeezed  into  the  water  without 
sugar  added  will  prove  beneficial,  gently 
warding  off  the  nausea  until  the  fecal  mat- 
ter has  been  dissolved  by  the  hot  fluid,  and 
peristaltic  action  has  set  in. 

Fulness  after  eating,  and  flushing  of  the 
face,  are  due  to  indigestion,  which  may 
be  caused  by  improper  diet  or  weakness 
of  the  organs  acting  upon  the  digestive 
tract. 

For  this  trouble,  in  its  immediate  shape, 
pepsin  is  usually  prescribed,  and  it  may  be 
taken  to  advantage,  sometimes  with  the 
following  admixture :  Powdered  pepsin,  140 
grains ;  pancreatin,  124  grains ;  dried  papaw 
juice,  15  grains;  concentrated  lactic  acid,  15 
minims;  weak  hydrochloric  acid,  15  min- 
ims; sugar  of  milk,  14  drams.  Divide  into 
twenty  doses. 

The  minor  liver  troubles,  due  to  insuffi- 
cient action  of  that  organ,  are  known  fre- 
quently as  biliousness.  The  delayed  bile  in 
the  stomach  enters  into  the  blood  and  re- 
sults in  making  it  impure.  This  condition 


HEALTH    HINTS   FOR   WOMEN 


701 


produces  blotches  and  pimply  spots  on  the 
skin,  or  yellowness. 

In  this  case,  the  cup  of  hot  water  in  the 
morning  should  also  contain  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  phosphate  of  soda. 

When  the  condition  is  serious  the  diet 
must  be  at  once  arranged  to  meet  the  capac- 
ity of  the  liver  until  it  has  been  restored  to 
healthy  action.  Greasy  foods,  salt  meats, 
tinned  or  shell  fish,  and  very  sour  foods, 
must  be  avoided,  as  they  either  clog  or 
irritate  the  organ.  Cereals,  fruit,  eggs,  un- 
derdone (or  rare)  meats,  broiled  fresh  fish, 
vegetables,  and  coffee  or  tea,  in  modera- 
tion, should  be  taken,  without  beer  or  other 
stimulants. 

Medicine  will  also  be  needed,  and  the  fol- 
lowing prescription  might  afford  consider- 
able assistance :  Compound  extract  of  colo- 
cynth,  12  centigrams ;  blue  mass,  12  centi- 
grams; extract  of  belladonna,  15  milli- 
grams ;  aloin,  7  milligrams ;  sulphate  of 
strychnine,  I  milligram.  This  should  be 
taken  for  several  nights  in  succession,  in 
the  form  of  pills,  and  every  second  or 
third  night  a  five-grain  blue  pill  must  be 
also  taken.  At  the  time  the  medicine  is 
used,  there  should  be  no  attempt  to  use 
any  local  treatment  other  than  keeping  the 
pores  of  the  skin  well  open  by  steaming 
or  friction. 

The  medical  treatment  may  be  continued 
every  two  or  three  weeks,  and  local  reme- 
dies applied  as  prescribed  elsewhere  for  the 
particular  form  of  skin  trouble  indicated. 

In  the  treatment  of  boils  springing  from 
less  serious  trouble  of  the  stomach  and 
blood,  a  good  dose  of  Rochelle  salts  should 
be  taken  every  morning  and  a  one-fifth 
grain  pill  of  sulphide  of  calcium  every  five 
hours. 

Boils  are  seldom  cut  or  poulticed  nowa- 
days. Boric  acid,  in  alcohol,  is  used  for  a 
dressing.  It  can  be  applied  with  a  camel's- 
hair  brush. 

In  cases  of  acne,  which  are  generally  the 
result  of  poor  blood,  a  more  liberal  diet 
is  prescribed  and  good  meats  with  nu- 
tritious foods  advised.  Milk,  claret,  and 
sometimes  porter,  are  advocated  to  add 
strength  to  the  system. 

If  the  appetite  is  poor  a  good  appetizer 
may  be  found,  early  in  the  morning,  in  a 
cup  of  strong  beef  tea.  Sometimes  a  raw 
egg  in  vinegar,  with  salt  and  pepper  added, 
will  prove  efficacious,  or  a  fruit  juice  or 
juice  of  lemon  may  be  substituted  for  the 
vinegar. 

Iron  should  be  taken,  in  some  form,  to 
change  the  chemical  constituents  of  the 


blood,  and  the  following  old-time  prescrip- 
tion makes  an  excellent  tonic :  one-half  pint 
of  spirits  frurm,nti ;  three-fourths  oz.  tinct. 
cardamom  comp. ;  one  and  one-half  drams 
tinct.  nux  vomica,  one-half  dram  each  pulv. 
gentian,  pulv.  columbo,  pulv.  quassia,  cin- 
chona, red,  carb.  iron.  One  tablespoonful  is 
a  dose,  and  should  be  taken  before  meals. 

Temporary  irritations  of  the  skin,  such 
as  itchiness,  nettle  rash,  or  hives,  can  be 
best  overcome  by  strict  attention  to  diet. 
They  usually  result  from  overheating  of  the 
blood  by  indiscreet  feeding  or  drinking,  or 
else  an  injudicious  mixture,  which  causes 
annoyance  to  the  intestines.  Certain  ar- 
ticles, such  as  shell-fish,  cucumbers,  or  ber- 
ries, when  first  in  season,  will  occasion 
these  troubles  continually  with  some  indi- 
viduals. In  other  cases  the  effect  will  be 
only  experienced  once,  when  the  blood  is 
in  a  condition  to  be  easily  irritated.  Seid- 
litz  powders,  lemonade,  sprudel  salts,  or 
some  mild  laxative  can  be  used  to  cool  the 
blood  and  relieve  the  stomach.  When  the 
irritation  of  the  skin  is  intolerable,  ease 
locally  by  applying  carbonate  of  soda  in 
warm  water  to  the  skin,  letting  it  dry  in 
and  afterward  dusting  with  talcum  powder. 
A  simple  diet  of  cooked  vegetables  or  white 
bread  and  milk  is  often  resorted  to  in  se- 
vere cases  of  hives,  to  afford  a  speedy  cure. 

With  plenty  of  sleep,  freedom  from  an- 
noyance or  worry,  moderate  exercise, 
healthy  air,  and  plenty  of  mental  occupa- 
tion, such  as  interesting  reading  or  quiet 
diversions,  added  to  this  regimen,  very  se- 
rious annoyances  may  be  combated  and  re- 
moved. 

The  essential  point  to  remember  is  the 
relationship  existing  between  health  and 
beauty,  both  of  which  require  care  and  vigi- 
lance to  preserve  them  at  their  best. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE    FIGURE 

"Were  I  a  woman,"  said  a  certain  sculp- 
tor, "I  would  prefer  at  any  time  to  have 
an  exquisite  form  rather  than  a  beautiful 
face." 

The  nearest  to  the  ideal  form  that  we 
know  of  as  a  universal  model  is  that  of  the 
Venus  of  Cnidus,  executed  in  white  marble 
by  Praxiteles,  which  has  been  repeatedly 
praised  and  described  by  artists  and  art 
critics.  It  should  be  some  satisfaction  to 
the  modern  woman  that  this  work  of 
Praxiteles,  like  many  other  masterpieces  of 
sculpture,  was  idealized,  for  in  no  one  wo- 
man yet  has  been  found  all  the  charms  com- 
bined in  the  famous  statue.  The  best  that 
can  be  expected  is  to  possess  a  fair  share 

45 


702 


HEALTH   HINTS   FOR   WOMEN 


of  them.  In  this  age  of  corsets  and  other 
absurd  fashions,  the  woman  who  can  ap- 
proximate to  anything  lovely  in  figure  is  a 
paragon.  Better  figures,  in  fact,  are  found 
among  savage  tribes  than  fall  as  a  rule  to 
the  women  of  civilization. 

Perhaps  the  trouble  is  largely  due  to  the 
clothing  worn.  It  is  so  easy  to  hide  de- 
fects that  women  do  not  take  pains  to  eradi- 
cate them,  but  simply  cover  them  up. 

The  first  question  of  vital  importance  in 
either  developing  or  maintaining  approxi- 
mate perfection  of  figure  is  exercise.  Noth- 
ing will  take  the  place  of  the  daily  consti- 
tutional, not  even  the  bicycle.  In  regard 
to  other  forms  of  exercise,  the  question  has 
been  already  treated  in  these  papers.  Gym- 
nastic exercises  are  among  the  most  valu- 
able developers  of  a  perfect  figure.  Where 
the  taste  or  habits  make  such  exercise  dis- 
tasteful, massage  will  be  found  a  valuable 
substitute. 

Such  outdoor  games  as  tennis  also  serve 
to  strengthen  and  upbuild  certain  parts  of 
the  muscular  system,  while  rowing  is  an- 
other excellent  form  of  exercise  to  practice. 

Many  women  suffer  from  a  tendency  to 
fleshiness,  and  watch  with  sad  misgivings 
their  gradually  disappearing  contours. 

For  these  there  is  immediate  refuge  in 
exercise,  while  diet  will  materially  aid  them. 
The  kind  of  exercise  will  necessarily  have 
to  be  different  and  more  rigorous  than  what 
has  been  customary,  while  the  diet  must  be 
rigidly  adhered  to.  The  training  to  which 
athletes  submit  in  order  to  bring  their 
weight  within  prescribed  limits  proves  con- 
clusively that  fleshiness  can  be  counteracted 
by  system  without  resorting  to  medicine. 
Nevertheless,  certain  kinds  of  mineral  wa- 
ters have  been  proven  to  be  valuable  as 
flesh  reducers,  and  they  are  preferable  to 
any  other  form  of  physic.  Overindulgence 
in  sleep  is  conducive  to  fatness,  and  an  easy, 
pleasant  life  generally  often  brings  with  it 
a  full  habit  as  a  necessary  penalty. 

The  hard,  active,  tireless  worker  seldom 
suffers  from  obesity,  unless  some  constitu- 
tional cause  is  at  the  root  of  the  matter, 
thus  proving  it  to  be  a  disease. 

The  diet  necessary  is  an  avoidance  of  all 
starchy  and  saccharine  foods,  also  alco- 
holic fluids  and  milk.  Among  the  articles 
to  be  specially  avoided  are:  Ale,  cocoa,  po- 
tatoes, beans,  peas,  oatmeal,  succotash,  soup, 
cheese,  butter,  pastry  and  confections,  and 
strong  condiments. 

Those  permissible  are:  Underdone  meats 
in  moderation,  tea,  coffee,  light,  sour  wines, 


fowl,  and  lightly  broiled  meats,  cabbage,  let- 
tuce, cucumber,  spinach,  pumpkin,  apples, 
grapes,  peaches,  cherries,  gooseberries,  rasp- 
berries, strawberries,  currants,  plums, 
oranges  and  lemons,  eggs,  oysters,  and 
clams. 

Two  cups  of  hot  water  should  be  taken 
night  and  morning.  Oxygen  being  the  ene- 
my of  fat  or  carbon,  outdoor  exercise  is  in- 
dispensable. It  is  best  taken  before  break- 
fast, as  it  induces  early  rising,  and  the 
lungs  are  freer  and  capable  of  longer  in- 
halations before  food  is  put  into  the  stom- 
ach. The  best  system  to  pursue  can  easily 
be  decided  by  the  patient,  and  can  only  re- 
sult satisfactorily  if  these  general  rules  be 
observed. 

Angularity  of  form  and  feature  is  another 
form  of  departure  from  the  desired  me- 
dium. Although  leanness  or  scragginess 
can  not  be  so  easily  overcome  as  its  an- 
tithesis, it  can  often  be  greatly  ameliorated. 

Women  who  lead  lonely,  sedentary  lives, 
and  bury  their  whole  existence  in  house- 
hold cares,  are  apt  to  grow  scrawny  and 
peaked-looking  in  the  face.  Unfortunately 
many  have  not  the  disposition  to  be  cheerful 
and  make  the  best  of  circumstances.  That 
is  the  keynote  to  many  a  long  life  and 
nicely  rounded  contour. 

Fretful,  pining  natures  never  go  with  a 
well-rounded  bust  and  a  rotund  face.  Let 
the  angular-figured  woman  try  to  cultivate 
cheeriness  and  hopefulness,  think  less  of  the 
thousand  and  one  annoyances  which  she 
has  to  bear,  and  devote  a  few  hours  a  day 
(whether  the  work  is  done  or  not)  to 
some  kind  of  amusement  or  diversion  that 
is  a  pleasure  to  her.  Then  reverse  the  diet 
from  that  quoted  for  her  expanding  sister 
and  increase  her  hours  of  ease  and  rest  as 
much  as  she  possibly  can.  If  she  does  not 
become  a  Venus  of  Cnidus  in  a  short  time, 
a  marked  improvement  will  be  noticeable 
and  life  will  begin  to  take  on  that  charm 
which  it  should  possess  for  all  rational  crea- 
tures. 

Many  women  suffer  from  imperfect  bust 
development  due  to  various  causes.  Me- 
chanical appliances  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
viating this  are  of  no  value,  but  electricity, 
massage,  with  good  skin  food  and  vocal 
culture,  will  work  wonders  for  women  who 
will  persevere  in  developing  that  most  con- 
spicuous of  the  sex's  charms. 

The  value  of  the  Russian  bath  in  cases 
of  extreme  development  of  adipose  tissue 
may  be  mentioned.  It  is  a  helpful  auxiliary 
to  the  exercise  and  dieting  prescribed. 


HEALTH    HINTS    FOR   WOMEN 


708 


THE   BEST  COSMETICS  AND  HOW  TO  MAKE  THEM 


THERE  are  hosts  of  toilet  preparations 
on  the  market.  Some  of  them  are  ex- 
cellent, while  others  are  mere  humbugs,  and 
many  of  the  latter  are  so  dangerous  that 
their  continued  use  ensures  ruin  to  the  com- 
plexion. When  cosmetics  are  needed  it  is 
imperative  to  know  that  such  preparations 
are  harmless  and  beneficial. 

For  the  benefit  of  readers  who  may  wish 
to  make  their  own  toilet  compounds  at 
home  a  chemist  who  has  devoted  much  time 
to  the  manufacture  of  this  line  of  commod- 
ities has  prepared  a  number  of  formulas 
for  COLLIER'S  CYCLOPEDIA.  All  the  mixtures 
described  below  are  absolutely  safe  for  the 
purposes  for  which  they  are  recommended, 
and  will  bring  about  the  most  desirable  re- 
sults. 

The  use  of  these  formulas  will  be  found 
money-saving;  they  will  be  found  to  come 
under  the  head  of  profitable  knowledge,  as 
well,  for  women  who  have  the  time  and 
sufficient  enterprise  to  make  up  the  goods 
for  sale. 

Very  little  apparatus  is  needed.  A  small 
glass  mortar  and  pestle,  a  small  scale  and 
weights  from  five  grains  to  a  dram,  a  four- 
inch  glass  funnel  and  some  filter  paper,  and 
a  two-ounce  graduate  marked  off  in  drams 
are  all  that  will  be  needed.  It  is  necessary 
at  the  outset  to  learn  the  values  of  all  the 
weights  that  go  with  the  scale,  and  to  re- 
member that  there  are  sixty  grains  in  a 
dram,  eight  drams  in  an  ounce,  and  sixteen 
ounces  in  a  pound.  When  using  the  gradu- 
ate, remember  that  there  are  sixty  drops  in 
a  dram,  eight  drams  in  an  ounce,  and  so  on. 
With  the  filter  there  is  a  very  simple  little 
knack  of  folding  the  paper  so  that  it  will 
fit  exactly  into  the  funnel.  Any  druggist 
will  show  you,  in  a  few  moments,  how  to 
do  this. 

Now  let  us  suppose  that  we  are  all  ready 
to  begin  with  the  preparation  of  the  first 
toilet  requisite,  which  will  naturally  be  a 

COMPLEXION    LOTION 

For  this  you  will  need  just  one-half  an 
Ounce  of  quince-seed.  Put  this  in  a  clean 
agate  pan,  pour  over  the  seed  exactly  two 
quarts  of  boiling  water.  Set  the  pan  on  the 
back  of  the  stove,  where  the  seed  can  steep 
without  boiling.  Let  stand  thus,  covered, 
for  two  hours,  lifting  the  lid  occasionally 
to  stir  a  little.  This  can  be  done  in  the 


intervals  of  household  duties.  At  the  end 
of  two  hours  take  the  pot  from  the  stove, 
straining  through  cloth  the  quince-seed  mu- 
cilage that  will  have  resulted.  As  soon  as 
the  mucilage  is  cool,  mix  in  the  following 
proportions : 

Quince-seed    mucilage Six  ounces 

Glycerine    One  ounce 

Rose  water One  ounce 

Fluid  ounces  are  intended  in  each  case 
above.  Shake  the  mixture  well  and  it  is 
ready  for  use.  If  preferred,  one-half  ounce 
of  tincture  of  benzoin  (the  making  of  which 
is  described  further  along)  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  rose  water.  The  mucilage  will 
not  keep  alone  for  many  days,  and  should 
therefore  be  mixed  with  the  other  ingredi- 
ents at  once.  This  lotion  will  be  found 
excellent  for  either  the  face  or  the  hands, 
as  a  preventive  of  chapping,  roughening,  or 
sunburn.  A  woman  who  has  much  house- 
work to  do,  and  yet  wishes  to  keep  her 
hands  smooth  for  sewing  and  embroidery, 
will  find  the  preparation  a  boon. 

THE    BEST    COLD    CREAM 

is  made  by  melting  together  over  a  slow 
fire  the  first  three  of  the  following  in- 
gredients : 

Albolene   (solid) Ten  ounces 

Oil  of  sweet  almonds One  ounce 

Japanese  wax  (very  white) One  ounce 

Otto  of  rose Six  drops 

Albolene  comes  in  two  forms,  liquid  and 
solid,  but  the  latter  must  be  used,  as  the 
former  would  not  make  a  cold  cream.  As 
soon  as  the  first  three  ingredients  have  been 
reduced  to  a  common  molten  consistency  re- 
move from  the  fire  and  begin  to  stir  slowly 
and  thoroughly.  Herein  lies  the  art  of 
making  a  good  cold  cream.  If  the  stirring 
is  not  thorough  up  to  the  time  when  the 
cream  solidifies  it  will  not  be  a  good  ar- 
ticle. Just  at  the  point  where  the  mixture 
passes  from  a  liquid  to  a  solid  add  the  otto 
of  rose,  or  a  few  drops  of  any  other  per- 
fume that  may  be  preferred,  though  the 
cream  will  answer  every  cosmetic  purpose 
just  as  well  without  any  scent. 

MILK     OF     BENZOIN 

is  a  most  excellent  and  very  simple  lotion. 
It  is  made  by  mixing,  with  shaking, 

Tincture    of  benzoin One  ounce 

Soft  water Seven  ounces 


704 


HEALTH    HINTS   FOR   WOMEN 


This  may  be  applied  as  a  lotion  as  freely 
as  is  desired,  with,  of  course,  the  proviso 
that  should  be  insisted  upon  in  the  use  of 
all  lotions — that  the  skin  be  first  thoroughly 
cleansed  with  warm  or  tepid  water.  Should 
the  reader  prefer  to  make  her  own  tincture 
of  benzoin,  it  may  be  done  by  grinding 
gum  of  benzoin  in  the  mortar  until  it  has 
been  reduced  to  small  pieces,  these  bits  be- 
ing then  transferred  to  a  bottle  and  four 
ounces  of  alcohol  added.  Set  the  bottle 
aside  for  a  week,  shaking  several  times 
daily.  At  the  end  of  that  time  filter  the 
liquid  from  the  bottle  through  filter  paper 
and  the  clear  liquid  is  tincture  of  benzoin. 

TOOTH     POWDER 

is  one  of  the  preparations  for  the  toilet  on 
which  users  have  always  disagreed,  and  they 
are  very  likely  to  continue  to  do  so.  Yet 
the  subject  is  a  very  simple  one.  The  re- 
quirements of  a  tooth  powder  are  that  it 
should  gently  scrape  the  tartar  from  the 
teeth  and  at  the  same  time  thoroughly 
cleanse  them  of  other  impurities.  Such  a 
tooth  powder  should  cost  about  twenty-five 
cents  a  pound,  and  may  be  prepared  as  easily 
at  home  as  elsewhere. 

Precipitated  chalk Four  ounces 

Powdered  castile  soap One  ounce 

Oil  of  wintergreen Twenty  drops 

Put  the  powdered  soap  and  chalk  in  a 
bowl  and  stir  thoroughly.  After  a  while 
add  the  oil  of  wintergreen,  letting  a  drop 
fall  here  and  a  drop  there.  Stir  the  oil 
thoroughly  in,  to  ensure  even  admixture. 
This  done,  it  is  better  to  pass  the  powder 
several  times  through  a  patent  flour  sifter 
to  give  still  better  compounding.  The 
powder  is  now  ready  to  put  away  in  a  jar 
or  wide-mouthed  bottle.  In  buying  the  in- 
gredients be  careful  to  insist  upon  precipi- 
tated chalk;  do  not  take  any  other  kind. 
Do  not  attempt  to  powder  the  castile  soap 
for  yourself;  it  should  not  cost  more  than 
fifty-five  cents  per  pound,  while  the  right 
price  for  precipitated  chalk  may  be  any- 
where between  seven  and  fifteen  cents,  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  that  is  bought 

The  above  gives  a  mild  dentifrice,  suit- 
able to  the  softest  teeth.  Should  it  be  de- 
sired to  occasionally  use  a  powder  that  is 
more  rapidly  cleansing  in  its  effect,  take  five 
ounces  of  the  above  powder  and  add  to  this 
quantity  one  ounce  of  finely  bolted  pumice- 
stone,  taking  pains  to  mix  thoroughly.  This 
pumice-stone  preparation,  however,  should 
not  be  used  above  twice  in  the  week,  as  a 
more  frequent  use  would  tend  to  injure  the 
enamel  of  the  teeth. 


The  above  is  the  formula  of  the  tooth 
powder  that  is  probably  the  most  widely 
sold  in  this  country.  All  other  innocent 
tooth  powders  are  made  along  the  same 
lines.  Tooth  paste  has  no  advantage  over 
the  powder  form,  as  the  former  consists 
merely  of  the  addition  of  a  little  glycerine, 
water,  and  coloring  matter.  For  those  who 
wish  a  liquid  dentifrice,  without  the  chalk, 
we  offer  another  excellent  preparation  that 
has  been  made  famous  through  advertis- 
ing, viz. : 

Powdered  castile  soap. . .  .Three  ounces 

Glycerine Five  ounces 

Alcohol   Thirty  ounces 

Water   Twenty  ounces 

Oil    of    bergamot Two  and  a  half  drams 

Oil   of  wintergreen Two  and  a  half  drama 

Oil   of  clove One  dram 

In  a  bowl  holding  at  least  three  quarts 
pour  the  glycerine,  and  to  this  add  the 
powdered  soap,  taking  care  that  no  dust 
from  the  latter  rises  to  the  nostrils.  Stir 
these  two  ingredients  with  a  spoon,  or 
rub  them  with  a  glass  pestle  to  a  paste. 
When  the  paste  is  complete,  set  aside. 
Next  pour  the  alcohol  into  a  bottle,  and 
add  the  flavoring  oils,  one  after  the  other, 
with  much  shaking  to  cut  the  oils.  Next 
add  the  water,  a  little  at  a  time,  with  much 
shaking.  When  the  liquid  mixture  is  com- 
plete, pour  it  into  the  bowl,  stirring  the 
paste  into  the  liquid  until  the  one  is  thor- 
oughly dissolved  into  the  other.  Should  you 
desire  to  color  this  liquid,  make  up,  sep- 
arately, the  following 

CARMINE     LIQUID 

Carmine,    powdered Fifteen  grains 

Household    ammonia Three  ounces 

Shake  until  the  carmine  is  thoroughly 
dissolved  in  the  ammonia.  Now,  having 
your  liquid  dentifrice  ready  in  a  large  bot- 
tle, pour  a  very  few  drops  of  the  carmine 
solution  into  the  dentifrice.  Shake  thor- 
oughly, and  note  whether  the  dentifrice  is 
of  the  hue  that  you  wish.  If  not,  add  two 
or  three  more  drops  of  the  carmine  solu- 
tion, and  so  on,  shaking  each  time,  until 
you  reach  the  desired  color,  anywhere  be- 
tween a  faint  pink  and  a  deep  red. 

To  use  this  liquid  dentifrice,  thoroughly 
wet  the  brush  with  cold  or  tepid  water  and 
pour  on  a  few  drops  of  the  liquid. 

CREAM   OF  HONEY  AND   ALMONDS 

This  is  an  excellent  lotion,  and  much 
liked  by  thousands  of  women  in  this  coun- 
try, although  in  most  cases  of  poor  com- 
plexion it  is  probably  less  effective  than 
the  first  lotion  offered  in  this  chapter. 


HEALTH    HINTS   FOR   WOMEN 


705 


Nevertheless,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who 
prefer  the  honey  and  almond  compound  we 
give  it  herewith. 

Take  one  ounce  of  sweet  almond  kernels 
from  which  the  brown  outer  skins  have  been 
removed  after  soaking  in  hot  water.  Place 
the  white  kernels  in  a  mortar,  pour  on  a 
little  water,  and,  with  the  pestle,  grind  to 
a  paste,  adding  water  gradually,  until  a 
half-pint  of  water  in  all  has  been  poured 
in.  Continue  grinding  until  as  thick  and 
milky  an  emulsion  has  been  made  as  is 
possible.  When  this  is  completed,  strain 
the  liquid  through  cheesecloth.  To  this 
add  a  fluid  ounce  of  clear-strained  honey, 
shaking  until  the  fluid  is  completely  mixed. 
This  lotion  will  require  a  little  shaking 
every  time  before  it  is  applied  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  skin. 

CURE     FOR     FRECKLES 

It  must  not  be  understood  that,  by  this 
caption,  any  royal  road  to  the  banishment 
of  freckles  is  promised.  The  cure,  in  order 
to  be  healthful  to  the  skin,  must  be  slow. 

Powdered   borax Fifteen  grains 

Lemon  juice One  ounce 

Shake  until  dissolved.  Apply  three  times 
a  day  on  soft  cloth,  rubbing  well  into  the 
cuticle.  Avoid  the  heat  of  the  sun  as  much 
as  possible,  as  tanning  retards  the  cure. 
If  the  victim  of  freckles  is  not  too  easily 
discouraged  the  obnoxious  blotches  will  dis- 
appear after  a  few  weeks. 

Synthetic  lemon  juice  may  be  used  in  the 
above  formula  in  place  of  the  real  lemon 
juice. 

TRICOPHEROUS 

No  better  preparation  than  this  for  the 
hair  can  be  suggested.  Tricopherous,  if  a 
few  drops  be  rubbed  into  the  roots  of  the 
hair  three  or  four  times  a  day,  will  prevent 


the  falling  out  of  the  hair,  will  usually 
remedy  all  but  complete  baldness,  and  will 
do  much  to  restore  the  fibres  to  their  orig- 
inal hue.  Instantaneous  cure,  however,  must 
not  be  looked  for. 

Add  six  drams  of  tincture  of  cantharides 
to  twelve  ounces  of  castor  oil ;  shake  well. 
Add  three  drams  of  oil  of  bergamot,  and 
shake  again.  Next  add  twelve  ounces  of 
castor  oil,  with  more  shaking,  until  the 
mixture  is  complete.  The  tricopherous  is 
now  ready  for  use,  although  if  the  pink 
tint  in  which  it  is  usually  sold  in  the  stores 
is  desired,  this  may  be  secured  by  first  heat- 
ing the  castor  oil  with  two  drams  of  alkanet 
root.  After  the  oil  has-been  colored,  strain 
from  the  root. 

SALICYLIC    WASH    FOR    DANDRUFF 

Salicylic  acid Twenty-five  grains 

Glycerine    One  fluid  dram 

Alcohol    Two  ounces 

Oil   of   lavender Twenty  drops 

Dissolve  the  oil  of  lavender  in  the  alco- 
hol, add  the  glycerine  with  shaking,  and 
lastly  add  the  salicylic  acid,  shaking  until 
dissolved.  When  using,  first  wash  the  scalp 
thoroughly  with  castile  soap  and  warm 
water,  and  then  dry  the  scalp.  To  six 
tablespoonfuls  of  water  in  a  glass  add  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  the  above  preparation, 
stirring  well,  and  apply  thoroughly  to  the 
scalp  with  a  soft  sponge  or  bit  of  canton 
flannel,  afterward  well  drying  the  scalp. 

WASH    FOR   SUNBURN 

Powdered  borax Three  drams 

Glycerine    Three  drams 

Rose  water  (or  soft  water) Six  ounces 

This  mixture,  applied  two  or  three  times 
daily,  and  gently  but  well  rubbed  into  the 
skin,  will  render  the  cuticle  beautifully  soft 
and  white,  removing  all  tan  and  chaps,  and 
preventing  them. 


• 

THE       NURSERY 


ANY  BOOK  intended  for  general  household  use  and  information 
would  be  most  incomplete  without  a  few  words,  at  least,  on 
the  things  essential  to  the  happiness  and  well-being  of  children. 
So  important  is  this  subject  that  many  times  the  space  of  the  present  article 
should  be  allotted  to  it.  However,  the  briefer  and  more  concise  our  re- 
marks, the  better  the  chance  of  their  being  read  and  the  greater  the  oppor- 
tunity for  being  of  service  to  those  who  need  suggestions  on  this  impor- 
tant subject. 

Far  too  few  people  who  undertake  the  joys  and  duties  of  parenthood 
realize  the  awful  responsibility  that  they  are  assuming,  and  the  impera- 
tive demands  made  upon  them  to  live  out  the  best  that  is  in  them — lit- 
erally to  devote  their  most  vital  thought  to  the  interests  of  the  little  ones 
intrusted  to  their  keeping.  Not  only  does  the  child's  physical  nature  re- 
quire the  closest  and  tenderest  care  and  attention,  to  the  ends  of  avoiding 
disease  and  securing  proper  development,  but  his  mental  and  spiritual  facul- 
ties are  far  more  delicate  and  impressionable  than  most  adults  can  imagine. 
The  most  trivial  incident,  apparently,  will  produce  a  lifelong  effect  on  a 
young  child,  and  in  only  too  many  instances  such  effects  are  not  for  the 
best.  For  this  reason  a  child  should  be  carefully  shielded  from  all  dis- 
tressing and  vicious  influences,  during  the  first  years  of  his  life;  should, 
as  far  as  possible,  be  kept  in  quiet  and  peaceful  surroundings,  and  should 
be  taught  to  depend  upon  simple  things  for  his  happiness. 

Some  people  may  not  wholly  understand  the  reasons  for  some  of  the 
statements  just  made,  and  may  think  that  parents  should  be  left  to  judge 
as  to  what  is  best  for  their  own  children.  This  is  all  very  well ;  but  parents 
should  understand  that  the  minds  of  children  differ  from  those  of  adults 
principally  in  the  perspectives  of  their  mental  vision.  A  child's  brain  has 
recorded  very  few  impressions  of  the  outer  world,  and  none  of  his  senses 
is  properly  adjusted  to  perceive  things  as  his  elders  have  found  them  to 
be.  Consequently,  many  insignificant  things  look  large  to  him;  and  they 
prove  to  be  large  too,  in  the  effects  they  produce.  In  both  painful  and 
pleasurable  experiences  a  child  can  safely  endure  only  those  of  medium 
intensity.  If  he  is  to  be  too  severely  punished  for  some  exasperating 
piece  of  mischief,  the  smart  of  that  beating  may  last  for  many  a  year,  and 
confirm  in  him  the  habit  of  sullen  and  morose  humors.  This  should 
warn  parents  never  to  lose  their  tempers  when  chastising  their  children — 
never  beat  a  child  as  a  measure  of  revenge  or  exasperation.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  children  are  indulged;  constantly  provided  with  elegant  toys,  and 
allowed  to  think  that  happiness  consists  wholly  in  surroundings  of  this  kind, 

(706) 


THE    NURSERY 


707 


the  inevitable  result  will  be  a  selfish,  discontented  and  extravagant  spirit 
that  is  of  advantage  to  none  and  a  disfigurement  to  all  who  possess  it. 

Apart  from  the  mental  and  spiritual  environment  of  early  childhood, 
which  is  never  perfect,  and  must  generally  be  what  the  worldly  condition 
of  the  parents  can  afford,  the  physical  well-being  is  of  paramount  impor- 
tance. No  amount  of  moral  and  mental  training  in  after-life  can  compen- 
sate the  ill  effects  of  physical  weaknesses  resulting  from  early  neglect  and 
stupid  mismanagement;  and  few  early  conditions  are  more  productive  of 
misery  than  those  that  result  in  confirmed  ill-health  and  a  weakened  con- 
stitution. The  following  pages  will  be  confined,  therefore,  to  a  discussion 
of  this  aspect  of  the  matter. 


HINTS  ON  THE  CARE  AND  REARING  OF  CHILDREN 


IT  is  a  well-known  fact  that  some  of  the 
greatest  blessings  we  enjoy  are  the  least 
appreciated,  and  this  may  be  truly  said  of 
light.  We  are  so  accustomed  to  it  that  we 
fail  to  remember  its  importance,  though  did 
we  but  recollect  that  it  is  synonymous  with 
life  we  could  not  fail  to  be  sensible  of  the 
inestimable  value  of  this  essential  of  our 
being. 

Deprived  of  its  wholesome  and  enlivening 
stimulus,  children  become  pale  and  sickly 
in  appearance,  the  blood  is  imperfectly  oxy- 
genated, and  a  proneness  to  disease  or  de- 
bility arises. 

A  dark,  dull  room,  or  one  from  which 
light  is  more  or  less  excluded,  should  by  all 
means  be  avoided,  for  it  is  injurious  alike 
to  the  eyes,  health,  and  spirits  of  children. 
But  necessary  as  light  is  (it  is  the  natural 
food  of  the  eye),  it  requires  regulating  ac- 
cording to  the  age.  During  early  infancy 
the  eyes  should  not  be  exposed  to  a  concen- 
trated or  strong  light;  the  sun's  light  should 
be  softened  by  window  blinds,  and  an  infant 
ought  never  to  be  held  too  near  an  artificial 
light  of  any  description. 

The  best  arguments  in  favor  of  the  bene- 
ficial effects  of  light  are  found  in  the  facts 
that  nearly  the  whole  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom will  cease  to  flourish  if  deprived  of  it, 
and  that  those  children  brought  up  in  the 
dreary  dark  slums  of  cities,  although  quite 
as  well  fed  as  those  of  an  agricultural  la- 
borer, are  invariably  puny,  sickly  creatures, 
without  a  vestige  of  color  in  their  cheeks. 

The  pernicious  custom  which  obtains  so 
much  among  the  lower  middle  classes  in 
the  suburbs  of  living  almost  entirely  in  the 
basement  breakfast-room  can  not  be  too 
strongly  condemned,  where,  as  is  "invariably 


the  case,  it  is  dark.  The  room  that  is  most 
in  use  should  be  "the  best  room,"  not  on 
account  of  the  amount  of  furniture  it  con- 
tains but  owing  to  its  being  the  lightest,  and 
into  this  room  the  sun  should  be  allowed  to 
freely  enter,  all  ideas  of  excluding  it  on 
account  of  the  carpet  being  but  false 
economy. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  that  a  proper 
amount  of  light  is  necessary  for  a  child 
when  awake,  equal  care  should  be  exercised 
in  darkening  the  room  when  it  (the  child) 
is  asleep,  as  too  much  light  then  will  not 
merely  prevent  or  interrupt  sleep,  but  may 
act  as  a  very  injurious  stimulus  to  the  eyes 
and  brain.  It  goes  without  saying  that  the 
nursery  must,  of  course,  have  plenty  of  sun- 
light, and  with  this  view  should  face  the 
south,  east,  or  west,  but  there  is  another 
place  about  which  great  care  should  be 
taken — the  school-room.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  influence  of  a  sunless  school-room 
is  most  baneful  to  a  young  mind,  and  the 
want  of  interest  in  their  study  often  dis- 
played by  children  might  in  many  instances 
be  traced  to  this  cause. 

BATHING   CHILDREN 

Macbeth's  maxim,  "If  it  were  done,  when 
'tis  done,  then  'twere  well  it  were  done 
quickly,"  is  especially  applicable  to  the  bath- 
ing of  children.  There  should  be  no  non- 
sense about  it.  The  object  of  bathing  is 
not  only  for  the  purpose  of  cleanliness,  but 
as  a  means  of  invigorating  the  capillary  cir- 
culation, and  so  fortifying  the  system  as  to 
enable  it  to  resist  atmospheric  vicissitudes. 

To  do  this,  however,  it  is  imperative  that 
the  child  should  not  remain  in  the  bath 
(presuming  it  is  net  warm)  more  than  a 


1Gb 


THE    NURSERY 


minute  or  two,  as  when  the  body  is  im- 
mersed in  water  below  ninety  degrees  there 
is  a  sensation  of  cold,  a  shrinking  of  the 
skin,  and  a  rush  of  blood  from  the  small 
capillary  vessels  of  the  surface  to  the  inter- 
nal vessels,  which  state  of  things  should  be 
speedily  followed  by  a  reaction  by  the  heart 
and  large  vessels  forcing  the  blood  back 
again  to  the  surface,  and  indeed  to  all  the 
outlets;  so  that  the  skin  glows  and  perhaps 
perspires,  the  secretory  organs  act  more 
strongly,  the  liver  and  other  organs  show 
an  increased  activity,  and  there  is  a  gen- 
eral feeling  of  liveliness  and  vigor. 

But  this  will  not  be  the  case  if  there  is 
and  dawdling  or  delay,  not  only  while  in  the 
water,  but  during  the  process  of  rubbing 
and  drying,  which  must  be  performed  with 
the  greatest  briskness  in  order  that  the 
proper  reaction,  upon  which  the  virtue  of  the 
bath  depends,  should  take  place :  otherwise 
the  child  will  get  a  chill,  which  will,  in  ad- 
dition to  nullifying  the  good,  do  it  absolute 
harm. 

TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  BATH. — Up  to  the 
age  of  three  months  infants  should  in  all 
weathers  be  bathed  in  warm  water,  but  after 
that  age,  at  the  warm  seasons  and  during 
summer,  cold  may  be  used,  provided  the 
child  be  strong  enough,  and  is  not  fright- 
ened, but  if  the  experiment  is  attended  with 
convulsive  screaming  and  great  distress,  dis- 
continue it  and  substitute  a  warmer  tem- 
perature. In  washing  a  very  young  child 
the  head  should  always  be  the  first  part 
damped,  and  for  that  purpose  a  flannel  is 
preferable  to  a  sponge. 

With  regard  to  all  children  there  are  not 
two  opinions  on  the  subject  of  a  daily  bath 
given  immediately  on  rising  being  benefi- 
cial, in  fact  it  is  a  sine  qua  non  of  perfect 
health,  provided,  of  course,  the  child  is  not 
too  delicate,  and  for  the  elder  ones  a  large 
sponge  is  a  necessity,  as  by  its  use  a  much 
larger  quantity  of  oxygen  can  be  introduced 
into  the  skin  than  by  any  other  means. 

THE  USE  OF  SEA-SALT. — The  addition  of 
sea-salt  is  a  most  desirable  adjunct,  es- 
pecially when  the  hips  are  weak,  but  even 
when  in  good  health  its  occasional  use  will 
add  greatly  to  the  tonic  properties  of  the 
bath.  It  should  be  added  in  such  quantity 
to  a  bath  that  the  mineral  ingredient  is  equal 
to  that  contained  in  salt  water;  it  will  be 
far  more  efficacious  than  a  simple  fresh 
water  bath,  as  it  combines  the  advantages 
of  temperature  with  the  stimulating  action 
of  the  salt  upon  the  skin. 

The  advantages  of  such  a  bath  taken  at 
the  time  mentioned  are  twofold.  It  inures 


the  body  to  a  greater  degree  of  cold  than  it 
is  likely  to  be  exposed  to  during  the  rest  of 
the  day,  and  so  proves  most  serviceable  in 
protecting  it  from  atmospheric  influences; 
and  it  tends  to  remove  irregularities  in  the 
circulation,  and,  by  exciting  the  healthy  ac- 
tion of  the  skin,  may  aid  that  organ  in  re- 
moving disease. 

All,  however,  are  not  strong  enough  to 
stand  the  shock  to  the  system,  and  not  only 
those  who  are  extremely  weak,  or  who  have 
any  organic  disease,  especially  of  the  heart  or 
lungs,  but  there  may  be  some  idiosyncrasy 
or  condition  of  the  constitution  peculiar  to 
the  individual  which  would  render  it  impos- 
sible. The  invariable  test  is  that  if  after  a 
bath  the  child  remains  chilly,  languid,  and 
dejected,  or  suffers  from  headache,  then  it 
is  not  beneficial,  but  if  the  sense  of  cold 
rapidly  passes  off  and  a  glow  of  warmth 
and  animation  of  spirits  succeeds  and  con- 
tinues for  some  time,  the  cold  bath  can  not 
fail  to  be  productive  of  good. 

SLEEP 

Although  much  has  been  written,  and 
rightly  so,  on  the  subject  of  laziness,  there 
is  as  much,  if  not  more,  to  be  said  on  the 
necessity  of  enough  sleep,  for  it  is  as  great 
a  necessity  as  eating  and  drinking. 

Infants  sleep  almost  continually,  and  (in 
this  we  know  most  mothers  will  heartily 
concur)  they  can  not  sleep  too  much,  owing 
to  the  necessity  for  providing  the  materials 
for  growth.  When  they  are  unable  to  sleep 
for  any  length  of  time  their  condition  is 
unnatural,  and  shows  us  that  they  are  suf- 
fering in  some  way  or  other,  the  cause  of 
which  should  be  ascertained  and  removed; 
but  not  by  the  use  of  syrups,  elixirs,  etc., 
which,  though  they  produce  slumber,  do  not 
produce  sleep. 

For  young  children  from  twelve  to  four- 
teen hours'  sleep  is  necessary,  and  this  must 
be  regular,  the  proper  time  for  bed  during 
the  winter  months  being  about  six  o'clock, 
and  in  the  summer  months  about  seven. 

A  proper  desire  for  sleep  is  only  ob- 
tained by  a  due  amount  of  exercise,  both 
mental  and  physical,  which  must  not  have 
continued  sufficiently  long  to  produce  pros- 
tration. Exercise  in  moderation  is  most 
necessary  before  going  to  bed,  but  anything 
of  a  violent  nature,  like  romping,  should  be 
avoided  for  at  least  half  an  hour  before. 

With  regard  to  the  hour  at  which  children 
and  others  should  rise,  that  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  time  of  their  waking,  and  in 
order  to  wake  at  a  proper  time  all  that  is 
necessary  is  that  you  go  to  bed  at  some 


THE    NURSERY 


700 


regular  early  hour,  and  then,  says  an  au- 
thority, "within  a  fortnight  nature,  with  al- 
most the  regularity  of  the  rising  sun,  will 
unloosen  the  bonds  of  sleep  the  moment 
enough  repose  has  been  secured  for  the 
wants  of  the  system."  To  remain  in  bed 
after  this,  to  indulge  in  that  short  morning 
doze  into  which  so  many  allow  themselves 
to  fall  because  it  is  not,  they  think,  quite 
time  to  get  up,  is  a  baneful  practice. 

Care  should  also  be  taken  with  regard  to 
the  quantity  of  bedclothes  indulged  in,  too 
much  clothing  having  the  effect  of  relaxing 
the  body,  and  it  is  right  therefore  to  have 
only  sufficient  to  enable  the  individual  to 
sleep,  for  it  is  better  to  wake  with  an 
inclination  to  draw  the  clothes  round  you 
than  to  feel  oppressed  by  their  weight  and 
heat  and  a  desire  to  throw  them  off. 

With  regard  to  the  proper  position  of  a 
sleeper  all  are  agreed  that  it  should  be  on 
the  right  or  left  side,  because  if  you  sleep 
on  your  back,  especially  soon  after  a  hearty 
meal,  the  weight  of  the  digestive  organs  and 
that  of  the  food,  resting  upon  the  great  vein 
of  the  body,  near  the  backbone,  compresses 
it,  and  arrests  the  flow  of  the  blood  more  or 
less.  If  the  arrest  is  partial,  the  sleep  is 
disturbed,  and  there  are  unpleasant  dreams, 
a  state  of  things  carefully  to  be  avoided 
when  we  remember  that  "the  man  who 
dreams  does  but  half  sleep.  The  child  who 
dreams  scarcely  sleeps  at  all." 

Too  much  attention  can  not  be  paid  to 
the  proper  ventilation  of  sleeping-rooms. 
In  too  many  cases  this  important  subject  is 
entirely  neglected.  The  sleeper  retires  to 
rest  in  an  apartment  from  which  every  ef- 
fort has  been  made  to  exclude  the  outer  air 
— until  it  seems  almost  hermetically  sealed 
— and  rises  with  a  dull  headache  and  a 
feverish,  unrefreshed  sensation  to  go  about 
the  duties  of  the  day. 

ON   CATCHING   COLD 

It  is  a  very  common,  but  a  very  great, 
mistake  to  attach  little  importance  to  catch- 
ing cold.  How  frequently  we  hear  the  re- 
mark in  reference  to  some  one  being  in- 
disposed, "Oh,  it's  nothing ;  only  a  severe 
cold."  Considering  that  in  adults  severe 
cold  is  the  cause  of  one-half  "the  ills  that 
flesh  is  heir  to,"  it  will  readily  be  under- 
stood that  colds  with  children  are  of  the 
greatest  consequence,  for,  in  the  language 
of  one  whose  revered  name  is  the  synonym 
for  nursing,  "It  is  as  easy  to  put  out  a  sick 
baby's  life  as  it  is  to  put  out  the  flame  of  a 
candle." 

The  most  common  kind  of  cold  is  that 


in.  the  head,  professionally  described  as  ca- 
tarrh, which  consists  of  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  air  passages,  and 
is  ordinarily  caused  by  the  child  having  been 
exposed  to  a  draught,  having  got  its  clothes 
wet  and  not  been  able  to  have  them  changed, 
or  by  not  being  sufficiently  warmly  clad 
when  the  body  is  getting  cool  after  being 
heated.  The  latter  is  the  .most  to  be  feared, 
as  in  this  condition  the  body  is  incapable, 
from  exhaustion,  of  reaction,  and  the  ex- 
posure intensifies  the  depression. 

WET  CLOTHING  does  not  frequently  pro- 
duce "a  cold"  if  the  child  is  walking  or 
running  about,  and  is  able  to  get  the  things 
changed  when  the  active  exercise  ceases, 
and  avoids  all  exposure  for  some  little  time ; 
but  where  exertion  has  been  indulged  in, 
and  the  body  is  in  a  state  of  perspiration, 
then,  if  the  child  receives  a  chill  from  wet 
feet  or  any  other  cause,  and  does  not  con- 
tinue its  play  or  its  active  exercise,  catarrh 
is  almost  inevitable. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  a  neglected 
cold  sometimes  produces  bronchitis,  pneu- 
monia, quinsy,  rheumatism,  erysipelas,  tooth- 
ache, neuralgia,  inflammatory  fever,  con- 
sumption, etc.,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  im- 
press upon  mothers  too  strongly  the  great 
necessity  for  extreme  care  in  this  matter; 
and  as  prevention  should  be  much  more 
easy  when  the  cause  of  a  complaint  is  un- 
derstood, we  propose  to  try  and  explain  in 
as  simple  language  as  possible  the  why  and 
wherefore. 

The  action  of  cold  is  to  partially  close 
the  pores  of  the  skin,  check  the  natural  per- 
spiration by  constricting  and  obstructing  the 
vessels  of  the  skin,  and  so  throw  more 
blood  inwardly,  producing  internal  conges- 
tions ;  for  the  outer  skin  being  incapable  of 
performing  its  functions,  and  perspiration' 
being  an  absolute  necessity,  the  inner  skin, 
or  mucous  membrane,  has  to  do  the  work, 
and  hence  the  inflammation. 

The  effect  of  cold  is  felt  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree  according  to  the  capillary  cir- 
culation. If  this  be  weak,  or  be  rendered 
so  by  excitement,  exercise,  or  sleep,  the 
danger  is  increased ;  consequently  children 
— and  any  one  else,  for  the  matter  of  that — 
are  most  susceptible  to  cold  when  coming 
out  of  a  hot  room,  after  being  unduly 
heated  by  running,  or  when  sleeping. 

From  this  it  will  be  understood  that  the 
chilling  influences  enumerated  derange  the 
balance  of  the  circulation,  and  by  deter- 
mining a  corresponding  amount  of  conges- 
tion inwardly,  fix  it  in  some  part  previously 
weakened  and  made  susceptible  to  disease; 


710 


THE    NURSERY 


or,  in  still  plainer  language,  the  cold  flies 
to  the  weakest  part,  which  accounts  for  one 
person  getting  rheumatism,  another  conges- 
tion of  the  lungs,  a  third  a  sore  throat,  and 
a  fourth,  perhaps,  merely  a  cold  in  the  head 
or  chest 

To  CURE  A  COLD  is  to  restore  the  action 
of  the  skin  and  induce  perspiration,  and 
this,  if  done  at  the  proper  time,  when  the 
symptoms  are  first  observed,  is  exceedingly 
simple.  People  may  sneer  as  they  will  at 
the  mention  of  the  word  gruel,  but  a  basin 
full  of  hot  gruel,  made  thin,  and  taken  when 
in  bed,  will  invariably  arrest  an  ordinary 
catarrh.  If  the  chill  be  severe,  the  child's 
feet  should  be  placed  in  warm  water,  a  lit- 
tle extra  clothing  be  placed  on  the  bed,  and 
the  patient  allowed  to  lie  in  bed  a  little 
longer  than  usual  the  next  morning;  but 
the  apartment  must  not  be  too  warm  or 
close,  or  the  additional  clothing  be  too 
great,  as,  though  the  cure  may  be  accelerated 
thereby,  the  susceptibility  is  increased,  and 
the  child  rendered  more  liable  to  a  recur- 
rence of  the  attack. 

To  those  who  will  not  believe  in  any- 
thing old-fashioned  or  simple,  the  plan  of 
a  "wet  sheet  pack"  will  be  found  equally 
efficacious.  This  is  managed  by  spreading 
three  blankets  on  the  bed  and  putting  on 
the  top  a  sheet,  which  has  been  saturated 
in  hot  water  and  wrung  out.  The  child  is 
then  placed  upon  the  sheet,  enveloped  in  it, 
and  the  blankets  wrapped  tightly*  round  the 
whole  body  excepting  the  head,  and  allowed 
to  remain  in  this  situation  for  about  an 
hour,  when  a  quick  sponging  of  cold  water 
should  be  given,  followed  by  a  brisk  and 
thorough  rubbing  with  dry  towels. 

Another  remedy  believed  in  by  many  of 
our  medical  brethren  is  the  "dry"  plan, 
which,  at  any  rate,  has  the  merit  of  sim- 
plicity, for  it  consists  in  merely  abstaining 
form  every  kind  of  liquid  until  the  disorder 
is  gone. 

Although  opinions  may  differ,  however, 
as  to  the  precise  method  of  cure,  and  any  of 
those  given  will  be  found  equally  efficient, 
there  is  no  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
cause  and  prevention.  The  too  frequent 
cause  is  simply  the  result  of  carelessness 
or  imprudence  in  not  protecting  the  body 
against  the  variation  of  temperature,  an  in- 
sufficient use  of  cold  or  warm  water  to  the 
body,  or,  plainly,  uncleanliness,  sleeping  un- 
der too  much  clothing,  or  by  sleeping  in 
badly  ventilated  rooms;  but  the  first  men- 
tioned, the  passing  from  a  hot  room  out  into 
the  open  air,  or  into  a  room  where  the  tem- 
perature is  less,  without  being  suitably  at- 


tired, is  the  most  frequent  and  the  most  to 
be  guarded  against  with  children. 

The  prevention  of  cold  is  best  achieved  by 
diminishing  the  susceptibility  of  the  system 
by  abstemious  living,  taking  regular  and 
daily  exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  a  morning 
bath  of  cold  water  if  the  child  be  strong 
enough,  and  if  not,  a  tepid  one;  but  the 
best  prevention  and  cure  for  colds  is  "the 
cold-water  cure." 

TEETHING 

is  one  of  the  most  distressing  of  the  ordi- 
nary ailments  of  children,  for  it  comes  to 
them  at  an  age  when  they  are  incapable  of 
making  the  nature  of  their  sufferings  known, 
and  as  they  do  suffer  most  acutely  some- 
times during  the  process  of  dentition,  it  is 
very  trying  to  mothers  and  nurses  to  have 
to  witness  their  torture  and  be  unable  to 
alleviate  it  because  the  poor  little  mites  can 
not  explain  their  symptoms. 

Being  one  of  the  very  common  ills  that 
flesh  is  heir  to,  it  is  a  time  frequently  re- 
garded by  some  as  more  troublesome  than 
important — a  great  mistake,  to  prevent 
which  a  simple  statement  showing  the  ac- 
tion of  one  of  the  phases  of  the  disease  may 
be  advisable.  The  chief  disorders  of  the  first 
set  of  teeth  are  caries  and  inflammation  in 
the  periosteal  membranes,  terminating  in  ab- 
scess, or  what  is  commonly  called  gumboil. 
The  first  effect  of  inflammation  in  the  peri- 
osteum is  to  create  pain,  tenderness  and 
swelling  in  that  part  of  the  gum  in  close 
proximity  to  the  tooth,  and  an  effusion  of 
fluid  between  the  fang  and  its  investing 
membrane,  which  is  thus  converted  into  a 
sort  of  cyst  or  tiny  sack  of  skin.  Repeated 
attacks  of  inflammation  at  length  end  in  the 
formation  of  pus,  which  either  bursts 
through  the  tumor  in  the  gum  or  may  be 
removed  by  lancing.  Sometimes  after  the 
abscess  has  burst  or  been  opened,  a  fungus 
springs  up  from  the  diseased  membrane  lin- 
ing the  cavity.  With  some  children  the  pres- 
ence of  the  abscess  having  produced  ab- 
sorption of  a  portion  of  the  alveolar  process 
at  its  lower  part,  it  effuses  its  contents 
through  the  aperture  thus  formed,  and  mat- 
ter forces  itself  along  the  surface  of  the 
lower  jaw,  and  forms  an  external  tumor 
near  its  base. 

With  regard  to  the  process  of  dentition 
in  infants,  the  time  at  which  teething  takes 
place  is  naturally  subject  to  slight  variation, 
when  it  is  stated  that  many  medical  men 
give  instances  in  their  experience  of  chil- 
dren being  born  with  teeth,  or  having  cut 
them  almost  immediately  after  birth — Louis 


THE    NURSERY 


711 


XIV  of  France  and  Richard  III  of  Eng- 
land being  historic  cases  in  point;  the  usual 
time,  however,  when  babies  begin  to  be 
troubled  with  the  advent  of  teeth  is  at  the 
seventh  month,  the  period  of  the  first  den- 
tition lasting  up  to  the  age  of  two  years  or 
two  and  a  half  years. 

The  symptoms  of  teething  in  a  healthy 
child  are  that,  for  some  time  before  the 
gums  are  much  swollen,  there  is  an  exces- 
sive flow  of  saliva  from  the  mouth,  and  the 
child  indulges  in  what  is  known  to  most  as 
"slobbering,"  at  the  same  time  evincing  a 
very  strong  desire  to  drag  into  its  mouth 
anything  upon  which  it  can  fix  its  tiny  lit- 
tle clutch,  while,  if  we  place  our  finger  in 
its  mouth,  we  perceive  at  once  a  decided 
attempt  to  bite,  which  affords  a  relief  to 
the  irritation  of  the  gums.  Where  the  child 
is  inconvenienced  only  to  the  extent  de- 
scribed there  is  no  remedy  required,  pro- 
vided there  is  no  constipation,  but  where 
this  is  the  case  small  doses  of  castor  oil  are 
the  safest.  As  to  the  article  it  should  be 
given  to  suck,  possibly  the  best  is  an  ivory 
ring  or  a  "finger"  of  crust  of  bread,  great 
care  being  observed  in  the  latter  case  that 
it  is  taken  away  before  there  is  a  possibility 
of  its  being  broken  or  bitten  off. 

When  the  child  is  extremely  restless, 
cross  and  uneasy,  crying  bitterly  without 
any  apparent  cause,  and  refuses  all  ordi- 
nary attempts  at  pacification,  its  suffering 
is  very  considerable,  which  is  increased  by 
its  ineffectual  efforts  to  sleep  for  any  length 
of  time.  The  cheeks  become  flushed  at  this 
time,  and  if  the  local  inflammation  continue 
to  increase  the  gums  may  ulcerate;  in  this 
case  apply  a  little  borax  and  honey  to  them, 
but  where  the  irritation  continues  and  the 
pain  is  obviously  great  it  will  be  necessary 
to  lance  the  gums,  for  which  purpose,  it  is 
almost  unnecessary  to  add,  the  services  of  a 
surgeon  should  be  secured  at  once.  At  this 
time  it  is  more  than  ever  necessary  to  keep 
the  bowels  well  open,  a  mild  attack  of 
diarrhoea  being  far  more  preferable  under 
the  existing  circumstances  than  the  reverse 
state  of  things. 

All  food  requires  to  be  carefully  chewed 
in  order  that  the  various  organs  may  per- 
fectly perform  their  proper  functions,  and 
this  can  only  be  the  case  when  the  meat,  or 
whatever  it  may  be,  is  broken  into  minute 
portions  and  duly  mixed  with  saliva,  with- 
out which  it  will  not  be  properly  digested. 
The  horrors  and  evils  of  indigestion  are 
too  well  known  to  need  commenting  upon 
here,  but  the  necessity  for  a  due  atten- 
tion to  the  mastication  of  food  by  children 


will  be  seen  when  it  is  stated  that  a  weak 
stomach  acts  tardily  and  imperfectly  upon 
anything  introduced  into  it  not  properly 
chewed;  and  the  consequences  are,  the 
warmth  and  moisture  of  the  stomach  evolve 
gases,  acids  are  formed,  and  then  follow 
those  distressing  symptoms  such  as  loss  of 
appetite,  flatulence,  furred  tongue,  etc. 

The  period  of  "teething"  is  more  than  in- 
teresting, from  the  fact  that,  at  this  stage 
of  child-life,  the  whole  organization  seems 
to  undergo  a  transition.  The  features,  hith- 
erto more  or  less  expressionless,  become  de- 
cided and  distinct;  the  eye  becomes  endued 
with  expression,  through  which  the  mind 
seems  to  speak,  as  it  were;  the  .ound  ap- 
pearance of  the  facial  outline  appears  elon- 
gated, the  result  of  the  teeth  expanding  the 
jaws;  the  forehead  is  perceptibly  developed, 
and,  in  short,  the  entire  face  assumes  an 
animation  previously  unknown,  but  most 
precious  to  mothers,  on  account  of  its  being 
the  ordinary  time  when  "baby  is  beginning 
to  notice." 

The  order  in  which  teeth  usually  make 
their  appearance  is,  first,  the  two  central 
incisors  of  the  lower  jaw;  then  shortly 
after  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  followed  by 
the  lower  lateral  incisors,  and  then  by  the 
upper  lateral  incisors.  At  the  age  of  a  year 
or  fourteen  months  the  four  first  molar 
teeth  should  begin  to  show,  and  at  the 
sixteenth  to  the  twentieth  month  the  lower 
and  upper  canine  teeth,  followed  by  the  four 
last  molars. 

Although  the  suffering  of  infants  from 
the  process  of  dentition  arises  mainly  from 
irritation  of  the  gums,  owing  to  the  teeth 
working  their  way  through,  it  is  not  in  the 
mouth  alone  that  pain  is  caused ;  and  where 
this  is  excessive,  or  in  children  whose  con- 
stitutions are  naturally  irritable,  the  irrita- 
tion is  reflected  by  the  nervous  system  to 
some  other  organ  or  system  of  organs. 

The  most  ordinary  effect  of  this  is  stom- 
ach-ache, or  diarrhoea,  with  gripings,  which, 
if  in  a  mild  form,  is  the  least  to  be  feared 
of  all  the  unpleasantness  arising  from  teeth- 
ing; and  though  its  violence  may  be  moder- 
ated, it  should  not  be  entirely  arrested. 
Under  these  circumstances,  a  child  soon 
gets  weak  and  thin,  and  its  flesh  soft  and 
flabby;  but,  generally  speaking,  this  need 
not  (except,  of  course,  in  an  extreme  case) 
be  viewed  with  alarm ;  for,  as  soon  as  the 
teeth  are  through,  nature  soon  rights  itself, 
and  the  little  one  will  resume  its  wonted 
good  looks.  When,  however,  the  symptoms 
are  very  distressing,  by  the  quantity  and 
frequency  of  the  discharge,  a  chalk  mix- 


712 


THE    NURSERY 


ture,  with  a  drop  or  two  of  laudanum  to  the 
ounce,  according  to  the  age  of  the  child, 
may  be  given,  in  the  event  of  a  medical 
man  not  being  procurable.  Where  there  is 
a  great  pain  and  flatulence,  an  occasional 
warm  bath,  and  the  use  of  liniment,  com- 
posed of  half  a  drachm  of  laudanum  to  two 
ounces  of  compound  camphor  liniment,  or  a 
mustard  or  linseed-meal  poultice,  composed 
of  one-third  of  the  former  to  two-thirds  of 
the  latter.  When  the  foregoing  symptoms 
are  accompanied  by  vomiting,  it  is  exceed- 
ingly troublesome,  and,  if  the  sickness  is 
not  relieved  by  the  division  of  the  gums, 
it  should  be  checked  by  administering  a 
•half-drop  or  a  drop  of  laudanum. 

Besides  the  maladies  mentioned  that  are 
the  outcome  of  teething,  there  are  many 
others,  such  as  eruptions  of  the  skin,  spasm 
of  the  glottis,  and  affections  of  the  nervous 
system  generally,  of  too  complicated  a  na- 
ture to  treat  in  this  article,  as  the  remedies 
necessitated  are  as  complex  as  the  diseases ; 
but  there  is  one  serious  disorder  connected 
with  dentition  unfortunately  too  common. 
We  allude  to  convulsions,  the  treatment  of 
which  should  be  known  to  all. 

Convulsions  in  their  mild  form  consist  of 
muscular  twitchings  of  the  face,  accom- 
panied by  an  obvious  difficulty  in  breath- 
ing and  a  rolling  of  the  eyes.  When  se- 
vere, the  child  becomes  insensible,  and  the 
muscles  of  the  head,  neck,  and  extremities 
are  convulsed  in  various  directions.  The 
eyes  are  insensible  to  light,  and  turned  rig- 
idly up  to  one  side.  The  appearance  and 
symptoms  vary,  of  course,  for,  in  addition 
to  those  named,  with  some  children  the  face 
is  congested,  but  sometimes  pale,  the  lips 
livid,  and  there  is  frothing  at  the  mouth. 
The  hands  are  usually  tightly  clinched,  and 
the  thumbs  turned  inward,  with  the  fingers 
on  them,  and  in  some  cases  the  soles  of  the 
feet  are  turned  together,  with  the  great  toe 
bent  into  the  sole. 

The  treatment  for  convulsions  is,  as  a 
rule,  a  warm  bath,  and,  in  the  absence  of 
a  doctor,  the  best  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
immerse  the  child  in  warm  water  of  about 
ninety  degrees  temperature  for  about  ten 
minutes  or  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  applying 
at  the  same  time  a  cold,  wet  towel  for  two 
or  three  minutes  to  the  little  sufferer's  head. 
Previous  to  the  bath,  which  will  take  a  few 
minutes  at  least  to  get  ready,  loosen  all  the 
clothing  about  the  neck,  chest,  and  body, 
raise  the  head,  sprinkle  the  face  with  water, 
and  admit  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

With  regard  to  the  general  treatment  of 
children  during  teething,  their  heads  should 


be  kept  cool  and  their  feet  warm,  and,  if 
the  weather  will  admit,  they  should  be 
bathed  in  cold  water,  especially  about  the 
head,  and  taken  out  daily  in  the  open  air. 
At  night  it  is  equally  essential  that  their 
heads  be  kept  cool,  and  therefore  no  caps 
or  coverings  should  be  used. 

As  before  stated,  diarrhoea  during  denti- 
tion, unless  very  severe,  should  not  be 
stopped,  but  regarded  as  an  effort  of  na- 
ture to  relieve  congestion  in  the  head;  and 
where  the  opposite  effect  is  the  case,  purga- 
tives should  be  avoided,  and  the  bowels  reg- 
ulated by  suitable  diet ;  in  obstinate  cases 
by  injections.  Constipation  in  infants  may 
be  almost  entirely  attributed  to  defective 
diet,  and  if,  while  nursing,  mothers  and 
nurses  would  carefully  avoid  any  article  of 
food  or  drink  of  an  indigestible  or  stimu- 
lating character,  this  ailment  would  be  com- 
paratively unknown. 

WHOOPING-COUGH 

This  disease,  almost  absolutely  confined 
to  infants  and  children,  is,  luckily  for  them, 
more  distressing  in  its  symptoms  than  dan- 
gerous in  its  effects,  a  case  of  whooping- 
cough,  pur  et  simple,  being  rarely  fatal. 
Like  croup,  it  is  more  common  with  very 
young  children,  the  usual  age  when  they 
are  more  subject  to  it  being  from  two  to 
ten  years ;  but,  unlike  croup,  it  is  more  com- 
mon to  girls  than  to  boys,  and  appears  but 
once  in  a  lifetime,  though  cases  have  been 
known  where  the  cough  continued  daily  at 
a  certain  hour  for  several  months,  and,  after 
ceasing  for  some  time,  returned  for  two 
successive  seasons. 

The  symptoms  which  usually  precede  this 
malady  are  those  of  ordinary  influenza. 
First  and  foremost  there  is  a  languor,  rest- 
lessness, feverishness,  and  unaccountable  ir- 
ritation, except  that  the  little  one  is  thought 
"to  have  caught  a  slight  cold,"  then  loss  of 
appetite,  sneezing,  coughing,  follows,  with 
a  running  at  the  nose ;  this  is  in  the  case  of 
an  ordinary  and  not  severe  attack.  Where 
the  disease  is  in  an  aggravated  form,  the 
fever  is  more  intense,  the  thirst  greater,  the 
pulse  quicker,  and  the  oppression  and  dis- 
tress in  proportion,  the  cough  very  frequent 
and  painful,  dry  at  first,  but  with  excessive 
expectoration  afterward.  This  may  be  called 
the  first  stage  of  the  disease,  and  is  the 
customary  prelude  to  whooping,  but  it  is 
perfectly  possible  to  dispense  with  these 
preliminaries,  and  for  a  child  to  be  sud- 
denly seized  with  the  too  well-known  cough. 
These  symptoms  ordinarily  continue  from 
ten  days  to  a  fortnight. 


THE    NURSERY 


713 


The  second  stage  is  marked  by  the  dying- 
out  of  the  symptoms  of  cold  and  the  com- 
mencement of  the  fits  of  coughing,  which 
are  best  described  as  a  number  of  expira- 
tions made  with  such  violence,  and  re- 
peated in  such  quick  succession,  that  the 
child  seems  almost  in  danger  of  suffoca- 
tion. The  face  and  neck  are  swollen  and 
livid,  the  eyes  protruded  and  full  of  tears; 
at  length,  one  or  two  inspirations  are  made 
with  similar  violence,  and  by  them  the  pe- 
culiar whooping  sound  is  produced;  a  little 
rest  probably  follows,  and  is  succeeded  by 
another  fit  of  coughing,  and  another  whoop, 
until  after  a  succession  of  these  actions,  the 
paroxysm  is  terminated  by  vomiting,  or  a 
discharge  of  mucus  from  the  lungs,  or  per- 
haps both.  The  duration  of  this  stage  is 
usually  from  six  weeks  to  a  couple  of 
months,  but  sometimes  continues  for  a  much 
longer  period,  the  disease,  in  some  cases, 
lasting  from-  the  beginning  of  winter  until 
the  end  of  spring. 

The  debilitating  results  of  the  disease  de- 
pend to  a  great  extent  upon  the  violence 
and  duration  of  the  attack,  and  the  strength 
or  weakness  of  the  constitution,  but,  as  a 
rule,  if  there  are  no  complications,  these 
are  of  no  great  moment.  The  frequent 
vomiting  decreases  the  appetite,  and  dis- 
turbs digestion,  which  interferes  with  nu- 
trition, and  the  child  naturally  loses  flesh, 
which  is  more  or  less  flabby,  and  the  skin 
is  unusually  dark,  especially  underneath  the 
eyes. 

The  subsiding  of  the  attack  is  marked  by 
the  fits  of  coughing  becoming  less  frequent, 
though  possibly  they  may  be  as  fierce  as 
ever,  the  paroxysms  lasting  from  a  minute 
to  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  In  proportion  to 
their  violence  and  duration  will  be  the 
child's  breathlessness  and  fright  and  its 
efforts  to  respire.  If  in  a  recumbent  posi- 
tion, it  will  suddenly  jump  up  and  seize  hold 
of  whatever  or  whoever  is  nearest,  in  order 
to  be  assisted  in  overcoming  the  spasm. 
When  the  fit  is  over,  the  child  appears  ex- 
hausted, and  requires  a  short  rest  to  re- 
cover itself;  but  then,  and  during  the  inter- 
val to  the  next  cough,  it  is  comparatively 
easy  and  cheerful,  often  playing  about  as 
usual,  and  not  averse  to  food,  except  where 
the  case  is  a  severe  one,  when  extreme  lan- 
guor supervenes. 

The  period  at  which  these  paroxysms  re- 
cur varies  considerably;  during  the  early 
part  of  the  attack  they  are  very  frequent — 
about  every  half-hour,  and  in  some  ex- 
tremely severe  cases  as  often  as  every  ten 
minutes — the  chief  cause  of  their  return 


being  the  accumulation  of  mucus.  Conse- 
quently, if  this  be  got  rid  of  by  the  cough- 
ing, the  fit  will  be  light;  but  if  it  is  ex- 
pelled with  difficulty  the  efforts  will  be 
greater,  and  the  cough  renewed  almost  im- 
mediately. These  fits  are  produced  by  many 
things — a  hearty  meal,  a  fit  of  passion,  cry- 
ing, fright,  or  laughter,  will  either  of  them 
be  sufficient  to  bring  on  an  attack. 

Although  we  have  stated  that  this  dis- 
ease is  rarely  attended  with  fatal  results, 
it  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  this 
statement  applies  to  whooping-cough  per 
se;  it  is  perfectly  correct,  but  for  fear  any 
one  should  not  be  sufficiently  careful,  it  is 
a  disorder  which,  if  improperly  treated,  or 
if  the  case  be  one  of  an  extremely  acute 
character,  may  lead  to  something  of  a  com- 
plicated and  highly  dangerous  nature. 

It  is  a  complaint  which  lends  itself  a 
great  deal  more  to  careful  nursing  than  to 
an  elaborate  course  of  medicine,  for  it  will 
run  its  course,  and  requires  guiding  and 
watching  more  than  checking,  great  care 
being  necessary  to  note  the  symptoms,  lest 
they  assume  a  conspicuous  or  alarming 
character,  and  by  appropriate  treatment 
prevent  the  affection  having  those  com- 
plications alluded  to  which  constitute  it  a 
disease  of  danger.  On  the  slightest  appear- 
ance either  of  inflammatory  affection  of  the 
lungs  or  of  a  tendency  to  convulsion,  a 
medical  man  should  be  sent  for  immedi- 
ately. 

During  the  first  stage  an  emetic  of  ipe- 
cacuanha, followed  by  an  expectorant  every 
four  hours,  should  be  given,  the  latter  con- 
sisting of  ipecacuanha  wine,  syrup  of  squills, 
a  little  syrup  of  white  poppies  and  almond 
milk,  and  some  mild  aperient,  such  as  cas- 
tor oil  or  salts  and  senna,  the  emetic  only 
to  be  repeated  occasionally.  The  rooms  to 
which  the  child  ought  to  be  confined  should 
be  of  an  equable  temperature,  about  sixty- 
five  degrees,  the  bedroom  being  ventilated 
during  the  day  and  the  sitting-room  during 
the  night;  but  the  windows  of  the  apart- 
ment must  on  no  account  be  opened  while 
the  patient  is  in  them. 

When  the  second  stage  arrives,  while 
proper  attention  is  paid  to  temperature,  the 
cough  will  be  found  much  slighter  and  the 
expectoration  much  less  than  if  the  child 
were  permitted  to  be  exposed  to  the  ex- 
ternal air,  the  emetic  being  continued  occa- 
sionally, and  also  the  mixture,  with  a  few 
drops  of  laudanum  added  to  it. 

With  regard  to  change  of  air,  there  is  no 
doubt  that,  while  the  attack  is  unsubdued, 
no  matter  wha*-  the  weather  may  be,  the 


714 


THE    NURSERY 


patient  should  be  confined  not  only  to  the 
house  but  to  rooms,  as  already  stated,  but 
when  the  disease  is  on  the  wane,  the  change 
from  a  cold  situation  to  one  of  warm  tem- 
perature is  most  beneficial  in  accelerating 
a  return  to  convalescence,  though  the  great- 
est caution  is  needed  in  this  matter. 

The  diet  of  the  child  during  the  entire 
illness  is  a  most  important  feature  in  con- 
nection with  the  treatment,  and  should 
consist  chiefly  of  milk  and  farinaceous 
foods,  meat  being  of  too  heating  a  nature, 
unless  the  child  is  very  weak  and  low,  in 
which  case  tolerably  good  broth  will  be  the 
best  mode  of  giving  animal  food. 

VACCINATION 

Unfortunately  that  dangerous  and  much 
dreaded  malady  —  smallpox  —  is  prevalent, 
and  it  would  be  well  for  parents  and  oth- 
ers to  be  reminded  of  the  necessity  of  re- 
vaccination  every  five-  years. 

It  is  astonishing  that,  though  this  dis- 
covery is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  very 
greatest  blessings  to  poor  humanity,  it 
should  now  be  thought  so  little  of,  and  that 
there  should  be  some  who  actually  decry 
and  refuse  to  accept  it  as  such,  when  there 
is  no  doubt  that  if  every  one  had  followed 
the  instructions  as  to  revaccination,  by  this 
time  smallpox  would  have  ceased  alto- 
gether. 

No  language  can  be  too  strong  to  depict 
the  horrors  of  this  disease,  or  to  denounce 
the  culpable  ignorance  of  those  who,  blind- 
ing themselves  to  the  blessings  of  vaccina- 
tion, set  the  law  at  defiance  and  thus  en- 
danger the  lives  of  their  fellow-creatures. 
Supposing  it  could  be  proved  that  in 
some  cases  vaccination  has  been  the 
means  of  imparting  disease,  the  overwhelm- 
ing number  of  cases  where  it  has  not,  but 
has  been  a  preventive  of  this  terrible  mal- 
ady, ought  to  show  its  necessity  on  the 
beneficent  principle  of  studying  the  great- 
est happiness  of  the  greatest  number. 

To  children  smallpox  has  ever  been  dis- 
tressingly fatal,  and,  though,  it  is  impossible 
to  give  any  course  of  treatment  for  its  cure 
in  an  article  of  this  character,  as  so  much 
depends  upon  the  violence  of  the  case,  the 
state  of  the  patient's  constitution,  and  the 
stage  of  the  complaint,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  old  practice  of  close,  hot  rooms,  warm 
clothing,  and  hot  drinks  is  a  proved  mis- 
take, cool,  well  -  ventilated  apartments, 
comfortably  cool  bedclothes  and  cooling 
drinks  having  been  found  to  be  not  only 
more  pleasant  but  more  successful  in  their 
results.  When  the  disease  first  makes  its 


appearance,  if  the  fever  be  moderate  and 
no  professional  advice  be  procurable,  the 
patient  should  be  confined  to  bed,  and  cool 
drinks  and  a  dose  or  two  of  purgative  medi- 
cine administered. 

FEVERS  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

MEASLES. — An  acute  specific  disease — fe- 
brile and  infectious,  ushered  in  with  ca- 
tarrhal  symptoms  and  characterized  by  an 
eruption  on  the  skin,  which  appears  usually 
on  the  fourth  day. 

USUAL  SYMPTOMS. — After  a  period  of  in- 
cubation varying  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
days  (the  period  of  incubation  in  cases  pro- 
duced by  inoculation  is  seTen  days),  there 
is  manifested  alternate  chilliness  and  heat, 
a  quickened  pulse,  aching  in  the  limbs, 
slight  headache,  soon  followed  by  redness 
of  the  eyes,  coryza,  huskiness,  and  hoarse 
cough.  On  the  fourth  day  there  is  an 
eruption  of  soft,  circular,  very  slightly  ele- 
vated dusky  red  spots,  which  appear  first 
on  the  forehead,  and  extend  over  the  face, 
neck,  and  whole  body.  The  spots  grad- 
ually coalesce  and  present  a  peculiar  cres- 
centic  or  horseshoe  shape.  The  spots  dis-- 
appear  on  pressure.  They  attain  their  great- 
est intensity  on  the  fourth  day  from  their 
invasion,  and  by  the  seventh  day  they  fade 
away  with  a  slight  desquamation  of  the 
cuticle.  As  a  rule,  the  fever  does  not  abate 
on  the  appearance  of  the  eruption. 

OCCASIONAL  SYMPTOMS. — There  may  be 
no  prodromata  whatever,  or  the  attack  may 
be  ushered  in  with  convulsions  (especially 
in  children),  or  there  may  be  delirium,  or 
there  may  be  a  great  amount  of  fever,  or 
there  may  be  and  often  is  sore  throat;  more 
rarely  severe  headache,  and  sometimes  ab- 
sence of  the  coryza. 

The  eruption  may  be  scanty,  or  most 
abundant  and  confluent,  but  the  quantity 
of  the  eruption  per  se  does  not  affect  the 
gravity  of  the  attack ;  the  color  of  the  erup- 
tion may  be  dark,  constituting  so-called 
"black  measles";  there  may  be  petechise, 
which  do  not  fade  on  pressure  and  resem- 
ble purpura ;  these  do  not  per  se  affect  the 
prognosis.  Miliary  vesicles  are  often  pres- 
ent, and  when  abundant  the  amount  of 
desquamation  will  be  greater. 

PROGNOSIS. — If  uncomplicated,  favorable. 
Unfavorable  signs  are  great  fever,  great 
dyspnoea,  sudden  vanishing  of  the  rash,  to- 
gether with  an  access  of  delirium;  brown, 
dry  tongue,  with  special  severity  of  some 
two  or  three  symptoms;  petechiae,  with  a 
typhoid  form  of  fever.  Capillary  bronchitis 


THE    NURSERY 


715 


and  pneumonia  are  the  most  frequent  prox- 
imate causes  of  death. 

TKEATMENT. — The  child  must  be  kept  in 
bed  in  a  large,  well  ventilated  room,  free 
from  draughts — a  point  of  vital  importance, 
looking  to  the  frequency  and  danger  of  chest 
complications.  The  diet  must  be  low.  Tepid 
drinks  may  be  freely  given.  It  is  very  im- 
portant in  measles,  as  in  all  infectious  fe- 
vers, to  remove  all  discharge  and  soiled 
linen  instantly;  the  motions  should  be 
passed  into  vessels  containing  chloride  of 
lime,  carbolic  acid,  or  Condy's  fluid;  this 
with  ventilation  will  go  far  to  prevent  in- 
fection. There  is  no  objection,  if  it  be 
grateful  to  the  patient,  to  have  the  body 
gently  sponged  with  warm  water;  and  if 
itching  be  much  complained  of,  inunction 
with  unsalted  lard  is  useful.  Cough  is 
often  the  first  troublesome  symptom  which 
requires  special  treatment.  If  the  fever 
should  run  high,  the  weak  mineral  acids 
sweetened  and  largely  diluted  will  be  very 
grateful.  Or  a  mixture  of  citrate  of  potash 
and  Rochelle  salt  may  be  given  in  an  effer- 
vescing form.  If  the  fever  be  of  low  type, 
with  brown  tongue  and  failing  powers, 
large  doses  of  chlorate  of  potash  will  be 
useful,  and  stimulants  will  be  required. 
Yelk  of  egg  beaten  up  with  wine  is  excel- 
lent in  such  cases.  Purgatives,  as  a  rule, 
are  not  required;  if  employed  they  should 
be  mere  laxatives,  remembering  the  diarrhoea 
which  usually  sets  in  toward  the  close  of 
the  disease.  In  cases  attended  with  much 
nervous  excitability  and  convulsions  or  de- 
lirium, bromide  of  potassium  in  full  doses 
will  be  useful.  This  drug  will  also  procure 
sleep,  and  is  better  for  the  purpose  than  any 
opiate.  Sudden  recession  of  the  rash,  attended 
with  an  onset  of  delirium,  should  be  met  by 
plunging  the  child  into  a  bath  containing 
mustard,  and  leaving  it  in  until  the  surface 
becomes  red,  which  usually  occurs  in  a  few 
minutes.  The  child  should  then  be  rolled 
in  a  blanket,  and  the  strength  supported  by 
nutritious  diet,  and  stimulants  as  needed. 
For  laryngitis,  a  sponge  wrung  out  of  very 
hot  water  should  be  applied  over  the  larynx, 
and  inhalation  of  steam  encouraged.  Pneu- 
monia will  call  for  a  stimulating  embroca- 
tion over  its  site,  and  the  administration 
of  stimulants,  expectorants  —  carbonate  of 
ammonia  with  senega  is  the  best. 

Lung  and  all  other  complications  occur- 
ring during  the  early  stages  are  best  treated 
by  endeavoring,  with  external  stimulants, 
e.g.,  the  mustard  bath,  and  internal,  gentle 
diaphoretics,  to  get  the  rash  thrown  out 
freely.  Later  on  this  is,  of  course,  inad- 


missible,   and    the    strength    must   be    sup- 
ported in  every  way. 

THE  SYMPTOMS   OF  SCARLATINA 

Scarlatina  is  an  acute  specific  disease — 
febrile, contagious,  and  infectious,  and  accom- 
panied by  a  peculiar  eruption  of  the  skin. 
After  a  period  of  incubation,  varying  accord- 
ing to  different  authors  at  from  four  to  forty 
days,  and  probably  averaging  from  four  to  six 
days,  there  appears  in  children  vomiting, 
in  older  persons  sore  throat,  and  the  onset 
is  usually  sudden.  It  is  common  for  adults 
to  be  able  to  fix  the  hour  in  which  the  sore 
throat  began.  In  children,  severe  vomiting 
often  prognosticates  severe  throat  affection. 
Next  there  is  noticed  fever,  a  frequent 
pulse,  commonly  130 — 170,  a  flushed  face,  a 
high  temperature  (103  or  104  degrees  F., 
even  on  the  first  day),  hurried  breathing, 
furred  tongue,  hot  skin,  and  thirst.  At  the 
same  time  there  is  lassitude  and  restless- 
ness, headache,  and  at  night  delirium.  On 
the  second  day,  usually  about  the  root  of 
the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  chest,  ap- 
pears the  eruption,  which  is  a  scarlet  ef- 
florescence consisting  of  innumerable  red 
spots  at  first  separated  by  natural  skin,  but 
soon  coalescing  and  producing  a  general 
redness ;  the  skin  is  rendered  pale  by  pres- 
sure, but  the  redness  immediately  returns — 
the  rash  is  not  elevated  to  the  touch.  It  is 
most  abundant  about  the  hips  and  loins, 
and  the  flexures  of  the  joints — in  fact, 
where  the  papillae  of  the  skin  are  largest. 
The  eruption  reaches  its  maximum  inten- 
sity on  the  third  or  fourth  day;  by  the 
fifth  it  has  begun  to  fade,  and  by  the  eighth 
it  disappears.  It  goes  off  in  an  order  corre- 
sponding with  its  invasion.  Miliaria  are 
often  present,  perhaps  more  commonly  in 
adults  than  in  children ;  they  in  no  wise 
affect  the  prognosis.  The  sore  throat  is 
very  important,  especially  in  children.  A 
child  may  die  from  throat  disease  without 
any  complaint  about  its  throat  having  been 
made.  The  throat  should  therefore  always 
be  carefully  examined.  The  tonsils  will 
usually  be  found  enlarged  and  inflamed, 
and  often  coated  with  a  thick  white  tena- 
cious mucus. 

CROUP   AND   ITS   TREATMENT 

This  disease  is  characterized  by  difficulty 
of  breathing;  hoarseness;  a  ringing  cough, 
which,  when  once  heard,  will  be  distinctly 
remembered ;  the  cough  is  followed  by  a 
"crowing  inspiration." 

There  is  inflammatory  fever;  frequent 
and  hard  pulse;  thirst. 


716 


THE    NURSERY 


The  attack  is  most  liable  to  come  on  in 
the  night — either  altogether  unexpected,  or 
preceded  by  a  cold,  sore  throat,  or  catarrh. 

TREATMENT. — Apply  to  the  throat  very 
cold,  wet  cloths  well  covered  with  dry. 
Keep  the  child  in  bed.  Rub  with  the  dry 
hand  the  back  and  limbs,  and  continue  this 
until  a  hot  bath  is  made  ready;  renewing 
the  cold  cloths  to  the  throat  every  few  mo- 
ments. When  the  room  is  made  very  warm 
and  the  bath  at  hand,  place  the  child  in  the 
hot  water,  as  hot  as  can  be  borne,  and  rub 
the  chest  and  abdomen  and  the  whole  body 
very  briskly.  Add  more  hot  water,  and  keep 
the  body  (even  to  the  neck)  immersed. 

Have  a  dry,  hot  sheet  ready  in  which  to 
wrap  and  rub  dry  the  little  patient.  If 
fever  is  high,  now  put  on  the  abdominal 
bandage  wrung  from  warm  water.  Cover 
well  with  dry  flannel — a  small  blanket  or 
even  a  good-sized  one  is  none  too  much. 
Apply  again  the  cold,  wet  cloth  to  the 
throat.  Keep  the  feet  warm;  and,  if  the 
breathing  is  not  easier  now,  foment  the 
throat  and  upper  part  of  the  chest  for 
twenty  minutes  alternately  with  the  cold 
compress. 

Pat  and  rub  the  back  and  chest.  Manip- 
ulate the  arms  and  legs.  Give  drinks  of 
hot  water  and  of  cold.  Follow  the  symp- 
toms with  "all  diligence."  Do  not  relax 
effort  until  the  breathing  is  liberated.  If 
the  bowels  are  not  free,  give  full,  warm 
enema. 

If  there  is  tendency  to  coldness  of  ex- 
tremities, give  hot  foot  bath  occasionally; 
also  apply  dry  flannels,  heated  very  hot,  to 
the  throat,  if  they  seem  more  agreeable 
than  the  hot  fomentation. 

Keep  the  patient  in  a  warm,  well-venti- 
lated room.  Give  only  baked  apple,  or 
toast  water,  or  gruel  as  food,  until  the 
symptoms  yield  positively. 

We  have  been  told  by  physicians  that  it 
often  occurs  in  their  domestic  practice  with 
children,  that,  by  the  time  the  patient  is 
rubbed  with  the  dry  hand,  having  the  cold 
compress  on  the  throat  until  the  hot  bath 
is  made  ready,  there  is  no  need  of  the  bath ; 
the  breathing  is  relieved.  But  it  is  not  al- 
ways so,  as  cases  of  what  is  called  "mem- 
branous croup"  have  lasted  persistently  for 
days.  It  is  a  dreaded  disease,  and  j  ustly  so. 

MUMPS    (PAROTITIS)    AND    ITS 
TREATMENT 

This  disease  often  prevails  epidemically. 
It  usually  affects  children  and  young  per- 
sons, and  is  contagious. 


The  parotid  gland  swells;  swelling  be- 
neath the  ear,  the  chin,  and  all  around  the 
neck,  deforming  the  countenance  curiously. 

It  affects  one  side  only  sometimes,  but 
usually  both. 

The  swelling  is  hot,  tender,  and  painful; 
the  lower  jaw  can  scarcely  be  moved.  In 
about  four  days  the  disease  begins  to  de- 
cline, and  usually  lasts  in  all  about  ten 
days. 

Sometimes  the  swelling  suddenly  becomes 
transferred  to  the  mammae  in  the  female 
and  to  the  testicle  in  the  male,  and  may 
oscillate  between  the  throat  and  the  mam- 
mae or  testicle.  Metastasis  to  the  brain  is 
known  to  take  place  also,  but  this  is  rare. 

TREATMENT. — Very  little  treatment  is  nec- 
essary. Apply  warm  cloths  to  the  swelling; 
let  them  be  kept  on  constantly. 

If  there  is  general  feverishness,  a  tepid 
sponge  bath  and  enema  of  tepid  water.  A 
little  gruel  or  bran  tea  as  food. 

Keep  the  patient  comfortably  warm  and 
quiet.  If  metastasis  to  the  parts  named  oc- 
cur, a  warm  sitz  bath  or  fomentation  to  the 
affected  region  will  give  relief.  Keep  the 
feet  warm. 

Should  the  brain  become  affected,  give 
very  hot  sitz  and  foot-bath  for  ten  min- 
utes. Follow  this  with  enema  of  hot  wa- 
ter. Apply  cool  cloths  to  the  head,  or,  if 
more  agreeable  to  the  patient,  warm  spong- 
ings.  Let  the  patient  be  kept  in  bed  and 
seek  to  induce  perspiration  by  applying  bot- 
tles of  hot  water  to  the  back  and  feet  and 
drinking  of  hot  water. 

In  fact,  the  treatment  now  should  be  the 
same  as  for  inflammation  of  the  brain. 

DIPHTHERIA:    ITS    SYMPTOMS 

In  this  to  be  dreaded  and  terrible  dis- 
ease, a  false  membrane  forms  in  the  throat, 
and  if  the  larynx  becomes  affected  the 
chances  of  recovery  are  very  few  indeed. 
Frequent  vomiting,  diarrhoea,  hemorrhage 
from  the  nostrils  or  elsewhere,  frequency 
and  fulness  of  the  pulse,  convulsions,  de- 
lirium, and  coma,  are  symptoms  which  de- 
note great  danger.  Occasionally  the  mus- 
cles of  both  the  upper  and  lower  limbs  are 
affected.  The  chief  objects  in  the  treat- 
ment are  to  palliate  symptoms,  and  support 
the  powers  of  life  by  the  judicious  employ- 
ment of  tonic  remedies,  conjoined  with  ali- 
mentation and  alcoholic  stimulants.  The 
latter  are  given  in  large  quantities.  The 
best  advice  to  give  to  mothers  in  regard  to 
diphtheria  is,  send  instantly  for  the  doctor. 
Do  not  delay  one  moment! 


THE    NURSERY 


717 


VARIOUS    ACCIDENTS,  WITH 
TREATMENTS 

It  is  an  accepted  axiom  that  accidents 
will  happen,  no  matter  how  well  regulated 
the  household;  and,  though  much  has  been 
written  with  a  view  to  avert  the  more  seri- 
ous calamities  supposed  to  be  the  outcome 
of  accident,  but  which  are  invariably  the  re- 
sult of  carelessness,  children  still  manage 
to  burn  themselves  at  fires,  to  scald  them- 
selves with  hot  water,  to  cut  their  fingers, 
to  break  their  heads,  etc. 

As  a  rule,  the  remedies  required  to  be  of 
any  service  should  be  applied  at  once;  and 
it  is,  therefore,  no  earthly  use  suggesting 
antidotes  or  appliances  only  to  be  met  with 
in  a  doctor's  surgery.  We  shall,  therefore,  in 
the  few  suggestions  we  make,  more  particu- 
larly dwell  upon  those  simple  remedies 
which  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  be 
found  in  every  home. 

In  the  summer  months,  when  the  weather 
is  seasonable,  the  heat  is  oftentimes  suffi- 
cient to  cause  children  to  bleed  at  the  nose. 
In  such  cases,  if  the  bleeding  be  not  exces- 
sive or  too  frequent,  it  is  not  desirable  to 
stop  it,  as,  when  caused  by  an  undue  ful- 
ness of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  head,  it 
affords  great  relief.  When,  however,  the 
bleeding  is  the  result  of  a  knock  or  blow, 
cold  applications  should  be  applied  to  the 
nose  or  forehead,  and  the  child  kept  stand- 
ing in  the  open  air. 

Another  excellent  way  of  arresting  the 
bleeding  is  to  cause  the  arms  to  be  raised 
above  the  head,  and  kept  so  for  a  few  min- 
utes, which  will  usually  have  the  desired 
effect.  In  the  event  of  these  remedies  prov- 
ing ineffectual,  and  it  being  evident  that  the 
bleeding  is  dangerous,  the  nostrils  must  be 
plugged  with  pieces  of  linen  rag  made  into 
stoppers  of  oval  shape,  about  one  inch  in 
the  long  diameter  and  half  an  inch  in  the 
transverse,  sufficient  linen  being  left  hang- 
ing in  order  to  withdraw  them  when  neces- 
sary. The  great  thing  to  determine  in  cases 
where  the  bleeding  is  not  the  result  of  ac- 
cident is  whether  it  be  a  disease,  or  Na- 
ture's mode  of  assisting  the  removal  of 


TREATMENT    OF   CUTS 

With  regard  to  the  bleeding  caused  by  a 
cut  from  a  knife,  or  something  similarly 
sharp,  if  it  be  only  slight,  after  being 
bathed  with  cold  water,  the  edges  or  sides 
of  the  wound  should  be  brought  together 
and  bound  with  narrow  strips  of  arnica 
plaster,  if  this  is  to  be  had;  but  if  not,  a 


simple  band  of  linen,  smeared  with  the 
white  of  an  egg,  will  be  the  best  substi- 
tute. If  the  band  becomes  tight,  and  causes 
pain  owing  to  the  swelling,  don't  remove 
the  bandage,  but  insert  the  blade  of  a  pair 
of  scissors  underneath  the  binding  on  the 
opposite  side  to  the  wound,  and  cut  the 
linen  across.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
move the  strapping  on  account  of  there  be- 
ing pain  and  throbbing,  the  part  affected 
should  be  soaked  in  warm  water,  and  a 
soft,  warm  poultice  applied.  When  the 
wound  does  not  show  signs  of  inflamma- 
tion, and  the  discharge  is  good,  that  is  to 
say,  resembling  cream  in  consistence  and 
custard  in  color,  the  bandage  may  be  put 
on  again;  but  when  the  edges  are  inflamed, 
or  pale  and  flabby,  and  the  discharge  thin 
and  objectionable  in  its  odor,  a  single  strap 
of  adhesive  plaster  should  be  used  to  keep 
the  edges  together,  and  this  should  be  cov- 
ered with  a  warm  poultice. 

When  a  mishap  of  this  kind  occurs,  it  is 
either  a  vein  or  an  artery  that  is  cut.  In 
the  former  case  the  blood  is  dark-colored, 
and  will  flow  in  a  steady  stream,  which 
can  usually  be  stopped  by  the  application 
of  cold  water  or  ice,  and  by  exposing  the 
wound  to  the  open  air.  In  the  latter  the 
blood  is  bright-red,  and  flows  in  jets,  when, 
if  the  bleeding  is  excessive,  a  strong  ban- 
dage should  be  tied  around  the  limb,  just 
above  the  wound,  and  between  it  and  the 
heart,  and  compressed  sufficiently  tight  (by 
means  of  a  stick  inserted  underneath  and 
twisted)  until  the  circulation  be  stopped. 

When  the  wound  is  not  a  clean  cut,  and 
there  is  any  foreign  substance,  such  as  dirt, 
hair,  etc.,  it  must  be  carefully  removed  by 
sponging  with  cold  water. 

TREATMENT    FOR    BURNS 

Accidents  caused  by  burning  demand  im- 
mediate attention,  and  can  only  be  cured  in 
one  way — by  excluding  the  air  from  the 
part  affected.  Where  it  is  a  case  of  the 
clothes  having  caught  fire,  envelop  the  child 
in  the  heaviest  article  available,  such  as  a 
blanket,  tablecloth,  curtain,  etc.,  and  roll 
it  over  and  over  on  the  ground  until  the 
flames  are  extinguished,  in  the  event  of 
there  not  being  sufficient  water  at  hand  for 
that  purpose. 

This  done,  the  charred  garments  should 
be  quickly  but  most  gently  removed,  and 
cut  away,  instead  of  being  torn,  from  the 
body,  in  order  that  the  damaged  skin  should 
not  be  unnecessarily  irritated;  but  where 
a  piece  of  the  underlinen  happens  to  be 
burned  into  the  wound,  or  is  not  easily  de- 

46 


718 


THE    NURSERY 


tached,  cut  away  all  round  it,  and  leave  it 
to  come  away  afterward.  Then  immedi- 
ately cover  the  injured  surface  with  some- 
thing that  will  exclude  the  air,  either  with 
flour  sprinkled  thickly  over  the  wound,  with 
cotton-wool  steeped  in  oil,  or  with  a  piece 
of  linen  on  which  is  spread  a  layer  of  soap 
about  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick.  When 
procurable,  a  better  remedy  than  either  of 
those  mentioned  is  to  apply  strips  of  lint 
saturated  in  carron  oil,  which  dressing 
should  be  left  on  as  long  as  possible  until 
they  become  loosened  or  objectionable  from 
the  discharges,  it  being  most  desirable  that 
these  bandages  be  changed  as  seldom  as 
possible,  as  their  removal  is  apt  to  cause 
detachment  of  portions  of  the  new  skin, 
which  is  most  painful  and  undesirable. 
Where  there  is  much  discharge  it  must  be 
removed,  and  the  place  kept  as  clean  as 
possible. 

When  the  injury  is  of  an  extensive  char- 
acter, and  a  shock  ensues,  the  shivering  is 
best  checked  by  the  application  of  hot  bot- 
tles to  the  hands  and  feet,  and  the  adminis- 
tering of  hot  drinks — either  warm  sherry 
or  warm  brandy  and  water.  To  prevent 
disfigurement  from  accidents  of  this  nature, 
the  child  must  be  carefully  watched  until 
the  part  is  completely  healed,  and  must  be 
prevented  from  sitting,  or  lying  in  anything 
but  a  straight  posture,  to  avoid  contraction 
of  the  skin. 

The  danger  attending  burns  depends  more 
upon  their  superficial  extent  than  the  depth 
of  the  injury — those  to  the  body,  head,  or 
neck  being  much  more  dangerous  than  those 
to  the  hands  or  feet,  the  neck  being  the 
most  risky  portion  of  all. 

Where 'the  part  is  simply  blistered,  though 
these  be  extensive  in  character  and  large 
in  number,  it  is  comparatively  of  little  mo- 
ment as  long  as  they  are  whole.  They 
must  consequently  not  be  broken,  but  al- 
lowed to  remain,  and  the  fluid  to  accumu- 
late till  the  new  skin  forms  underneath. 
When  this  formation  takes  place,  the  part 
becomes  distended  and  painful,  there  is  a 
red  line  round  the  edge  of  the  blister,  and 
the  contained  fluid  looks  milky.  It  may 
then  be  let  out  by  puncturing  with  a  needle, 
so  that  it  all  escapes. 

TREATMENT   FOR    SCALDS 

Scalds  from  hot  water,  as  a  rule,  are  not 
so  severe,  as,  excepting  in  extreme  cases, 
the  scurf  skin  is  only  raised  like  an  ordi- 
nary blister,  and  the  dressing  being  wet, 


can  be  removed  without  difficulty.  Any  of 
the  remedies  prescribed  for  burns  are 
equally  efficacious  for  scalds,  but  if  the 
scalded  surface  be  instantly  covered  with 
cotton-wool,  it  is,  if  the  accident  be  of  a 
slight  character,  sufficient.  Another  admi- 
rable remedy,  more  particularly  on  account 
of  its  usually  being  "in  the  house,"  is  lard. 
That  specially  prepared  by  chemists  is,  of 
course,  the  best;  but  this  only  means  the 
ordinary  kind  divested  of  the  salt  by  wash- 
ing. It  should  be  thickly  spread  on  pieces 
of  old,  soft  linen,  and  when  placed  on  the 
scald  or  burn  be  kept  in  its  place  by  band- 
ages of  lint,  or,  better  still,  by  strips  of 
calico  torn  from  an  old  garment,  always 
bearing  in  mind  that  the  great  thing  is  to 
protect  the  damaged  part  from  the  air,  and 
remembering  on  no  account  to  apply  cold 
water  or  similar  cold  bandages. 

TREATMENT    FOR    BRUISES 

Bruises  from  knocks  and  tumbles  are  by 
far  the  most  frequent  of  the  numerous  ac- 
cidents of  the  nursery,  and  where  the  in- 
jury is  slight  and  the  skin  not  lacerated,  a 
warm  application  of  arnica  (which  should 
always  be  kept  where  there  are  children) 
and  water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of 
arnica  to  ten  of  water,  is  advisable;  but  in 
the  absence  of  this,  the  old-fashioned  rem- 
edy of  covering  the  bruise  with  fresh  but- 
ter should  be  resorted  to. 

Jammed  fingers,  through  the  unexpected 
shutting  of  a  drawer  or  door,  though  not 
usually  looked  upon  as  at  all  serious  cas- 
ualties, may  sometimes  be  attended  by  the 
most  serious  consequences,  for  if  all  the 
parts  of  the  end  of  the  fingers  be  injured, 
the  whole  (bone  and  flesh)  may  mortify. 
In  ordinary  cases  of  this  kind  the  best  and 
quickest  way  of  obtaining  relief  is  to  plunge 
the  finger  or  fingers  into  warm  water  as 
hot  as  the  child  can  bear  it.  By  this  means 
the  nail  is  softened,  and  yields  so  as  to  ac- 
commodate itself  to  the  blood  poured  out 
beneath  it,  and  the  pain  is  speedily  lessened; 
the  finger  should  then  be  covered  with  a 
bread  and  water  poultice  pending  the  sur- 
gical treatment  necessary  where  the  fingers 
are  badly  crushed. 

Instant  care  and  attention  in  such  cases 
will  often  prevent  the  loss  of  the  nail,  a 
result  to  be  avoided  if  possible,  since  the 
formation  and  growth  of  the  new  nail  are 
necessarily  slow,  and  changes  of  shape 
frequently  occur,  sometimes  resulting  in 
permanent  disfigurement. 


COMMON-SENSE  TALK 
ABOUT  FOOD 


FOOD  serves  two  purposes:  it  supplies  the  material  of  which  the 
body  is  composed  and  the  energy  expended  in  heat  and  move- 
ment. According  to  the  law  of  the  conservation  of  matter  and 
energy,  no  matter  or  energy  is  lost  or  gained  in  any  transformation. 
Therefore  there  must  be  a  perfect  balance  between  the  matter  and  the 
energy  supplied  to  the  body  and  that  expended  in  any  given  time.  The 
transformation  of  matter  and  of  energy  that  takes  place  in  the  body  is 
called  metabolism,  and  is  essentially  a  process  of  combustion. 

All  foods  are  combustibles,  and  they  are  transformed  into  much  the 
same  products  by  their  utilization  in  the  body  as  they  are  by  burning  in 
the  air,  and  of  course  give  off  nearly  the  same  amount  of  heat  energy. 
We  therefore  speak  of  the  "fuel  value"  of  a  food,  and  to  determine  it 
we  can  burn  a  small  amount  in  compressed  oxygen  in  a  strong  steel 
vessel  immersed  in  water  (a  bomb  calorimeter),  and  measure  the  amount 
of  heat  given  off  to  the  surrounding  water. 

Foods  are  principally  composed  of  the  four  chemical  elements :  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  In  the  body  the  carbon  is  changed 
into  carbon  dioxide  (carbonic  acid,  CO2)  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The 
hydrogen  combines  with  oxygen  to  form  water  (H2O).  The  nitrogen 
is  excreted  as  urea  (CON2H4),  a  derivative  of  ammonia.  Besides  these 
four  elements,  the  human  body  contains  calcium,  phosphorus,  potassium, 
sulphur,  chlorine,  sodium,  magnesium,  iron,  and  fluorine  in  small  quan- 
tities in  the  order  named.  Almost  all  vegetable  and  animal  foods  contain 
mineral  matter  (ash),  composed  of  these  elements,  in  such  amount  that, 
ordinarily,  no  attention  need  be  paid  to  securing  them. 

Animals  are  not  able  to  get  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen  neces- 
sary for  life  from  the  free  elements  or  their  inorganic  compounds,  but 
have  to  use  the  complex  organic  compounds  which  form  plants.  Green 
plants  are  able  to  utilize  the  energy  of  the  sunshine  to  prepare  carbo- 
hydrates from  carbon  dioxide  and  water.  The  carbohydrates  are  again 
transformed  in  animals  back  to  carbon  dioxide  and  water;  the  potential 
energy  released  in  the  process  going  into  heat  and  muscular  work. 

Of  the  potential  energy  supplied  to  us  in  the  form  of  food,  about 
70  to  80  per  cent  passes  off  as  heat,  serving  to  keep  the  body  at  the 

(719) 


720 


COMMON-SENSE    TALK   ABOUT    FOOD 


living  temperature  of  about  98°  Fahrenheit.  The  internal  work  of  the 
body,  such  as  breathing,  forcing  the  blood  through  the  arteries,  digestion, 
thinking,  etc.,  also  appears  as  heat.  The  external  energy  produced  by 
a  man  at  moderate  work  amounts  to  some  20  to  30  per  cent  of  the 
potential  energy  of  his  food.  An  ordinary  steam-engine  converts  only 
about  5  per  cent  of  the  potential  energy  of  its  fuel  into  useful  work,  and 
the  best  engines,  not  more  than  15  per  cent. 


ANIMAL     AND     VEGETABLE      FOODS 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD 

WATER,  although  it  can  not  be  used 
as  a  source  of  energy,  is  a  necessary 
ingredient  of  almost  all  foods,  and  when 
purchased  as  food,  in  the  form  of  oysters 
or  watermelons  or  strawberries,  it  is  pretty 
expensive. 

The  most  important  constituents  of  food 
can  be  classified  as  carbohydrates,  fats,  and 
protein.  All  these  enter  into  the  normal 
diet,  and  although  different  in  their  uses, 
can  replace  each  other  to  a  certain  extent. 
Protein  demands  the  most  attention  be- 
cause it  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  that 
contains  nitrogen,  and  is,  therefore,  indis- 
pensable to  the  animal  body.  Familiar 
forms  of  protein  are  gluten  of  wheat,  casein 
(curd)  of  milk,  myosin  of  lean  meat,  al- 
bumen (white)  of  eggs,  and  gelatin  of 
bones. 

Protein  is  the  material  of  the  nitrogene- 
ous  portion  of  the  body,  the  muscles,  and 
the  brain,  also  of  the  fats  and  carbohy- 
drates. Carbohydrates  include  the  numer- 
ous forms  of  sugar  and  starch,  which  make 
up  the  bulk  of  our  food.  Since  they  con- 
tain no  nitrogen,  they  can  not  restore  the 
waste  of  the  body  and  build  muscle,  but 
serve  only  as  fuel  or  sources  of  energy. 
The  fats,  which  include  all  such  substances 
as  butter,  lard,  suet,  oils,  etc.,  are  similar 
to  the  carbohydrates  in  composition  and 
use,  but  have  a  greater  fuel  value.  If  any 
of  the  three  are  supplied  in  excess  of  pres- 
ent needs,  they  may  be  stored  up  in  the 
body  as  fat,  and  utilized  for  producing  en- 
ergy at  any  future  time. 

The  measure,  or  unit,  of  energy  is  the 
calorie,  which  is  the  amount  of  heat  neces- 
sary to  raise  a  litre  (about  one  quart)  of 
water  one  degree  Centigrade  (1.8  Fahr.) 
in  temperature.  It  is  equivalent  to  3,060 
foot-pounds,  or  a  power  sufficient  to  raise 
3,060  pounds  to  the  height  of  one  foot. 
The  fuel  or  energy  value  of  the  three 


classes    of    nutrients    is    approxin.ately    as 
follows : 

i   pound  of  protein     .     .     gives    1860  calories  heat 

i  "    carbohydrates       "       1860 

I       "        "    fats     ...          "      4220       " 

THE   CALCULATION    OF  DIETARIES 

A  satisfactory  day's  ration  must  conform 
to  two  requirements :  It  must  contain  enough 
protein  to  supply  the  waste  of  the  body,  and 
it  must  afford  enough  potential  energy  for 
the  heat  and  muscular  work  needed.  As 
an  example  of  average  and  suitable  dietaries 
the  following  may  be  given : 


Nutrients 

Fuel 
value 

1 

Protein 

1 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Man  with  light  exercise  .  . 
Man  with  moderate  muscular 

EE 

1.32 

I   55 

Lbe. 

.22 

.28 
•33 

Lta. 

.92 

.28 

•33 

.88 
•99 

I  .10 

2,980 

3,5*> 

4.  "60 

Man  at  active  muscular  work 

1.76 

Women  use  about  20  per  cent  less  food 
than  men.  For  heavy  and  long-continued 
work  a  large  amount  of  fuel-furnishing 
nutriment — fats  and  carbohydrates — is  re- 
quired. When  brief  and  severe  muscular 
or  nervous  strain  is  put  upon  a  person,  as, 
for  example,  in  athletics,  the  protein  should 
be  increased.  The  amount  of  protein  some- 
times falls  as  low  as  .15  pound,  and  the 
total  energy  to  2,000  calories  in  poorly 
nourished  people;  and  the  dietary  of  some 
men  working  hard  in  the  open  air  amounts 
to  6,000  or  over. 

FOOD    COMBINATIONS 

It  would  be  impossible  to  make  a  satis- 
factory diet  of  potatoes  alone,  because  they 
are  so  largely  composed  of  carbohydrates 
that  it  would  require  an  excessive  amount 


COMMON-SENSE   TALK   ABOUT    FOODS 


721 


to  supply  the  protein  needed.  They  are, 
therefore,  usually  supplemented  by  meat  or 
milk,  which  are  rich  in  protein.  Bread, 
which  contains  little  fat,  is  improved  by 
the  addition  of  butter.  Beans,  which  are 
the  richest  in  protein  of  all  vegetable  foods, 
need  carybohydrates  and  fats  to  balance 
the  ration,  and  they  are  commonly  eaten 
with  pork  and  brown  bread.  The  chemical 
composition  does  not  tell  the  whole  story, 
for  the  important  factor  of  digestibility  has 
to  be  considered.  This,  of  course,  varies 
with  different  individuals,  and  with  the 
same  individual  at  different  times,  so  no 
general  rule  can  be  given. 

DIGESTIBILITY    OF    FOODS 

The  digestibility  of  the  nutrients  classed 
under  one  name  is  not  exactly  the  same. 
[Vegetable  protein  is  less  digestible  than 
animal  protein.  Carbohydrates  are  practi- 
cally all  digested,  unless  eaten  in  excess. 
A  considerable  quantity  of  fat  may  escape 
digestion,  and  therefore  the  fuel  value  of 
a  ration  may  be  overestimated.  In  a  mixed 
diet  of  several  kinds  of  food  all  components 
are  more  completely  digested  than  when 
only  one  article  of  food  is  eaten. 

A  man  may  live  and  thrive  on  either 
animal  food  or  vegetable  food  alone,  but 
the  general  experience  of  the  race,  as  well 
as  the  experimental  evidence,  favors  the 
use  of  both.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to 
secure  a  sufficient  amount  of  protein  in  a 
purely  vegetable  diet  without  getting  an 
excess  of  carbohydrates.  If  milk,  cheese, 
and  eggs  are  used,  flesh  may  easily  be  dis- 
pensed with. 

VEGETABLE    FOODS 

Wheat  is  the  chief  food  of  Europe  and 
America,  as  rice  is  of  Oriental  nations. 
Both  grains  are  complete  foods,  and  fairly 
well  balanced.  The  gluten  or  gum  of  wheat 
eminently  fits  it  for  bread-making,  as  the 
dough  can  be  aerated  or  leavened,  and  thus 
made  more  digestible.  This  is  done  by 
developing  carbon  dioxide  during  baking, 
either  by  means  of  yeast  or  baking  powder. 
The  growth  of  the  yeast  plant  in  the  warm 
sponge  produces  alcohol  and  carbon  diox- 
ide, which  are  driven  off  by  baking,  leav- 
ing the  bread  porous.  Baking  powders 
consist  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  some 
other  chemical,  acting  as  a  weak  acid  to 
evolve  carbon  dioxide.  The  acid  substance 
may  be  lactic  acid  (in  sour  milk),  potassium 
bitartrate  (cream  of  tartar),  calcium  phos- 
phate, or  alum.  The  objection  to  the  use  of 
baking  powder  of  any  kind  is  that  a  salt 


unfit  for  food  is  left  in.  The  salts  left  by 
the  powders  mentioned  are,  in  the  order 
named  (i)  Sodium  lactate;  (2)  potassium- 
sodium-tartrate  (Rochelle  salt,  as  in  Seid- 
litz  powder)  ;  .  (3)  calcium  and  sodium 
phosphate;  and  (4)  ammonium  and  so- 
dium sulphate  and  aluminum  hydroxide. 
All  these  salts  are  medicinal  in  large  doses, 
but  it  has  not  been  proved  experimentally 
that  any  one  is  much  more  deleterious  than 
the  others,  nor  that  any  of  them  in  small 
quantities  is  injurious  to  a  person  of  or- 
dinary digestion. 

Breakfast  foods  are  wheat,  oats,  and  maize 
preparations,  often  partly  cooked.  The  three 
are  very  different  in  composition,  oatmeal 
being  richest  in  protein,  corn  in  carbohy- 
drates, and  wheat  intermediate  in  respect 
to  both.  The  composition  of  each  class  of 
these  foods  is  much  the  same,  and  they 
differ  more  in  price  and  in  the  attractiveness 
of  the  advertising  than  in  quality.  Beans 
and  peas  supply  more  nitrogenous  matter 
than  other  vegetables,  because  they  have 
the  power  of  obtaining  nitrogen  directly 
from  the  air,  which  most  plants  can  not  do. 

FRUITS 

(Except  dates,  grapes  and  bananas)  con- 
tain very  little  nutriment,  but  are  valuable 
for  their  flavor  and  acid  juices.  Nuts  are 
not  as  nutritious  as  their  composition  would 
indicate,  because  the  protein  and  carbohy- 
drates are  not  very  digestible.  Cooking 
vegetables  breaks  up  the  grains  of  starch 
and  makes  it  soluble. 

ANIMAL    FOODS 

No  animal  foods  contain  carbohydrates 
except  milk  and  liver.  Animal  foods  are 
especially  valuable  on  account  of  the  large 
amounts  of  digestible  protein  and  fats. 
There  is  little  difference  in  the  real  nutri- 
tive value  of  cuts  of  meat  sold  at  widely 
differing  prices,  and  by  proper  cooking 
they  may  be  made  equally  palatable  and 
digestible.  Gelatin  extracted  from  the  bones 
can  not  take  the  place  of  other  forms  of 
protein  entirely,  but  is  an  easily  digested 
food.  Cooking  meats  develops  attractive 
flavors  and  destroys  bacteria  and  other 
disease  germs. 

CONDIMENTS    AND    ACCESSORIES 

Substances  of  strong  and  pleasant  flavor 
facilitate  digestion  by  increasing  the  flow 
of  digestive  fluids,  either  by  acting  through 
the  sense  of  taste  or  directly  on  the  di- 
gestive organs.  Salt,  sugar,  meat  extract, 
cheese,  pickles,  mustard,  pepper,  and  all 


722 


COMMON-SENSE   TALK   ABOUT    FOODS 


spices  are  of  value  for  this  reason.  Ex- 
cessive use  injures  the  digestion.  Salt  is 
indispensable,  as  it  is  an  important  con- 
stituent of  some  of  the  juices  of  the  body. 
Sugar  is  not  merely  a  condiment,  but  a 
very  nutritious  food  easily  digested.  Alco- 
hol in  small  quantities  is  oxidized  and 
serves  as  a  source  of  energy.  Its  effect  on 
the  nervous  system  is  more  important  than 
its  food  value.  Tea  and  coffee  contain 
caffein,  and  cocoa  and  chocolate  contain 
theobromin,  both  alkaloids,  which  stimulate 
the  nervous  system.  Meat  extract  is  also 
more  of  a  stimulant  than  a  food. 

FOOD  ADULTERATION  AND    SUB- 
STITUTIONS 

Injurious  adulterations  such  as  poisonous 
coloring  matter,  etc.,  have  been  almost  en- 
tirely driven  from  the  market  by  exposure, 
but  there  are  many  articles  of  food  which 
are  partly  or  wholly  composed  of  cheaper 
materials  than  is  claimed,  and  so  cheat  the 
purchaser.  Ground  spices  are  very  largely 
adulterated  with  meal,  ground  nuts,  etc. 
Coffee  is  adulterated  with  chicory  and 
chicory  with  grain.  This  applies  particu- 
larly to  the  packages  of  ground  coffee,  but 
sometimes  imitation  beans  are  molded. 
"Coffee  extracts"  sometimes  have  no  trace 
of  real  coffee.  Wheat  flour  is  occasionally 
mixed  with  cheaper  grains,  such  as  corn. 
Baker's  bread  may  be  whitened  by  the  ad- 
dition of  alum, an  injurious  substance  when 
taken  internally. 

Cheap  jellies  are  made  from  apple  or 
gelatin,  and  flavored  and  colored  to  imitate 
various  fruits.  Strained  honey  and  syrups 
are"  often  largely  composed  of  glucose. 
Glucose  is  made  by  the  action  of  acid  on 
starch,  and  is  a  valuable  food,  equal 
in  nutritive  value  to  cane  sugar,  but  is 
much  cheaper  and  not  so  sweet.  Maple 
sugar  is  made  from  common  sugar  flavored 
with  a  decoction  of  bark.  Artificial  vine- 
gar is  made  by  diluting  acetic  acid,  flavor- 
ing with  apple  juice  and  coloring  with 
caramel.  Milk  is  frequently  diluted  with 
water.  Artificial  fruit  flavors  are  exten- 
sively used  in  drinks  and  candies.  Some  of 
these  are  identical  with  the  natural  product, 
as  is  methyl  salicylate,  which  is  oil  of  win- 
tergreen,  but  more  often  they  are  merely 
imitations  compounded  of  various  ethers 
and  alcohol.  Glucose  and  starch  are  ex- 
tensively used  in  candies. 

Cottonseed  oil  is  sold  as  olive  oil,  and 
used  as  a  substitute  for  lard.  It  is  a 
nutritious  food  product,  and  worthy  of 
sale  under  its  proper  name.  Oleomar- 


garine, which  is  sometimes  sold  for  butter, 
is  made  principally  from  beef  fats.  It  has 
the  advantage  over  butter  that  it  does  not 
so  readily  become  rancid,  and  is  less  likely 
to  contain  disease  germs,  but  is  inferior 
in  flavor.  There  is  no  difference  in  nutri- 
tive value  or  digestibility.  Poor  butter  is 
usually  colored  with  anatto.  Sausages,  jel- 
lies, candies,  and  drinks  are  often  colored 
with  aniline  dyes,  usually  not  injurious. 
Bright  green  pickles  and  peas  are  usually 
tinted  with  poisonous  copper  salts.  Laws 
against  adulteration  are  useful  in  prevent- 
ing harmful  ingredients  being  used,  in  pub- 
lishing analyses  of  foods,  and  in  ensuring 
the  correct  labelling  of  all  articles  on  sale, 
but  they  are  apt  to  be  perverted  in  favor 
of  some  particular  industry  and  to  impose 
impossible  conditions  on  certain  legitimate, 
although  it  may  be  inferior,  food  products. 

PRESERVATIVES 

Food  decomposes  because  of  the  growth 
of  bacteria  of  putrefaction,  and  all  methods 
of  food  preservation  aim  either  to  shut 
them  out  or  to  make  the  conditions  such 
that  they  can  not  thrive.  In  canning  and 
bottling,  the  contents  are  sterilized  by  heat 
and  sealed  so  no  micro-organisms  can  enter. 
Warmth  and  moisture  are  necessary  for 
the  development  of  bacteria,  and,  accord- 
ingly, cold  storage  and  drying  are  efficient 
methods  of  preserving  meat  and  'fruit. 
Preserving  may  also  be  done  by  the  use 
of  some  chemical  antiseptic  poisonous  to 
bacteria,  but  not  to  man.  Salt,  saltpetre, 
borax,  boric  acid,  salicylic  acid,  benzoic 
acid,  formaldehyde,  and  many  other  chem- 
icals are  used  for  this  purpose.  Smoked 
meat  must  also  be  classed  here,  as  it  is 
coated  with  the  tarry  products  of  combus- 
tion. 

In  regard  to  all  of  these,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  processes  of  putrefaction  and  diges- 
tion are  so  similar  in  nature  that  whatever 
prevents  the  one  will  interfere  to  some 
extent  with  the  other.  At  the  same  time  it 
has  not  been  proved  definitely  that  any  of 
these,  except  probably  the  last  named,  has 
any  injurious  effect  upon  a  person  of  av- 
erage digestive  powers  when  used  in  the 
minute  quantities  necessary  to  preserve  food. 
There  is  of  course  danger  of  using  an  ex- 
cessive amount,  and  preservation  by  steriliz- 
ing, drying,  or  keeping  cold  is  preferable  to 
the  addition  of  any  foreign  substance.  Salt 
is  an  essential  constituent  of  food,  is  easily 
washed  out,  and  is  distasteful  in  excess. 
The  other  preservatives  are  odorless  and 
tasteless  in  small  quantities. 


A  FEW  LESSONS  IN 
DANCING 


ALTHOUGH  dancing,   like  singing,   is  best  learned  from  the  in- 
structions of  a  qualified  master,  it  is  possible  that  a  determined 
student  can  teach  himself  what  he  wishes  to  know  by  carefully 
following  printed  rules  and  directions  and  practicing  constantly  and  care- 
fully.    For  the  benefit  of  sucK  the  following  brief  outlines  are  included 
here. 

Some  dances  that  were  popular  a  few  years  since  are  now  almost 
unknown,  while  others  have  come  into  vogue  that  were  then,  perhaps, 
uninvented.  If  a  person  can  waltz,  and  perhaps  dance  a  "two-step," 
and  knows  the  figures  of  the  lancers,  he  may  be  said  to  be  a  fairly  good 
"dancing  man."  It  is  unnecessary  to  know  all  the  new  "fancy  dances," 
although  this  is  often  a  desirable  accomplishment. 


FAMILIAR    DANCES   OF   THE    PRESENT   DAY 


THE  LANCERS 

AT  the  present  day  the  old-fashioned 
quadrille  is  seldom  danced.  It  seems 
to  have  gone  the  way  of  the  minuet  and 
other  graceful  and  complicated  dances  of 
our  forefathers.  In  fact,  the  Lancers  seems 
to  be  about  the  only  "square  dance"  that  is 
now  performed,  except  on  rare  occasions. 
Within  the  last  few  years  it  has  become  a 
great  favorite  in  fashionable  circles.  It 
admits  of  much  skill  and  elegance  in  exe- 
cuting its  quick  and  varied  figures,  a  cor- 
rect acquaintance  with  which  is  absolutely 
requisite  to  all  who  take  part  in  it.  Unlike 
the  common  quadrille,  the  Lancers  must  be 
danced  by  four  couples  only  in  each  set ; 
though  of  course  there  can  be  many  sets 
dancing  at  the  same  time.  The  number 
being  so  limited,  one  awkward  or  ignorant 
person  confuses  the  whole  set;  therefore, 
it  is  indispensable  that  every  one  who  dances 
in  this  quadrille  should  have  a  thorough 
mastery  of  its  graceful  intricacies.  We 
have  observed  that  of  late  it  has  become 
the  fashion  to  substitute  new  tunes  and  new 
figures  for  the  old  well-known  music  of 
the  Lancers  Quadrille.  We  can  not  con- 
sider this  an  improvement.  The  old  simple 


melodies  are  peculiarly  fitted  to  the  spright- 
ly, joyous  character  of  the  dance;  which  is 
more  than  can  be  said  for  any  of  the  mod- 
ern substitutes.  When  these  are  used,  the 
Lancers,  in  our  opinion,  loses  its  individu- 
ality and  spirit,  becoming  almost  like  a  com- 
mon quadrille.  We  should  be  heartily  glad 
to  see  the  old  tunes  restored,  once  for  all, 
to  their  rightful  supremacy. 

The  sets  of  four  couples,  top,  opposite, 
and  sides,  having  been  arranged,  the  dance 
begins  as  follows : 

ist  Figure. — First  lady  and  opposite  gen- 
tleman advance  and  retreat;  advance  again, 
joining  their  hands;  pass  round  each  other 
and  back  to  places,  (ist  eight  bars.)  Top 
couple  join  hands,  and  cross,  opposite  couple 
crossing  at  the  same  time,  separately,  out- 
side them;  the  same  reversed,  back  to 
places.  (2d  eight  bars.)  All  the  couples 
balances  to  corners;  each  gentleman  turns 
his  neighbor's  partner  back  to  places.  (3d 
eight  bars.)  Second  couple  repeat  figure 
from  beginning;  after  them  side  couples, 
those  who  stand  to  the  right  of  top  couple 
having  always  the  priority,  as  in  the  com- 
mon quadrille. 

2d  Figure.— First  couple  advance  and  re- 

(723) 


724 


A    FEW    LESSONS    IN    DANCING 


treat,  gentleman  holding  lady's  left  hand; 
advance  again ;  gentleman  leaves  his  part- 
ner in  the  centre  of  the  quadrille  and  re- 
tires to  place,  (ist  eight  bars.)  Balances 
to  each  other  and  turn  to  places.  (2d  eight 
bars.)  Side  couples  join  first  and  second 
couples,  forming  a  line  of  four  on  either 
side.  Each  line  advances  four  steps,  re- 
treats ditto;  then  advances  again,  each  gen- 
tleman reclaiming  his  partner,  and  all  turn 
to  places.  Second  and  side  couples  repeat 
figure  in  succession. 

3d  Figure. — First  lady  advances  four  steps 
alone,  and  stops;  vis-a-vis  gentleman  does 
the  same;  first  lady  retires,  facing  gentle- 
man, to  whom  she  makes  a  slow  profound 
courtesy.  (The  courtesy  must  occupy  a 
bar  or  two  of  the  music;  and  as,  if  made 
with  grace  and  dignity,  it  is  most  effective, 
we  would  recommend  ladies  to  practice  it 
carefully  beforehand.)  The  gentleman  at 
the  same  time  bows  and  retires,  (ist  eight 
bars.)  All  four  ladies  advance  to  centre, 
give  right  hands  across  to  each  other  (which 
is  called  the  double  chain),  and  left  hand 
to  vis-a-vis  gentleman ;  then  back  again,  left 
hands  across  in  the  middle,  and  right  hands 
to  partners  back  to  places.  (2d  eight  bars.) 
Second  and  side  couples  repeat  figure  from 
commencement. 

A  more  recent  fashion  for  dancing  this 
figure  is  as  follows:  Instead  of  one  lady 
advancing  at  first,  all  four  advance,  and 
courtesy  to  each  other ;  then  turn  and  cour- 
tesy to  their  partners.  Ladies  do  the  mou- 
linet  in  the  centre;  that  is,  give  right  hands 
across  to  each  other,  and  half  round;  left 
hands  across  back  again,  and  return  to 
places.  Gentlemen  meantime  all  move  round 
outside  the  ladies,  till  each  has  regained  his 
place.  Figure  as  usual  repeated  four  times ; 
but  the  second  and  fourth  time  the  gentle- 
men advance  instead  of  the  ladies,  and  bow, 
first  to  each  other,  then  to  their  partners; 
continuing  as  before  through  the  rest  of  the 
figure. 

4th  Figure.— Top  gentleman,  taking  part- 
ner's left  hand,  leads  her  to  the  couple  on 
their  right,  to  whom  they  bow  and  courtesy 
(which  civility  must  be  met  with  the  like 
acknowledgment),  then  cross  quickly  to 
fourth  couple  and  do  the  same,  (ist  eight 
bars.)  All  four  couples  chassez  croisez 
right  and  left  (gentleman  invariably  pass- 
ing behind  his  partner),  then  turn  hands 
(tour  des  mains)  back  to  places.  (2d  eight 
bars.)  First  and  opposite  couples  right  and 
left  across  and  back  again,  (ad  eight  bars.) 
Second  and  sides  repeat  as  usual. 


$th  Figure. — This  figure  commences  with 
the  music.    Each  couple  should  stand  ready, 
the  gentleman  facing  his  partner,  his  right 
hand  holding  hers.     If  every  one  does  not 
start  directly  the  music  begins,  and  does  not 
observe  strict  time  throughout,  this  some- 
what intricate  figure  becomes  hopelessly  em- 
barrassed; but,  when  well  danced,  it  is  the 
prettiest   of    the    set.      It    commences    with 
the  grande  chaine  all   round;  each  gentle- 
man giving  his  right  hand  to  his  partner  at 
starting,  his  left  to  the  next  lady,  then  his 
right  again,  and  so  all  round,  till  all  have 
returned   to   their  places.      (This   occupies 
sixteen  bars  of  the  music.)      First  couple 
promenade  inside  figure,  returning  to  places 
with  their  backs  turned  to  opposite  couple. 
The  side  couple  on  their  right  falls  in  im- 
mediately behind  them;  the  fourth  couple 
follows,  the  second  couple  remaining  in  their 
places.     A    double    line   is   thus    formed — 
ladies   on  one  side  and  gentlemen  on  the 
other.    (3d  eight  bars.)    All  chassez  croisez, 
ladies  left,  gentlemen  right,  behind  partners. 
First  lady  leads  off,  turning  sharply  round 
to  the  right;  first  gentleman  does  the  same 
to  the  left,  meeting  at  the  bottom  of  the 
quadrille,    and   promenade   back   to   places. 
All  the  ladies  follow  first  lady ;  all  the  gen- 
tlemen follow  first  gentleman;  and  as  each 
meets  his  partner  at  the  bottom  of  the  fig- 
ure, they  touch  hands,  then  fall  back  in  two 
lines — ladies  on  one  side,  gentlemen  on  the 
other— facing  each  other.     (4th  eight  bars.) 
Four   ladies  join   hands,   advance,   and  re- 
treat;   four   gentlemen   ditto    at    the    same 
time;  then  each  turns  his  partner  to  places. 
(5th    eight    bars.)      Grande    chaine   again. 
Second  and  side  couples  repeat  the  whole 
figure  in  succession,  each  couple  taking  its 
turn    to    lead   off,    as    the   first    has    done. 
Grande  chaine  between  each  figure  and  in 
conclusion. 

THE  LANCERS  FOR  SIXTEEN,  OR 
DOUBLE  LANCERS 

ist  Figure. — Two  first  ladies  and  vis-a-vis 
gentlemen  begin  at  the  same  moment,  and 
go  through  the  figure  as  in  Single  Lancers. 
All  balances  to  corners;  in  other  words, 
each  lady  sets  to  gentleman  at  her  right, 
who  turns  her  to  her  place.  Second  couples 
and  sides  repeat  as  usual. 

2d  Figure. — First  couples  advance,  retreat, 
advance  again,  leaving  ladies  in  centre;  set 
to  partners  and  turn  to  places.  Two  side 
couples  nearest  first  couples  join  them;  two 
side  couples  nearest  second  couples  do  the 
same,  thus  forming  eight  in  each  line.  They 
all  advance  and  retreat,  holding  hands,  then 


A    FEW   LESSONS    IN    DANCING 


725 


turn  partners  to  places.  Repeated  by  second 
and  side  couples  as  usual. 

3d  Figure. — First  ladies  advance  and  stop ; 
vis-d-vis  gentlemen  ditto;  courtesy  pro- 
foundly, bow,  and  back  to  places.  Ladies 
do  the  moulinet,  gentlemen  go  round  out- 
side, and  back  to  places.  Or,  ladies  advance 
and  courtesy  to  each  other  and  then  to 
partners;  gentlemen  doing  the  same  when 
the  second  and  fourth  couples  begin  the 
figure,  as  in  Single  Lancers. 

4th  Figure. — First  couples  advance  to 
couples  on  their  right;  bow  and  courtesy; 
cross  to  opposite  side,  bow  and  courtesy, 
chassez  croisez,  and  return  to  place.  Right 
and  left  to  opposite  places,  and  back  again. 
Second  couples  and  sides  repeat  figure. 

5th  Figure. — Grande  chaine  all  round, 
pausing  at  the  end  of  every  eight  bars  to 
bow  and  courtesy;  continue  chaine  back  to 
places,  which  will  occupy  altogether  thirty- 
two  bars  of  the  music.  Figure  almost  the 
same  as  in  Single  Lancers.  Both  first  cou- 
ples lead  around,  side  couples  falling  in  be- 
hind, thus  forming  four  sets  of  lines. 
Figure  repeated  by  second  and  side  couples ; 
grande  chaine  between  each  figure  and  at 
the  conclusion. 

THE  POLKA 

The  origin  of  this  once  celebrated  dance 
is  difficult  to  ascertain.  It  is  believed  by 
some  to  be  of  great  antiquity,  and  to  have 
been  brought  into  Germany  from  the  East. 
Others  affirm  that  its  origin  is  of  more 
recent  date,  and  its  birthplace  considerably 
nearer  home.  An  authority  on  these  mat- 
ters remarks:  "In  spite  of  what  those  pro- 
fessors say  who  proclaim  themselves  to  have 
learned  the  Polka  in  Germany,  or  as  being 
indebted  for  it  to  an  Hungarian  nobleman, 
we  are  far  from  placing  confidence  in  their 
assertions.  In  our  opinion  Paris  is  its 
birthplace,  and  its  true  author,  undoubtedly, 
the  now  far-famed  Monsieur  Cellarius,  for 
whom  this  offspring  of  his  genius  has  gained 
a  European  celebrity." 

Whatever  we  may  be  inclined  to  believe 
with  regard  to  this  disputed  question,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  the  widespread  popu- 
larity which  for  many  years  was  enjoyed 
by  the  Polka.  When  first  introduced  in 
1843,  it  was  received  with  enthusiasm,  and 
it  effected  a  complete  revolution  in  the 
style  of  dancing  which  had  prevailed  up  to 
that  period.  A  brisk,  lively  character  was 
imparted  even  to  the  steady-going  quadrille ; 
the  old  Valse  a  Trois  Temps  was  pro- 
nounced insufferably  "slow";  and  its  bril- 


liant rival,  the  Valse  a  Deux  Temps,  which 
had  been  recently  introduced,  at  once  es- 
tablished the  supremacy  which  it  has  ever 
since  maintained.  The  galop,  which  had 
been  until  this  period  only  an  occasional 
dance,  now  assumed  a  prominent  post  in 
every  ballroom,  dividing  the  honors  with 
the  valse. 

Perhaps  no  dance  affords  greater  facili- 
ties for  the  display  of  ignorance  or  skill, 
elegance  or  vulgarity,  than  the  Polka.  The 
step  is  simple  and  easily  acquired,  but  the 
method  of  dancing  it  varies  ad  infinitum. 
Some  persons  race  and  romp  through  the 
dance  in  a  manner  fatiguing  to  themselves 
and  dangerous  to  their  fellow-dancers. 
Others  (though  this  is  more  rare)  drag 
their  partner  listlessly  along,  with  a  sov- 
ereign contempt  alike  for  the  requirements 
of  the  time  and  the  spirit  of  the  music. 
Some  gentlemen  hold  their  partner  so  tight 
that  she  is  half  suffocated;  others  hold  her 
so  loosely  that  she  continually  slips  away 
from  them.  All  these  extremes  are  equally 
objectionable,  and  defeat  the  graceful  in- 
tention of  the  dance.  It  should  be  per- 
formed quietly,  but  with  spirit,  and  always 
in  strict  time.  The  head  and  shoulders  should 
be  kept  still,  not  jerked  and  turned  at 
every  step,  as  is  the  manner  of  some.  The 
feet  should  glide  swiftly  along  the  floor — 
not  hopping  or  jumping  as  if  the  boards 
were  red-hot. 

You  should  clasp  your  partner  lightly  but 
firmly  round  the  waist  with  your  right  arm. 

Your  left  hand  takes  her  right  hand;  but 
beware  of  elevating  your  arm  and  hers 
in  the  air,  or  holding  them  out  straight, 
which  suggests  the  idea  of  windmills. 

Above  all,  never  place  your  left  hand  on 
your  hip  or  behind  you.  In  the  first  place 
you  thus  drag  your  partner  too  much  for- 
ward, which  makes  her  look  ungraceful ;  in 
the  next,  this  attitude  is  never  used  except 
in  casinos,  and  it  is  almost  an  insult  to 
introduce  it  in  a  respectable  ballroom. 

Let  the  hand  which  clasps  your  partner's 
fall  easily  by  your  side  in  a  natural  posi- 
tion, and  keep  it  there.  Your  partner's 
left  hand  rests  on  your  right  shoulder; 
her  right  arm  is  thrown  a  little  forward 
toward  your  left. 

The  Polka  is  danced  in  2-4  time.  There 
are  three  steps  in  each  bar;  the  fourth  beat 
is  always  a  rest. 

It  is  next  to  impossible  to  describe  in 
words  the  step  of  the  Polka,  or  of  any 
circular  dance;  nothing  but  example  can 
correctly  teach  it;  and  although  we  shall 
do  our  best  to  be  as  clear  as  possible,  we 


720 


A   FEW    LESSONS    IN    DANCING 


•would  earnestly  recommend  those  of  our 
readers  who  desire  to  excel,  whether  in 
this  or  the  following  dances,  to  take  a  few 
lessons  from  some  competent  instructor. 

The  gentleman  starts  with  his  left  foot, 
the  lady  with  her  right.  We  shall  describe 
the  step  as  danced  by  the  gentleman;  the 
same  directions,  reversing  the  order  of  the 
feet,  will  apply  to  the  lady. 

ist  beat. — Spring  slightly  on  right  foot, 
at  the  same  time  slide  left  foot  forward. 

2d  beat. — Bring  right  foot  forward  by 
glissade,  at  the  same  time  raising  left  foot. 

3d  beat. — Bring  left  foot  slightly  forward 
and  fall  upon  it,  leaving  right  foot  raised, 
and  the  knee  slightly  bent,  ready  to  begin 
the  step  at  the  first  beat  of  the  next  bar. 

4th  beat. — Remain  on  left  foot.  Begin 
next  bar  with  the  right  foot,  and  repeat 
the  step  to  end  of  the  third  beat.  Be- 
gin the  following  bar  with  left  foot,  and 
so  on,  commencing  each  bar  with  right  or 
left  foot  alternately. 

The  Polka  is  danced  with  a  circular  move- 
ment, like  the  Valse;  in  each  bar  you  half 
turn,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  second  bar 
you  have  brought  your  partner  completely 
round. 

The  circular  movement  of  the  Polka  ad- 
mits of  two  directions — from  right  to  left 
or  from  left  to  right.  The  ordinary  direc- 
tion is  from  right  to  left.  The  opposite 
one  is  known  as  the  reverse  step.  It  is  more 
difficult  to  execute,  but  is  a  pleasant  change 
for  skilled  dancers,  if  they  have  become 
giddy  from  turning  too  long  in  one  direction. 

In  dancing  the  Polka,  or  any  circular 
dance  where  a  large  number  of  couples  are 
performing  at  the  same  time,  the  gentleman 
must  be  careful  to  steer  his  fair  burden 
safely  through  the  mazes  of  the  crowded 
ballroom.  A  little  watchfulness  can  almost 
always  avoid  collisions,  and  a  good  dancer 
would  consider  himself  disgraced  if  any 
mishap  occurred  to  a  lady  under  his  care. 
Keep  a  sharp  lookout,  and  avoid  crowded 
corners.  Should  so  many  couples  be  dan- 
cing as  to  render  such  caution  impossible, 
stop  at  once  and  do  not  go  on  until  the 
room  has  become  somewhat  cleared.  In  a 
few  minutes  others  will  have  paused  to 
rest,  and  you  can  then  continue.  Your 
partner  will  be  grateful  that  your  considera- 
tion has  preserved  her  from  the  dismal 
plight  in  which  we  have  seen  some  ladies 
emerge  from  this  dance — their  coiffures  dis- 
ordered, their  dresses  torn,  and  their  cheeks 
crimson  with  fatigue  and  mortification,  while 
their  indignant  glances  plainly  showed  the 
anger  they  did  not  care  to  express  in  words, 


and  which  their  reckless  partner  had  fully 
deserved.  A  torn  dress  is  sometimes  not 
the  heaviest  penalty  incurred:  we  have 
known  more  than  one  instance  where 
ladies  have  been  lamed  for  weeks  through 
the  culpable  carelessness  of  their  partners; 
their  tender  feet  having  been  half  crushed 
beneath  some  heavy  boot  in  one  of  these 
awkward  collisions.  This  is  a  severe  price 
to  pay  for  an  evening's  amusement,  and 
gentlemen  are  bound  to  be  cautious  how 
they  inflict  it  or  anything  approaching  to 
it,  upon  their  fair  companions.  Ladies,  on 
the  other  hand,  will  do  well  to  remember 
that  by  leaning  heavily  upon  their  partner's 
shoulder,  dragging  back  from  his  encircling 
arm,  or  otherwise  impeding  the  freedom 
of  his  movements,  they  materially  add  to 
his  labor  and  take  from  his  pleasure  in 
the  dance.  They  should  endeavor  to  lean 
as  lightly  and  give  as  little  trouble  as  pos- 
sible ;  for,  however  flattering  to  the  vanity 
of  the  nobler  sex  may  be  the  idea  of  fem- 
inine dependence,  we  question  whether  the 
reality,  in  the  shape  of  a  dead  weight  upon 
their  aching  arms  throughout  a  Polka  or  a 
Valse  of  twenty  minutes'  duration,  would 
be  acceptable  to  even  the  most  chivalrous 
among  them. 

We  have  been  thus  minute  in  our  in- 
structions, because  they  not  only  apply  to 
the  Polka,  but  equally  to  all  circular  dances 
where  a  great  number  stand  up  to  dance 
at  the  same  time.  We  now  pass  on  to  the 
Mazourka. 

The  time  of  the  Mazourka  is  54,  like  the 
common  Valse;  but  it  should  be  played  much 
more  slowly;  if  danced  quickly,  it  becomes 
an  unmeaning  succession  of  hops,  and  its 
graceful  character  is  destroyed. 

We  describe  the  step  as  danced  by  the 
lady;  for  the  gentleman  it  will  be  the  same, 
with  the  feet  reversed;  that  is,  for  right 
foot  read  left,  and  so  on. 

FIRST   STEP 

ist  and  2d  beats. — Spring  on  left  foot, 
sliding  forward  right  foot  at  the  same 
time,  and  immediately  let  your  weight  rest 
on  the  forward  foot.  This  occupies  two 
beats. 

3d  beat. — Spring  on  right  foot;  this  ends 
the  bar. 

2d  bar,  ist  and  2d  beats. — Spring  again 
on  right  foot,  and  slide  forward  left  at  same 
time.  Rest  on  it  a  moment  as  before  dur- 
ing second  beat;  at  third  beat  spring  on 
it,  which  ends  second  bar.  Continue  same 
step  throughout.  You  will  perceive  that, 
at  the  first  and  third  beats  of  the  time,  you 


A   FEW   LESSONS    IN    DANCING 


727 


hop  slightly,  resting,  during  the  second  beats, 
on  the  foremost  foot. 

SECOND    STEP 

ist  beat.— Spring  on  left  foot,  slightly 
striking  both  heels  together. 

2d  beat. — Slide  right  foot  to  the  right, 
bending  the  knee. 

3d  beat— Bring  the  left  foot  up  to  right 
foot  with  a  slight  spring,  raising  right  foot ; 
which  ends  the  first  bar. 

2d  bar,  ist  beat. — Spring  again  on  left 
foot,  striking  it  with  heel  of  right. 

2d  beat. — Slide  right  foot  to  the  right. 

3d  beat. — Fall  on  right  foot,  raising  left 
foot  behind  it,  which  ends  the  second  bar. 
Reverse  the  step  by  springing  first  on  the 
right  foot,  and  sliding  the  left,  etc.  The 
music  generally  indicates  that  this  step 
should  be  repeated  three  times  to  the  right, 
which  occupies  three  bars,  then  rest  during 
the  fourth  bar,  and  return  with  reverse  step 
to  the  left  during  the  three  bars  which 
follow,  resting  again  at  the  eighth  bar. 

THIRD     STEP 

ist  beat. — Spring  on  left  foot,  and  slide 
right  foot  to  the  right. 

2d  beat. — Rest  on  right  foot. 

3d  beat. — Spring  on  right  foot,  bringing 
left  foot  up  behind  it. 

2d  bar,  ist  beat. — Spring  on  right  foot, 
sliding  left  foot  to  the  left. 

2d  beat. — Rest  on  left  foot. 

3d  beat. — Hop  on  left  foot,  bringing  r»ght 
behind  as  before.  Continue  at  pleasure. 

The  first  of  these  three  steps  is  most  com- 
monly used  in  the  Valse ;  but  the  second  is 
i  an  agreeable  change  for  those  who  may 
have  grown  giddy  or  weary  in  doing  the 
figure  en  tournant  (circular  movement). 

Be  careful  not  to  exaggerate  the  slight 
hop  at  the  first  and  third  beats  of  each  bar, 
and  to  slide  the  foot  gracefully  forward, 
not  merely  to  make  a  step,  as  some  bad 
dancers  do. 

THE    MAZOURKA    QUADRILLE 

This  elegant  quadrille  has  five  figures, 
and  can  be  performed  by  any  even  number 
of  couples.  The  music,  like  the  step,  is 
that  of  the  Mazourka.  The  couples  are  ar- 
ranged as  in  the  ordinary  quadrille. 

Join  hands  all  round;  grand  rond  to  the 
left  (four  bars),  then  back  again  to  the 
right  (four  bars),  employing  the  second 
step  of  the  Mazourka.  Each  couple  does 
the  petit  tour  forward  and  backward,  still 
using  the  second  step,  and  repeating  it  three 


times  to  the  right — then  resting  a  bar ;  three 
times  to  the  left — then  resting  another  bar; 
which  occupies  eight  bars  of  the  music. 
These  figures  may  be  considered  as  pre- 
liminary. 

ist  Figure. — Top  and  bottom  couples  right 
and  left  (eight  bars),  with  Redowa  step;* 
then  they  advance,  the  ladies  cross  over,  the 
gentlemen  meanwhile  pass  quickly  round 
each  other,  and  return  to  own  places  (four 
bars)  ;  petit  tour  forward  with  opposite 
ladies  (four  bars)  ;  right  and  left  (eight 
bars);  advance  again;  the  ladies  return  to 
own  places,  and  the  gentlemen  pass  again 
round  each  other  to  their  own  ladies  (four 
bars)  ;  petit  tour  backward  (four  bars). 
Side  couples  do  likewise. 

2d  Figure. —  (Eight  bars  rest.)  Top  and 
bottom  couples  advance  and  retire,  hands 
joined  (four  bars).  All  cross  over  into 
opposite  places,  each  going  to  each  other's 
left  (four  bars)  ;  petit  tour  forward  (four 
bars)  ;  advance  and  retire  (four  bars),  and 
return  to  places  (four  bars)  ;  •  petit  tour 
(four  bars).  Side  couples  do  likewise. 

3d  Figure. —  (Eight  bars  rest.)  Top  and 
bottom  ladies  cross  over  into  opposite  places 
(four  bars)  ;  return,  presenting  left  hand 
to  each  other,  and  right  hand  to  partner, 
as  in  La  Poule  (four  bars)  ;  pass  round 
with  partners  into  opposite  places  (four 
bars)  ;  petit  tour  backward  (four  bars)  ; 
vis-a-vis  couples  hands  across,  round  (six 
bars)  ;  retire  (two  bars)  ;  top  and  bottom 
ladies  cross  over  (four  bars)  ;  ladies  cross 
again,  giving  each  other  left  hands,  and 
right  to  partners  (four  bars).  All  pass 
round  to  own  places  (four  bars)  ;  petit  tour 
backward  (four  bars). 

4th  Figure. —  (Eight  bars  rest.)  Top 
couple  lead  round  inside  the  figure  (eight 
bars) ;  petit  tour  forward  and  backward 
(eight  bars);  advance  to  opposite  couple; 
the  gentleman  turns  half  round  without 
quitting  his  partner,  and  gives  his  left  hand 
to  opposite  lady;  the  two  ladies  join  hands 
behind  gentleman  (four  bars)  ;  in  this  po- 
sition the  three  advance  and  retire  (eight 
bars).  The  gentleman  passes  under  the 
ladies'  arms;  all  three  pass  round  to  the 
left,  with  second  step  of  Mazourka,  the  op- 
posite lady  finishing  in  her  own  place  (four 
bars).  The  top  couple  return  to  places 
(four  bars)  ;  petit  tour  forward  (four  bars). 
Opposite  couple  and  side  couples  do  like- 
wise. 

5th  Figure. —  (Eight  bars  rest.)  Top  and 
bottom  coupler  half  right  and  left  (four 

*  This  step  will  be  found  further  on  under  the  head 
of  Redowa  Valse. 


728 


A    FEW    LESSONS    IN    DANCING 


bars) ;  petit  tour  backward  (four  bars)  ; 
half  right  and  left  to  places  (four  bars)  ; 
petit  tour  backward  (four  bars)  ;  vis-a-vis 
couples  hands  round  to  opposite  places  (four 
bars) ;  petit  tour  forward  (four  bars) ; 
hands  round  to  own  places  (four  bars)  ; 
petit  tour  (four  bars)  ;  right  and  left  (eight 
bars). 

Side  couples  do  likewise. 

Finale. — Grand  round  all  to  the  left,  and 
then  to  the  right  (sixteen  bars)  ;  grand 
chain,  as  in  the  Lancers,  with  first  step  of 
Mazourka  (sixteen  bars).  But  if  there  are 
more  than  eight  in  the  quadrille,  the  music 
must  be  continued  until  all  have  regained 
their  places. 

N.B. — Music  continues  during  rests. 

THE    POLKA  MAZOURKA 

The  step  of  this  dance  is,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, a  mixture  of  the  steps  of  the  Polka 
and  the  Mazourka.  The  time  is  Y$  quicker 
than  that  of  the  Mazourka. 

Gentleman  takes  his  partner  as  in  the 
Valse.  Figure  en  tournant.  We  describe 
the  steps  for  the  gentleman;  the  lady  sim- 
ply reverses  the  order  of  the  feet,  using 
left  foot  for  right  throughout. 

ist  beat. — Rest  on  right  foot,  with  left 
foot  a  little  raised  behind,  and  slide  left 
foot  to  the  left. 

2d  beat. — Spring  on  the  right  foot,  bring- 
ing it  up  to  where  left  foot  is,  and  raising 
the  latter  in  front. 

3d  beat. — Spring  once  more  on  right  foot, 
passing  left  foot  behind  without  touching 
the  ground  with  it;  this  ends  first  bar. 

2d  bar,  ist  beat.— Slide  left  foot  to  the 
left,  as  before. 

2d  beat. — Spring  on  right  foot,  as  before, 
and  bring  it  up  to  the  place  of  left  foot, 
raising  latter  at  same  moment. 

3<f  beat. — Fall  on  the  left  foot,  and  raise 
the  right  foot  behind;  end  of  second  bar. 

Begin  third  bar  with  right  foot,  and  con- 
tinue as  before.  You  turn  half  round  in 
the  first  three  beats,  and  complete  the  cir- 
cle in  the  second  three. 

THE  REDOWA,  OR  REDOVA 

The  step  of  this  Valse  somewhat  resem- 
bles that  of  the  Mazourka,  and  is  used,  as 
we  have  seen,  in  dancing  the  Mazourka 
Quadrille.  It  is  an  elegant  Valse,  not  so 
lively  as  the  Polka  Mazourka,  but,  if  danced 
in  correct  time,  not  too  slowly,  is  very  grace- 
ful and  pleasing.  The  step  is  not  so  diffi- 
cult as  that  of  the  Mazourka:  it  is  almost 
a  Pas  de  Basque,  with  the  addition  of  the 


hop.  In  all  these  dances,  which  partake  of 
the  nature  of  the  Mazourka,  it  is  requisite 
to  mark  distinctly  the  first  and  third  beats 
of  every  bar,  otherwise  the  peculiar  char- 
acter of  the  movement  is  completely  lost. 
We  describe  the  step  for  the  lady  as  it  is 
employed  in  the  forward  movement 

ist  beat. — Stand  with  right  foot  slightly 
forward;  spring  upon  it,  bringing  it  behind 
left  foot,  which  is  raised  at  same  time. 

2d  beat. — Slide  your  left  foot  forward, 
bending  the  knee. 

3d  beat. — Bring  your  right  foot,  with  a 
slight  hop,  up  behind  your  left  foot,  raising 
the  latter  and  keeping  it  in  front.  (One 
bar.) 

ist  beat. — Spring  upon  your  left  foot, 
passing  it  behind  your  right,  and  raising 
latter. 

2d  beat. — Slide  right  foot  forward,  bend- 
ing the  knee. 

3d  beat. — Bring  left  foot  up  to  right,  with 
slight  hop,  and  raise  right  foot  at  same 
moment,  keeping  it  in  front  as  before. 

When  the  figure  en  tournant  (circular 
movement)  is  employed,  the  lady  begins 
by  sliding  the  left'  foot  forward  and  the 
right  foot  backward.  Gentleman  always 
does  the  same,  with  order  of  feet  reversed. 

This  dance  has  been  very  popular  in  Paris : 
in  England  it  is  now  seldom  seen. 

THE  SCHOTTISCHE 

The  Schottische  was  introduced  about 
the  same  time  as  the  Polka  Mazourka.  Its 
origin  is  as  uncertain  as  that  of  the  Polka, 
and  it  is  believed  to  be  a  very  ancient  na- 
tional dance.  It  is  a  great  favorite  with 
the  German  peasantry;  and  although  its 
name,  Schottische,  would  seem  to  imply 
that  it  came  from  Scotland,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  is  essentially  German  alike 
in  character  and  in  music. 

The  step,  although  easy  to  learn,  re- 
quires great  precision.  We  would  recom- 
mend our  readers  to  adhere  throughout  to 
the  circular  movement.  Some  dancers  be- 
gin by  four  steps  to  the  right,  then  back 
again,  not  turning  until  they  commence  the 
second  half  of  the  figure.  But  when  many 
couples  are  dancing  this  practice  involves  a 
risk  of  collisions,  and  it  is  safer  to  begin 
at  once  with  the  figure  en  tournant.  The 
second  part  of  the  step  consists  of  a  series 
of  slight  hops,  which  must  be  made  exactly 
at  the  same  moment  by  both  parties,  other- 
wise a  breakdown  is  inevitable.  They  should 
be  executed  as  quickly  as  possible,  so  as  to 
avoid  the  jigging  effect  which  bad  dancers 
impart  to  the  Schottische.  When  well  per- 


A   FEW   LESSONS    IN    DANCING 


729 


formed  it  is  a  very  animated  and  elegant 
dance,  forming  an  agreeable  variety  to  the 
Polka  and  Valse. 

The  time  is  2-4;  it  should  be  played  a 
good  deal  slower  than  the  Polka ;  when 
hurried  it  becomes  ungraceful  and  vulgar. 
The  first  and  third  beat  in  each  bar  should 
be  slightly  marked. 

We  proceed  to  describe  the  step  as  danced 
by  the  gentleman. 

Slide  the  left  foot  forward;  bring  right 
foot  close  behind  left  foot.  Slide  left  foot 
forward  a  second  time.  Spring  upon  left 
foot.  Then  do  the  same  with  right  foot. 

Having  completed  four  steps,  first  with 
the  left  foot,  and  then  with  the  right,  you 
come  to  the  second  part,  which  consists  of 
a  series  of  double  hops,  two  on  each  foot 
alternately.  Hop  twice  on  the  left  foot 
(one  hop  for  each  beat  of  time),  and  half 
turn  round;  then  twice  on  the  right,  com- 
pleting the  circular  movement.  Repeat  the 
same  through  another  four  beats;  then  re- 
sume first  step  through  the  next  two  bars, 
and  continue  to  alternate  them  every  sec- 
ond bar.  You  can  also  vary  the  dance  at 
pleasure,  by  continuing  the  first  step  with- 
out changing  it  for  the  hops;  or  you  can 
likewise  continue  these  throughout  several 
bars  in  succession,  taking  care,  of  course, 
to  apprise  your  partner  of  your  intention. 
Even  when  well  and  quietly  danced,  there 
is  something  undignified  in  the  hopping 
movement  of  the  second  step ;  and  we  have 
observed  with  satisfaction  that  for  some 
time  past  it  has  been  replaced  by  the  step 
of  the  Valse  a  Deux  Temps,  which  is  now 
generally  used  instead  of  the  double  hops. 

THE  WALTZ 

Forty  years  ago  the  Waltz  was  a  stately 
measure,  danced  with  gravity  and  delibera- 
tion. Each  couple  wheeled  round  and  round 
with  dignified  composure,  never  interrupt- 
ing the  monotony  of  the  dance  by  any  move- 
ments forward  or  backward.  They  conse- 
quently soon  became  giddy,  although  the 
music  was  not  played  above  half  as  fast  as 
the  Valse  music  of  our  day.  We  are  bound 
to  admit  that  this  stately  fashion  of  waltz- 
ing was  infinitely  more  graceful  than  the 
style  which  has  superseded  it.  But  having 
confessed  so  much,  we  may  venture  to  add 
that  the  Valse,  as  danced  by  the  present 
generation,  possesses  a  spirit,  lightness,  and 
variety  quite  unknown  to  its  stately  pred- 
ecessor. 

Although  we  can  not  regret  the  intro- 
duction of  a  more  animated  style  of  dan- 
cing, we  are  sorry  that  the  old  Waltz  has 


been  so  entirely  given  up.  When  restored 
to  its  original  temps,  the  Valse  a  Trois 
Temps  is  nearly  as  spirited  as  the  Valse  a 
Deux,  and  twice  as  graceful.  It  has  the 
additional  advantage  over  the  latter,  that  it 
contains  in  each  bar  three  steps  to  three 
beats  of  the  time,  whereas  the  Deux  Temps, 
as  its  name  implies,  numbers  only  two  steps 
in  a  bar  of  three  notes;  and  is  thus  incor- 
rect in  time.  We  venture  to  predict  that 
the  old  Waltz  will,  at  no  distant  day,  be 
restored  to  public  favor. 

Gentleman  takes  his  partner  round  the 
waist  with  his  right  arm;  his  left  hand 
holds  hers  as  in  the  Polka.  Lady  places  left 
hand  on  his  shoulder,  and  right  hand  in  his 
left  hand.  Begin  at  once  with  the  figure 
en  tournant.  Time  £4  >  °ne  step  to  each 
beat.  First  beat  in  each  bar  should  be 
slightly  marked  by  the  dancers. 

ist  beat. — Slide  left  foot  backward,  to- 
ward the  left. 

2d  beat. — Slide  your  right  foot  past  your 
left  in  same  direction,  keeping  right  foot 
behind  left,  and  turning  slightly  to  the  right. 

3d  beat. — Bring  left  foot  up  behind  right 
(one  bar). 

ist  beat. — Slide  right  foot  forward  toward 
the  right. 

2d  beat. — Slide  left  foot  forward,  still 
turning  toward  right. 

3d  beat.— Bring  right  foot  up  to  right, 
turning  on  both  feet,  so  as  to  complete  the 
circle  (two  bars).  Remember  to  finish 
with  right  foot  in  front.  Repeat  from  first 
beat  of  first  bar.  Gentleman  always  turns 
from  left  to  right;  lady  from  right  to  left. 

The  step  of  the  Waltz  is  simple  enough; 
nevertheless  some  practice  is  required  to 
dance  it  really  well.  Remember  always  to 
slide,  not  to  step,  forward;  for  the  beauty 
of  this  Valse  consists  in  its  gliding  motion. 
It  is  not  at  first  easy  to  dance  swiftly  and 
quietly  at  the  same  time;  but  a  little  pa- 
tience will  soon  enable  you  to  conquer  that 
difficulty,  and  to  do  full  justice  to  what  is, 
in  our  opinion,  the  most  perfectly  graceful 
of  all  the  round  dances,  without  a  single 
exception. 

VALSE    A    DEUX    TEMPS, 
OR    TWO-STEP 

We  are  indebted  to  the  mirth-loving  cap- 
ital of  Austria  for  this  brilliant  Valse. 

This  Valse  is  incorrect  in  time.  Two 
steps  can  never  properly  be  made  to  occupy 
the  space  of  three  beats  in  the  music.  The 
ear  requires  that  each  beat  shall  have  its 
step.  This  inaccuracy  in  the  measure  has 
exposed  the  Valse  a  Deux  Temps  to  the 


730 


A   FEW    LESSONS    IN    DANCING 


just  censure  of  musicians,  but  has  never 
interfered  with  its  success  among  dancers 
We  must  caution  our  readers,  however, 
against  one  mistake  often  made  by  the  in- 
experienced. They  imagine  that  it  is  un- 
necessary to  observe  any  rule  of  time  in 
this  dance,  and  are  perfectly  careless  whether 
they  begin  the  step  at  the  beginning,  end, 
or  middle  of  the  bar.  This  is  quite  inad- 
missible. Every  bar  must  contain  within 
its  three  beats  two  steps.  These  steps  must 
begin  and  end  strictly  with  the  beginning 
and  end  of  each  bar,  otherwise  a  hopeless 
confusion  of  the  measure  will  ensue.  Pre- 
cision in  this  matter  is  the  more  requisite, 
because  of  the  peculiarity  in  the  measure. 
If  the  first  step  in  each  bar  be  not  strongly 
marked,  the  Valse  measure  has  no  chance 
of  making  itself  apparent,  and  the  dance 
becomes  a  meaningless  Galop. 

The  step  contains  two  movements,  a  glis- 
sade and  a  chassez,  following  each  other 
quickly  in  the  same  direction.  Gentleman 
begins  as  usual  with  his  left  foot;  lady 
with  her  right. 

ist  beat. — Glissade  to  the  left  with  left 
foot. 

zd  and  3d  beats. — Chassez  in  the  same 
direction  with  right  foot;  do  not  turn. 

2d  bar,  ist  beat. — Slide  right  foot  back- 
ward, turning  half  round. 

2d  and  $d  beats. — Pass  left  foot  behind 
right,  and  chassez  forward  with  it,  turning 
half  round  to  complete  the  figure  en  tour- 
nant.  Finish  with  right  foot  in  front,  and 
begin  over  again  with  left  foot. 

There  is  no  variation  in  this  step ;  but  you 
can  vary  the  movement  by  going  backward 
or  forward  at  pleasure,  instead  of  continu- 
ing the  rotary  motion.  The  Valse  a  Deux 
Temps,  like  the  Polka,  admits  of  a  reverse 
step,  but  it  looks  awkward  unless  executed 
to  perfection.  The  first  requisite  in  this 
Valse  is  to  avoid  all  jumping  movements. 
The  feet  must  glide  smoothly  and  swiftly 
over  the  floor,  and  be  raised  from  it  as 
little  as  possible.  Being  so  very  quick  a 
dance,  it  must  be  performed  quietly,  other- 
wise it  is  liable  to  become  ungraceful.  The 
steps  should  be  short,  with  knees  slightlybent. 
As  the  movement  is  necessarily  very 
rapid,  the  danger  of  collision  is  propor- 
tionately increased;  and  gentlemen  will  do 
well  to  remember  and  act  upon  this  hint. 

They  should  also  be  scrupulous  not  to 
attempt  to  conduct  a  lady  through  this  Valse 
until  they  have  thoroughly  mastered  the 
step  and  well  practiced  the  figure  en  tour- 
nant.  Awkwardness  or  inexperience  doubles 
the  risks  of  a  collision,  which»  in  this  ex- 


tremely rapid  dance,  might  be  attended  with 
serious  consequences. 

The  Deux  Temps  is  a  somewhat  fatiguing 
Valse,  and  after  two  or  three  turns  around 
the  room,  the  gentleman  should  pause  to 
allow  his  partner  to  rest.  He  should  be 
careful  to  select  a  lady  whose  height  does 
not  present  too  striking  a  contrast  to  his 
own;  for  it  looks  ridiculous  to  see  a  tall 
man  dancing  with  a  short  woman,  or  vice 
versa.  This  observation  applies  to  all  round 
dances,  but  especially  to  the  Valse. 

THE    GALOP 

The  Galop,  as  its  name  implies,  is  the 
quintessence  of  all  the  "fast"  dances.  At 
the  time  of  the  Polka  mania  it  was  very 
much  in  vogue,  and  almost  as  great  a  fa- 
vorite as  the  Deux  Temps.  Although  its 
popularity  has  greatly  declined  of  late,  it 
generally  occurs  twice  or  thrice  in  the  pro- 
gramme of  every  ballroom;  and  the  music 
of  the  Galop  is,  like  the  dance  itself,  so 
gay  and  spirited,  that  we  should  regret  to 
see  it  wholly  laid  aside.  The  step  is  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  Deux  Temps  Valse,  but 
the  time  is  2-4,  and  as  quick  as  possible. 
Two  chassez  steps  are  made  in  each  bar. 
The  figure  can  be  varied  by  taking  four  or 
eight  steps  in  the  same  direction,  or  by 
turning  with  every  two  steps,  as  in  the 
Deux  Temps.  Like  all  round  dances,  it  ad- 
mits of  an  unlimited  number  of  couples. 
Being,  perhaps,  the  most  easy  of  any,  every 
one  takes  part  in  it,  and  the  room  is  gen- 
erally crowded  during  its  continuance.  A 
special  amount  of  care  is  therefore  neces- 
sary on  the  part  of  the  gentleman  to  pro- 
tect his  partner  from  accidents. 

THE  COTILLON 

The  Cotillon  is  never  commenced  till  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  ball,  at  so  advanced 
an  hour  that  all  the  sedate  portion  of  the 
assembly  have  retired,  and  only  the  real 
lovers  of  dancing  remain. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  figures,  but 
the  following  description  will  suffice.  As 
the  Cotillon  is  danced  differently  in  every 
city,  and  with  every  variety  of  figure  that 
the  ingenuity  of  Cotillon  leaders  can  in- 
vent, it  is  impossible  to  give  more  than  a 
bare  outline  of  this  favorite  amusement  of 
young  society  people. 

A  circle  of  chairs  is  arranged  round  the 
room,  the  centre  being  left  clear;  the  spec- 
:ators  stand  behind  the  chairs  so  as  not  to 
nterfere  with  the  dancers.  Each  gentle- 
man leads  his  partner  to  a  seat,  taking  an- 
other beside  her.  To  these  same  seats  they 
return  after  every  figure,  it  being  the  eti- 


A   FEW    LESSONS    IN    DANCING 


quette  of  the  dance  that  no  couple  should 
appropriate  any  chairs  but  their  own,  taken 
at  the  commencement.  When  the  dancers 
are  arranged  round  the  room,  the  orches- 
tra strikes  up  the  spirited  music  of  the 
Cotillon,  which  consists  of  a  long  series  of 
Valse  movements  at  the  usual  tempo  of  the 
Deux  Temps.  There  are  generally  several 
leaders  of  the  Cotillon,  who  decide  upon 
the  succession  of  the  figures.  If  there  are 
many  couples  dancing,  one  leader  attends 
upon  a  group  of  six  or  eight  couples,  to 
ensure  that  all  shall  take  part.  We  are 
aware  of  no  fixed  rule  for  the  succession 
of  the  figures,  which  depends  upon  the  ca- 
price of  the  leaders.  A  good  leader  will 
invent  new  combinations,  or  diversify  old 
figures,  thus  securing  an  almost  endless 
variety.  One  of  the  most  popular  is : 

Several  gentlemen  assume  the  names  of 
flowers  or  plants,  such  as  the  honeysuckle, 
woodbine,  ivy,  etc.  A  lady  is  then  requested 
to  name  her  favorite  flower,  and  the  for- 
tunate swain  who  bears  its  name  springs 
forward  and  valses  off  with  her  in  triumph. 
It  is  usual  to  make  one,  or  at  most  two, 
turns  round  the  room,  and  then  restore  the 
lady  to  her  own  partner,  who  in  the  mean- 
time has  perhaps  been  the  chosen  one  of 
another  lady.  All  having  regained  their 
places,  each  gentleman  valses  with  his  own 
partner  once  round  the  room,  or  remains 
sitting  by  her  side,  as  she  may  feel  inclined. 

Baskets  filled  with  small  bouquets  are 
brought  in.  Each  gentleman  provides  him- 
self with  a  bouquet,  and  presents  it  to  the 
lady  with  whom  he  wishes  to  valse. 

Sometimes  a  light  pole  or  staff  is  intro- 
duced, to  the  top  of  which  are  attached  long 
streamers  of  different  colored  ribbons.  A 
lady  takes  one  of  these  to  several  of  her 
fair  companions  in  turn,  each  of  whom 
chooses  a  ribbon,  and,  holding  it  firmly  in 
her  hand,  follows  the  leading  lady  to  the 
centre  of  the  room.  Here  they  are  met  by 
an  equal  number  of  gentlemen,  likewise 
grouped  round  a  leader  who  carries  the 
pole,  while  each  holds  a  streamer  of  his 
favorite  color,  or  that  which  he  imagines 
would  be  selected  by  the  dame  de  ses  pen- 
sees.  The  merry  groups  compare  notes : 
those  who  possess  streamers  of  the  same 
color  pair  off  in  couples  and  valse  round 
the  room,  returning  to  places  as  before. 

Six  or  eight  ladies,  and  the  same  number 
of  gentlemen,  form  in  two  lines,  facing  each 
other.  The  leading  lady  throws  a  soft 
worsted  ball  of  bright  colors  at  the  gentle- 
man with  whom  she  wishes  to  dance.  He 
catches  it,  throws  it  back  to  the  fair  group, 


and  valses  off  with  his  partner.  Whoever 
catches  the  returning  ball  has  the  right  to 
throw  next;  and  the  same  ceremony  is  re- 
peated until  all  have  chosen  their  partners, 
with  whom  they  valse  round  the  room,  re- 
turning to  places  as  usual.  Sometimes  a 
handkerchief  is  substituted  for  the  ball ;  but 
the  latter  is  better,  being  more  easily  thrown 
and  caught. 

Six  or  eight  chairs  are  placed  in  a  cir- 
cle, the  backs  turned  inward.  Ladies  seat 
themselves  in  the  chairs,  gentlemen  move 
slowly  round  in  front  of  them.  Each  lady 
throws  her  handkerchief  or  bouquet  at  the 
gentleman  with  whom  she  wishes  to  dance 
as  he  passes  before  her;  valse  round  as 
usual,  and  return  to  places.  Sometimes  a 
gentleman  is  blindfolded  and  placed  in  a 
chair.  Two  ladies  take  a  seat  on  either  side 
of  him,  and  he  is  bound  to  make  his  selec- 
tion without  seeing  the  face  of  his  partner. 
Having  done  so,  he  pulls  the  covering  from 
his  eyes  and  valses  off  with  her.  It  is  a 
curious  circumstance  that  mistakes  seldom 
occur,  the  gentleman  being  generally  suffi- 
ciently clairvoyant  to  secure  the  partner  he 
desires. 

We  have  here  described  a  few  of  the  most 
striking  figures  of  the  Cotillon.  We  might 
multiply  them  to  an  extent  which  would 
equally  tax  the  patience  of  our  readers  and 
our  own  powers  of  remembrance,  but  we 
forbear.  Favors  and  souvenirs  are  given. 

SIR  ROGER  DE  COVERLEY,  OR 
VIRGINIA  REEL 

Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,  or  Virginia  Reel, 
is  always  introduced  at  the  end  of  the  even- 
ing, and  no  dance  could  be  so  well  fitted  to 
send  the  guests  home  in  good  humor  with 
each  other  and  with  their  hosts.  We  de- 
scribe it  as  it  is  danced  at  the  present  day, 
slightly  modernized  to  sui*  the  taste  of  our 
time.  Like  the  quadrille,  it  can  be  danced 
with  equal  propriety  by  old  or  young,  and 
is  so  easy  that  the  most  inexperienced  dan- 
cer may  fearlessly  venture  to  take  part  in  it. 

Form  in  two  parallel  lines ;  ladies  on  the 
left,  gentlemen  on  the  right,  facing  partners. 
All  advance;  retreat  (which  occupies  the 
first  four  bars)  ;  cross  to  opposite  places 
(four  bars  more)  ;  advance  and  retreat 
(four  bars)  ;  re-cross  to  places  (four  bars). 

The  lady  who  stands  at  the  top  and  the 
gentleman  who  stands  at  the  bottom,  of  each 
line,  advance  toward  each  other,  courtesy 
and  bow,  and  retire  to  places.  The  gentleman 
at  the  top  and  the  lady  at  the  bottom  do  the 
same.  Lady  at  top  and  gentleman  at  bottom 
advance  again,  .give  right  hands,  and  swing 


732 


A   FEW    LESSONS    IN    DANCING 


quickly  round  each  other  back  to  places. 
Gentleman  at  top  and  lady  at  bottom  do  the 
same.  Top  lady  advances,  gives  right  hand 
to  partner  opposite,  and  passes  behind  the 
two  gentlemen  standing  next  to  him.  Then 
through  the  line  and  across  it,  giving  left 
hand  to  partner,  who  meets  her  half  way 
between  the  two  lines,  having  in  the  mean- 
time passed  behind  the  two  ladies  who  stood 
next  his  partner.  Lady  then  passes  behind 
the  two  ladies  next  lowest;  gentleman  at 
same  time  behind  the  two  gentlemen  next 
lowest;  and  so  on  all  down  the  line.  At  the 
bottom,  lady  gives  left  hand  to  her  partner, 
and  they  promenade  back  to  places  at  the 
top  of  the  line.  (This  figure  is  frequently 
omitted.)  Top  couple  advance,  courtesy 
and  bow,  then  lady  turns  off  to  the  right, 
gentleman  to  the  left,  each  followed  by  the 
rest  of  her  or  his  line.  Top  couple  meet 
at  the  bottom  of  figure,  join  hands,  and 
raising  their  arms,  let  all  the  other  couples 
pass  under  them  toward  the  top  of  the  line, 
till  all  reach  their  own  places,  except  the 
top,  who  have  now  become  t>e  bottom 
couple.  Figure  is  repeated  from  the  begin- 
ning, until  the  top  couple  have  once  more 
worked  their  way  back  to  their  original 
places  at  the  top  of  the  line. 

GLOSSARY 

We  subjoin  a  Glossary  of  all  the  French  words 

and    expressions    that    have    long    since    been    uni. 

versally  accepted  as  the  accredited  phraseology  of 

the  ball-room. 

A  vos  places,  back  to  your  own  places. 

A  la  fin,  at  the  end. 

A  droite,  to  the  right. 

A  gauche,  to  the  left. 

Balancez,   set  to  your  partners. 

ialancez  aux  coins,  set  to  the  corners. 

Balancez  quatre  en  ligne,  four  dancers  set  in  a 
line,  joining  hands,  as  in  La  Poule. 

Balancez  en  moulinet,  gentlemen  and  their  part- 
ners give  each  other  right  hands  across,  and 
balancez  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 

Balancez  et  tour  des  mains,  all  set  to  partners, 
and  turn  to  places.  (See  Tour  des  mains.) 

Ballotez,  do  the  same  four  times  without  changing 
your  places. 

Chaine  Anglaise,  opposite  couples  right  and  left. 

Chaine  des  dames,   ladies'  chain. 

Chaine    Anglaise    double,    double   right   and   left. 

Chaine  des  dames  double,  all  the  ladies  perform 
the  ladies'  chain  at  the  same  time. 

Chassez  croisez,  do  the  chasse  step  from  left  to 
right,  chr  right  to  left,  the  lady  passing  before 
the  gentleman  in  the  opposite  direction,  that  is, 
moving  right  if  he  moves  left,  and  vice  versa. 

Chassez  croisez  et  dechassez,  change  places  with 
partners,  ladies  passing  in  front,  first  to  the 
right,  then  to  the  left,  back  to  places.  It  may 
be  either  a  quatre — four  couples — or  les  huit — 
eight  couples. 

Chassez  a  droite — a  gauche,  move  to  the  right — 
to  the  left. 

Le  cavalier  seul,   gentleman  advances  alone-. 


Les  cavaliers  seuls  deux  fois,  gentlemen  advance 
and  retire  twice  without  their  partners. 

Changez  vos  dames,  change  partners. 

Centre  partie  pour  les  autres,  the  other  dancers 
do  the  same  figure. 

Demi  promenade,  half  promenades 

Demi  chaine  Anglaise,  half  right  and  left. 

Demi  moulinet,  ladies  all  advance  to  centre,  right 
hands  across,  and  back  to  places. 

Demi  tour  a  quatre,  four  hands  half  round. 

Dos-a-dos,  lady  and  opposite  gentleman  advance, 
pass  round  each  other  back  to  back,  and  return 
to  places. 

Les  dames  en  moulinet,  ladies  give  right  hand* 
across  to  each  other,  half  round,  and  back  again 
with  left  hands. 

Les  dames  donnent  la  main  droit — gauche — a  leum 
cavalier,  ladies  give  the  right — left — hands  to 
partners. 

En  avant  deux  et  en  arriere,  first  lady  and  vis-a- 
vis gentleman  advance  and  retires  To  secure 
brevity,  en  avant  is  always  understood  to'  imply 
en  arriere  when  the  latter  is  not  expressed. 

En  avant  deux  fois,  advance  and  retreat  twice. 

En  avant  quatre,  first  couple  and  their  vis-a-vis 
advance  and  retire. 

En  avant  trois,  three  advance  and  retire,  as  in  La 
Pastorale. 

Figurez    devant,    dance    before. 

Figurez  a  droite — a  gauche,  dance  to  the  right- 
to  the  left. 

La  grande  tour  de  rond,  all  join  hands  and  danct 
completely  round  the  figure  in  a  circle  back  to 
places. 

Le  grand  rond,  all  join  hands,  and  advance  and 
retreat  twice,  as  in  La  Finale. 

Le  grand  quatre,   eight  couples  form  into  squares. 

La  grande  chaine,  all  the  couples  move  <;uit« 
round  the  figure,  giving  alternately  the  right 
and  left  hand  to  each  in  succession,  beginning 
with  the  right,  until  all  have  regained  their 
places,  as  in  last  figure  of  the  Lancers. 

La  grande  promenade,  all  eight  (or  more)  couples 
promenade  all  around  the  figure  back  to  places. 

La  main,  the  hand. 

La  meme  pour  les  cavaliers,  gentlemen  do  the 
same. 

Le  moulinet,  hand  acrdss.  The  figure  will  explain 
whether  it  is  the  gentlemen,  or  the  ladies,  or 
both,  who  are  to  perform  it. 

Pas  de  Allemande,  the  gentleman  turns  his  part- 
ner under  each  arm  in  succession. 

Pas  de  Basque,  a  kind  of  sliding  step  forward, 
performed  with  both  feet  alternately  in  quick 
succession.  Used  in  the  Redowa  and  other 
dances.  Comes  from  the  South  of  France. 

Glissade,  a  sliding  step. 

Le  Tiroir,  first  couple  cross  with  hands  joined  to 
opposite  couple's  place,  opposite  couple  crossing 
separately  outside  them;  then  cross  back  to 
places,  same  figure  reversed. 

Tour  des  mains,  give  both  h  .tds  to  partner,  and 
turn  her  round  without  quitting  your  places. 

Tour  sur  place,  the  same. 

Tournez  vos  dames,  the  same. 

Tour  aux  coins,  turn  at  '.he  corners,  as  in  '.he 
Caledonians,  each  gentleman  turning  the  lady 
who  stands  nearest  his  left  hand,  and  immedi- 
ately returning  to  his  own  place. 

Traversez,   cross  over  to  opposite  place. 

Retraversez,    cross   back   again. 

Traversez  deux,  en  donnant  la  main  droite,  lady 
and  vis-a-vis  gentleman  cross,  giving  right  hand, 
as  in  La  Poule. 

Vis-a-vis,    opposite. 

Figure  en  tournant,  circular  form. 


RULES  FOR  PARLIAMEN- 
TARY  PROCEDURE 


A  PUBLIC  meeting  is  the  assemblage  of  a  portion  of  the  people,  for 
the  expression  of  opinion  upon  matters  of  local  or  general  concern, 
The  proceedings  are  but  few  and  simple;  yet,  to  preserve  order 
during  its  session,  and  to  give  effect  to  its  action,  the  meeting  has  to  be 
guided  by  defined  rules  from  the  time  of  its  projection  to  the  moment  of 
its  close.     Even  when  only  a  few  persons  are  present,  and  the  proceedings 
are  more  or  less  informal,  it  is  desirable  to  apply  parliamentary  rules  to 
the  extent,  at  least,  of  choosing  officers  and  conducting  business  in  orderly 
and  expeditious  fashion. 


ORGANIZING  AND    CONDUCTING    MEETINGS 


ORGANIZING  ASSOCIATIONS 

WHEN  it  is  advisable  to  form  a  society, 
club,  or  other  association,  for  any 
specific  purpose,  those  who  agree  in  regard 
to  its  formation  may  meet  upon  private  no- 
tice or  public  call.  The  mode  of  organiz- 
ing the  meeting  is  similar  to  •  that  of  any 
other. 

As  soon  as  the  meeting  has  been  organ- 
ized, and  the  chairman  announces  that  it  is 
ready  to  proceed  to  business,  some  one  of 
the  originators,  previously  agreed  upon, 
should  rise  and  advocate  the  formation  of 
the  club  or  society  required  for  the  purpose 
set  forth  in  the  call,  and  end  by  moving  the 
appointment  of  a  committee  to  draft  a 
constitution  and  by-laws.  This  committee 
should  be  instructed  to  report  at  the  next 
meeting.  A  convenient  time  of  adjourn- 
ment is  fixed  on,  and  if  there  be  no  further 
business  the  meeting  adjourns. 

When  the  time  for  the  second  meeting 
arrives,  the  same  officers  continue,  without 
any  new  motion.  If  either  be  absent,  his 
place  is  supplied,  on  motion,  by  some  other. 
The  committee  on  the  constitution  and  by- 
laws reports.  If  the  constitution  is  not  ac- 


ceptable, those  present  suggest  amendments. 
As  soon  as  it  has  taken  the  required  shape, 
it  is  adopted  and  signed  by  those  present. 
The  by-laws  are  treated  in  the  same  way. 

The  society  is  now  formed,  but  not  fully 
organized.  The  officers  provided  for  by 
the  constitution  have  now  to  be  elected. 
This  may  be  done  at  that  meeting,  or  the 
society  may  be  adjourned  over  for  that 
purpose.  So  soon  as  it  has  been  done,  the 
chairman  of  the  meeting  gives  way  to  the 
newly  elected  president,  or,  in  his  absence, 
to  a  vice-president ;  the  secretary  of  the  meet- 
ing vacates  his  seat,  which  is  taken  by  the 
newly  elected  secretary  or  secretaries,  and 
thus  the  organization  of  the  new  body  is 
complete. 

FORMS    OF    CONSTITUTIONS 

A  constitution  is  the  formal  written 
agreement  making  the  fundamental  law 
which  binds  the  parties  who  associate.  In 
preparation  of  this,  useless  words  should  be 
avoided. 

The  constitution,  after  having  been  adopt- 
ed, should  be  engrossed  in  a  blank  book, 
and  signed  by  the  members.  Amendments 

(733)  47 


734 


RULES   FOR   PARLIAMENTARY    PROCEDURE 


or  alterations  should  be  entered  in  the  same 
book,  with  the  date  of  their  adoption,  in 
the  shape  of  a  copy  from  the  minutes;  and 
a  side-note  inserted  in  the  margin  of  the 
constitution,  opposite  the  article  amended, 
showing  on  what  page  the  amendment  may 
be  found. 

LYCEUMS  OR  INSTITUTES 

PREAMBLE.  —  Whereas,  experience  has 
shown  that  knowledge  can  be  more  readily 
acquired  by  combination  of  effort  than 
singly,  we,  whose  names  are  hereunto  an- 
nexed, have  agreed  to  form  an  association 
to  be  known  as  [here  insert  title],  and  for 
its  better  government,  do  hereby  establish 
the  following  constitution: 

ARTICLE  I. — The  name,  style,  and  title  of 

this  association  shall  be  [here  insert  name], 

and    its   object   shall   be  the    increase   and 

the  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  its  mem- 

ers. 

ARTICLE  II. — I.  The  officers  of  this  asso- 
ciation shall  consist  of  a  president,  two  vice- 
presidents,  a  corresponding  secretary,  a  re- 
cording secretary,  a  treasurer,  a  librarian, 
and  a  curator,  who  shall  be  elected  annu- 
ally on  [here  insert  time  of  election  and 
mode — i.e.,  whether  by  open  voice  or  by 
ballot]. 

2.  The  said  officers  shall  hold  their  offices 
until  their  successors  shall  have  been  elected, 
and  their  powers  and  duties  shall  be  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  like  officers  in  like  asso- 
ciations. 

ARTICLE  III. — There  shall  be  appointed  by 
the  president,  immediately  after  his  election, 
by  and  with  the  consent  of  the  association, 
the  following  standing  committees,  to  con- 
sist of  five  members  each,  namely:  on 
finance,  library,  museum,  lectures,  and  print- 
ing, who  shall  perform  such  duties  and  take 
charge  of  such  business  as  may  be  assigned 
to  them  by  vote  of  the  association. 

ARTICLE  IV. — I.  Any  person  residing  with- 
in [here  state  limits],  who  is  above  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years,  may  become  a  resident 
member  of  this  association,  by  consent  of  a 
majority  of  the  members  present  at  any 
stated  meeting  succeeding  the  one  at  which 
his  name  shall  have  been  proposed;  any 
person  residing  without  the  limits  afore- 
said may  be  chosen,  in  like  manner,  a  cor- 
responding member;  and  any  person  who  is 
eminent  in  science  or  literature  may  be 
elected  an  honorary  member. 

^2.  Each  and  every  resident  member,  upon 
his  election,  shall  sign  this  constitution,  and 


pay  over  to  the  recording  secretary  the 
sum  of  [here  insert  the  sum],  and  shall  pay 
the  like  sum  annually  in  advance;  but  no 
dues  or  contributions  shall  be  demanded 
of  corresponding  or  honorary  members. 

ARTICLE  V.- — I.  This  association  shall  be 
divided  into  the  following  sections,  namely: 
(i)  Natural  Science;  (2)  Arts;  (3)  His- 
tory; (4)  Agriculture  and  Horticulture; 
(5)  Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy;  (6) 
General  Literature;  to  each  of  which  sec- 
tions shall  be  referred  all  papers  or  busi- 
ness appropriate  to  its  department;  and  to 
one  or  more  of  these  sections  each  mem- 
ber, immediately  after  his  election,  shall  at- 
tach himself. 

2.  Each  section  shall  report,  from  time 
to  time,  upon  the  business  intrusted  to  it, 
as  this  association  shall  direct. 

ARTICLE  VI. — This  association  shall  meet 
monthly  [here  insert  time],  and  at  such 
other  times  as  it  may  be  called  upon  by  the 
president,  upon  the  written  request  of  six 
members;  of  each  of  which  meetings  due 
notice  shall  be  given,  and  at  each  and  all 
of  these  meetings  six  members  shall  con- 
stitute a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of 
business. 

ARTICLE  VII. — The  rules  of  order  em- 
braced in  "The  Rules  of  Debate"  shall  gov- 
ern the  deliberations  of  this  association  so 
far  as  the  same  may  apply;  and  the  order 
of  business  therein  laid  down  shall  be  fol- 
lowed, unless  suspended  or  transposed  by 
a  two- thirds  vote. 

ARTICLE  VIII. — Any  member  who  shall 
be  guilty  of  any  public,  felonious  offence 
against  the  law,  or  who  shall  persevere  in 
a  course  of  conduct  degrading  of  itself  or 
calculated  to  bring  this  association  into 
odium,  may  be  expelled  by  a  two-thirds  vote 
of  the  members  present  at  any  stated  meet- 
ing, and  any  member  who  shall  neglect  or 
refuse  to  pay  his  dues  for  more  than  one 
year  shall  thereby  cease  to  be  a  member 
of  this  association ;  but  no  member  shall  be 
expelled  until  due  notice  shall  have  been 
given  him  of  the  charges  brought  against 
him,  and  until  he  shall  have  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  being  confronted  with  his  accusers, 
and  of  being  heard  in  his  own  defence. 

ARTICLE  IX. — This  constitution  may  be 
altered,  amended,  or  abrogated  at  any 
stated  meeting,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of 
the  members  present;  provided,  that  writ- 
ten notice  of  said  alteration,  amendment,  or 
abrogation  shall  have  been  given  at  a  pre- 
vious stated  meeting. 


XULES    FOR   PARLIAMENTARY    PROCEDURE 


735 


DUTIES    OF   OFFICERS 

THE    PRESIDING    OFFICER 

The  chairman  should  have  made  himself 
fully  acquainted  with  the  rules  of  order 
and  the  usages  of  deliberative  bodies.  He 
should  be  prompt,  dignified,  and  impartial. 
He  should  be  quick  of  eye  to  note  any  mem- 
ber who  rises,  and  quick  of  speech  to  de- 
clare him  in  possession  of  the  floor.  He 
should  suffer  no  member  to  violate  order 
without  instant  rebuke.  His  voice  should 
be  steady,  distinct,  and  clear,  so  that  all 
may  hear  readily.  When  he  puts  the  ques- 
tion, states  a  point  of  order,  or  otherwise 
addresses  the  body,  he  should  rise,  and 
when  he  has  finished  resume  his  seat.  His 
constant  attention  is  necessary,  and  his  eye 
should  never  wander  from  the  speaker  be- 
fore him;  nor  should  he,  in  any  way,  show 
a  neglect  of  the  business.  No  matter  what 
disturbance  may  arise,  his  coolness  and  tem- 
per must  be  preserved.  If  his  decision  be 
appealed  from,  he  should  show  no  resent- 
ment— an  appeal  being  a  matter  of  privilege 
— but  should  put  the  appeal  in  the  same 
indifferent  manner  as  though  it  were  an 
ordinary  question.  He  should  always  re- 
member that  he  has  been  placed  there  to 
guide  and  control  the  machinery  of  the 
moment,  and  not  to  give  his  own  views, 
or  display  his  own  abilities  in  an  organized 
association.  He  will  sign  all  orders  for 
the  payment  of  money  ordered  by  the  body. 

THE    RECORDING    OFFICER 

The  secretary  or  clerk,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  proceedings,  will  seat  himself  at 
his  table,  and,  at  the  order  of  the  chairman, 
will  read  the  minutes  of  the  previous  meet- 
ing. He  must  note  down  the  proceedings, 
and  write  them  down  in  full,  previous  to 
another  meeting.  He  must  file  all  resolu- 
tions and  other  papers  before  the  body,  and- 
allow  none  to  go  from  his  custody  without 
due  authority.  He  must  read  all  resolu- 
tions and  papers  when  requested  to  do  so 
by  the  chair.  He  must  turn  over  his  rec- 
ords and  'papers  in  good  order  to  his  suc- 
cessor on  leaving  his  office.  He  must  coun- 
tersign all  orders  on  the  treasurer,  which 
have  been  signed  by  the  president,  as  this 
counter-signature  is  the  evidence  that  the 
society  has  approved  the  order. 

THE    TREASURER 

The  treasurer  must  enter,  in  a  book  to 
be  provided  for  the  purpose,  all  money  re- 
ceived, and  all  payments  made,  on  account 
of  the  body.  He  must  pay  out  no  money, 


except  on  an  order  signed  by  the  president 
and  countersigned  by  the  secretary.  He 
must  retain  these  orders  as  his  vouchers. 
He  must  turn  over  his  books,  in  good  or- 
de'r,  to  his  successor  on  leaving  his  office. 
He  must  give  bonds  in  such  needful  sum 
as  it  deems  best  if  the  body  require. 

THE    LIBRARIAN 

The  librarian  will  take  upon  him  the 
charge  of  the  books  and  manuscripts  not 
pertaining  to  the  duties  of  other  officers. 
Of  these  he  must  keep  a  catalogue.  He 
must  keep  a  record  of  all  books  borrowed, 
by  whom  and  when  returned,  and  must  only 
loan  them  under  such  regulations  as  the 
body  see  fit  to  adopt.  He  must  turn  over 
his  catalogue  and  records  to  his  successor 
on  leaving  his  office. 

THE    CURATORS 

The  curators  will  take  charge  of  all  speci- 
mens of  nature  or  art,  or  otherwise,  and 
all  property  of  the  body  not  in  charge  of 
other  officers.  This  they  will  have  cata- 
logued, and  will  keep  it  under  such  restric- 
tions as  may  be  imposed  on  them  by  the 
main  body.  They  must  turn  over  their  cata- 
logue, papers,  and  property  to  their  succes- 
sors on  leaving  their  office. 

THE     COMMITTEE     ON     CORRESPONDENCE 

The  committee  will  take  charge  of  all 
correspondence  ordered  by  the  body,  and  if 
there  be  no  corresponding  secretary  will 
conduct  it  with  all  parties,  at  direction  of 
the  body,  through  its  chairman.  It  will 
report,  from  time  to  time,  as  directed,  and 
will  keep  copies  of  letters  sent,  and  a  file 
of  those  received,  which  it  will  turn  over 
to  its  successors  on  its  discharge.  If  there 
be  a  corresponding  secretary,  he  will  per- 
form the  duties  assigned  above  to  the  com- 
mittee of  correspondence. 

THE    COMMITTEE    ON    FINANCE 

The  committee  on  finance  will  devise  the 
ways  and  means  to  obtain  the  necessary 
funds  for  the  body,  and  report  thereon  from 
time  to  time,  and  will  attend  to  such  other 
duties  as  may  be  assigned  to  them. 

OTHER    COMMITTEES 

Other  committees  will  attend  to  such  busi- 
ness as  may  be  assigned  to  them  by  the 
main  body,  reporting  thereon  as  may  be 
required. 


736 


RULES    FOR   PARLIAMENTARY    PROCEDURE 


BY-LAWS 

The  old  custom  of  appending  a  distinct 
set  of  by-laws  has  fallen  into  disuse.  The 
main  points  will  be  found  embodied  in  the 
constitution  in  the  forms  given.  Any 
others,  or  any  modifications  of  the  rules 
necessary,  may  be  provided  for  in  the  con- 
stitution, or  enacted  by  a  majority  vote. 
But,  if  it  be  thought  necessary,  that  portion 
of  the  constitution  that  contains  provisions 
that  were  formerly  so  placed  can  be  made 
distinct. 

RULES    OF   DEBATE 

THE    PRESIDENT 

On  taking  his  seat,   says: 

"The  meeting  [or  society,  or  club,  or  associa- 
tion, as  the  case  may  be]  will  come  to  order." 

If   there   has  been  a  meeting  previous: 

"The  secretary  will  please  to  read  the  minutes." 

After  the  minutes  have  been  read: 

"You  have  heard  the  minutes  of  the  previous 
meeting  read.  What  order  do  you  take  on  them?" 

When  a  motion  has  been  made  and  seconded: 

"It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  [here 
state  the  motion}.  Are  you  ready  for  the  ques- 
tion ?" 

If  a  member  arises  to  speak,  recognize  him  by 
naming  him  by  his  place,  or  in  any  way  which 
•will  identify  him  without  using  his  name,  if  pos- 
sible. 

In  putting  the  question: 

"It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  [here 
state  the  motion}.  So  many  as  are  in  favor  of 
the  motion  will  signify  their  assent  by  saying 
'Aye!'  " 

When  the  ayes  have  voted,  say: 

"Those  to  the  contrary  opinion,   'No!'" 

Or,   have  the  resolution  read,  and  say: 

"It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  the  reso- 
lution just  read  be  passed.  So  many  as  are  in 
favor,"  etc. 

On  a  call  for  the  previous  question: 

"Shall  the  main  question  be  now  put?  Those 
in  the  affirmative  will,"  etc. 

On  an  appeal,  state  the  decision,  and,  if  you 
think  proper,  the  reasons  therefor,  and  that  it 
has  been  appealed  from,  and  then: 

"Shall  the  decision  of  the  chair  stand?  Those 
in  the  affirmative,"  etc. 

Should  it  be  sustained,  say: 

"The  ayes  have  it.  The  decision  of  the  chair 
stands  as  the  judgment  of  this  meeting"  [or  s&- 
ciety,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be]. 

Should  it  not  be  sustained,  say: 

"The  noes  hai  ;  it.  The  decision  of  the  chair 
is  reversed." 

In  announcing  the  result  of  a  question,  if  it  be 
carried,  say: 

"The  ayes  appear  to  have  it — the  ayes  have  it 
— the  motion  [or  amendment,  as  the  case  may  be] 
is  carried." 

If  it  be  lost: 

"The  noes  appear  to  have  it — the  noes  have  it 
— the  motion  is  lost." 

If  a  division  be  called  for: 

"A  division  is  called  for.  Those  in  favor  of 
the  motion  will  rise." 

Count  them.  When  counted,  announce  the  num- 
ber, and  say: 

"Those  opposed  will  rise." 


Count  them,  report  the  number,  and  declare  the 
result 

If  the  yeas  «nd  nays  be  called  for,  and  no  ob- 
jection be  made,  he  states  the  question,  if  needed, 
and  says: 

"As  the  roll  is  called,  members  will  vote  in  the 
affirmative  or  negative.  The  secretary  will  call 
the  roll." 

After  the  ayes  and  nays  have  been  determined, 
the  chairman  states  the  number  and  declares  the 
result. 

If  no  quorum  be  present  at  the  hour  of  meet- 
ing, after  waiti  g  a  reasonable  time,  be  says: 

"The  hour  for  which  this  meeting  was  called 
having  arrived  and  passed,  and  no  quorum  being 
present,  what  order  is  to  hje  taken?" 

Or,  he  may  simply  announce  the  fact,  and  wait 
for  a  member  to  move  an  adjournment. 

If  during  a  meeting  some  member  calls  for  a 
count,  he  counts,  and  announces  if  a  quorum  be 
present  or  not.  If  not,  he  says: 

"This  meeting  is  in  want  of  a  quorum.  What 
order  is  to  be  taken?" 

Or  he  may  state  the  fact  only,  and  wait  for  a 
motion  to  adjourn.  But  while  there  is  no  quorum 
present,  business  must  be  suspended. 

After  the  minutes  have  been  adopted,  be  says: 

"The  next  business  in  order  is  the  reports  of 
standing  committees." 

If  none,   or  after  they  have  reported,   he   says: 

"The  reports  of  special  committees  are  next  in 
order." 

And  so  he  announces  each  business  in  its  proper 
succession. 

When  the  hour  for  the  orders  of  the  day  ar- 
rives, on  call  of  a  member,  he  says: 

"Shall  the  orders  of  the  day  be  taken  up?  So 
many  as  are  in  favor,"  etc. 

In  case  of  disorder  in  committee  of  the  whole, 
which  its  chairman  can  not  repress,  the  presiding 
officer  may  say: 

"The  committee  of  the  whole  is  dissolved.  The 
society  [or  club,  or  association,  as  the  case  may 
be]  will  come  to  order.  Members  will  take  their 
seats." 

He  will  then  take  the  chair,  instead  of  the  chair- 
man of  .the  committee  of  the  whole. 

In  taking  the  question  on  amendment,   he  says: 

"The  question  will  be  on  the  amendment  offered 
by  the  member  from"  [naming  his  place,  or  other- 
wise indicating  him],  and  then  puts  the  question. 

If  on  an  amendment  to  an  amendment,  then: 

"The  question  will  be  on  the  amendment  to  the 
amendment,"  and  the  rest  as  before. 

If  either  the  amendment  or  the  amendment  to 
the  amendment  be  carried,  he  will  say: 

"The  question  now  recurs  on  the  resolution  as 
amended.  Are  you  ready  for  the  question?" 

And  if  no  member  rises  to  speak,  he  will  put 
the  question. 

On  the  motion  to  amend  by  striking  out  words 
from  a  resolution,  he  says: 

"It  is  moved  to  amend  by  striking  out  the  words 
[naming  them].  Shall  those  words  stand?"  And 
then  he  puts  the  question. 

Objection  being  made  to  the  reading  of  a  paper, 
he  will  say: 

"Shall  the  paper  [naming  it]  be  read?"  and 
then  put  the  question. 

And  on  an  objection  being  made  to  the  recep- 
tion of  a  report,  he  will  say: 

"Shall  the  report  of  the  committee  be  received?" 
and  after  the  demand  he  puts  the  question. 

When  in  doubt  as  to  which  member  was  up 
first,  he  says: 


RULES    FOR   PARLIAMENTARY   PROCEDURE 


737 


"The  chair  is  in  doubt  as  to  which  member  is 
entitled  to  the  floor.  The  society  [or  club,  or  as- 
sociation, as  the  case  may  be]  will  decide.  Was 

the  gentleman  from  [indicating  any  one] 

first  up?"  And  puts  the  question.  If  the  body 
decide  against  that  member,  he  puts  the  question 
on  the  next,  and  so  through,  until  the  society  de- 
cides that  some  one  of  them  has  the  floor.  If 
but  two  contend,  however,  and  the  society  decide 
against  the  first  named,  the  decision  virtually  en- 
titles the  other  to  the  floor  without  further  vote. 

If  a  member  is  out  of  order,  he  will  say: 

"The  member  [indicating  him]  is  out  of  or- 
der." He  will  make  him  take  his  seat,  and  then 
state  wherein  the  member  is  out  of  order. 

If  the  point  of  order  is  raised  by  a  member, 
he  will  say: 

"The  member  [.indicating  him]  will  state  his 
point  of  order."  When  this  has  been  done,  he 
decides  the  point. 

On  a  question  of  the  time  of  adjournment,  he 
says: 

"It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  when 
this  meeting  [or  club,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be] 
adjourns,  it  adjourn  to  [naming  time  and  place], 
Are  you  ready  for  the  question?"  And  if  no 
one  rises  to  speak,  puts  the  question. 

On  a  question  of  adjournment,  he  says: 

"It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  this  meet- 
ing [or  club,  etc.]  do  now  adjourn;"  and  puts  the 
question. 

When  adjournment  is  carried,   he  says: 

"This  society  [or  club,  etc.]  stands  adjourned 
to"  [naming  time  and  place];  or  if  without  any 
time,  he  says: 

"This  society  [or  club,  etc.]  stands  adjourned 
without  day." 

THE  RECORDING  SECRETARY 

The   secretary  commences  his  minutes  thus: 

"At  a  stated  [dr  special,  or  adjourned  stated, 
or  adjourned  special,  as  the  case  may  be]  meet- 
ing of  [here  insert  the  name  of  the  body],  held  on 
[here  insert  the  time  and  place  of  meeting],  Mr. 
[insert  chairman's  name]  in  the  chair,  and  [here 
insert  secretary's  name]  acting  as  secretary — 

"The  minutes  of  the  preceding  meeting  were 
read  and  approved." 

If  the  reading  of  the  minutes  was  dispensed 
with,  say  so,  instead  of  the  preceding  line. 

Then  give  a  statement  of  what  was  done,  with- 
out comments,  as  succinctly  as  possible,  down  to 
the  adjournment. 

In  countersigning  an  order  for  money,  or  in 
giving  a  certified  copy  of  the  minutes,  or  an 
extract  from  them,  always  sign  the  name  on  the 
left-hand  corner  of  each  sheet  except  the  last. 
On  the  last,  the  signature  on  the  same  corner 
should  be  preceded — if  an  order  for  money — by 
the  word  teste  or  attest;  and  if  it  be  a  copy  of 
minutes,  by  the  words  "A  true  copy  of  the  min- 
utes." 

In  case  of  an  adjournment  for  want  of  a 
quorum,  say: 

"At  a  stated  [or  special,  etc.]  meeting  called  at 
[name  place  and  time],  no  quorum  being  present, 
the  meeting  adjourned." 

In  recording  the  yeas  and  nays,  prepare  a  list 
of  the  members,  or  have  it  on  hand,  and  after 
the  name  of  each  have  two  columns  ruled. 

Where  a  member  votes  "aye,"  write  it  in  the 
first  column,  or  head  one  column  "aye,"  and  the 
other  "no,"  and  make  a  mark  in  the  proper  col- 
umn, opposite  the  name.  Where  he  votes  "no," 
write  it  on  the  second.  Add  up,  and  enter  the 


number  at  the  foot  of  each  column.  Indorse  the 
resolution  or  motion  voted  upon  the  back  of  the 
list. 

Where  a  report  is  made,  it  is  not  necessary  in 
the  minutes  to  do  more  than  give  an  abstract  of 
its  contents,  or  a  sentence  or  two  indicating  its 
nature.  The  report  should,  however,  be  indorsed 
with  its  title  and  the  date  of  its  report  and  filed. 

A  list  of  the  orders  of  the  day  should  always 
be  made  out  previous  to  every  meeting,  for  the 
convenience  of  the  presiding  officer. 

CORRESPONDING     SECRETARY 

In  addressing  a  letter  for  the  body,  write  the 
words  "Corresponding  Secretary,"  as  concluding 
part  of  the  signature,  and  retain  a  copy  of  the 
letter"  sent,  with  a  record  of  the  time  it  was  de- 
spatched, stating  whether  by  mail  or  private  hand. 

THE     TREASURER 

The  form  of  account  of  the  treasurer  is  very 
simple.  But  where  the  accounts  are  complicated, 
a  regular  set  of  books  should  be  opened,  and  kept 
by  double  entry. 

THE      COMMITTEES 

The  chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  whole, 
when  the  committee  has  risen,  will  say  to  the 
president  of  the  main  body,  if  it  have  concluded 
its  business: 

"Mr.  President:  The  committee  of  the  whole 
has,  according  to  order,  gone  through  the  business 
assigned  to  it,  and  asks  leave  to  report." 

Leave  being  granted,  he  reports  what  has  been 
done. 

Or,   not   having  concluded — 

"The  committee  of  the  whole  has,  according 
to  order,  considered  the  business  assigned  to  it, 
and  made  progress  therein,  but  not  having  time 
to  conclude  the  same,  asks  leave  to  sit  again." 

Or,   if  rising   from  the  want  of  a  quorum — 

"The  committee  of  the  whole  has,  according  to 
order,  considered  [proceeded  to  consider]  the 
business  assigned  to  it,  but  has  risen  for  want  of 
a  quorum." 

In  putting  the  question  for  rising — 

"It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  this 
committee  do  now  rise  and  report  [or  report 
progress].  So  matny  as  are  in  favor,"  etc. 

All  written  reports  are  headed  after  a  similar 
form.  If  from  a  standing  committee,  thus: 

"The  committee  on  [insert  name  of  committee] 
respectfully  report  ."  And  then  let  the  re- 
port follow. 

If   a   special   committee — 

The  committee  to  which  was  referred  [here 
state  the  special  matter  of  reference]  have  consid- 
ered the  same,  and  respectfully  report,"  etc. 

And   all   reports   conclude  with: 

"All   of   which   is   respectfully  submitted." 

A    minority    report    is    headed: 

"The  undersigned,  the  minority  of  a  committee 
to  which  was  referred,"  etc. 

And   concludes   as   in  a   majority  report. 


RULES    OF   ORDER 

QUORUM 

i.  A  quorum  is  a  sufficient  number  to  legally 
transact  business.  A  majority  of  the  members  of 
any  association  constitutes  a  natural  quorum;  but 
a  smaller  number  is  usually  made  a  quorum  by 
a  provision  to  that  effect  in  the  constitution  or 
by-laws,  through  motives  of  convenience. 


738 


RULES    FOR    PARLIAMENTARY    PROCEDURE 


2.  If    there    be    a   quorum    present   at   the    hour 
named   for  the   meeting,  or  .  within  thirty  minutes 
thereafter,    the    presiding    officer    takes   the    chair, 
and    calls    the    association    to    order;    if    not,    he 
waits  a   reasonable   time,   and   from   the  chair   an- 
nounces   that    no   quorum    is   present.     Thereupon 
no  further  business  is  in  order,  except  to  adjourn 
for   want  of  a  quorum.     But  it  will  be  in  order 
to  call  the  roll  of  members,  and  to  make  endeavor 
to  obtain  the  presence  of  enough  to  form  a  quorum. 

3.  During  the  transaction  of  business,   should  it 
be   observed   that  no  quorum  is  present,  the  chair 
may  announce  the   fact,   or  any  member  may  call 
for   a   count.     If,    on   counting,   it  be    found  that 
there   is   no   quorum,   business    is   suspended    until 
a  quorum  be  found.     If  not  to  be  had,  the  meet- 
ing must  be  adjourned.  • 

4.  If,   on   calling   the   ayes   and   noes,   or   on   di^ 
vision,   a  quorum  be  not   found,   the  vote  is  null, 
and   at   the    next   meeting   the   unfinished   business 
is  in  the  exact  state  it  was  when  the  absence  of 
a  quorum  was  discovered. 

CAU. 

i.  On  a  call  of  the  body,  each  member  rises 
as  he  is  called  and  answers  to  his  name,  and 
the  absentees  are  noted.  In  a  small  body  it  is 
not  necessary  to  rise. 

MINUTES 

1.  The  presiding  officer  having  taken  the  chair, 
and    a    quorum    being    present,    the    minutes    are 
read.     If    there    be    any    mistakes    in    the    record, 
these    are    amended,    and    then    the    minutes    are 
adopted.     If,    under    any    circumstances    requiring 
haste,   or  in  the  absence  of  the  journal,  the  read- 
ing  of    the    minutes    be    suspended,    they    may    be 
either   read   and  adopted    at   another  stage   of   the 
proceedings,    or    at    the    next    succeeding    meeting. 
Nevertheless,  the  minutes  being  a  record  of  facts, 
any  error  subsequently  discovered  may  be  amended 
at    any   time.     This    may    be    done    by    unanimous 
consent;  or,  if  objections  be  made,  then  any  mem- 
ber  who   voted    in   the   affirmative   on   their   adop- 
tion can  move  a  reconsideration  of  the  motion  to 
adopt.     This    last    motion    prevailing,    the    minutes 
are  open  to  amendment;  and  after  being  amended, 
the   motion  on  their  adoption  as  amended   is  put. 

2.  The    rule    of   record   in   ordinary   associations 
is    somewhat    different    from    that    in    legislative 
bodies.     The  minutes  of  the  former  stand  -in  lieu 
of  the  journals  of  the   latter.     The   former  never 
contain  a  question  which  is  interrupted  by  a  vote- 
to    adjourn    or    to   proceed    to    the    order    of    the 
day;    the    latter    always    do.       Even    propositions 
withdrawn,    or   ruled    out    of    order,    may   be    en- 
tered as  so  treated.     The  minutes  are  to  be   full 
and    explicit,    and   a   true    record    of   all   that   was 
done,  but  not  of  all  that  was  said,  unless  the  lat- 
ter he  necessary  to  the  clear  understanding  of  the 
business. 

3.  Proceedings   in    committee  of   the   whole   are, 
of  course,   not  entered  on  the  minutes — the  entry 
merely  that  the  committee  rose  and  reported  thus, 
and  so,   aind   what  was  done  thereon  by  the  asso- 
ciation. 

PRESIDING   OFFICER 

In  the  absence  of  the  president,  or  in  case  he 
declines,  the  vice-president  takes  the  chair.  If 
there  be  more  than  one  vice-president,  then  they 
take  it  in>  their  numerical  order,  unless  the  asso- 
ciation, by  vote,  designate  a  particular  one.  If 
neither  president  nor  vice-president  be  present, 
eome  member  is  called  to  act  temporarily  a* 
chairman,  on  motion  put  by  the  mover  thereof. 


RECORDING    OFFICER 

In  the  absence  of  the  secretary,  or,  if  more 
than  one,  in  the  absence  of  all,  a  temporary  sec- 
retary must  be  appointed  on  motion, 

ARRANGEMENT    OF    BUSINESS 

This,  in  associations,  is  usually  provided  for  in 
the  by-laws.  If  not  otherwise  provided  for,  it  is 
as  follows:  I.  Reading  the  minutes;  a.  Reports 
of  standing  committees;  3.  Reports  of  special  com- 
mittees; 4.  Special  orders;  5.  Unfinished  business; 
6.  New  business.  The  election  of  new  members, 
unless  otherwise  ordered,  is  always  in  order;  and 
the  election  of  officers  ranks  as  a  special  order; 
but  an  election  of  members  is  not  in  order  while 
other  business  is  pending,  or  while  a  member  baa 
the  floor. 

ORDERS 

There  is  only  one  case  where  a  member  has  a 
right  to  insist  on  anything,  and  that  is  where  he 
calls  for  the  execution  of  an  existing  order.  No 
debate  or  delay  can  be  had  on  it;  but  where  it 
is  for  an  order  of  the  day,  fixing  some  particular 
business  to  be  taken  up,  then  the  president,  on 
call  of  a  member,  puts  the  question  whether  the 
association  will  proceed  to  the  order  of  the  day. 
If  it  is  decided  in  the  negative,  that  is,  in  effect, 
a  reversal  of  the  former  order,  and  the  associa- 
tion decides  to  proceed  to  other  business. 

COMMITTEES 

1.  Standing     committees     are     appointed     under 
the  constitution   or   by-laws   of  the   association,   or 
by    resolution,   and  sit   permanently,    while   special 
committees  are  usually  appointed  by  resolution  to 
attend    to    some    particular   business,    which    being 
done,   they  are    usually   discharged. 

2.  The   first-named   person   acts   as  chairman  of 
any  committee.     It  is  true  that  the  committee  pos- 
sesses the  inherent  power  to  choose  its  own  chair- 
man; but  custom  prevents  this  power   from  being 
used.     Should  a  committee  select  some  other  than 
the  first  named   person  as  chairman,   it  would  be 
considered  a  wanton  insult. 

3.  It  is  always  proper  to  place  the  mover  of  a 
successful  motion  on  any  committee  arising  through 
his   resolution,   and  to  name   him  first;  but  if  the 
committee  is  upon  an  inquiry  into  his  conduct,  or 
where    its    deliberations    concern    himself    person- 
ally, or   his  manifest  interest,  the  rule  is  not  fol- 
lowed. 

4.  As  near  as  they  will  apply,   the  rules  of  or- 
der of  the  main  body  govern  the  deliberations  of 
committees. 

5.  A  committee  to  whom  a  resolution  or  affirma- 
tive proposition   is  committed   should  always   have 
a  majority  of  members,  if  they  can  be  had,  favor- 
able to  such  resolution!  or  proposition. 

6.  Unless   otherwise   ordered,   the  chair  appoints 
all  committees. 

7.  When   there  is  a  standing  committee  on  any 
subject,   anything  referring  to  such  subject  should 
be   referred   to   that   committee   alone;   but   it   may 
be  given  to  a  special  committee,  if  the  association 
think  proper. 

8.  Standing  committees  require  no  order  to  re- 
port. They  are  always  in  session,  and  should  report 
at  every  meeting,   if  only  to  report   progress. 

9.  A  committee  can  not  sit  while  the  main  body 
is  in  session,   unless  so  ordered  to  do. 

10.  A  majority  of  a  committee   must  concur  in 
a    report;    but    the    minority    are    never    refused 
leave  to  bring  in  a  counter  report. 

n.  Sometir~*«    a    majority    can    not   be    found, 


RULES    FOR    PARLIAMENTARY    PROCEDURE 


739 


when  the  committee  should  report  the  fact  of 
their  disagreement,  and  ask  leave  to  be  dis- 
charged; they  are  then  to  be  discharged,  and 
either  a  new  committee  raised,  or  the  subject 
brought  before  a  committee  of  the  whole,  or  be- 
fore the  main  body. 

12.  Persons  appointed  upon  a  committee  should 
join  that  committee  so  soon  as  they  are  notified 
of  their  appointment,  unless  they  are  excused;  as 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  first-named  member  of  the 
committee  to  call  his  fellows  together  as  soon  as 
possible. 

COMMITTEE   OF   THE   WHOLE 

1.  If   it   be   necessary   to  go   into  committee   of 
the  whole  society,  either  for  a  general  or  specific 
purpose,  it  is  done  by  motion,  when  the  chairman 
vacates    the    chair,    and    calls   some   member   to   it 
to  act  as  chairman;   though  the  committee  of  the 
whole,    if   it   chooses,  can  select  another  chairman 
like  any  other  committee.     This  it  never  does. 

The  quorum  of  the  committee  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  main  body.  If  a  quorum  be  found 
wanting,  the  committee  has  to  rise,  the  regular 
chairman  takes  his  seat,  and  the  chairman  of  the 
committee  informs  him  that  the  committee  rises 
for  want  of  a  quorum.  Then  the  usual  course  is 
taken  in  regard  to  the  absence  of  a  quorum. 

2.  If   any  communication   be  made  to  the  main 
body   while   in   committee   of  the   whole,    the   com- 
mittee   can    not    receive    it.      If    its    reception    be 
necessary,   the  committee   have  to   rise. 

3.  If  there  be  confusion  or  disturbance  in  com- 
mittee  of   the   whole,    the   president  may   take   the 
chair,   declare  the  committee  dissolved,  and  reduce 
the   body 'to   order.     In   that   case  it   requires   an- 
other motion  for  that  committee  to  sit  again. 

4.  A  committee    of  the   whole  can   not  adjourn, 
but    it    must    rise.     It   can    not    take    the   previous 
question,   nor  take  the  ayes  and  noes. 

5.  If  the   business  before  the  committee  of  the 
whole   be   unfinished,   it  rises   on   motion,   the  reg- 
ular   presiding    officer    takes    the    chair,    and    the 
chairman   of   the  committee   reports   that  the  com- 
mittee   of    the    whole    have,    according    to    order, 
considered    the    business    assigned    to    them,    and 
have  made  progress  therein,   but,  not  having  time 
to    conclude    the    same,    ask    leave    to    sit    again. 
Leave  is  then  granted  on  motion.     If  the  subject 
be  a  special   one,   and  it  is  concluded,   the  motion 
is  that  the  committee  rise  and  report  proceedings; 
then,     when    the    president    takes    the    chair,    the 
chairman   of   the  committee   reports   that  the   com- 
mittee have  gone  though  the  business  referred  to 
them,    and    ask    leave    to    report.      Leave    is    then 
given    to    report,    or    at    some    other    time,    either 
by  motion,    or,    should   there   be   no   objection,   on 
the  call  of  some  member. 

6.  In    committee,    members    may    speak    oftener 
than   once   on  the  same  subject,  and  are  not  con- 
fined   strictly    to    the    subject-matter.     With    these 
and    the    foregoing   exceptions,    the    same    rules   of 
order  govern  the  committee   of  the  whole  as  gov- 
ern the  main  body. 

7.  A   motion  to   rise   and   report  progress  is  in 
order  at  any  stage  of  the  business,   and  is  to  be 
decided  without  debate.     When  they  have  reported, 
they  may  be   discharged  on  motion,   which  brings 
the    matter    laid    before    them    directly   before    the 
association  itself. 

COMMITMENT 

i.  If  it  be  desired  to  refer  a  resolution,  address, 
or  other  matter  to  a  committee,  it  is  done  on 
motion.  If  to  a  special  committee,  the  chair 
names  the  committee.  Any  member  present  may 


suggest  one  member  on  that  committee,  and  if 
the  main  body  do  not  object,  the  chair  will  name 
him,  since  the  silence  of  members  in  that  case 
is  equivalent  to  a  direct  appointment  of  that  per- 
son by  the  association.  But  such  a  course  is 
unusual,  and  generally  improper. 

2.  Though  the  majority  on  a  committee  should 
be   favorable   to   a   measure,    the   minority   may  be 
of  those  who  are   opposed  to  it  in  some  particu- 
lars.   But  those  totally  opposed  to  it  should  never 
be    appointed;    and    if   any    one   of   that   view   be 
named,    he  should   rise   and   state   the   fact,   when 
the   main  body  will   excuse   him   from   serving. 

3.  If  it  be  a  written  matter  which   is  referred, 
the  secretary  delivers  it  to  the  first  named  of  the 
committee. 

4.  A     committee    meets     when     and     where     it 
pleases,   unless  the  time  and  place  is  fixed  for  it. 
But   it   can   not   act  unless   its   members   assemble 
together. 

5.  The   committee   can   not   change   the   title   or 
subject    of    the    matter    before    it,    but    otherwise 
have   full   power   over   it. 

6.  If    it    be    a    written    matter    before    it,    if   it 
originate    with    the    committee,    the    writing    must 
be    considered    paragraph    by    paragraph,    and    the 
question    put    on    each.     After    each    paragraph    is 
approved   or   amended,   it   is   then  considered  as  a 
whole.      If    it    has    been    referred,    the    committee 
only  report  the  amendments  they  recommend  sep- 
arately;  as  they  have  no  right  to  amend  a  paper 
belonging  to  the  main  body. 

7.  When  the  committee   is  through,   some  mem- 
ber  moves   that   it   rise   and   report  the  matter  to 
the   main  body,    with  or   without  amendments,   as 
the  case  may  be. 

REPORTS    OF    COMMITTEES 

The  chairman  of  the  committee,  standing  in  his 
place,  informs  the  association  that  the  committee 
to  which  was  intrusted  such  a  matter,  naming  it, 
have  directed  him  to  report  thereon,  and  moves 
that  the  report  be  received.  The  cry  of  "Re- 
ceive!" or  "Report!"  or  "Read  it!"  from  any 
one,  generally  dispenses  with  the  formality  of  a 
question.  He  then  reads  the  report,  whatever  it 
may  be,  and  delivers  the  written  report  to  the 
secretary.  Then  it  lies  on  the  table  until  called 
up  by  a  motion.  The  committee  is  dissolved,  and 
can  act  no  more  unless  reconstituted  for  the  pur- 
pose by  a  vote. 

MOTIONS 

1.  A  motion   is  a  proposition  by  two  members; 
consequently,   if  not  seconded,   it  is  not  to  be  en- 
tertained.    This  is  different,   however,   in  the  case 
of   an   appeal,   where   the   question  may  be  put  on 
the  demand  of  one  member. 

2.  A    motion    must    be    put   in    writing1,    if    any 
member   desires    it,    and    read,    when   required   for 
information.     But  if  the   demand   for  the  reading 
be   repeated,    so  as  to   show  itself  a  mere  pretext 
for  delay,  the  association  may  order  it  to  be  read 
no  more. 

3.  A  motion  for  adjournment  can  not  be  made 
while    one    member    is    speaking;    because   it    is    a 
breach   of   order   for   one   to   speak   when   another 
has   the   floor,   except  to  a  point   of  order;   conse- 
quently,  even  a  privileged  motion  cam  not  be  en- 
tertained.    And  even  on  a  call  to  order,   decided 
against   him,   he   must   still  be   allowed   to  go   on, 
provided    he   does   not   persist  in   the   same   viola- 
tion of  order  in  his  remarks.  i 

AMENDMENTS 

i.  An  amendment  takes  the  place  of  the  ques- 


740 


RULES   FOR   PARLIAMENTARY    PROCEDURE 


tion  it  is  proposed  to  amend,  and  must  be  de- 
cided first.  So  an  amendment  to  an  amendment 
must  be  decided  before  the  first  amendment. 

2.  But  amendments  can  not  be  piled  one  on  the 
other;    that    is,    while    you    can    amend    an   amend- 
ment,  you  can  not  amend  the  second  amendment. 

3.  For  example:  it  is  moved  to  give  the  thanks 
of  the   association    for   his   kind   gift   of   fifty   vol- 
umes  to    the   society.     It   is   moved   to   amend   by 
striking  out  the  word  "kind"  and  inserting  "gen- 
erous."    This  is  an  amendment.     It  is  then  moved 
to  strike  out  the  word  "generous"  and  insert  that 
of  "liberal."    This  is  an  amendment  to  th«  amend- 
ment.    It  is  then  proposed  to  strike  otrt  the  word 
"liberal"    and    insert    that    of    "munificent."     This 
third  amendment  is  out  of  order. 

4.  Nor    can    amendments    be    made    to    certain 
privileged    questions.     Thus,    an    amendment   to   a 
motion    to    adjourn,    for   the    previous   question,    a 
call  of  the   house,   or  to  lay  on  the  table. 

5.  But  an  amendment,   though  inconsistent  with 
one    previously    adopted,    is    still    in    order.     It    is 
for  the  association  alone  to  decide  whether,  by  the 
passage   of   the   second   amendment,   it   will   recede 
from  its   former  action. 

6.  On    an    amendment   being   moved,    a   member 
who   has  spoken   to   the  main  question   may  speak 
to  the   amendment. 

7.  If    it   be   proposed   to   amend   by   leaving   out 
certain    words,    it    may    be  Amoved    to    amend    the 
amendment  by  leaving  out  a  part  of  the  words  of 
the    amendment,    which    is    equivalent    to    letting 
those  words  remain. 

8.  For  example:    the  original  words  being  "Re- 
solved that  we  have  heard  with   feelings  of  lively 
satisfaction   that  the   authorities   of  our  town   pro- 
pose  to  tax  dogs,   and  approve  their  action,"   it  is 
moved  to  amend  by  striking  out  the  words  "with 
feelings    of   lively    satisfaction."     If    it    be    moved 
to    amend    the    amendment,    by    striking    out    the 
words    "with    feelings    of    satisfaction,"    the    ques- 
tion would  be:     Shall   those   words  stand   as  part 
of  the   resolution?     If  carried,   the   word  "lively"' 
is   struck    out,    and    the    rest    remains.     The    ques- 
tion then  recurs  on  the  resolution  as  amended. 

9.  When   it   is   proposed   to   amend   by   inserting 
a   paragraph,    or   part   of   one,   the   friends   of  this 
should    make    it   perfect    by    amendments;    because 
if  it  be   inserted  it  can   not  be  amended,   since   it 
has  been   agreed  to  in  that   form.     So  if  proposed 
to  amend  by  striking  out  a  paragraph,   the  friends 
of   the    paragraph  should   also  make   it   as  perfect, 
by    amendments,    as    possible;    for    if    the    striking 
out    be    negatived,    that    is   equivalent    to    agreeing 
to    it   in   that    form,    and   amendments   are   not  ad- 
missible. 

10.  When  it  is  moved  to  amend  by  striking  out 
certain    words    and    inserting    others,    the    manner 
of  stating  the  question  is,   first  to  read  the  whole 
passage    to   be    amended,    as   it   stands   at   present; 
then   the    words   proposed   to   be   struck   out;    next 
those    to   be    inserted;   and,    lastly,   the    whole   pas- 
sage as  it  will  be  when  amended.     And  the  ques- 
tion,   if    desired,    is    then   to   be    divided,    and    put 
first    on    striking    out.     If    carried,    it    is    next    on 
inserting  the  words  proposed.     If  that  be  lost,   it 
may  be  moved  to  insert  others. 

11.  A  motion  is  made  to  amend  by  striking  out 
certain  words  and  inserting  others  in  their   place, 
which    is   negatived.      Then   it  is   moved  to   strike 
out    the    same    words,    and    to    insert    others   of   a 
tenor   entirely  different   from  those   first  proposed, 
which    is   negatived.     Then    it    is   moved    to   strike 
out   the   same   words   and   insert  nothing,   which  is 
agreed  to.     All  this  is  in  order;  because  to  strike 


out  A  and  insert  B  is  one  proposition.  To  strike 
out  A  and  insert  C  is  another  proposition.  To 
strike  out  A  and  insert  nothing  is  another  propo- 
sition. The  rejection  of  either  proposition  does 
not  preclude  the  offering  of  a  new  one.  But  a 
motion  to  strike  out  alone  being  voted  down,  is 
equivalent  to  voting  that  the  words  should  stand, 
and  amendments  are  not  in  order.  Jefferson 
thinks  that  even  if  the  question  be  divided,  and 
taken  first  on  the  striking  out,  and  that  fails, 
amendments  are  in  order,  because  the  proposi- 
tion is  only  half  put.  There  is  force  in  this,  and 
it  seems  to  be  the  practice. 

12.  After  the  paragraph  is  amended,  it  never- 
theless may  be  further  amended  by  striking  it 
entirely  out. 

PRIVILEGED   QUESTIONS 

1.  "When   a  question   is   under   debate,   no  mo- 
tion  shall   be   received   but   to  adjourn,    to   lay   on 
the    table,    to    postpone    indefinitely,    to    postpone 
to  a  day  certain,   to  commit,   or  to  amend;  which 
several    motions   shall    have   precedence   in   the   or- 
der  they  stand    arranged;    and  the   motion   to   ad- 
journ  shall   be   always   in   order,   and   shall   be   de- 
cided   without    debate." 

2.  These  privileged   questions   shall    not   only  be 
entertained    while    the    main    question    is    pending, 
but  will  be  put  before  it. 

3.  A  motion  to  adjourn  takes  precedence  of  all 
others,   because   otherwise  the  body  might  be  kept 
sitting  against  its  will,  and  indefinitely.     Yet  even 
this  question  can  not  be  entertained  after  another 
question    is    actually   put,    and   while   members   are 
voting  upon   it. 

4.  An    order    of    the    day — that    is,    a  ^question 
which   has  previously  been  set  down  to  be  argued 
or    determined    on    that    day — takes    place    of    all 
questions    except    adjournment.     If,    for    instance, 
a  matter  be  set  down   for   7   o'clock,   then  at  that 
hour,    although    another    question    may    be    before 
the  body,   a  motion  to  proceed  to  take  up  the  or- 
der of  the  day  must  be  received  by  the  chair. 

5.  These     privileged    questions     sometimes    con- 
flict   with    each    other,    but    are    reconciled    under 
known   rules. 

6.  If    the    previous   question    be   first    moved,    it 
is  first  put.     This  cuts  off  all  the  others.     The  so- 
ciety, having  decided  to  take  up  the  question,  must 
vote    on    it    as    it    stands — postponement,    commit- 
ment, and  amendment  being  out  of  order. 

7.  If    postponement    be    carried,    of    course    the 
question    can    not    be    either    committed,    amended, 
nor  the  previous  question  be  carried,   for  the  sub- 
ject is  not  before  the  body. 

8.  If    committed,    the    same    rules    and    reasons 
follow. 

9.  If  amendment  is  first  moved,  the  question  on 
that  must  be  determined  before  the  previous  ques- 
tion. 

10.  If    amendment   and    postponement    are    pro- 
posed,  the  latter  is  put  first.     The  reason  is,  that 
the   amendment    is    not   suppressed,    but   comes    up 
again   in   its   order  whenever  the  main   question   is 
again  considered. 

11.  If  a  motion  for  amendment  be  followed  by 
one   for  commitment,   the  latter  shall  be  put  first. 

12.  The    previous    question    can    not    be    put    on 
the    motion    to    postpone,    commit,    or    amend    the 
main    question. 

13.  The    motion    for    the    previous    question,    or 
for   commitment   or   amendment,   can   not  be   post- 
poned. 

14.  A  motion  made   for  reading  papers   relative 
to  the  question   discussed  must  be  put  before  the 
main   question. 


RULES    FOR   PARLIAMENTARY    PROCEDURE 


741 


15.  A    motion   made    and    seconded    can    not   be 
withdrawn    without    leave,    though,    if    no   member 
object,    it  is  not  necessary  to  put   the  question. 

1 6.  When   different  sums   or   dates   are   used   in 
filling   blanks,    the   question   shall    first   be   put   on 
the  largest  sum  and  the  longest  time. 

17.  In   commitment,  the   motions  to   commit  are 
privileged    in    the    following   order:     i.  Committee 
of  the   Whole;   2.  Standing  Committee;  3.  Special 
Committee. 

18.  A  motion   to  lay   on  the  table   must  be  put 
before      either      postponement,      commitment,      or 
amendment,    although    neither    of    these    last    can 
be  laid  on  the  table. 

19.  A  postponement  can  be  amended  as  to  time, 
and  an   amendment  can  be  amended;  but  if  it  be 
proposed   to   amend   by   inserting  anything,    a  mo- 
tion  to   amend   or   perfect  the  matter  proposed  to 
be  inserted  must  be  put  to  a  vote  before  the  ques- 
tion to   insert.      The  same  rule   follows  in  regard 
to  striking  out. 

20.  A   question   of   privilege,   such   as   a   quarrel 
between    members,    or    affecting    the    character    of 
members,   or  the  main  body,   must  be   disposed  of 
before  the   original  question  be   disposed  of. 

21.  Questions    on    leave    to    withdraw    motions, 
or  appeals  from  the  decision  of  the  chair,  have  a 
precedence  over  the  main  question. 

PREVIOUS    QUESTION 

1.  When    any    question    is    before    the    associa- 
tion,   any   member   may  move   that   the   main   ques- 
tion   be    put;     and    this    is    termed    moving    the 
previous    question.       If    the    motion    pass    in    the 
affirmative,   the  main  question  is  put   immediately, 
and  no  further  debate  is  allowed  upon  the  matter 
at  issue. 

2.  This   is   frequently   styled    "the   gag  law,"   be- 
cause   its    adoption    cuts    off    all    debate.     When    a 
subject  in  the  judgment  of  the  majority  has  been 
exhausted,   or  when  personalities  have  been  intro- 
duced,  and  disorders  are  threatened,   it  is  a  very 
proper    and    wise    thing;    but    it    should    not   gen- 
erally be  brought  to  bear  so  long  as  members  who 
desire  to  speak  are  unheard. 

DIVISION     OF     THE     QUESTION 

1.  A    question    which   contains   more    parts   than 
one  may  be  divided,  on.  the  demand  of  a  member, 
provided   the   main   body   concur.     If  the   question 
contain    parts    which    are    evidently    incompatible, 
the   presiding  officer  may  divide  them  of  his  own 
will,   unless  the  body  deny  him  the  power. 

2.  When   a  question   is   divided,   after  the   ques- 
tion   has    been    taken    on    the    first    member    of    it, 
the    second    member    is    still    open    to    amendment 
and   debate,  unless  the  previous  question  be  taken 
upon    it. 

COEXISTING  QUESTIONS 

1.  Occasionally    there    are    two    questions    up    at 
the   same   time — one   primarily  and   the   other   sec- 
ondarily.    Are  both  subject  to  debate? 

2.  When   it   has  been  moved  to  commit  a  ques- 
tion,   the    main    question    is    debatable    under    that 
motion;    but    no    amendment    can    be    entertained, 
because  the   question  of  commitment   will  be  first 
put. 

EQUIVALENT    QUESTIONS 

Where  questions  are  equivalent,  so  that  the 
rejection  of  one  is  the  affirming  the  other,  that 
necessarily  determines  the  latter.  Thus,  a  vote 
against  striking  out  is  virtually  the  same  as  a 
vote  to  agree;  a  vote  to  reject  is  equivalent  to  a 
vote  to  adopt;  but,  on  a  motion  to  strike  out  A 


and  insert  B  being  decided  in  the  negative,  this 
does  not  preclude  the  motion  to  strike  out  A 
and  insert  C,  these  being  separate  questions. 

THE     QUESTION 

1.  The  question  is  first  to  be  put  on  the  affirm- 
ative  and  then   on  the   negative   side. 

2.  After  the  question  has  been  put,  debate  upon 
it  is  out  of  order;   but  after  the  presiding  officer 
has  put  the  affirmative,   any  member  who  has  not 
spoken   before   on   the   question   may   speak  before 
the  negative  be  put,   for  it  is  not  a  full  question 
until  the  negative  be  put. 

3.  But    on    trifling    matters,    such    as    leave    to 
bring  in   reports   of   committees,    withdrawing  mo- 
tions,   reading   papers,   and  such   like,   the   consent 
of    the    main   body   will    be    supposed    without   the 
formality   of   a   question,   unless   some   one   should 
object,    for   the    absence   of   an   objection    in   such 
cases  testifies  to  unanimous  consent. 

DIVISION 

1.  The    affirmative    and    negative    voices    having 
been  heard   upon  a  question,   the   presiding  officer 
declares   by  the   sound   what   is  the  result.     If  he 
have    doubts    as    to    the    relative    strength    of    the 
yeas    and    nays,    or    if    any   member    demands    it, 
before  other  business   has  been  gone  into,   then  a 
division  is   ordered. 

2.  The    mode    of    dividing    is    for    those    in   the 
affirmative     to     rise,     when     the    presiding    officer 
counts    those     up,     and     announces    the    number. 
These  sit,   and   those   in  the   negative   arise,   to  be 
counted  in   like  manner. 

3.  One-fifth  of  the  members  present  may  call  for 
the    yeas    and    nays,    each    member's    name    being 
called,  and  the  answer  entered  by  the  secretary. 

In  case  of  any  disorder  during  a  division  or 
calling  of  the  yeas  and  nays,  the  presiding  officer 
decides  the  question  of  order;  and  the  decision 
is  not  the  subject  of  appeal  at  this  time,  although 
it  may  be  revised  after  the  division  or  call  is 
over. 

RECONSIDERATION 

1.  A    question    which    has    been    decided    either 
in  the   affirmative   or   in   the   negative   may  be  re- 
considered   upon    the    motion    of    a    member    who 
has    voted    with    the    majority.     But    this    motion 
for    reconsideration    will    not   be    in    order,    unlest 
made    during    the    meeting    whereat    the    question 
was   decided. 

2.  The    effect   of   the    adoption   of   a   motion   to 
reconsider    is    to    place    the    question    in    the   posi- 
tion   it    occupied  before   the    vote   on    its   adoption 
or    rejection    was    taken;    consequently    it    is    as 
open    to    amendment,    postponement,    commitment 
or   laying   on   the   table   as   it  was   at  that  time. 

APPEALS 

1.  An    appeal    from    the    decision    of    the    chair 
is    a    matter    of    right,    and    brings    under    review 
and    opens    to    debate    the    grounds    of    such    de- 
cision. 

2.  The  presiding  officer,  by  usage  and  courtesy, 
has    the    right    to   assign    his    reasons    for   his    de- 
cision  before   the   question    is    put   on   the    appeal. 

3.  The    question    on    an    appeal    is,    whether   the 
decision  of  the  presiding  officer  shall  stand  as  the 
judgment  of  the  body   itself.     If  a  majority  vote 
in   the  affirmative,   the   decision  stands;   if  not,   it 
is   reversed. 

4.  An  appeal  can  not  be  put  on  an  appeal;  that 
is,   a   second   appeal   can   not  be  entertained  while 
the  first  remains  undisposed  of. 


742 


5.  A  mere  opinion  of  the  chair,  drawn  out  by 
an  interrogation  on  points  of  order,  is  not  sub- 
ject to  an  appeal.  To  be  appealed  from,  it  must 
be  an  actual  decision  on  a  question  coming  up 
legitimately  in  the  progress  of  business. 

PAPERS 

1.  When    papers    have    been    laid    before    the 
main    body,    or    referred    to    a    committee,    every 
member    has   a   right   to   hear   them   once   read  at 
the   secretary's   table   before   he  can  be   compelled 
to  vote   on   them. 

2.  But    he    has   not   a  right,   therefore,   to   have 
papers    read    independently   of   the    will    of   a   ma- 
jority   of    his    colleagues.     If    the    reading   be    de- 
manded  purely    for   information,    and   not   for    de- 
lay,   and    no    one    objects,    the    chairman    will    di- 
rect   it    to    be    done,    without    putting    it    to    the 
question.     But    should    any  one    object,    the   ques- 
tion  must  be   put. 

3.  Nor   can   any   member   have   a  right,   without 
a  question   first  put,  to  have  anything  read  which 
is  not  before  the  body. 

4.  Nor   can   a   member   have   a   right  to   read  a 
paper,    in   his   place,    not  even   his  own  speech,    if 
it  be  objected  to,   without  the  leave  of  the  body. 
But  this  rule  is  not  usually  enforced,  unless  there 
be   a  gross  or   intentional  abuse  of  the  time  and 
patience  of  the   body. 

COMMUNICATIONS 

When  a  communication  addressed  to  the  main 
body  is  presented,  the  question  is  to  be  put 
whether  it  shall  be  received.  But  a  general  cry 
of  "Receive!"  or,  even  if  there  be  no  objection, 
the  silence  of  the  body  is  sufficient  to  dispense 
with  the  formality  of  the  question.  In  that  case, 
or  in  case  the  vote  on  its  reception  be  in  the 
affirmative,  it  is  to  be  read,  unless  otherwise  dis- 
posed of. 

THINGS   ON    THE   TABLE 

1.  Matters    which   have   been   laid   on>  the   table 
can  only  be  called  up  when  the  class  of  business 
to  which  they  belong  is  in  order. 

2.  If   laid   on   the   table   by  a   motion,   they  can 
only  be  lifted  from  it  by  a  motion.     If  laid  there 
tinder   rules,   as  a  matter   of  course,   they  can  be 
called   up   by  any   member   as   a   matter   of  right, 
when  the  business  to  which  they  belong  is  reached 
in  its  regular  order. 

3.  But    it     is    deemed    discourteous,     when    the 
matter    lies    on    the    table,    to    call    it    up    in    the 
absence    of   the    mover,    or   against    his    wishes,    if 
present,    provided   it    refers    to    a    matter    of   local 
or  private  concern  in  the  mover's  special  charge; 
and  provided,   further,  that  it  is  not  designed  or 
calculated    to   delay    final   action   on   any   measure 
or    proposition    before    the    body,    or    impede    the 
progress  of  business. 

RESOLUTIONS 

All  resolutions  must  be  committed  to  writing, 
if  demanded,  and  the  name  of  the  mover  should 
be  signed  thereto. 

BIGHTS   OF    MEMBERS 

1.  It  is  the  right  of  a  member  to  have  the  ques- 
tion put  on  his  motion,   and  a   refusal  to  do  this 
is  a  breach  of  order  on  the  part  of  the  chair. 

2.  It  is  the  right  of  a  member  to  insist  on  the 
execution  of  a  standing  order  of  the  body. 

3.  And  it  is  the   right  of  a  member,   if  he  ob- 
serve   that    a    quorum    is    not    present   during   the 
transaction  of  business,  to  call  for  a  count. 


ORDER   AND   DECORUM 

1.  When    the    presiding    officer    takes    the    chair 
every  member  is  to   be  seated. 

2.  When  any  member  means  to  speak,  he  is  to 
stand    up,    uncovered,    and    to    address    himself — 
not   to   those   around,   or   to   any   particular   mem- 
ber— but    to    the   presiding    officer,    who   calls   him 
by    his    name;    or,    better    still,    indicates    him    by 
his    position,    or    otherwise,    that    the    body    may 
take  notice  who  it  is  that  speaks.     But  a  member 
who   is   indisposed   may  be   indulged  to  speak  sit- 
ting. 

3.  When    a    member    stands    up    to    speak,    no 
question    is    to   be    put;    but    he    is    to   be    heard, 
unless   the   body   overrules   him. 

4.  If    two    or    more    rise    to    speak    nearly    to- 
gether,   the    chairman    decides    who    was    first    up, 
and    calls    him    by    name    or    location;    whereupon 
he  proceeds,   unless   he  voluntarily  sits  down  and 
gives   way  to  the  other.     But  if  the  chairman   is 
not  clear   in   his   mind,   or  the   body  does   not   ac- 
quiesce in   his  decision,   the  question  is  to  be  put 
as  to  which  was  first  up. 

5.  No    man    can    speak    more    than    once    to   the 
same    question,    not    even    though    he    change    his 
opinion    in   the    meanwhile,    unless   by   unanimous 
consent. 

6.  But   if  he  be   the  mover,   proposer,   or  intro- 
ducer  of  the  question   pending,    he   may  close  the 
debate;  but  only  after  every  one  desiring  to  speak 
on  it  shall   have  been  heard. 

7.  Or  he   may   be   permitted   to   speak   again,   to 
clear  a  matter  of  fact;   or  merely  to  explain  him- 
self  in   some    material    part   of    his    speech;    or   to 
the    manner   and    words   of   the    question,    keeping 
himself   to   that   only,    and   not   traveling   into   the 
merits  of  it;  or  to  the  orders  of  the  body,  if  they 
be  transgressed,   keeping   within  that  line. 

8.  If  the   chairman  rise  to  state  a  point  of  or- 
der,   give    information,    or   otherwise   speak    within 
his    privilege,    the    member    standing    up   must    re- 
sume   his    seat,    that    the    chairman    may    be    first 
heard. 

9.  No   one   is   to   speak   impertinently  or  beside 
the   question,    superfluously    or    tediously. 

10.  No    person    is    to    use    indecent    language 
against    the    proceedings    of    the    body;    and    no 
prior    determination    of    which    is    to    be    reflected 
on  by  any  member,   unless  he  means  to  conclude 
with  a  motion  to  rescind   it.     While  a  proposition 
is    under    consideration,    however,    though    it    has 
been    even    reported    by    a    committee,    reflections 
upon   it   are   not    reflections   upon,  the   body   itself. 

11.  No    person,    in    speaking,    is    to    mention    a 
member    then    present    by    his    name;    but    to    de- 
scribe him  by  his  seat,  or  as  one  who  spoke  last; 
or  on  the  other  side  of  the  question;  or  in  some 
other  indirect  way  to  identify  him. 

12.  Nor    is    he    to    digress    from    the    matter    to 
fall    upon    the   person;    nor  to   use   even   unmanly 
words    against    a    member;    nor    to    arraign    the 
motives    of    those    who    propose    or    advocate    it. 
All    such    violations    of    order    it    is    the    duty    of 
the    chair    to    immediately    suppress. 

13.  When   a    member    shall   be    called   to    order 
by  a  member  or  the  chair,  he  shall  sit  down  until 
the   point   of  order  is  decided.     The  member  who 
makes    the    call    shall    state    his    point    of    order, 
and   the    question   shall   be   decided   by  the   chair, 
without   debate;   subject,    of  course,   to  an  appeal. 

14.  While    the    chair    is    putting   a   question,    or 
addressing    the    body,    none   shall    walk   out   of   or 
across   the   room;   nor,   in   such  case,   nor  while  a 
member    is    speaking,    shall    entertain    private   dis- 
course;   nor,    while   a   member   is  speaking,    shall 


RULES   FOR   PARLIAMENTARY    PROCEDURE 


743 


pass  between  him  and  the  chair.  Every  member 
shall  remain  uncovered  while  the  body  is  in  ses- 
sion. No  member,  or  other  person,  shall  visit  or 
remain  near  the  secretary's  table  while  the  ayes 
and  noes  are  being  called,  or  the  ballots  counted. 

15.  No  one  is  to  disturb  another  in  his  speech 
by  hissing,  coughing,  spitting,  or  rude  exclama- 
tions; nor  stand  up  to  interrupt  him;  nor  pass 
between  the  chair  and  the  speaking  member,  nor 
go  across  the  house  while  he  is  speaking;  nor 
walk  up  and  down  the  floor;  nor  take  books  or 
papers  from  the  table,  or  write  there.  Neverthe- 
less, if  no  attention  is  paid  to  what  the  member 
says,  it  is  a  piece  of  prudence  for  him  to  sit 
down,  as  the  ill-manners  of  his  colleagues  are 
prima  facie  evidence  that  he  is  saying  nothing 
worth  the  hearing. 

:6.  If  repeated  calls  do  not  produce  order,  the 
chair  may  call  any  member  by  name  who  obsti- 
nately persists  in  irregularity,  whereupon  the 
main  body  may  require  the  member  to  sit  down. 
He  must  be  heard  in  exculpation,  if  it  is  intended 
to  proceed  further,  and  then  withdraw  to  await 
the  further  action  of  his  colleagues,  who  may 
pass  a  vote  of  censure  upon  him;  or,  if  he  per- 
sist, may  act  in  his  case  in  the  manner  prescribed 
in  the  by-laws  of  the  body. 

17.  Disorderly   words  are  not  to  be  noted  until 
the    member    finishes   his    speech,    unless    they   are 
manifestly     personal,     indecent,     blasphemous,     or 
reflecting   upon    the    house.     The    offensive    words 
are    to   be    taken    down    by    the    member    who   ob- 
jects,  or  by  the  secretary,   at  his  request.     If  the 
chair    thinks    they    are    not    disorderly,    he    directs 
them  not  to  be  taken  down  by  the  secretary,   un- 
less there  be  a  general  cry  to  the  contrary.     They 
are   to   be    read,    when    taken    down,    to  the  mem- 
ber, who  may  deny  them;  in  which  case  the  body 
shall  decide  by  vote  whether  they  are  his  or  not. 
If   they   are   voted   to   be    his,    or   if    he    acknowl- 
edge   them,    he    must    justify    them    satisfactorily, 
explain    the    use    of    them,    or    apologize.      If    the 
offended    member    still    persists,    and    is   not    satis- 
fied,  the  sense  of  the  body  may  be  taken,   during 
which    both    members   must   withdraw.     But    when 
business    has    intervened,    or    any    member    spoken 
after  the   offensive   words,  they  can   not  be   taken 
down. 

1 8.  Disorderly  words  spoken  in  committee  must 
be   written   down,    as   in   the   main  body;    but  the 
committee   can  only  report  them  to  the  latter  for 
its  action. 

19.  Blasphemous    or   seditious    words,    or    words 
reflecting    on    the    religious   belief   of   members   or 
on   religion    generally,   are    not   in   order. 

20.  No   member   can   be   present   when   anything 
which    concerns     himself    is    debating,     much    less 
vote  upon  it;   nor  is  any  member  to  speak  to  the 
merit  of  it  until   he   withdraws.     Nevertheless,   he 
may  be  heard  upon  it  before  he  withdraws. 

21.  No    member    is    to    come    into    the    place    of 
meeting,   or   remain  there,  with   his   head  covered, 
nor  put  on  his  hat  while  there. 

22.  A  question   of  order  may  be  adjourned  for 
a   time,    to   look   into   precedents. 

23.  When  a  member  is  called  to  order,   he  shall 
sit    down    at    once,    unless    permitted    to    explain. 
If    the    body   be    appealed    to,    it    shall   decide   the 
question    without    debate;    if   there   be    no   appeal, 
the    decision    of   the    chair   shall   be    submitted   to. 
If   the    decision   be    in   favor   of   the    member,    he 
shall    be    allowed    to   proceed;    if   against    him,    he 
shall   not   proceed   without  the  leave   of  the  body; 
and   the  body  may,   if  it  think  proper,   proceed  to 
censure  him. 


24.  All  decisions  of  the  presiding  officer  are 
liable  to  be  reversed,  altered,  or  amended  by  the 
body. 

ADJOURNMENTS   AND    RECESSES 

An  adjournment  is  the  closing  of  a  session 
for  the  day  to  be  resumed  on  another  day;  on 
which  day  the  regular  routine  of  business  is  com- 
menced anew,  except  when  superseded  by  a  spe- 
cial order. 

A  recess  is  a  suspension  of  business  from  one 
hour  of  a  day  to  another  hour  of  the  same  day; 
at  which  hour  business  is  taken  up  at  the  point 
where  it  was  left,  unless  a  special  order  takes 
its  place. 

A  motion  to  adjourn  can  not  be  amended  by 
adding  the  day  and  hour.  It  must  be  put  simply 
that  this  body  do  now  adjourn;  and,  if  carried 
in  the  affirmative,  it  is  adjourned  to  the  next 
sitting  day,  or  without  day,  as  the  case  may  be. 
But  any  special  time  of  adjournment  may  be 
fixed  by  a  previous  resolution. 

If  a  question  be  put  for  adjournment,  it  is  no 
adjournment  till  so  pronounced  by  the  chair. 
And  it  is  a  breach  of  courtesy  for  a  member  to 
leave  his  place  until  the  chair  has  pronounced  on 
the  question  of  adjournment. 

SUSPENSION    OF    RULES 

By  unanimous  consent  any  rule  or  order  may 
be  suspended  in  part  or  whole;  but  the  object 
of  suspending  the  rule  must  be  stated  in  the 
motion,  and  when  that  object  has  failed  or  been 
attained  the  rule  regains  its  former  force. 

FORCE    OF    WORDS 

Throughout  these  rules,  whenever  the  word 
"body"  or  "main  body"  has  been  used,  it  means 
the  society,  club,  association,  or  other  organized 
body  to  which  the  rules  are  made  to  apply. 

TIE  VOTE 

Where  a  presiding  officer  is  not  chosen  out  of 
the  body  itself,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent  of  the  United  States,  the  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor of  a  State,  or  the  Mayor  of  a  city  or 
town,  who  may  preside  over  the  Common  Coun- 
cil, he  has  naturally  no  vote.  The  Constitution 
in  the  case  of  the  first  two,  and  the  charter  in 
case  of  the  last,  give  them  the  privilege  of  de- 
ciding in  case  of  a  tie,  and  they  do  not  vote 
otherwise. 

But  in  the  case  of  the  Speaker  of  Congress, 
or  of  a  House  of  Assembly,  or  a  State  Senate 
choosing  its  own  presiding  officer,  the  Speaker 
or  President  votes  like  any  other  member,  only 
it  is  customary  for  the  clerk,  in  calling  the  roll, 
to  call  him  by  his  title,  and  not  by  his  name. 
Hence  in  ordinary  societies  the  presiding  officer 
votes  on  all  questions,  and  must  vote  if  it  be 
pressed,  or  be  guilty  of  contempt  of  the  main 
body,  as  in  the  case  of  any  other  member.  The 
effect  of  a  tie  vote  then  is  merely  that  the  ques- 
tion before  the  body,  not  having  a  majority  of 
votes,  is  lost. 

OF   RESOLUTIONS 

A  written  resolution  is  the  formal  record  of 
opinion  upon  one  or  more  subjects,  expressed  by 
a  body  of  men.  As  in  almost  every  species  of 
written  composition,  the  language  should  be  sim- 
ple, terse,  and  forcible. 

A  resolution  may  or  may  not  be  prefaced  by 
a  preamble.  If  it  be  so  constructed,  the  pream- 
ble should  set  forth  briefly  the  cause  of  the  reso- 


744 


RULES    FOR   PARLIAMENTARY    PROCEDURE 


lution  which  is  to  follow.  This  preamble  is  usu- 
ally commenced  with  the  word  "Whereas." 

After  this  comes  the  resolution  or  resolutions 
— which  commence  with  the  word  "Resolved." 

A  good  resolution — one  that  is  pithy  and  forci- 
ble— requires  some  care  in  its  composition.  Un- 
less the  writer  be  a  very  experienced  one,  he  had 
better  avoid  all  figures  of  rhetoric,  and  confine 
himself  to .  a  plain  statement  of  the  opinion  he 
wishes  to  convey. 

As  example  is  always  useful,  we  will  take  a 
subject,  and  show  the  preferable  form  of  a  pre- 
amble and  resolution  upon  it. 

We  will  suppose  that  a  party  majority  in  the 
Legislature  passes  a  registry  law,  which  is  not 
approved  by  the  opposite  party,  and  a  public 
meeting  of  the  members  of  the  latter  desire  to 
condemn  it.  The  following  preamble  and  reso- 
lutions may  be  suggested: 

"Whereas,  It  is  proper  for  the  people,  in  their 
public  assemblages,  to  express  their  views  of  the 
conduct  of  those  in  office,  and  to  award  to  the 
latter  their  approval  or  censure;  and 

"Whereas,  The  late  Legislature  of  this  State 
have  passed  an  oppressive  registry  bill,  odious  in 
its  principles,  and  burdensome  in  its  details; 
therefore, 

"Resolved,  That  the  act  referred  to  meets  our 
unqualified  disapproval  and  decided  condemna- 
tion; that  we  will  spare  no  efforts  to  promote  its 
abrogation;  and  that  we  will  vote  for  no  candi- 
date for  Senate  or  Assembly  who  is  not  pledged 
to  its  speedy  repeal." 

Now,  the  above  is  not  more  wordy  than  such 
resolutions  usually  are,  yet  it  can  be  easily  sim- 
plified. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  aver  that  it  is  proper  for 
the  people  to  express  their  views  on  official  con- 
duct "in  their  public  assemblages,"  since  it  is 
their  right  to  do  that  also  in  other  places.  The 
rest  of  the  first  paragraph  is  a  mere  repetition. 
And,  finally,  the  whole  is  a  matter  generally  ad- 
mitted, and,  therefore,  not  the  subject  of  affirma- 
tion. The  preamble  had  better  begin  with  the 
second  paragraph.  But  that  contains  useless 
words  also.  Anything  which  is  oppressive  is 
apt  to  be  odious  in  its  principles  and  burden- 
some in  its  details,  and  vice  versa. 

The  resolution  itself  contains  superfluous  mat- 
ter in  its  phrases — "decided  condemnation"  or 
"unqualified  disapproval"  should  be  stricken  out, 
and  the  remainder  of  the  paragraph  condensed. 

Again:  the  statements  of  the  preamble  may  be 
as  fully  expressed  in  the  body  of  the  resolution 
itself,  and  may  be  properly  omitted. 

Following  these  hints,  the  resolution  would 
read  as  follows: 

"Resolved,  That  we  are  opposed  to  the  present 
oppressive  registry  law,  and  that  we  will  vote 
for  no  candidate  for  either  house  of  the  Legis- 
lature who  is  not  pledged  to  its  speedy  repeal." 

With  these  remarks  upon  composition,  we  pro- 
ceed to  lay  before  the  reader  a  series  of  resolu- 
tions upon  various  ordinary  subjects,  which,  may 
possibly  afford  him  hints,  or  serve  for  the  nu- 
cleus of  others. 

OF  REPORTS 

A  report  is  the  written  statement  of  a  person 
having  a  particular  matter  in  charge,  of  the  acts 
officially  performed,  or  of  a  committee  concern- 
ing the  results  of  an  investigation  or  matter  con- 
fided to  their  care.  The  matter  of  the  report  is 
regulated  by  the  same  rules,  as  regards  its  style 
and  nature,  as  govern  resolutions. 


RECAPITULATION   OF  CERTAIN 
POINTS 

In  order  to  impress  certain  points  more  strongly 
on  the  mind,  we  present  in  a  condensed  form  the 
rules   in   regard   to   matters   likely   to   confuse  the    I 
reader. 

I.    MOTIONS    IN    ORDER   DURING   DEBATE 

These  in  their  order  of  precedence  are: 

1.  To  adjourn. 

2.  To  lay  on  the  table. 

3.  To   postpone    indefinitely. 

4.  To  postpone  to  a  day  certain. 

5.  To   commit. 

6.  To  amend. 

II.    MOTIONS    IN    THEIR    ORDER    OF    PRECEDENCE 

1.  To   fix    time    [and    place,    if    desired]    of   ad- 
journment. 

2.  To   adjourn. 

3.  For   the   order   of  the  day. 

4.  To  lay   on  the   table. 

5.  For    the    previous    question. 

6.  To   postpone  indefinitely. 

7.  To  postpone   to  a  time  certain. 

8.  To   commit. 

9.  To  amend. 

III.  MOTIONS    IN    ORDER    WHEN    A    MEMBER    HAS    THE 

FLOOR 

1.  Call  to   order. 

2.  Appeal   from  decision  of  the  chair. 

3.  Objection   to   considering  a   question. 

[Not    in    order    if    debate    have    already    begun 
on   the   subject.] 

4.  That   the   question   be   discussed. 

5.  For  the  order  of  the  day. 

IV.  MOTIONS     OPENING     MAIN     QUESTIONS     TO     DEBATE     I 

1.  To   strike    out  enacting  clause   of   bill   or  or- 
dinance   [of   course,    not   applicable    in   private   so- 
cieties,   and    used    in    State    or    Municipal    Legisla- 
tures   when    it    is   desirable    to   force   the   fight   on 
the   measure   at   the   second   reading]. 

2.  To   commit  the   question. 

3.  To    refer. 

4.  To    postpone    indefinitely. 

5.  To  reconsider  a  debatable  question.. 

V.  SUCCESSFUL    MOTIONS    THAT    CAN    NOT    BE    RECON- 

SIDERED 

1.  Adjournment. 

2.  To  take   from  the  table. 

3.  To   reconsider. 

4.  That  the   committee   rise. 

5.  To  suspend   the   rules. 

VI.     MATTERS     NOT    SUBJECT    TO    AMENDMENT 

1.  Motion   to  adjourn. 

2.  Amendment   to  an   amendment. 

3.  An    appeal    from    the    decision    of   the    chair. 

4.  A   call  to  order. 

5.  Motion  for  leave  to  continue  speaking  after 
having  been  pronounced  out  of  order. 

6.  Motion,  to   lay   on  the  table. 

7.  Objections   to   the    consideration    of   a   ques- 
tion. 

8.  Motion   for  the  order  of  the  day. 

9.  Motion   to  indefinitely   postpone. 

10.  Call   for  the  previous  question. 

11.  Motion   to   reconsider. 

12.  Motion   that  the   committee   rise. 

13.  Motion  that  a  question  be  discussed. 

14.  Motion   to  suspend  the  rules. 


RULES   FOR   PARLIAMENTARY   PROCEDURE 


745 


15.  Motion   to  take  from   the  table. 

1 6.  Motion   to    take    up   a   question  out   of  the 
ffoper   order. 

17.  Motion   for  leave  to  withdraw  a  motion. 

VII.    NON-DEBATABLE    MATTERS 

i.  A  motion  to  adjourn.  But  a  motion  to 
fix  the  time  to  which  the  Society  shall  adjourn, 
•when  it  does  adjourn,  is  debatable. 

2.  An  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  chair, 
when  a  question  of  decorum  is  in  debate,  or  to 
the  priority  of  business.  And  no  appeal  can  be 
made  the  subject  of  debate  while  the  previous 
question  is  pending. 

3.  A  call  to  order  is  not  debatable. 

4.  Motion  to  extend  the  limit  of  debate. 

5.  Motion  to   have   leave   to  continue  speaking 
after   having  been  pronounced  out  of  order. 

6.  Motion  to  lay  on  the  table. 

7.  Motion   to   limit  debate. 

8.  Objection    to   the   consideration   of  a   ques- 
tion  proposed. 

9.  Motion  for  the  order  of  the  day. 

10.  Motion   for  the   previous   quest ioru 

11.  Questions  in   regard  to  priority  of  business. 

12.  Call   for  the  reading  of  papers. 

13.  To    reconsider   an   undebatable    question. 

14.  Motion  that  the  committee  rise. 

15.  Motion    to    allow    the    question   to   &e    dis- 
cussed. 

1 6.  Motion  to  suspend  the  rules. 

17.  Motion   to   take    from   the   table. 

1 8.  Motion  to  take  up  a  question  out  of  proper 
order. 

19.  Leave  to  withdraw  a  motion. 

VIII.    FORMS    OF    PUTTING    CERTAIN    QUESTIONS 

In  putting  the  question  on  an  appeal,  the  chair 
does  not  ask  if  the  decision  of  the  chair  be 
overruled,  but — "Shall  the  decision  of  the  chair 
be  sustained?"  or  "Shall  the  decision  of  the 
chair  stand?"  If  there  be  a  tie  vote,  the  de- 
cision of  the  chair  is  overruled,  because  of  the 
lack  of  a  majority. 

In  putting  the  question  on  striking  out  cer- 
tain words,  it  is  put — "Shall  these  words  [nam- 
ing them]  stand  as  part  of  the  resolution?"  If 
there  be  a  tie  vote,  they  are  struck  out,  because 
a  majority  have  not  pronounced  in  their  favor. 

On  a  demand  for  the  order  of  the  day,  the 
question  is  put — "Witt  the  Society  [council,  club, 
whatever  it  is]  now  proceed  to  the  order  [or 
orders]  of  the  day?" 

On  a  demand  for  the  previous  question,  the 
form  is — "Shall  the  main  question  be  now  put?" 

On  an  objection  to  the  consideration  of  a 
question,  if  made  at  the  time  of  the  introduction 
of  the  subject,  the  form  is — "Shall  the  question 
be  considered T" 

On  putting  the  yeas  and  nays — "As  many  as 
are  in  favor  of  the  motion  [or  resolutions]  will, 
when  their  names  are  called,  answer  Aye.  Those 
of  the  contrary  opinion,  No.  Mr.  Secretary, 
call  the  roll." 

On  a  call  for  the  yeas  and  nays — "As  many 
as  are  in  favor  of  calling  the  yeas  and  nays 
will,  when  their  names  are  called,  say  Aye.  Mr. 
Secretary,  call  the  roll."  When  the  requisite 
number  have  answered  the  Secretary  suspends 
calling,  reports  result  to  chair,  who  says  [nam- 
ing the  number],  "In  the  affirmative.  The  yeas 
and  nays  are  ordered,"  Or,  if  there  be  no  ob- 


jection, he  may  say — "Those  in  favor  of  calling 
the  yeas  and  nays  will  rise  and  remain  standing 
till  counted."  He  then  counts  them  audibly,  and 
announces  the  number  and  result.  But  if  any 
member  cries  "vote"  or  otherwise  dissents,  the 
roll  must  be  called  for  the  ayes  only. 

IX.   TWO-THIRDS  VOTE 

There  is  no  such  thing  naturally  as  the  neces- 
sity of  a  two-thirds  vote.  By  the  rules  of  order, 
a  majority  suffices  to  order  the  previous  question, 
to  limit  the  time  of  speeches,  to  limit  the  debate 
-—which  last  is  virtually  ordering  the  previous 
question  at  a  fixed  hour — or  to  consider  a  ques- 
tion when  objected  to;  while  to  suspend  the 
rules,  or  amend  them,  or  to  make  a  special  or- 
der, or  to  move  for  the  discussion  of  a  non-de- 
batable question,  or  to  take  up  a  question  out 
of  its  order — the  three  last  amounting  to  a  sus- 
pension of  the  rules— requires  unanimous  consent. 

But  while  this  is  the  practice  in  legislative 
bodies,  in  ordinary  organizations,  where  celerity 
in  the  despatch  of  business  is  not  of  great  im- 
portance, where  the  previous  question  is  looked 
upon  as  a  device  to  prevent  the  minority  from 
expressing  an  opinion,  and  where  a  suspension 
of  the  rules  is  more  frequently  necessary,  the 
following  special  rule  is  sometimes  adopted: 

It  shall  require  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  mem- 
bers present  at  any  meeting  to  call  the  previous 
question,  to  limit  debate,  to  fix  a  specified  hour 
for  closing  debate,  to  consider  a  question  when 
objected  to  on  its  introduction,  to  make  a  special 
order,  to  suspend  or  to  amend  the  rules,  to  or- 
der the  discussion  of  a  subject  noni-debatable 
under  the  rules,  or  to  take  up  a  question  out  ol 
its  order. 

This  may  be  placed  in  the  constitution  or  by- 
laws of  the  society,  when  it  will  become  para- 
mount law,  to  which  the  rules  of  order  opposed 
to  it  must  yield. 

The  safest  mode,  however,  will  be  found  to 
adhere  to  the  parliamentary  rules. 

X.    MATTER-OF-COURSE   QUESTION 

To  expedite  business,  that  to  which  no  one 
objects,  when  stated  by  the  chair,  is  considered 
ordered.  Thus,  the  reception  of  a  report,  call- 
ing for  division,  reception  of  communication, 
withdrawal  of  a  motion  before  the  house,  leave 
to  continue  speech  in  order  after  being  pro- 
nounced out  of  order,  etc,,  are  permitted  with- 
out a  vote,  if  no  objection  be  made.  So  in  mak- 
ing a  motion,  which  strictly  (when  not  a  question 
of  order,  an  objection  to  the  consideration  of  a 
question,  or  a  call  for  the  order  of  the  day) 
requires  to  be  seconded,  it  is  always  taken  for 
granted  that  it  has  been,  unless  some  one  should 
violate  courtesy  so  far  as  to  inquire.  In  that 
case,  it  must  be  seconded,  or  it  falls  to  the 
ground. 

It  is  considered  unfair  to  insist  upon  the  sec- 
onding of  a  motion,  because  it  violates  the  natu- 
ral right  of  a  member  to  get  a  proposition  in 
good  faith  before  the  house;  but,  if  his  motion 
be  made  for  dilatory  purposes,  or  to  annoy  and 
weary  out  the  majority,  or  be  in  effect,  though 
not  in  shape,  offensive  to  the  house,  it  is  emi- 
nently proper  that  he  should  have  at  least  one 
member  to  back  him  in  his  attempt;  and  it  is  no 
discourtesy  to  cut  off  his  discourtesy  by  demand- 
ing the  seconder. 


THE  ER-WRI  ER 


EVERY  position  in  life  demands  letter-writing.     A  letter  is  the  great 
link  between  parents  and  children,  between  lovers,  between  friends; 
while  in  business  relations  it  makes  fortunes,  or  mars  them.    A  good 
letter  must,  first,  be  absolutely  correct  in  every  mechanical  detail;  then 
style  comes  into  question;  then  the  matter,  which  must  be  intelligible  to 
the  meanest  as  well  as  the  highest  understanding.    The  great  art  of  letter- 
writing  is  to  be  able  to  write  gracefully  and  with  ease,  and  no  letter  should 
wear  the  appearance  of  having  been  laboriously  studied. 

There  are  two  things  to  be  considered  in  letters.  The  first  is  that  the 
grammatical  and  rhetorical  form  should  be  correct — and  most  of  these 
matters  have  already  been  treated.  The  second  is  that  the  form  of  the 
letter  should  be  suitable  to  the  object  in  view.  Since  there  are  very  many 
occasions  when  letters  must  be  written  for  particular  purposes,  both  business 
and  social,  it  is  a  great  help  to  the  writer  to  have  at  hand  sample  forms  that 
may  be  used  for  his  purpose,  or  that  may  guide  him  in  expressing  himself 
more  directly  to  the  point.  For  this  reason  a  number  of  model  letters  have 
been  included  in  this  article,  and  reference  to  these  pages  will  frequently 
help  the  writer  to  find  the  very  form  he  wishes  to  use  for  a  particular 
occasion. 


ESSENTIAL  POINTS   IN   LETTER-WRITING 


HANDWRITING.— The  first  point  to  he 
observed  in  your  letter  is  that  you 
write  in  a  clear,  legible  hand,  that  anybody 
and  everybody  can  read.  You  may  fill  your 
pages  with  the  most  exquisite  and  sparkling 
ideas,  but  if  they  can  not  be  read  except 
to  the  torture  of  the  peruser,  your  diamond 
thoughts  lose  all  their  sparkle. 

ORTHOGRAPHY  is  next  to  be  considered. 
Bad  spelling  is  disgraceful,  and  many  peo- 
ple spell  badly  from  simple  carelessness. 
Read  carefully  the  works  of  the  best  au- 
thors. Write  extracts  from  these  works. 
(746) 


and  you  will  intuitively  spell  correctly. 
Your  sense  will  become  offended  at  a  mis- 
spelt word.  Use  the  simplest  language. 
Always  have  a  dictionary  beside  you,  but 
never  consult  it  unless  you  are  in  doubt. 
Once  consulted,  you  should  remember  the 
word  ever  afterward.  Never  divide  your 
words  into  syllables  at  the  end  of  the  line 
unless  you  can  not  help  it.  If  you  have 
space  for  the  first  syllable,  let  your  hyphen 
be  bold.  Thus: 

It  is  sometimes  a  great  con- 
solation to  me  that,  etc.,  etc. 


THE    LETTER   WRITER 


747 


A  word  of  one  syllable  must  not  be  di- 
vided. Bring  it  bodily  over  to  the  next 
line. 

Compound  words  must  be  divided  into 
the  simple  words  composing  them.  Thus : 
War-whoop,  not  warw-hoop;  bread-stuff, 
not  breadst-uff. 

GRAMMAR. — The  essential  principles  of 
grammar  and  punctuation  having  already 
been  explained  in  former  articles,  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  repeat  them  here.  If 
one  is  uncertain  on  these  points  he  can  do 
no  better  than  to  study  them  carefully  be- 
fore proceeding.  On  the  questions  of  capi- 
talization, style,  etc.,  a  few  words  may  be 
added  here. 

CAPITALIZATION. — The  capital  letters  only 
set  apart  the  sentences  and  paragraphs,  and 
while  their  proper  use  adds  greatly  to  the 
beauty  of  an  epistle,  their  omission  or  im- 
proper use  will  make  the  pages  present  a 
perfectly  absurd  appearance.  In  places  other 
than  at  the  beginning  of  sentences  their  use 
is  determined  by  the  following  rules: 

Capitals: 

(1)  Begin  all  names  of  persons  or  places. 

(2)  Begin  all  titles,  as   President,  Vice- 
President,   General,  Doctor,  or  Captain. 

(3)  Begin  the  words,  North,  South,  East, 
West,   and  their  compounds  and  abbrevia- 
tions, as  North-east.  S.  W. 

(4)  Begin  the  names  of  the  Deity  and 
Heaven,  or  the  pronoun  used  for  the  for- 
mer, as,  in  His  mercy — Thou,  Father. 

(5)  Begin  all  adjectives  formed  from  the 
names  of  places  or  points  of  the  compass, 
as  English,  Northern. 

(6)  Begin  every  line  of  poetry. 

(7)  Begin  all  quotations. 

(8)  Begin  all  titles  of  books,  and  usually 
each  important  word  of  the  title,  as, '"Ban- 
croft's History  of  the  United  States." 

(9)  Begin   the    name    of   any   historical 
event,  as  the  Civil  War,  the  Revolution. 

(10)  Begin  all  the  names  of  the  months, 
as  June,  April,  August. 

(n)  Begin  all  addresses,  as,  Dear  Sir — 
Dear  Madam. 

(12)  Must,  however,  never  be  placed  in 
the  middle  of  a  word;"  nor,  except  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  foregoing  rules,  in  the 
middle  of  a  sentence.  However,  the  pro- 
noun "I/1  and  the  interjection  "O,"  must  in- 
variably be  capitals.  The  interjection  "oh," 
and  the  other  pronouns,  "you,"  "he,"  "she," 
etc.,  are  capitalized  only  when  they  begin 
sentences,  paragraphs,  or  quotations. 

LITERARY  STYLE,  or  the  method  of  self- 
expression,  can  not  be  denned  by  rules. 
Each  one's  style  is  peculiarly  his  own. 


Quote  as  little  as  possible,  and  avoid  the 
use  of  too  many  adjectives.  Avoid  long  sen- 
tences, and  florid  language. 

Be  very  careful  not  to  repeat  the  same 
word.  Tautology  is  a  crime  in  writing. 
Read  this  and  see  how  you  like  it: 

"Willie  has  come.  Johnny  will  come  to- 
morrow. Will  you  come  and  spend  a  day 
with  us?  Make  Susie  come.  Summer  has 
come  at  last." 

This  is  tautology.  Do  not  underline  un- 
less in  very  extreme  cases. 

"You  know,  darling,  how  intensely  I. love 
you,"  is  perhaps  excusable. 

Never  abbreviate  except  in  business.  Dates 
should  be  given  in  figures,  and  money,  in 
parentheses,  thus,  "ten  thousand  dollars 
($10,000)." 

Begin  a  letter  this  way: 

RICHMOND,  VA., 
June  1st, 


NEW  YORK,  Sept.  7th,  1901. 

Avoid  postscripts.  They  are  only  embar- 
rassing. Take  your  envelope,  and  having 
neatly  folded  your  letter,  place  it  in  the 
envelope,  close  the  envelope  and  addresr. 
in  the  most  legible  manner. 

ABBREVIATIONS. — Abbreviate  the  names  of 
the  States  as  follows : 

Maine,  Me.;  New  Hampshire,  N.  H.; 
Vermont,  Vt. ;  Massachusetts,  Mass. ;  Rhode 
Island,  R.  I.;  Connecticut,  Conn.;  New 
York,  N.  Y. ;  New  Jersey,  N.  J. ;  Pennsyl- 
vania, Penn.  or  Pa. ;  Delaware,  Del. ;  Mary- 
land, Md. ;  Virginia,  Va. ;  North  Carolina, 
N.  C. ;  South  Carolina,-  S.  C. ;  Georgia, 
Ga. ;  Alabama,  Ala. ;  Mississippi,  Miss. ; 
Missouri,  Mo. ;  Louisiana,  La. ;  Tennessee, 
Tenn. ;  Kentucky,  Ky. ;  Indiana,  Ind. ;  Ohio, 
O. ;  Michigan,  Mich. ;  Illinois,  111. ;  Wiscon- 
sin, Wis. ;  Arkansas,  Ark. ;  Texas,  Tex. ; 
Iowa,  la. ;  Florida,  Fla. ;  Oregon,  Ore. ', 
California,  Cal. ;  Minnesota,  Minn. ;  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  D.  C. 

REPLIES 

There  is  no  greater  mark  of  good-breed- 
ing and  politeness  than  the  prompt  reply  to 
a  letter.  Never  lose  a  moment,  if  possible, 
in  replying  to  one.  If  the  reply  requires 
delay,  write  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  the 
letter.  Never  reply  by  proxy  if  you  are 
able  to  write  yourself. 

Never  write  on  a  half  sheet  of  paper. 

Avoid  pedantry. 

Never  wrfte  a  congratulatory  letter  upon 


748 


THE    LETTER-WRITER 


mourning-paper,  even  if  you  are  in  mourn- 
ing. 

Never  try  to  patch  an  ill-formed  letter. 

If  you  add  your  own  address  to  a  letter, 
put  it  under  your  signature,  thus: 

Very  respectfully, 

ROBERT  R.  WHITE, 

154  R St., 

New  Orleans,  La. 

Date  every  letter  clearly  and  carefully.  It 
is  often  of  the  utmost  importance  to  know 
when  a  letter  was  written. 

We  give  examples  of  the  forms  of  letters 
in  general  use.  These  will  act  as  guides  to 
the  inexperienced. 

LETTERS  OF  INTRODUCTION. — Never  seal  a 
letter  of  introduction.  Mention  the  busi- 
ness in  which  the  party  whom  you  are  in- 


troducing is  or  was  engaged.  Write  the 
name  of  the  party  introduced  in  the  left- 
hand  corner  of  the  envelope  containing  the 
introduction.  Thus :  you  wish  to  introduce 
Mr.  Charles  Kendrick  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  to 
Mr.  Henry  Blachford  of  New  York.  Di- 
rect your  letter  as  in  the  accompanying  ex- 
ample : 

Henry  Blachford,  Esq. 

70  West  jotk  St., 

New  York. 

Introducing 

Charles  Kendrick,  of  Louisville^  Ky, 

If  you  want  to  be  stylish,  send  your  letter 
of  introduction,  with  your  card,  by  the  ser- 
vant at  the  private  residence  of  the  person 
to  whom  you  are  introduced.  Send  a  letter 
with  your  card  if  you  present  it  at  a  busi- 
ness office. 


EXAMPLES   OF  CORRECT   LETTER-WRITING 


INTRODUCING    ONE    LADY    TO    ANOTHER 

CHICAGO,  June  i,  1901. 
DEAR  EMILY: 

This  letter  will  introduce  my  dear  friend  Mrs. 
Thomas  Frost,  of  whom  you  have  heard  me  speak 
so  much.  I  feel  assured  that  this  introduction  will 
prove  of  considerable  pleasure  to  both  of  you. 

Any  attention  you  show  her  during  her  stay  in 
Gotham  will  be  appreciated  by 

Your  affectionate   friend, 

JULIA   M.   HAWS. 
MRS.  JOSEPH  M.  MINTURN. 

INTRODUCING    A    YOUNG    LADY    SEEKING 
EMPLOYMENT 

POUGHKEEPSIE,  June  i,   igoi. 
DEAR  MR.  JONES: 

The  young  lady  swhom  this  letter  will  make 
known  to  you  is  desirous  of  obtaining  employment 
in  your  city,  and  I  use  our  old  acquaintanceship 
as  the  bridge  to  your  good  offices  in  her  behalf. 
She  has  received  a  very  liberal  education  and  would 
prove  of  immense  value  to  a  family  whose  young 
children  needed  careful  and  judicious  teaching. 
She  is  gentle,  amiable,  and  willing.  I  trust  you 
may  be  able  to  serve  her. 
I  am,  etc., 

Dear  Mr.  Jones, 

Your  sincere  friend, 

R.  A.  APPLETOH. 
MR.  W.  F.  JONES. 

INTRODUCING  A  GENTLEMAN  SEEKING  A 
POSITION  IN  A  BUSINESS  OFFICE 

ALBANY,  June  i,  1901. 
MY  DEAR  SIR: 

Recognizing  your  well-merited  and  extensive  in- 
fluence in  the  commercial  circles  in  your  city,  I 
beg  to  introduce  to  you  W.  James  Farms,  who  is 
desirous  of  obtaining  a  clerkship  with  some  busi- 
ness house.  He  is  a  gentleman  of  capacity  and 
ability.  His  character  stands  A  i,  and  he  is  as  in- 
dustrious as  he  is  energetic.  He  considers  New 
York  a  better  field  than  this  place,  and  prefers  to 
try  his  chances  there  to  remaining  here.  He  can 


refer   to   me.     Trusting   that   you   will   lend   him   a 
helping  hand,  I  am, 

Yours  very  truly, 
JOSEPH  LYNCH,  Esq. 

JACOB  HILL. 


INTRODUCING   A   YOUNG   MARRIED   LADY 
TO  A  FRIEND  IN  HER  NEW  HOME 

STAMFORD,   CONN.,  June  i,   1901. 
MY  DEAR  MAMIE: 

Mrs.  Holcroft  will  present  this  note,  and  when  I 
tell  you  that  she  is  a  bride,  and  is  about  to  settle 
in  your  town,  I  feel  that  I  have  secured  her  a 
pleasant  friendship,  and  that  she  will  find  in  you 
an  old  new  friend  in  the  midst  of  strangers.  I 
know  that  you  will  pay  her  all  the  attention  that 
lies  in  your  power  for  the  sake  of  auld  lang  syne. 
Your  loving  friend, 

B  LOSS  IE. 
MRS.  W.  T.  MARSDEN. 


INTRODUCING    A    DAUGHTER    ABOUT    TO 
MAKE   A    VISIT 

CLEVELAND,  O.,  June  i,  1001. 
MY  DEAR  MRS.  BECKER: 

My  daughter  Ellen  will  present  this  in  person, 
as  her  introduction  to  her  mother's  old  friend, 
whose  kind  invitation  to  spend  a  few  weeks  she 
accepts,  con  amore.  That  she  will  have  a  delightful 
time  is  among  the  few  certainties  in  this  very  un- 
certain life.  You  may  find  her  a  little  shy  and  re- 
served, but  under  your  care  she  will  soon  feel  her- 
self as  much  at  home  as  in  Euclid  Avenue, 
Cleveland.  With  warmest  regards  to  your  hus- 
band, and  lots  of  love  to  yourself,  I  am, 
Your  sincere  friend, 

CATHERINE  E.  LAWSON. 

MRS.  JOSEPH  BECKER. 

INTRODUCING  A  GENTLEMAN  TO  A  LADY 
FRIEND 

WARRENSPORT,  ME.,  June  i,  1901. 
MY  DEAR  Miss  TENTINE: 

My   friend   Mr.    Robert  George  Balfin,   by  whom 
this  letter  will  be  presented,   is  about  to  settle  in 


THE    LETTER-WRITER 


749 


Dayton.  As  your  hospitality  is  proverbial,  may  I 
hope  for  a  little  slice  of  it  for  him?  And  1  look 
forward  to  good  reports  from  both  of  you  as  to 
the  ripening  of  a  friendship  the  seed  of  which  is 
now  sown  by 

Your  very  sincere  friend. 

JOHN  G.   SHEAR. 


ORDERING  A  SUPPLY  OF  GOODS  FOR  A 
STORE  IN  THE  COUNTRY 

SPIKE,  THOMPSON  COUNTY,  KY., 

June  i,  1901. 
MESSRS.  PARK  &  TILFORD,  NEW  YORK: 

GENTLEMEN — I  have  just  opened  a  large  grocery 
store  in  this  place,  and  the  prospects  of  success 
seem  assured.  I  should  be  happy  to  deal  with  your 
firm.  I  can  refer  you  to  Robinson  &  Charles,  of 
270  Broadway,  New  York.  This  being  our  first 
transaction,  I  shall  be  prepared  to  pay  the  express 
co.  upon  delivery  of  goods,  if  you  will  forward  me 
your  account,  with  the  usual  cash  discount,  by  a 
previous  mail. 

Inclosed  please  find  order,  which  I  should  wish 
filled  as  promptly  as  is  consistent  with  your  con- 
venience. 

Very  respectfully, 

R.  M.  MACARTHY. 


REPLY    TO    THE    ABOVE 

BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK, 

3  June,   1901. 
MR.  R.  M.  MACARTHY: 

DEAR  SIR — Your  favor  of  the  ist  to  hand.  We 
shall  be  pleased  to  open  an  account  with  you, 
Messrs.  Robinson  &  Charles  having  spoken  very 
highly  of  you. 

We  have  this  day  forwarded  to  your  address  the 
goods  according  to  your  invoice,  but  being  desirous 
of  obtaining  your  approval  of  their  quality  and 
value,  will  await  your  examination  for  the  inclosed 
bill,  which  is  subject  to  5  per  cent  discount  for 
prompt  cash.  A  post-office  order  or  draft  on  one 
of  our  city  banks  will  suit  our  convenience  equally 
well  as  collection  by  Dodd's  Express. 

Hoping  to  receive  further  orders,  we  are, 
Yours  respectfully, 

PARK  &  TILFORD. 


LETTER   PROPOSING   TO    SELL   GOODS   ON 
COMMISSION 

DRAKEVILLE,  YOUNG  Co.,  MD., 

January  28,  1901. 
MESSRS.  SHORT  &  STELT: 

GENTLEMEN — I  have  been  in  business  in  this 
town  for  over  twelve  years,  and  refer  to  the  Na- 
tional Bank,  and  to  Mr.  James  E.  Townsend,  ex- 
Mayor  and  a  prominent  citizen.  I  see  a  good  open- 
ing for  increasing  my  sales,  and  am  desirous  of  a 
supply  of  your  goods  to  sell  on  commission.  If  re- 
quired I  will  give  you  full  security  against  any 
loss. 

Should  this  proposition  meet  your  views,  please 
fill  the  accompanying  order,  and  give  me  the  bene- 
fit of  your  most  favorable  terms. 

Respectfully, 

JOHN  RILEY. 


REPLY    TO    THE    ABOVE 

BALTIMORE,  February  a,  1901. 
MR.  JOHN  RILEY: 

DEAR  SIR — We  have  to-day  forwarded  by  Dodd's 
Express  the  goods  ordered  per  your  letter  of  the 
28th  ult.;  the  inquiries  about  you,  as  suggested  by 
you,  having  proved  most  satisfactory.  The  com- 
mission is  10  per  cent.  The  bill  of  sale  accom- 
panies each  package. 

Trusting  this  opening  will  lead  to  a  long  con- 
nection of  mutual  benefit, 

We  are,  yours  respectfully, 

SHORT  &  STELT. 


REQUESTING    THE    SETTLEMENT    OF    AN 
ACCOUNT 

MILWAUKEE,  Wis.,  July  30,  1901. 
MR.  T.  W.  INGRAM: 

DEAR  SIR — As  we  have  a  large  payment  to  make 
at  the  end  of  next  week,  and  as  your  account  re- 
mains unsettled,  we  must  beg  of  you  to  send  us 
a  check  for  same  by  Tuesday  next.  We  are  re- 
luctant to  press  you,  but  we  are  pressed  ourselves. 
Very  respectfully, 

SMITH  &  BROWN. 

REQUESTING    PAYMENT    OF    RENT 

E.  29TH  ST.,  NEW  YORK, 

March  27,  1901. 
MR.  PATRICK  K.  CHISELHURST: 

DEAR  SIR — I  must  call  your  attention  to  the  fact 
that,  although  your  agreement  for  the  house  rented 
by  you  from  me  stipulates  monthly  payments  in 
advance,  you  have  failed  to  pay  for  three  months 
and  are  now  in  arrears  $206. 

If  you  fail  to  pay  the  account  within  six  days  I 
shall  be   reluctantly  compelled  to  place  the  matter 
in  the  hands  of  my  lawyer  for  collection. 
Very  respectfully, 

THOMAS  VOSBURG. 


FROM  A  LADY  IN  THE  COUNTRY  ORDER- 
ING  GOODS 

MAIDA  VALE,   TEWKSBURY  Co.,  MASS., 

January  18,   1901. 
MESSRS.  CALICE  &  TWIST, 

Washington    Street,    Boston : 

GENTLEMEN — Please  send  me  by  Dodd's  Express 
the  following  goods: 
12  yards  of  green  gauze. 
24  yards  gingham. 
2    pair   of   six-button    gloves,    lavender   color,    size 

6  1-4,   Dent's  make. 
6    pocket-handkerchiefs,    plain    white,    with    broad 

hemstitched   border. 

Also  please .  send  pattern  of  black  satin  of  a 
good  quality,  price  marked. 

The  goods  must  be  sent  to  Warrington  by  rail, 
and  to   Mr.   William   Snipe,   240   State   Street,   who 
will  pay  C.  O.   D. 
Direct  as  follows: 

MRS.   WILSON   TOFT, 

Warrington   Station, 

Tewksbury    Co.,    Mass. 

TO  THE  FATHER  OF  A  YOUNG  LADY,  ASK- 
ING HER   HAND   IN   MARRIAGE 

WASHINGTON  AVENUE,   BROOKLYN, 

March  12,   1901. 

SIR — I  venture  to  hope  that  you  will  call  all 
your  friendly  feelings  to  my  assistance,  in  consid- 
ering a  proposal  I  am  about  to  lay  before  you,  in 
which  my  happiness  is  completely  concerned. 

For  a  long  time  past  your  daughter,  Effie,  hag 
held  a  strong  hold  over  my  affections,  and  I  have 
reason  to  believe  that  I  am  not  indifferent  to  her. 
My  position  is  such  as  to  warrant  my  belief  that 
I  could  support  her  in  the  style  of  comfort  which 
she  so  well  deserves,  and  which  it  has  been  your 
constant  aim  to  provide  for  your  children.  As  re- 
gards my  character  and  disposition,  I  trust  they 
are  sufficiently  well  known  to  you  to  give  you  con- 
fidence in  the  prospect  of  your  child's  happiness. 

I  have  not,  however,  ventured  on  any  express 
declaration  of  my  feelings,  without  first  consulting 
you_  on  the  subject,  as  I  feel  persuaded  that  the 
straightforward  course  is  always  the  best,  and  that 
a  parent's  sanction  will  never  be  wanting  when  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  justify  its  being  accorded. 
Anxiously  awaiting  the  result  of  your  considera- 
tion on  this  important  and  interesting  subject, 

I  remain,  sir. 
Your  most  faithful  and  obedient  servant, 

EDWARD  L.  SPRING. 
To 

W.  PARSONS,  Esq.  .0 

4o 


760 


THE    LETTER-WRITER 


EXPLAINING    AN    APPARENT    SLIGHT 

BOSTON,  March  8,   1901. 

DEAREST  JULIA — How  could  you  consider  me 
capable  of  inflicting  a  slight  upon  yourself,  in 
whom  are  centred  all  my  hopes  of  happiness? 
Hothing  more  than  ordinary  courtesy  was  intended 
by  my  attentions  to  Miss  .Frith.  That  she  was  a 
comparative  stranger  to  the  Stanleys,  induced  me 
to  pay  her  those  attentions  which  have  occasioned 
you  so  much  annoyance,  but  which  otherwise  I 
would  not  have  considered  myself  justified  in  ten- 
dering. 

1  regret  from  my  soul  that  anything  should  have 
occurred  to  originate  in  your  mind  a  doubt  of  my 
sincerity. 

Your  truly  affectionate, 

GEORGE  ROGERS. 
To  Miss  JULIA  TILGHMAN, 

No.  —  N.  Fifteenth  St,  Philadelphia. 

ON   RECEIVING  A  FAVORABLE   REPLY   TO 
A  PROPOSAL 

NEWTON,  N.  Y.,  March  20,  1901. 
DARLING  .  .  .  . — Words  can  not  express  my  rap- 
ture on  finding  your  note  on  my  table  last  night. 
How  delightful  was  it  to  find  a  letter — and  such  a 
letter! — from  one  whom  I  may  now  hope  to  hail 
as  the  companion  of  my  whole  future  life!  The 
weight  taken  off  my  mind  by  the  candid  and  gen- 
tle confession  of  one  whose  love  seemed  too  great 
a  happiness  to  hope  for  is  beyond  description.  To- 
morrow I  shall  hasten  to  the  presence  of  her  from 
whom  I  hope  I  may  never  henceforth  be  parted; 
but  I  could  not  retire  to  rest  without  making  one 
feeble  attempt  to  express  my  ecstasy  at  finding  that 
hopes  so  flattering  have  not  been  in  vain. 
Belfeve  me,  darling, 

Your  devoted  and  happy 

TOM. 

COMPLAINING   OF   NOT   RECEIVING  A 
LETTER 

CLIFTON,  January  7,  1901. 

DEAR  AGNES — Four  days  have  passed  without 
my  receiving  a  letter  from  you,  and  I  am  in  pain- 
ful anxiety  lest  illness  should  be  the  cause.  Pray 
write  quickly,  or  I  shall  really  feel  inclined  to 
quarrel  with  you  as  an  idle  girl;  nay,  I  shall  ab- 
solutely grow  jealous,  and  fancy  that  some  more 
favored  suitor  is  undermining  the  affections  of  my 
dear  girl. 

But  I  have  no  fears.  I  too  well  know  that  your 
innate  goodness  of  heart  would  prevent  your  trifling 
with  the  feelings  of  any  one;  so,  hoping  you  will 
take  this  little  scolding  in  good  part,  and  relieve 
the  offence  by  a  very  long  letter  as  speedily  as  your 
dainty  fingers  can  write,  believe  me, 
Dear  Agnes, 

Your  affectionate 

ED. 

ON  A   BIRTHDAY 

NEW  LONDON,  June  t,  1901. 

MY  DEAREST  FANNIE — How  sad  it  is  that  I  am 
hindered  from  being  with  you  on  this  dearest  of 
all  days  of  the  year. 

Accept,  dearest,  the  inclosed  portrait,  I  feel 
that  its  original  is  too  deeply  stamped  on  your 
heart  to  require  any  effigy  to  remind  you  of  him. 
It  is,  however,  the  most  appropriate  present  I  could 
offer  to  the  cause  of  my  happiness  on  this  bright- 
est of  all  days. 

God  grant  that  every  succeeding  year  may  see 
you  increase  in  all  that  is  charming  in  body  and 
mind,  and  believe  me, 

My   dearest   Fannie, 

Your  own 

JOHN. 

A  COMPLAINT 

July    10,    1901. 
DEAR^  MAUDIE: 

It  is  with  pain  T  write  to  you  in  aught  that  can 
seem  like  a  strain  of  reproach,  but  I  confess  that 


your  conduct  last  night  both  surprised  and  vexed 
me.  Vou  received  Mr.  Watson's  attentions  in  so 
marked  a  way  that  1  feel  it  due  to  yourself  to 
comment  on  your  conduct.  Believe  me,  1  am  in 
no  way  given  to  idle  jealousy;  still  less  am  1  self* 
ish  or  unmanly  enougu  to  wish  to  deprive  any  girl 
on  whom  1  have  so  firmly  fixed  my  affections  of 
any  pleasure  to  be  obtained  in  good  society.  Hut 
my  peace  of  mind  would  be  lost  forever,  did  I 
believe  that  I  had  lost  one  atom  of  your  affection. 
Won't  you  write,  and  assure  me  that  you  still 
preserve  your  undivided  affection  for 

Your  devoted  but  grieved 

FRXD. 

CONGRATULATING  A  FRIEND  ON  HIS 
MARRIAGE 

OMAHA,  August  20,  1901. 
MY  DEAR  TOM: 

As  you  have  entered  the  enviable  state  of  wed- 
lock, and  are  no  longer  the  merry  bachelor  for- 
merly the  butt  of  my  crude  jests,  I  must  address 
you  in  a  tone  of  greater  gravity  than  has  been  my 
custom.  My  dear  friend,  I  sincerely  congratulate 
you  upon  this  desirable  change;  for  m  your  choice 
of  a  partner  you  have  given  evidence  of  the  pos- 
session of  a  sound  judgment  and  much  good  taste. 
If  my  beneficent  wishes  were  the  only  requisite  to 
ensure  your  happiness  in  the  married  state,  yoa 
would  never  have  occasion  to  regret  the  step  yoa 
have  recently  taken;  for  there  is  no  one  whom  I 
more  ardently  desire  to  see  surrounded  with  all 
the  blessings  of  this  life. 

Have  the  kindness  to  present  my  respectful  com- 
pliments to  Mrs.  Armitage,  and  believe  me  ever  to 
remain 

Your   sincere   well-wisher  and   friend, 

EDWARD  KEOGH. 

CONGRATULATING    A    GENTLEMAN    UPON 
HIS    MARRIAGE 

YANKTON,  June  i,  1901. 
DEAR  BILL: 

I  have  just  received  the  welcome  message  that 
informs  me  of  your  new  happiness.  I  hasten  to 
offer  you  my  most  sincere  congratulations  and 
hearty  good  wishes.  May  every  year  of  your  mar- 
ried life  find  you  happier  than  the  last,  and  may 
Mrs.  Chiffins  find  you  as  loyal  a  husband  as  yoa 
have  been  a  friend. 

From  my  inmost  heart,  dear  Bill,  I  say,  God 
bless  you  and  your  bride  with  His  choicest  bless- 
ings. 

Ever   your   friend, 

GEORGE  MEYERS. 

WILLIAM  CHIFFINS,  Esq. 

CONGRATULATING  A  LADY  UPON  HER 
MARRIAGE 

K  ST..  WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  August  3,  TOOL 
DEAR  JOSIE: 

Your  cards  have  just  reached  me.  and  I  write 
at  once  to  try  to  express  my  heartfelt  pleasure  at 
your  happy  prospects.  It  is  a  great  pleasure  to 
your  loving  friends  to  be  able  to  feel  so  much  es- 
teem and  affection  for  the  gentleman  to  whom  yoa 
have  confided  your  life's  hanpiness.  and  to  hope, 
as  I  do,  that  every  year  will  unite  your  hearts 
more  closely. 

That  Heaven  may  bless  you  both,  dear  Josie,  is 
the  earnest  prayer  of 

Your  loving 

JULIA  ROBINSON. 
MRS:  CLIFFORD  DOYLF.. 

CONGRATULATING  A  FRIEND  ON  THE 
BIRTH  OF  A  SON 

BATAVIA,  N.  Y.,  July  5,  1901. 
MY  DEAR  JOE: 

What  luck!  A  son  born  on  the  great  4th.  May 
he  prove  as  good,  as  pure,  and  as  honest  a  man 
and  patriot  as  George  Washington.  What  more 


THE   LETTER-WRITER 


751 


can  I  say,  old  fellow,  except  to  add  that  I  ear- 
nestly trust  that  Mrs.  Clithroe  and  George  W.  are 
doing  well? 

Yours,  always  sincerely, 

A.  D.  HERVY. 
JOSEPH  CLITHROE,  Esq. 

CONGRATULATING  A  FRIEND  ON  THE 
BIRTH   OF  A   DAUGHTER 

PEGASUS,  WESTCHESTER  Co.,  N.  Y., 

April  10,   1901. 
DEAR  MILLIE: 

I  congratulate  you  most  heartily  on  your  new 
acquaintance,  and  if  "missy"  only  grows  up  like 
"mamma,"  the  boys  will  be  around  pretty  lively. 
I  suppose  your  husband  is  two  feet  taller.  Take 
great  care  of  yourself  and  the  wee  little  lady.  I 
h»pe  very  soon  to  come  round  to  congratulate  you 
in  person. 

Your  very  sincere  friend, 

JAMES  TODHUNTBR. 
MRS.  E.  F.  EVERLIGH. 


SEEKING  A  CLERKSHIP 

TROY,  May  4,  1901. 

GENTLEMEN — Perceiving  by  your  advertisement 
in  the  N.  Y.  Herald  that  you  are  in  want  of  a 
clerk,  I  beg  to  inclose  testimonials,  and  venture 
to  hope  that  from  my  previous  experience  in  the 
line  of  business  you  pursue  I  should  be  of  some 
use  in  your  establishment.  My  habits  of  life  are 
such  as  to  assure  regularity  in  the  discharge  of  my 
duties,  and  I  can  only  assure  you  that,-  should  you 
honor  me  with  your  confidence,  I  shall  spare  no 
pains  to  acquit  myself  to  your  satisfaction. 
I  rema.in,  gentlemen, 

Yours  very  truly, 

HARRY  SANDERSON. 
To  MESSRS.  GRIFFITHS  &  Co. 


APPLICATION    FOR    SUBSCRIPTION    TO    A 
CHARITY 

MIDGEVILLE,  TENN.,  October  8,  1901. 
SIR  [or  MADAM]  : — I  take  the  liberty  of  inclosing 
a   prospectus    of   an    institution    which   is   likely   to 
have  a  most  beneficial  effect  upon  the  poor  in  our 
neighborhood.   [Here  state  particulars.']    From  your 
well-known  liberality,   I   trust  you  will  excuse  this 
appeal    from   a   stranger   in    furtherance   of  an   act 
of   benevolence,    and    remain, 
Sir  [or  Madam], 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

JULIA  [or  JOHN]  SMITH. 


DECLINING 

30  WEST  27TH  ST.,  NEW  YORK, 

agth   October,    1901. 

Mr.  Thomas  Jones  regrets  exceedingly  that  the 
numerous  applications  for  kindred  purposes  near 
home  render  it  impossible  for  him  to  comply  with 
the  request  contained  in  Mr.  [or  Mrs.]  's  let- 
ter of  the  1 8th  October. 


SOLICITING  RENEWAL  OF  A  PROMISSORY 
NOTE 

ARK  ST.,  MOBILE,  May  7,  1901. 
GENTLEMEN — You  have  in  your  possession  my 
note  for  $  1,000,  payable  May  14,  which  I  am  sorry 
to  say  I  can  not  meet  at  maturity,  owing  to  a  com- 
bination of  circumstances  adverse  to  my  interests, 
and  not  anticipated.  If  you  will  do  me  the  favor 
to  renew  it  for  ninety  days,  with  interest  added,  I 
do  not  doubt  my  ability  to  redeem  it  when  due. 
A  compliance  with  this  request  will  confer  an  obli- 
gation upon,  and  oblige, 

Faithfully  yours, 

THOMAS  MORAN. 
To  MESSRS.  SADLER  &  Co., 
30  William  St.,  N.  Y. 


TO  A   FIRM,  WITH  AN  INSTALMENT 

DEAN  ST.,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL., 

May  20,   1901. 

GENTLEMEN — Inclosed  please  find  $500  in  notes 
of  San  Francisco  banks,  which  I  will  thank  you 
to  place  to  my  credit,  as  the  first  instalment  upon 
my  bill,  now  overdue  nearly  two  months.  The  bal- 
ance will  be  remitted  during  the  second  week  in 
June,  if  not  before  that  time.  I  regret  the  incon- 
venience caused  you  by  my  delay,  which  is  a  result 
of  our  system  of  long  credits,  and  entirely  beyond 
my  power  to  control. 

I  remain,  gentlemen, 

Yours  most  sincerely, 

WILLIAM   DEMPSEY. 
MESSRS.  HATCH,   WIGHT  &  Co., 
333  Broadway,   New  York. 

OFFERING  A  LOAN  OF  MONEY  FOR  BUSI- 
NESS  PURPOSES 

ELIZABETH,  .N.  J.,  Dec.  15,  1901. 
DEAR  ROBERT — Knowing  "that  you  are  desirous 
of  starting  in  business  for  yourself,  I  write  to  say 
that  it  is  in  my  power  to  offer  you  a  loan  of  two 
thousand  dollars  ($2,000)  without  interfering  in 
any  way  with  my  own  business  or  expenditures. 
I  trust  that  you  will  let  me  have  a  friend's  privi- 
lege, and  that  you  will  accept  the  money  on  such 
terms  as  may  best  suit  you. 

With  best  wishes  for  your  success, 
I  am  your  friend, 

AUSTIN  KEEP. 
ROBERT  ROWE,  Esq. 

ON  THE   DEATH   OF  A  HUSBAND 

FORDHAM,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  29,   1901. 
MY  DEAR  MRS.  MANNING: 

Words  fail  to  convey  my  feelings  of  sorrow  on 
receipt  of  the  intelligence  of  the  death  of  my  old 
and  esteemed  friend,  your  late  husband.  My  own 
grief  at  the  loss  of  a  true  friend  teaches  me  how 
crushing  must  be  your  affliction.  May  the  Al- 
mighty in  His  goodness  console  you  in  this  dark 
hour  of  your  tribulation. 
Believe  me  always  your  true  and  sincere  friend, 

JOSEPH  BUTLER. 

ON  THE   DEATH   OF  A  WIFE 

PROVIDENCE,  R.  I.,  November  8,  1901. 
MY  DEAR  GEORGE: 

I  know  how  futile  it  is  to  address  words,  idle 
words,  to  you  in  this  moment  of  supreme  anguish, 
with  which  it  has  pleased  God  to  visit  you,  and  I 
shall  not  say  more  than  that  the  loss  of  your  pure, 
good,  and  beautiful  wife  is  a  source  of  deep  sor- 
row to  the  numerous  friends  who  had  the  privilege 
of  knowing  her,  and  to  none  more  than 

Yours,  in  deep  sympathy  and  affection, 

TERRENCE  BARKER. 

ON  THE  DEATH  OF  A  SON 

NORWALK,  CONN.,  June  3,  1901. 
MY  DEAR  JULIA: 

If  God  has  plucked  the  bright  blossom  from  your 
home,  it  is  for  a  purpose  none  of  us  dare  divine. 
He  alone  can  pour  balm  upon  your  crushed  heart. 
The  holy  joy  is  yours  of  knowing  that  angel  eyes 
now  watch  for  your  coming,  and  that  your  beauti- 
ful boy  will  receive  you  when  "life's  dark  day  is 
done." 

If  the  tenderest  of  much-loving  sympathy  could 
soothe  you,  dear  Julia,  learn  that  you  have  it  from 
your 

Friend, 

LAURA. 

ON  THE  DEATH  OF  A  MOTHER 

TEWKSBURY,    MASS.,    Nov.    8,    1901. 
MY  DEAR  CHARLES: 

You  have  lost  your  mother.  There  is  a  very 
wail  in  the  words.  She  can  never  be  replaced. 


752 


THE    LETTER-WRITER 


The  dear,  good  lady  has  passed  away  to  a  better 
land,  cheered  by  the  knowledge  of  your  love  and 
affectionate  tenderness,  consoled  by  the  thought 
that  her  teaching,  when  you  were  a  little  boy  at 
her  knee,  has  not  been  in  vain,  and  that  she  leaves 
behind  her  for  a  little  while  a  son  who  treads  the 
path  of  rectitude  and  of  honor.  Dear  Charles,  ever 
remember  that  your  darling  mother  watches  you 
from  on  high,  and  that,  as  she  was  devoted  to  you 
in  life,  so  she  is  devoted  to  you  in  death. 
God  sustain  you  under  this  heavy  affliction. 
Your  true  friend, 

JOHN  TRAVES. 


REPLIES   TO   ADVERTISEMENTS 

BOOK-KEEPER 

s8  WASHINGTON  ST.,   BOSTON,  MASS* 

October  20,   1901. 
To  MESSRS.  WINSOLE,  BIRD  &  Co.: 

GENTLEMEN — In  reply  to  your  advertisement  fat 
this  day's  Transcript  for  a  competent  book-keeper^ 
I  respectfully  beg  to  offer  myself  as  candidate  for 
that  position.  I  have  been  in  the  employment  of 
Mr.  Thomas  Lepy,  19  Tremont  Street,  in  this  city 
— the  large  dry-goods  store — in  the  capacity  of 
book-keeper  for  the  last  three  years,  and  am  about 
to  leave  on  the  ist  proximo,  as  Mr.  Lepy  intends 
to  retire  from  business. 

Mr.  Lepy  has  authorized  me  to  offer  him  as  ref- 
erence as  to  character  and  ability.  I  can  also  refer 
to  Messrs.  Rose  &  Pickwick,  17  Remsen  Street, 
with  whom  I  clerked  for  a  year  and  a  half. 

Hoping  to  be  fortunate  enough  to  suit  your  re- 
quirements, 

I  am,  gentlemen, 

Respectfully, 

JOSEPH  SuTCUrt. 

GENERAL   EMPLOYMENT 

NEWBURG, 
nth  Sept.,    1901. 

SIB — I  hasten  to  reply  to  your  advertisement  in 
the  N.  Y.  Sun  of  to-day.  I  am  most  desirous  of 
obtaining  employment,  and  would  not  consider 
present  emolument  so  much  an  object  as  the  pros- 
pect of  a  permanent  and  respectable  situation. 

I  am  a  young  man  (age  21),  and  single.  I  have 
received  a  good  commercial  education,  and  ant 
versed  in  book-keeping  and  accounts  generally.  In 
other  respects  I  am  willing  to  render  myself  gen- 
erally useful,  and,  although  I  have  not  hitherto 
filled  a  situation,  I  doubt  not  but  that  in  a  short 
time  I  shall  be  able  to  fulfill  any  duties  assigned 
to  me. 

In  the  event  of  your  doing  me  the  honor  to  se- 
lect me  for  the  proffered  employment,  I  can  fur- 
nish you  with  satisfactory  testimonials  as  to  char- 
acter, and  can,  if  necessary,  provide  guarantees  for 
fidelity. 

Trusting  that  I  may  have  the  honor  of  hearing 
from  you  in  reply, 

I  remain,  sir, 

Yours  very  truly, 

JOSEPH   L  ESTRANGE. 
To 

W.  HENRY  CULLINAN, 

27  Wand  St.,  N.  Y. 

FROM   A  YOUNG   MAN  TO  A   FRIEND,    SO- 
LICITING   A    SITUATION 

MOHAWK,  March  28,   1901. 
DEAR  EDWARD: 

When  you  left  Galveston,  you  were  kind  enough 
to  promise  that  should  it  be  in  your  power  to  for- 
ward my ^nterest  in  any  manner  you  would  fee'  a 
pleasure  in  so  doing.  I  am  now  in  want  of  a  po- 
sition, my  former  employer  having  sold  his  busi- 
ness, and  his  successor  having,  as  he  informs  me, 
a  sufficient  number  of  hands  for  all  the  work  he 
Is  likely  _  to  have.  If,  therefore,  you  should  hear 
of  any  situation  or  employment  which  you  consider 
likely  to  suit  me,  either  in  my  own  business,  that 
of  a  clerk,  or  in  any  other  ip  which  I  can  make 


myself  useful,  your  recommendation  would  greatly 
oblige,  and  be  of  material  service  to. 
Dear   Edward, 

Yours  very  truly, 

JOHN  JAMES. 

ASKING  PERMISSION  TO  REFER  TO  A 
PERSON 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN., 

July  7,   1901. 
DEAR  SIR: 

As  I  have  had  the  honor  of  being  known  to  you 
for  some  years,  during  which  period  I  trust  my 
conduct  has  impressed  you  favorably,  I  take  .'he 
liberty  of  soliciting  at  your  hand  the  following 
favor: 

Messrs.  Sebthorp,  of  Beaver  Street,  New  York, 
are  in  want  of  a  correspondent  at  London,  and  as 
I  am  about  to  proceed  there  on  some  affairs  of  my 
own,  and  shall  probably  take  up  my  residence  in 
that  capital  for  some  years,  I  am  anxious  to  secure 
a  post  which  appears  to  me  in  every  way  eligible, 
and  accords  with  my  views  exactly. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  Messrs.  Sebthorp  desire 
testimonials  as  to  my  capacity  and  integrity,  and 
as  you  are  in  a  position  to  speak  positively  on 
these  points,  I  have  written  to  ask  you  whether 
I  may  so  far  trespass  on  your  kindness  as  to  men- 
tion your  name  by  way  of  reference. 

Should  you  kindly  grant  this  request,  I  need 
scarcely  assure  you  that  my  endeavor  win  be  to 
prove  both  to  Messrs.  Sebthorp  and  to  yourself 
that  you  have  not  been  mistaken  in  your  opinion 
of  me,  while  I  shall  ever  feel  grateful  for  this 
further  instance  of  the  interest  evinced  by  you  in 
the  welfare  of 

Your  truly  obliged, 

WALTER  MOTT. 
To 

MR.    GEORGE   FOULKE, 

7th  St.,   Cincinnati,  O. 

CLERK 

29  GROVE  ST.,  ST.  Louis,  Mo, 

November  16,  1901. 
MR.  ISAAC  WATERS: 

SIR — I  see  by  this  day's  Republic  that  you  are 
in  want  of  a  competent  clerk,  and  I  respectfully 
beg  to  apply  for  the  position.  Owing  to  the  finan- 
cial difficulties  of  my  late  employers,  Messrs.  Ken- 
drick  &  Warts,  with  whom  I  was  clerk  for  eight 
years,  I  am  out  of  employment.  I  can  refer  to 
either  of  these  gentlemen  for  a  testimonial  as  to 
my  industry,  good  conduct,  and  ability.  I  may 
add  that  I  am  a  teetotaler. 

Hoping  to  receive  a  favorable  reply, 
I  am. 

Respectfully, 

RUDOLPH  MEYER. 

COOK 

100  WEST  a8TH  ST.,  NEW  YORK, 

March  18,   1901. 
MRS.  WILLIAM  HOWARD: 

DEAR  MADAM — Having  seen  your  advertisement 
for  a  plain  cook  in  this  day's  Herald,  I  respectfully 
apply  for  the  place. 

I  can  cook  plain  joints  and  do  all  manner  of 
plain  cooking,  as  my  present  employer,  Mrs.  James 
Posnett,  is  willing  to  testify.  As  Mrs.  Posnett  is 
going  to  Europe  on  the  ist  of  April,  I  shall  be  out 
of  a  place  on  that  day.  A  line  to  Mrs.  Posnett  will 
satisfy  all  inquiries  in  regard  to  my  character  and 
capacity. 

Respectfully, 

JANE  MATTHEWS. 

GOVERNESS 

19  BLEECKER  ST.,  BOSTON, 

July  27,   1901. 
MRS.  E.  F.  SLOCTJM: 

MADAM — In  reply  to  your  advertisement  in  _  to- 
day's Courier  for  a  governess  to  teach  three  little 


THE   LETTER-WRITER 


753 


girls  French,  German,  and  English,  I  hasten  to 
inform  you  that  I  am  a  graduate  of  Vassar,  Class 
1899;  that  I  have  resided  one  year  in  Paris  and 
five  months  in  Vienna,  sojourning  in  both  capitals 
for  the  purpose  of  completing  my  knowledge  of 
French  and  German. 

I  have  been  governess  in  the  family  of  Mr. 
George  F.  Witmore,  but  owing  to  the  death  of  my 
dear  little  pupil,  their  only  daughter,  Ada,  I  have 
been  thrown  out  of  employment.  In  addition  to 
my  college  and  academy  testimonials,  I  beg  to 
refer  to  Mrs.  Witmore,  Holly  Park,  Brookline, 
and  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Brooks,  St.  Matthew's  Church. 

Hoping  to  be  favored  by  your  selection, 
I  am,  madam, 

Yours  respectfully, 

MIRIAM  J.   PACKARD. 


A    FEW    LINES    ACCOMPANYING 
A    GIFT 

A  WEDDING  GIFT 

200  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK, 

\9>th    April,     1901. 

Nelly  Suter  sends  her  best  love,  and  best  wishes, 
to  Susie  Lorimer,  and  a  little  bracelet  as  a  souvenir 


of  an  event  that   Nelly   trusts   will   ever  prove  03 
happy  and  auspicious  as  she  wishes  it  to  be. 

CHRISTENING  GIFT 

HEATH  HOUSE, 
June   18,    1901. 

God-papa  sends  little   Mamie   a  coral,   to  enable 
her  to  cut  her  teeth,  but  not  the  acquaintance  of 
JOSEPH  CHAMBERS. 

FLOWERS 

15  MADISON  AVENUE, 
19  July,   1901. 

Roses  become  Miss  Irwin  so  much,  that  Mr. 
Harnett  earnestly  hopes  to  see  the  accompanying 
bunch  in  Miss  Irwin's  corsage  this  evening  at  Wai- 
lack's. 

MUSIC 

13  CHESTNUT  ST.,  PHH.ADEI.PHIA, 

2&th  November,  1901. 

Mr.  John  St.  Ruth  presents  his  compliments  to 
Miss  Delamore  and  begs  to  send  her  a  few  selec- 
tions from  the  operas,  her  singing  last  night  at 
Mr.  Hamlyn's  having  reminded  him  of  the  most 
celebrated  prima  donnas. 


T 


ARITHMETICAL 
AMUSEMENTS 


THERE  is  a  saying  to  the  effect  that  "there  is  nothing  more  decep- 
tive than  facts,  unless  it  be  figures."      This  means  that  there  are 
more   surprising  combinations   of  sober   figures   possible   than   the 
wildest  imagination  could  readily  suspect.     It  is  not  necessary  to  resort 
to  some  of  the  common  "tricks"  with  figures — such,  for  example,  as  the 
familiar  algebraic  process  of  proving  that  2  =  i — all  of  which  depend 
upon  concealing  some  inaccuracy  or  other.     The  results  obtained  by  per- 
fectly correct  processes  are  sufficiently  bewildering. 

In  the  following  pages  are  explained  several  interesting  arithmetical 
amusements  and  a  number  of  curious  numerical  facts. 


ARITHMETICAL   TRICKS  AND    CURIOUS    FACTS 


TO  TELL  A  NUMBER  THOUGHT  OF 

DESIRE  any  person  to  think  of  a  num- 
ber, say  a  certain  number  of  cents; 
tell  him  to  borrow  that  sum  of  some  one 
in  the  company,  and  add  the  number  bor- 
rowed to  the  amount  thought  of.  It  will 
here  be  proper  to  name  the  person  who 
lends  him  the  cents  and  to  beg  the  one  who 
makes  the  calculation  to  do  it  with  great 
care,  as  he  may  readily  fall  into  an  error, 
especially  the  first  time.  Then,  say  to  the 
person — "I  do  not  lend  you,  but  give  you 
10,  add  them  to  the  former  sum."  Continue 
in  this  manner:  "Give  the  half  to  the  poor, 
and  retain  in  your  memory  the  other  half." 
Then  add :  "Return  to  the  gentleman,  or 
lady,  what  you  borrowed,  and  remember 
that  the  sum  lent  you  was  exactly  equal  to 
the  number  thought  of."  Ask  the  person  if 
he  knows  exactly  what  remains.  He  will 
answer  "Yes."  You  must  then  say — "And 
I  know,  also,  the  number  that  remains ;  it 
is  equal  to  what  I  am  going  to  conceal  in 
my  hand."  Put  into  one  of  your  hands  five 
(754) 


pieces  of  money,  and  desire  the  person  to 
tell  how  many  you  have  now.  He  will  an- 
swer five;  upon  which  open  your  hand,  and 
show  him  the  five  pieces.  You  may  then 
say — "I  well  knew  that  your  result  was  five ; 
but  if  you  had  thought  of  a  very  large 
number,  for  example,  two  or  three  millions, 
the  result  would  have  been  much  greater, 
but  my  hand  would  not  have  held  a  number 
of  pieces  equal  to  the  remainder."  The 
person  then  supposing  that  the  result  of  the 
calculation  must  be  different,  according  to 
the  difference  of  the  number  thought  of, 
will  imagine  that  it  is  necessary  to  know 
the  last  number  in  order  to  guess  the  re- 
sult :  but  this  idea  is  false ;  for,  in  the  case 
which  we  have  here  supposed,  whatever  be 
the  number  thought  of,  the  remainder  must 
always  be  five.  The  reason  of  this  is  as 
follows:  The  sum,  the  half  of  which  is 
given  to  the  poor,  is  nothing  else  than  twice 
the  number  thought  of,  plus  10;  and  when 
the  poor  have  received  their  part,  there  re- 
mains only  the  number  thought  of,  plus  5; 


ARITHMETICAL   AMUSEMENTS 


755 


but  the  number  thought  of  is  cut  off  when 
the  sum  borrowed  is  returned,  and,  conse- 
quently, there  remains  only  5. 

It  may  be  hence  seen  that  the  result  may 
be  easily  known,  since  it  will  be  half  of  the 
number  given  in  the  third  part  of  the  opera- 
tion; for  example,  whatever  be  the  number 
thought  of,  the  remainder  will  be  36  or 
25,  according  as  72  or  50  have  been  given. 
If  this  trick  be  performed  several  times 
successively,  the  number  given  in  the  third 
part  of  the  operation  must  be  always  dif- 
ferent; for  if  the  result  were  several  times 
the  same,  the  deception  might  be  discov- 
ered. When  the  first  five  parts  of  the  cal- 
culation for  obtaining  a  result  are  finished, 
it  will  be  best  not  to  name  it  at  first,  but 
to  continue  the  operation,  to  render  it  more 
complex,  by  saying,  for  example:  "Double 
the  remainder,  deduct  2,  add  3,  take  the 
fourth  part,"  etc. ;  and  the  different  steps 
of  the  calculation  may  be  kept  in  mind,  in 
order  to  know  how  much  the  first  result 
has  been  increased  or  diminished.  This  ir- 
regular process  never  fails  to  confound  those 
who  attempt  to  follow  it. 

A  Second  Method. — Bid  the  person  take 
i  from  the  number  thought  of,  and  then 
double  the  remainder;  desire  him  to  take 
I  from  the  double,  and  to  add  to  it  the 
number  thought  of;  in  the  last  place,  ask 
him  the  number  arising  from  this  addition, 
and,  if  you  add  3  to  it,  the  third  of  the 
sum  will  be  the  number  thought  of.  The 
application  of  this  rule  is  so  easy,  that  it 
is  needless  to  illustrate  it  by  an  example. 

A  Third  Method. — Desire  the  person  to 
add  I  to  the  triple  of  the  number  thought 
of,  and  to  multiply  the  sum  by  3 ;  then  bid 
him  add  to  this  product  the  number  thought 
of,  and  the  result  will  be  a  sum,  from  which, 
if  3  be  subtracted,  the  remainder  will  be 
ten  times  the  number  required;  and  if  the 
cipher  on  the  right  be  cut  off  from  the  re- 
mainder, the  other  figure  will  indicate  the 
number  sought. 

Example : — Let  the  number  thought  of  be 
6,  the  triple  of  which  is  18 ;  and  if  i  be  add- 
ed, it  makes  19;  the  triple  of  this  last  num- 
ber is  57,  and  if  6  be  added,  it  makes  63, 
from  which,  if  3  be  subtracted,  the  remainder 
will  be  60 ;  now,  if  the  cipher  on  the  right 
be  cut  off,  the  remaining  figure,  6,  will  be 
the  number  required. 

A  Fourth  Method. — Bid  the  person  mul- 
tiply the  number  thought  of  by  itself;  then 
desire  him  to  add  i  to  the  number  thought 
of,  and  to  multiply  it  also  by  itself;  in  the 
last  place,  ask  him  to  tell  the  difference  of 
these  two  products,  which  will  certainly  be 


an  odd  number,  and  the  least  half  of  it  will 
be  the  number  required.  Let  the  number 
thought  of,  for  example,  be  10,  which,  mul- 
tiplied by  itself,  gives  100;  in  the  next  place, 
10  increased  by  i  is  n,  which,  multiplied 
by  itself,  makes  121 ;  and  the  difference  of 
these  two  squares  is  21,  the  least  half  of 
which,  being  10,  is  the  number  thought  of. 
This  operation  might  be  varied  by  desiring 
the  person  to  multiply  the  second  number 
by  itself,  after  it  has  been  diminished  by  i. 
In  this  case,  the  number  thought  of  will  be 
equal  to  the  greater  half  of  the  difference 
of  the  two  squares.  Thus,  in  the  preceding 
example,  the  square  of  the  number  thought 
of  is  loo,  and  that  of  the  same  number  less 
i,  is  81 ;  the  difference  of  these  is  19 ;  the 
greater  half  of  which,  or  10,  is  the  number 
thought  of. 

TO  TELL  TWO   OR   MORE   NUM- 
BERS THOUGHT  OF 

If  one  or  more  of  the  numbers  thought 
of  be  greater  than  9,  we  must  distinguish 
two  cases ;  that  in  which  the  number  or  the 
numbers  thought  of  is  odd,  and  that  in  which 
it  is  even. 

In  the  first  case,  ask  the  sum  of  the  first 
and  second,  of  the  second  and  third,  the 
third  and  fourth,  and  so  on  to  the  last,  and 
then  the  sum  of  the  first  and  the  last.  Hav- 
ing written  down  all  these  sums  in  order, 
add  together  all  those,  the  places  of  which 
are  odd,  as  the  first,  the  third,  the  fifth,  etc. ; 
make  another  sum  of  all  those,  the  places 
of  which  are  even,  as  the  second,  the  fourth, 
the  sixth,  etc.,  subtract  this  sum  from  the 
former,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  double 
of  the  first  number.  Let  us  suppose,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  five  following  numbers  are 
thought  of,  3,  7,  13,  17,  20,  which,  when 
added  two  and  two  as  above,  give  10,  20,  30, 
37,  23 :  the  sum  of  the  first,  third,  and  fifth, 
is  63,  and  that  of  the  second  and  fourth  is 
575  if  57  be  subtracted  from  63,  the  remain- 
der, 6,  will  be  the  double  of  the  first  num- 
ber, 3.  Now,  if  3  be  taken  from  10,  the  first 
of  the  sums,  the  remainder,  7,  will  be  the 
second  number,  and  by  proceeding  in  this 
manner  we  may  find  all  the  rest. 

In  the  second  case,  that  is  to  say,  if  the 
number  or  the  numbers  thought  of  be  even, 
you  must  ask  and  write  down,  as  above,  the 
sum  of  the  first  and  second,  that  of  the 
second  and  third,  and  so  on,  as  before;  but, 
instead  of  the  sum  of  the  first  and  last,  you 
must  take  that  of  the  second  and  last;  then 
add  together  those  which  stand  in  the  even 
places,  and  form  them  into  a  new  sum  apart ; 
add  also  those  in  the  odd  places,  the  first 


766 


ARITHMETICAL   AMUSEMENTS 


excepted,  and  subtract  this  sum  from  the 
fornier,  the  remainder  will  be  the  double  of 
the  second  number;  and  if  the  second  num- 
ber, thus  found,  be  subtracted  from  the  sum 
of  the  first  and  second,  you  will  have  the 
first  number;  if  it  be  taken  from  that  of  the 
second  and  third,  it  will  give  the  third ;  and 
so  of  the  rest  Let  the  numbers  thought  of 
be,  for  example,  3, 7, 13, 17 ;  the  sums  formed 
as  above  are  16,  20,  30,  24,  the  sum  of  the 
second  and  fourth  is  44,  from  which,  if  30, 
the  third,  be  subtracted,  the  remainder  will 
be  14,  the  double  of  7,  the  second  number. 
The  first,  therefore,  is  3,  the  third  13,  and 
the  fourth  17. 

When  each  of  the  numbers  thought  of 
does  not  exceed  9,  they  may  be  easily  found 
in  the  following  manner : 

Having  made  the  person  add  i  to  the 
double  of  the  first  number  thought  of,  de- 
sire him  to  multiply  the  whole  by  5,  and 
to  add  to  the  product  the  second  number. 
If  there  be  a  third,  make  him  double  this 
first  sum,  and  add  i  to  it;  after  which,  de- 
sire him  to  multiply  the  new  sum  by  5,  and 
to  add  to  it  the  third  number.  If  there  be 
a  fourth,  proceed  in  the  same  manner,  de- 
siring him  to  double  the  preceding  sum,  to 
add  to  it  i,  to  multiply  by  5,  to  add  the 
fourth  number,  and  so  on. 

Then  ask  the  number  arising  from  the 
addition  of  the  last  number  thought  of,  and 
if  there  were  two  numbers,  subtract  5  from 
it;  if  there  were  three,  55;  if  there  were 
four,  555 ;  and  so  on,  for  the  remainder  will 
be  composed  of  figures  of  which  the  first  on 
the  left  will  be  the  first  number  thought  of, 
the  next  the  second,  and  so  on. 

Suppose  the  number  .thought  of  to  be  3, 
4,  6;  by  adding  i  to  6,  the  double  of  the 
the  first,  we  shall  have  7,  which,  being  mul- 
tiplied by  5,  will  give  35 ;  if  4,  the  second 
number  thought  of,  be  then  added,  we  shall 
have  39,  which,  doubled,  gives  78;  and,  if 
we  add  i,  and  multiply  79,  the  sum,  by  5, 
the  result  will  be  395.  In  the  last  place, 
if  we  add  6,  the  number  thought  of,  the 
sum  will  be  401 ;  and  if  55  be  deducted  from 
it,  we  shall  have,  for  remainder,  346,  the 
figures  of  which,  3,  4,  6,  indicate  in  order 
the  three  numbers  thought  of. 

THE  MONEY  GAME 

A  person  having  in  one  hand  a  piece  of 
gold,  and  in  the  other  a  piece  of  silver,  you 
may  tell  in  which  hand  he  has  the  gold,  and 
in  which  the  silver,  by  the  following  method : 
Some  value,  represented  by  an  even  num- 
ber, such  as  8,  must  be  assigned  to  the  gold ; 
and  a  value  represented  by  an  odd  number, 


such  as  3,  must  be  assigned  to  the  silver; 
after  which,  desire  the  person  to  multiply 
the  number  in  the  right  hand,  by  any  even 
number  whatever,  such  as  2;  and  that  in 
the  left  hand  by  an  odd  number,  as  3;  then 
bid  him  add  together  the  two  products,  and 
if  the  whole  sum  be  odd,  the  gold  will  be 
in  the  right  hand,  and  the  silver  in  the  left; 
if  the  sum  be  even,  the  contrary  will  be  the 
case. 

To  conceal  the  artifice  better,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  ask  whether  the  sum  of  the  two 
products  can  be  halved  without  a  remainder ; 
for  in  that  case  the  total  will  be  even,  and 
in  the  contrary  case  odd. 

It  may  be  readily  seen  that  the  pieces, 
instead  of  being  in  the  two  hands  of  the 
same  person,  may  be  supposed  to  be  in  the 
hands  of  two  persons,  one  of  whom  has  the 
even  number,  or  piece  of  gold,  and  the  other 
the  odd  number,  or  piece  of  silver.  The 
same  operations  may  then  be  performed  in 
regard  to  these  two  persons  as  are  performed 
in  regard  to  the  two  hands  of  the  same 
person,  calling  the  one  privately  the  right, 
and  the  other  the  left. 

THE  GAME  OF  THE  RING 

This  game  is  an  application  of  one  of  the 
methods  employed  to  tell  several  numbers 
thought  of,  and  ought  to  be  performed  in 
a  company  not  exceeding  nine,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  less  complex.  Desire  any  one  of 
the  company  to  take  a  ring,  and  put  it  on 
any  joint  of  whatever  finger  he  may  think 
proper.  The  question  then  is,  to  tell  what 
person  has  the  ring,  and  on  what  hand, 
what  finger,  and  on  what  joint. 

For  this  purpose,  you  must  call  the  first 
person  i,  the  second  2,  the  third  3,  and  so 
on.  You  must  also  denote  the  ten  fingers 
of  the  two  hands  by  the  following  numbers 
of  the  natural  progression,  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc., 
beginning  at  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand, 
and  ending  at  that  of  the  left,  that  this  order 
of  the  number  of  the  finger  may,  at  the  same 
time,  indicate  the  hand.  In  the  last  place, 
the  joints  must  be  denoted  by  i,  2,  3,  be- 
ginning at  the  points  of  the  fingers. 

To  render  the  solution  of  this  problem 
more  explicit,  let  us  suppose  that  the  fourth 
person  in  the  company  has  the  ring  on  the 
sixth  finger,  that  is  to  say,  on  the  little 
finger  of  the  left  hand,  and  on  the  second 
joint  of  that  finger. 

Desire  some  one  to  double  the  number 
expressing  the  person,  which,  in  this  case, 
will  give  8;  bid  him  add  6  to  this  double, 
and  multiply  the  sum  by  5,  which  will  make 
65;  then  tell  him  to  add  to  this  product  the 


ARITHMETICAL   AMUSEMENTS 


757 


number  denoting  the  finger,  that  is  to  say 
6,  by  which  means  you  will  have  71 ;  and, 
in  the  last  place,  desire  him  to  multiply  the 
last  number  by  10,  and  to  add  to  the  prod- 
uct the  number  of  the  joint,  2;  the  last  re- 
sult will  be  712;  if  from  this  number  you 
deduct  250,  the  remainder  will  be  462;  the 
first  figure  of  which,  on  the  left,  will  denote 
the  person;  the  next,  the  finger,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  hand;  and  the  last,  the  joint. 
It  must  here  be  observed,  that  when  the 
last  result  contains  a  cipher,  which  would 
have  happened  in  the  present  example  had 
the  number  of  the  figure  been  10,  you  must 
privately  subtract  from  the  figure  preceding 
the  cipher,  and  assign  the  value  of  10  to  the 
cipher  itself. 

HOW    MANY    DID    EACH    RECEIVE? 

Here  is  a  form  of  problem  that  the  writer 
has  found  to  puzzle  children  with,  and  their 
elders  also:  At  a  certain  election  4,420 
votes  were  cast.  A  received  1,300  more  than 
B.  How  many  votes  did  each  receive? — 
SOLUTION.  Had  A  and  B  each  received  the 
same  number  of  votes  it  would  be  necessary 
only  to  divide  4,420  by  2.  But,  as  A  re- 
ceived 1,300  more  votes  than  B,  this  latter 
number  should  be  subtracted  from  4,420, 
leaving  a  remainder  of  3,120.  As  B's  num- 
ber of  votes  received  was  1,300  less  than  A's, 
:t  is  obvious  that  the  remainder  of  3,120 
represents  twice  the  number  of  votes  that 
B  received.  Dividing  3,120,  therefore,  by  2, 
we  have  1,560,  or  the  number  of  votes  that 
B  received.  Subtracting  1,560,  B's  number 
of  votes,  from  4,420,  we  have  a  remainder 
of  2,860,  or  A's  vote.  Adding  1,560  and 
2,860  we  find  that  the  total  is  4,420,  while  the 
difference  between  2,860  and  1,560  is  1,300, 
which  fulfils  the  conditions  of  the  problem. 
Simple  as  this  seems,  it  is  certain  to  prove 
puzzling  to  most  persons.  Take  the  prob- 
lem in  another  form.  A  and  B  received 
for  certain  work  the  sum  of  $1,624,  but  A 
was  paid  $332  more  than  B.  How  much 
did  each  receive?  Subtracting  $332  from 
$1,624  gives  $1,292,  and  this  divided  by  2 
gives  $646  as  B's  share,  while  A's  share 
must  be  $332  more.  Any  number  of  prob- 
lems may  be  arranged  and  solved  along  these 
lines. 

THE  CERTAIN  GAME 
Two  persons  agree  to  take,  alternately, 
numbers  less  than  a  given  number,  for  ex- 
ample, n,  and  to  add  them  together  till 
one  of  them  has  reached  a  certain  sum,  such 
as  100.  By  what  means  can  one  of  them 
infallibly  attain  to  that  number  before  the 
other  ? 


The  whole  artifice  in  this  consists  in  im- 
mediately making  choice  of  the  numbers  I, 
12,  23,  34,  and  so  on,  or  of  a  series  which 
continually  increases  by  II,  up  to  100.  Let 
us  suppose  that  the  first  person,  who  knows 
the  game,  makes  choice  of  I ;  it  is  evident 
that  his  adversary,  as  he  must  count  less 
than  n,  can  at  most  reach  n,  by  adding  10 
to  it.  The  first  will  then  take  i,  which  will 
make  12;  and  whatever  number  the  second 
may  add,  the  first  will  certainly  win,  pro- 
vided he  continually  add  the  number  which 
forms  the  complement  of  that  of  his  ad- 
versary to  ii ;  that  is  to  say,  if  the  latter 
take  8,  he  must  take  3;  if  9,  he  must  take 
2;  and  so  on.  By  following  this  method  he 
will  infallibly  attain  to  89:  and  it  will  then 
be  impossible  for  the  second  to  prevent  him 
from  getting  first  to  100 ;  for  whatever  num- 
ber the  second  takes  he  can  attain  only  to 
99;  after  which  the  first  may  say — "and  I 
makes  100."  If  the  second  take  i  after  89, 
it  would  make  90,  and  his  adversary  would 
finish  by  saying — "and  10  makes  100."  Be- 
tween two  persons  who  are  equally  ac- 
quainted with  the  game,  he  who  begins  must 
necessarily  win. 

If  your  opponent  have  no  knowledge  of 
numbers,  you  may  take  any  other  number 
first,  under  10,  provided  you  subsequently 
take  care  to  secure  one  of  the  last  terms, 
56,  67,  78,  etc.,  or  you  may  even  let  him 
begin,  if  you  take  care  afterward  to  secure 
one  of  these  numbers. 

This  exercise  may  be  performed  with  other 
numbers;  but,  in  order  to  succeed,  you  must 
divide  the  number  to  be  attained  by  a  num- 
ber which  is  a  unit  greater  than  what  you 
can  take  each  time,  and  the  remainder  will 
then  be  the  number  you  must  first  take. 
Suppose,  for  example,  the  number  to  be  at- 
tained be  52,  and  that  you  are  never  to  ad'd 
more  than  6;  then,  dividing  52  by  7,  the  re- 
mainder, which  is  3,  will  be  the  number 
which  you  must  first  take;  and  whenever 
your  opponent  adds  a  number  you  must  add 
as  much  to  it  as  will  make  it  equal  to  7, 
the  number  by  which  you  divided,  and  so  in 
continuation. 

A  SURE  WAY  TO  LEARN  A  PER- 
SON'S AGE 

Here  is  a  little  scheme  which  a  mathema- 
tician has  discovered  to  find  out  the  age  of 
any  person. 

Having  engaged  that  person  in  pleasant 
conversation,  you  proceed  something  after 
the  following  manner — speaking  very  inno- 
cently, of  course: 

"There    is    a    simple    problem   in    arith- 


758 


ARITHMETICAL   AMUSEMENTS 


metic  which  very  few  people  are  able  to  see 
through,  yet  it  is  as  easy  as  possible.  I 
wonder  if  you  can't  do  it?"  This  sets  a 
woman  on  her  dignity,  and  she  wants  to  do 
it  at  once. 

"Think  of  a  number  corresponding  to  the 
numerical  order  of  the  month  in  which  you 
were  born.  Oh,  no,  you  need  not  tell  me." 
(To  make  the  explanation  clear,  we  will 
assume  that  the  figure  is  2 — standing  for 
February — and  that  the  age  is  thirty.)  "Now 
multiply  that  figure  by  2,"  you  continue, 
"and  add  5.  Done  that?  Well,  multiply 
that  by  50,  and  add  your  own  age.  From 
the  total  subtract  365,  and  to  the  result  add 
115.  Now  what  figure  have  you."  "230," 
replies  the  person  addressed.  "Isn't  that 
correct?"  "Exact,"  you  exclaim.  "You  are 
one  of  the  very  few  persons  who  have  man- 
aged it."  And  you  turn  away  to  hide  your 
smile  of  satisfaction  at  having  discovered 
that  your  victim  was  born  in  February,  and 
that  she  is  thirty  years  of  age.  You  have 
arrived  at  this  result  by  separating  the 
figures  230  in  2  (February)  and  30.  And 
you  can  do  this  with  everybody's  age.  Try 
it  on  your  sweetheart. 

PROPERTIES    OF    CERTAIN 
NUMBERS 

OF  ODD  NUMBERS. — All  the  odd  numbers 
above  3,  that  can  only  be  divided  by  i,  can 
be  divided  by  6,  by  the  addition  or  subtrac- 
tion of  a  unit.  For  instance,  13  can  only 
be  divided  by  i ;  but  after  deducting  i,  the 
remainder  can  be  divided  by  6 ;  for  example, 
5  +  1  =  6;  7—1=6;  17+1  =  18;  19—1 
=  18 ;  25  —  i  =  24,  and  so  on. 

OF  NUMBER  THREE. — Select  any  two  num- 
bers you  please,  and  you  will  find  that  either 
one  of  the  two,  or  their  amount  when  added 
together,  or  their  difference,  is  always  3,  or 
a  number  divisible  by  3.  Thus,  if  the  num- 
bers are  3  and  8,  the  first  number  is  3;  let 
the  numbers  be  I  and  2,  their  sum  is  3 ;  let 
them  be  4  and  7,  the  difference  is  3.  Again, 
15  and  22,  the  first  number  is  divisible  by  3 ; 
17  and  26,  their  difference  is  divisible  by 
3,  etc. 

OF  NUMBER  FIVE. — If  you  multiply  5  by 
itself,  and  the  quotient  again  by  itself,  and 
the  second  quotient  by  itself,  the  last  figure 
of  each  quotient  will  always  be  5.  Thus, 
5  X  5  ==  25  ;  25  X  25  =  625 ;  125  X  125  =  15,- 
625,  etc.  Again,  if  you  proceed  in  the  same 
manner  with  the  figure  6,  the  last  figure  will 
constantly  be  6. 

To  divide  any  number  by  five,  or  any 
multiplicand  of  that  number,  by  means  of 
simple  addition:— To  divide  by  5,  double 


the  number  given,  and  mark  off  the  last 
figure,  which  will  represent  tenths.  Thus, 
to  divide  261  by  5 :  261  +  261  =  522,  or 
52  2-ioths.  Again,  to  divide  the  same  num- 
ber by  25,  you  must  take  four  times  the 
number  to  be  divided,  and  mark  off  the  last 
two  figures,  which  will  be  hundredths,  thus, 
261+261+261+261  =  1,044,  or  10  44- 
xooths. 

OF  NUMBER  NINE. — The  following  re- 
markable properties  of  the  number  9  are 
not  generally  known :  Thus,  9  X  1=9; 
9X2=18,  1+8  =  9;  9X3  =  27,  2  +  7 
=  9,  9X4  =  36,  3  +  6  =  9;  9X5  =  45,  4 
+  5  =  9J  9*6  =  54,  5  +  4  =  9;  9X7  = 
63,  6  +  3  =  9;  9X8  =  72,  7  +  2  =  9;  9X9 
=  81,  8  +  1=9. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  that — i.  The 
component  figures  of  the  product  made  by 
the  multiplication  of  every  digit  into  the 
number  9,  when  added  together,  make  NINE. 
2.  The  order  of  these  component  figures  is 
reversed,  after  the  said  number  has  been 
multiplied  by  5.  3.  The  component  figures 
of  the  amount  of  the  multipliers  (viz.  45), 
when  added  together,  make  NINE.  4.  The 
amount  of  the  several  products,  or  multiples 
of  9  (viz.  405),  when  divided  by  9,  gives, 
for  a  quotient,  45 ;  that  is,  4  +  5  =  NINE. 

It  is  also  observable  that  the  number  of 
changes  that  may  be  rung  on  nine  bells  is 
362,880 ;  which  figures,  added  together,  make 
27 ;  that  is,  2  +  7  =  NINE. 

And  the  quotient  of  362,880,  divided  by  9, 
will  be  40,320 ;  that  is,  4  +  0  +  3  +  2  +  0  = 
NINE. 

To  add  a  figure  to  any  given  number, 
which  shall  render  it  divisible  by  Nine: 
Add  the  figures  together  in  your  mind, 
which  compose  the  number  named;  and  the 
figure  which  must  be  added  to  the  sum 
produced,  in  order  to  render  it  divisible  by 
9,  is  the  one  required.  Thus,  suppose  the 
given  number  to  be  7,521 : 

Add  those  together,  and  15  will  be  pro- 
duced; now  15  requires  3  to  render  it  di- 
visible by  9;  and  that  number  3,  being 
added  to  7,521,  causes  the  same  divisibility: 

7,521 
3 


9)7,524(836 

This  exercise  may  be  diversified  by  your 
specifying,  before  the  sum  is  named,  the 
particular  place  where  the  figure  shall  be 
inserted,  to  make  the  number  divisible  by 
9;  for  it  is  exactly  the  same  thing  whether 
the  figure  be  put  at  the  head  of  the  number, 
or  between  any  two  of  its  digits. 


ARITHMETICAL   AMUSEMENTS 


759 


To  multiply  by  Nine  by  Simple  Subtrac- 
tion.— Supposing  you  wish  to  multiply  67,583 
by  9,  add  a  cipher  to  the  end  of  the  sum, 
then  place  the  sum  to  be  divided  underneath 
the  amount,  and  subtract  it  from  the  same; 
the  quotient  will  be  the  product  of  67,583 
multiplied  by  9;  thus: 

675830 
67583 


608247 

Number  Nine  and  Eighteen. — If  any  two 
of  the  following  sums,  36,  63,  81,  117,  126, 
162,  207,  216,  252,  261,  306,  315,  360,  432,  are 
added  together,  the  figures  in  the  quotient, 
when  cast  up,  will  make  either  9  or  18. 
For  instance,  216  +  252  =  468,  and  4  +  6  + 
8  =  18 ;  or,  63  +  81  =  144,  and  I  +  4  +  4=9- 

THE    UNITED    DIGITS 

The  figures  i  to  9  may  be  placed  in  such 
order  that  the  whole  added  together  make 
exactly  100.  Thus : 

15 
36 
47 

98 

2 
IOO 

The  secret  is  to  arrange  the  figures  I,  3, 
4.  5>  6,  7,  in  such  a  manner  that,  added 
together,  they  make  98,  when  by  adding  2 
you  get  the  whole  nine  digits  into  the  cal- 
culation. 

TO    DISCOVER  A  SQUARE    NUMBER 

A  square  number  is  a  number  produced 
by  the  multiplication  of  any  number  into 
itself;  thus,  4  multiplied  by  4  is  equal  to 
16,  and  16  is  consequently  a  square  number, 
4  being  the  square  root  from  which  it 
springs.  The  extraction  of  the  square  root 
of  any  number  takes  some  time;  and  after 
all  your  labor  you  may  perhaps  find  that  the 
number  is  not  a  square  number.  To  save 
this  trouble,  it  is  worth  knowing  that  every 
square  number  ends  either  with  a  i,  4,  5,  6, 
or  9,  or  with  two  ciphers,  preceded  by  one 
of  these  numbers. 

Another  property  of  a  square  number  is, 
that  if  it  be  divided  by  4,  the  remainder, 
if  any,  will  be  I — thus,  the  square  of  5  is 
25,  and  25  divided  by  4  leaves  a  remainder 
of  I ;  and  again  16,  being  a  square  number, 
can  be  divided  by  4  without  leaving  a  re- 
mainder. 


A    MAGIC    SQUARE 

The  following  arrangement  of  figures, 
from  i  to  36,  in  the  form  of  a  square,  will 
amount  to  the  same  sum  if  the.  numbers 
are  cast  up  perpendicularly,  horizontally,  or 
from  corner  to  corner,  the  result  in  every 
direction  being  in: 


29 

12 

28 

9 

7 

26 

32 

31 

3 

4 

36 

5 

23 

18 

IS 

16 

J9 

20 

14 

24 

21 

22 

13 

I? 

2 

i 

34 

33 

6 

35 

II 

25 

10 

27 

30 

8 

TO   WEIGH    FROM    ONE   TO    FORTY 
POUNDS  WITH   FOUR  WEIGHTS 
To  weigh  any  weight  from  I  to  40  pounds 
by  the  use  of  four  weights  only,  the  weights 
must  be  respectively  i,  3,  9,  and  27  pounds 
each.     Thus,  2  pounds  may  be  weighed  by 
placing  3  pounds  in  one  scale  and  I  in  the 
other;  5  pounds,  by  placing  i  and  3  in  one 
scale  and  9  pounds  in  the  opposite,  etc. 

THE   CANCELED   FIGURE   GUESSED 

To  tell  the  figure  a  person  has  struck  out 
of  the  sum  of  two  given  numbers:  Ar- 
bitrarily command  those  numbers  only  that 
are  divisible  by  9 ;  such,  for  instance,  as  36, 
63,  81,  117,  126,  162,  261,  360,  315,  and  432. 

Then  let  a  person  choose  any  two  of  these 
numbers ;  and,  after  adding  them  together 
in  his  mind,  strike  out  from  the  sum  any 
one  of  the  figures  he  pleases. 

After  he  has  so  done,  desire  him  to  tell 
you  the  sum  of  the  remaining  figures;  and 
it  follows,  that  the  number  which  you  are 
obliged  to  add  to  this  amount,  in  order  to 
make  it  9  or  18,  is  the  one  he  struck  out. 
Thus: 

Suppose  he  chooses  the  numbers  162  and 
261,  making  altogether  423,  and  that  he 
strikes  out  the  centre  figure,  the  two  other 
figures  will,  added  together,  make  7,  which, 
to  make  9,  requires  2,  the  number  struck  out. 

THE    DICE    GUESSED    UNSEEN 

A  pair  of  dice  being  thrown,  to  find  the 
number  of  points  on  each  die  without  see- 
ing them :  Tell  the  person  who  cast  the 
dice  to  double  the  number  of  points  upon 
one  of  tb^m,  and  add  5  to  it;  then  to  mul- 


760 


ARITHMETICAL   AMUSEMENTS 


tiply  the  sum  produced  by  5,  and  to  add 
to  the  product  the  number  of  points  upon 
the  other  die.  This  being  done,  desire  him 
to  tell  you  the  amount,  and,  having  thrown 
out  25,  the  remainder  will  be  a  number  con- 
sisting of  two  figures,  the  first  of  which,  to 
the  left,  is  the  number  of  points  on  the  first 
die,  and  the  second  figure,  to  the  right,  the 
number  on  the  other.  Thus: 

Suppose  the  number  of  points  on  the  first 
die  which  comes  up  to  be  2,  and  that  of 
the  other  3 ;  then,  if  to  4,  the  double  of  the 
points  of  the  first,  there  be  added  5,  and 
the  sum  produced,  9,  be  multiplied  by  5, 
the  product  will  be  45;  to  which,  if  3,  the 
number  of  points  on  the  other  die,  be  added, 
48  will  be  produced,  from  which,  if  25  be 
subtracted,  23  will  remain;  the  first  figure 
of  which  is  2,  the  number  of  points  on  the 
first  die,  and  the  second  figure  3,  the  number 
on  the  other. 

THE    SOVEREIGN    AND    THE    SAGE 

A  sovereign  being  desirous  to  confer  a 
liberal  reward  on  one  of  his  courtiers,  who 
had  performed  some  very  important  service, 
desired  him  to  ask  whatever  he  thought 
proper,  assuring  him  it  should  be  granted. 
The  courtier,  who  was  well  acquainted  with 
the  science  of  numbers,  only  requested  that 
the  monarch  would  give  him  a  quantity  of 
•wheat  equal  to  that  which  would  arise  from 
one  grain  doubled  sixty-three  times  succes- 
sively. The  value  of  the  reward  was  im- 
mense; for  it  will  be  found  that  the  sixty- 
fourth  term  of  the  double  progression  di- 
vided by  I,  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  etc.,  is  9,223,372,- 
036,854775,808.  But  the  sum  of  all  the 
terms  of  a  double  progression,  beginning 
with  i,  may  be  obtained  by  doubling  the 
last  term,  and  subtracting  from  it  i.  The 
number  of  the  grains  of  wheat,  therefore, 
in  the  present  case,  will  be  18,446,744,073,- 
709,551,615.  Now,  if  a  pint  contain  9,216 
grains  of  wheat,  a  gaJlon  will  contain  73,728 ; 
and,  as  eight  gallons  make  one  bushel,  if 
•we  divide  the  above  result  by  eight  times 
73,728  we  shall  have  31,274,997,411,295  for 
the  number  of  the  bushels  of  wheat  equal 
to  the  above  number  of  grains,  a  quantity 
greater  than  what  the  whole  surface  of  the 
earth  could  produce  in  several  years,  and 
•which,  in  value,  would  exceed  all  the  riches, 
perhaps,  on  the  globe. 

THE    HORSE-DEALER'S    BARGAIN 

A  gentleman  taking  a  fancy  to  a  horse, 
which  a  horse-dealer  wished  to  dispose  of 
at  as  high  a  price  as  he  could,  the  latter, 
to  induce  the  gentleman  to  become  a  put' 


chaser,  offered  to  let  him  have  the  horse  for 
the  value  of  the  twenty-fourth  nail  in  his 
shoes,  reckoning  one  cent  for  the  first  nail, 
two  for  the  second,  four  for  the  third,  and 
so  on  to  the  twenty-fourth.  The  gentleman, 
thinking  he  should  have  a  good  bargain, 
accepted  the  offer;  how  mistaken  he  was 
the  result  will  show. 

By  calculating  as  before,  the  twenty-fourth 
term  of  the  progression,  I,  2,  4,  8,  etc.,  will 
be  found  to  be  8,388,608,  equal  to  the  num- 
ber of  cents  the  purchaser  gave  for  the 
horse;  the  price,  therefore,  amounted  to 
$83,886.08. 

THE    DINNER    PARTY 

A  club  of  seven  persons  agreed  to  dine 
together  every  day  successively,  so  long  as 
they  could  sit  down  to  table  differently  ar- 
ranged. How  many  dinners  would  be  neces- 
sary for  that  purpose?  It  may  easily  be 
found  by  the  rules  of  simple  progression, 
that  the  club  must  dine  together  5,040  times 
before  they  would  exhaust  all  the  arrange- 
ments possible,  which  would  require  above 
thirteen  years. 

THE   BASKET   AND    STONES 

If  a  hundred  stones  be  placed  in  a  straight 
line,  at  the  distance  of  a  yard  from  each 
other,  the  first  being  at  the  same  distance 
from  a  basket,  how  many  yards  must  the 
person  walk  who  engages  to  pick  them  up, 
one  by  one,  and  put  them  into  the  basket? 
It  is  evident  that,  to  pick  up  the  first  stone 
and  put  it  into  a  basket,  the  person  must 
walk  two  yards ;  for  the  second,  he  must 
walk  four ;  for  the  third,  six ;  and  so  on, 
increasing  by  two  to  the  hundredth. 

The  number  of  yards,  therefore,  which 
the  person  must  walk  will  be  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  progression,  2,  4,  6,  etc.,  the  Jast 
term  of  which  is  200  (22).  But  the  sum 
of  the  progression  is  equal  to  202,  the  sum 
of  the  two  extremes,  multiplied  by  50,  or 
half  the  number  of  terms;  that  is  to  say, 
10,100  yards,  which  makes  more  than  5% 
miles. 

THE    CAN    OF    ALE 

How  to  divide  8  gallons  of  ale  contained 
in  an  8-gallon  can  into  two  equal  parts, 
having  only  two  empty  bottles  to  effect  it 
with,  one  containing  5  gallons  and  the  other 
3.  First,  fill  the  5-gallon  bottle,  and  you 
will  have  3  remaining  in  the  8-gallon  can;  < 
fill  the  3-gallon  bottle  from  the  5-gallon, 
which  will  then  contain  only  2  gallons ;  pour 
the  3  gallons  in  the  3-gallon  bottle  into 
that  which  holds  8  gallons,  which  will  then 
contain  6  gallons;  then  pour  the  2  gallons 


ARITHMETICAL   AMUSEMENTS 


out  of  the  5-gallon  bottle  into  the  3-gallon 
bottle,  and  filling  the  5-gallon  bottle  from 
the  8-gallon  can,  which  at  present  contains 
6  gallons,  you  will  have  i  gallon  in  the  can, 
5  in  the  largest  bottle,  and  2  in  the  smallest ; 
by  filling  up  the  3-gallon  can  from  the  5- 
gallon,  you  leave  4  gallons,  or  one-half  the 
8  gallons,  in  the  largest  bottle;  and,  lastly, 
pouring  the  contents  of  the  3-gallon  bottle 
into  the  8-gallon  can,  which  contains  I 
gallon,  you  have  the  second  half,  or  4 
gallons. 

COUNTING   A   BILLION 

What  is  a  billion?  The  reply  is  very 
simple — a  thousand  times  a  million.  This 
is  quickly  written,  and  more  quickly  still 
pronounced.  But  no  man  is  able  to  count 
it.  You  can  count  160  or  170  a  minute ; 
but  let  us  even  suppose  that  you  go  as  far 
as  200  in  a  minute,  then  an  hour  will  produce 
12,000 ;  a  day,  288,000 ;  and  a  year,  or  365 
days  (for  every  four  years  you  may  rest 
from  counting  during  leap  year),  105,120,000. 
Let  us  suppose,  now,  that  Adam,  at  the 
beginning  of  his  existence,  had  begun  to 
count,  had  continued  to  do  so,  and  was 
counting  still,  he  would  not,  even  now,  ac- 
cording to  the  usually  supposed  age  of  our 
globe,  have  counted  nearly  enough.  For, 
to  count  a  billion,  he  would  require  9,512 
years,  34  days,  5  hours,  and  20  minutes, 
according  to  the  above  rule. 

THE    NUMBER    SEVENTY-THREE 

If  number  73  be  multiplied  by  any  of  the 
progressive  numbers  arising  from  the  mul- 
tiplication of  3  with  any  of  the  units,  the 
result  will  be  as  follows : 

73  X  3  =  219 

73  X  6=  438 

73  X  9  =  657 

73  X  12  =  876 

73  X  IS  =  1095 
73  X  18  =  1314 
73  X  21  =  1533 
73  X  24  =  1752 
73X27  =  1971 

On  inspecting  these  amounts  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  last  figures  run  thus — 9,  8,  7, 
6,  5,  4,  3,  2,  I.  Again,  if  we  refer  to  the 
sums  produced  by  the  multiplication  of  73 
by  3,  6,  9,  12,  and  15,  it  will  be  found  that 
by  reading  the  two  figures  to  the  left  of 
each  amount  backward,  it  will  give  I,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  o. 

CURIOUS    CALCULATION 

If  a  pin  were  dropped  into  the  hold  of 
the  big  freighter  Pennsylvania,  and  on  that 


day  week  a  second  pin,  and  on  that  day 
week  four  pins,  and  so  on,  doubling  the 
number  of  pins  each  week  for  a  year,  there 
would,  by  the  end  of  the  52  weeks,  be 
deposited  no  fewer  than  4,503,599,627,370,- 
495  pins.  Allowing  200  to  the  ounce,  the 
weight  of  the  whole  would  be  628,292,358 
tons;  and  to  carry  them  all  would  require 
52,358  ships  as  large  as  the  Pennsylvania, 
which  is  calculated  to  carry  12,000  tons  of 
freight. 

ARITHMETICAL   PROGRESSION 

If  you  could  buy  a  hundred  ships,  giving 
a  farthing  for  the  first,  a  halfpenny  for  the 
second,  a  penny  for  the  third,  twopence  for 
the  fourth,  and  so  on  to  the  last,  doubling 
the  sum  each  time,  the  whole  amount  paid 
would  be  £557,750,707,053,344,041,463,074,442 
i8s.  7^d. — a  sum  which  in  words  runs  thus : 
557  quadrillions,  750,707  trillions,  53,344 
billions,  41,643  millions,  74  thousand,  \\> 
pounds,  eighteen  shillings  and  sevenpence 
three'  farthings.  This  amount  in  sovereigns 
would  weigh  3,557,083,590,327,499,123,418 
tons.  Then,  counting  $4.84  to  the  pound, 
24  cents  to  the  shilling,  and  2  cents  to  the 
penny,  this  sum  would  equal  in  United 
States  money  no  less  than  $2,819,303,422,- 
138,185,160,681,280,303.751/2,  which  seems  to 
make  our  fleet  quite  expensive. 

QUEER    PROPERTIES    OF 
FORTY-FIVE 

Divide  45  into  four  such  parts  that  by 
adding  2  to  the  first  you  will  have  10;  by 
subtracting  2  from  the  second  you  will 
have  10;  by  multiplying  the  third  by  2  you 
will  have  10;  by  dividing  the  fourth  by  2 
you  will  have  10.  The  four  parts  are  as 
follows : 

(1)  8  +  2  =  10 

(2)  12  —  2  =  10 

(3)  5  X  2  =  10 

(4)  20  -T-  2  =  10 

8+  12  +  5  +  20  =  45 

Subtract  45  from  45  and  leave  45  as  a 
remainder.  As  may  be  readily  discovered, 

45  =  9  +  8  +  7  +  6  +  5+4  +  3  +  2  +  1. 

Then,  writing  these  numbers  consecutively, 
we  have: 

987654321 

123456789 


864197532 

Then,  as  is  evident, 
8  +  6  +  4 -r  i  +  9  +  7  +  5  +  3  +  2  =  45. 


762 


ARITHMETICAL   AMUSEMENTS 


CURIOUS  ARITHMETICAL  RESULTS 

123456789  X  9+  10=  IIIIIIIIH 
123456789  X  l8  +  2O  =  2222222222 
123456789  X  27  +  30  =  3333333333 
123456789  X  36  +  40  = . 


123456789  X  45  +  50  =  5555555555 
123456789  X  54  +  60  =  6666666666 
123456789X63  +  70  =  ; 
123456789X72  +  80  =  ! 
123456789  X  81  +90  =  9999999999 

This  table  is  still  more  interesting  when 
it  is  noticed  that  each  multiplier  is  divisible 
by  9,  and  that,  when  the  figures  of  each 
answer  are  added  together  and  the  added 
number  is  subtracted,  the  answer  is  o.  For 
example,  the  sum  of  i,ni,iii,iii  is  10;  10 
minus  10  is  o. 


I  X  9  +  2  =  11 
12  X  9  +  3  =  111 
123  X  9  +  4=1111 
1234  X  9  +  5  =  1  1  1  1  1 
12345  X9+  6=  mill 
123456  X  9  +  7=iiiim 
1234567  X  9  +  8=iimiii 
12345678  X 


1X8+1=9 
12X8  +  2  =  98 

123X8  +  3  =  987 
1234  X  8  +  4  =  9876 

12345X8  +  5  =  98765 
123456X8  +  6  =  987654 
1234567  X  8  +  7  =  9876543 
12345678  X  8  +  8  =  98765432 
123456789  X  8  +  9  =  987654321 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW 

ON     EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


WHILE,  according  to  an  old  and  eminently  true  saying,  "a  man  who 
is  his  own  lawyer  has  a  fool  for  a  client,"  it  is  in  very  many 
senses  desirable  that  every  one  should  understand  at  least  the 
outlines  of  legal  principles,  as  they  define  his  personal  rights  and  liabili- 
ties and  prescribe  his  duties.  For  the  purpose  of  giving  this  information, 
the  following  compilation  of  legal  principles,  as  recognized  in  most  of  the 
United  States,  has  been  prepared.  It  can  not  be  pretended  that  any  one 
can  derive  exact  information  here,  or  that  he  would  be  justified,  after 
studying  these  pages,  in  shaping  his  conduct  in  important  matters,  without 
the  advice  of  an  accredited  attorney.  He  may  learn  sufficient,  however,  to 
guide  and  inform  him  on  the  general  points  of  his  rights,  and  thus  save 
himself  much  of  the  worry — money,  even — that  is  too  often  expended  be- 
cause one  listens  to  idle  threats  and  "old  wives'  tales,"  instead  of  seeking 
authoritative  advice,  when  it  is  required. 

It  may  seem  to  the  average  mind  that  the  Law,  using  the  term  in  a  gen- 
eral sense,  is  a  most  involved,  uncertain  and  altogether  fantastic  subject, 
invented  solely  for  the  confusion  of  the  majority  and  for  the  profit  of  law- 
yers. Such  a  person  can  not  understand  why  it  is  not  possible  to  have  a 
few  well-defined  and  simple  principles,  like  the  Ten  Commandments,  and 
base  all  suits  and  judgments  upon  questions  whether  or  no  these  have  been 
violated.  Such  an  arrangement  would  undoubtedly  have  some  advantages, 
provided  (i)  any  authority  were  capable  of  formulating  such  a  code  for 
our  civilization,  and  (2)  that  it  were  possible  to  provide  against  the  mis- 
understanding, misconstruction,  and  misapplication  of  even  the  simplest 
and  most  inclusive  statutes. 

The  Law  as  we  have  it  in  the  United  States  is  in  the  larger  majority 
of  cases  an  outgrowth  and  development  of  that  vast  body  of  tradition  and 
precedent  known  as  the  Common  Law  of  England.  Many  of  the  principles 
of  the  Common  Law,  as  codified  by  Blackstone  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
are  derived  direct  from  the  ecclesiastical  laws  that  formerly  held,  when 
Church  authorities  administered  nearly  all  the  courts,  civil  and  criminal. 
Superposed  upon  these  is  another  vast  body  of  material,  composed  of  ju- 
dicial decisions  on  all  kinds  of  cases,  ranging  through  several  centuries. 
This  second  body  of  authority  is  called  "precedent,"  and  marks  a  fairly 
steady  progress  away  from  the  old  Church  Laws  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In 


764 


OUTLINES   OF   LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


several  of  the  United  States  Common-Law  principles  still  hold  good  in 
a  number  of  matters,  but  the  tendency  is  to  modify  them  by  statute  in  other 
particulars.  Thus  it  is  that  there  is  such  a  wide  divergence  in  such  subjects 
as  divorce,  inheritance,  criminal  jurisprudence,  etc.,  in  the  various  States. 
Wherever  a  point  is  not  covered  by  special  statute  or  is  not  defined  in  the 
code  of  procedure — if  there  be  one — it  is  still  judged  with  reference  to  the 
Common  Law. 


DIGEST    OF    LAWS    ON    FAMILIAR    SUBJECTS 


AGENCY 

BY  AGENCY  is  meant  the  substitution 
of  one  person  by  and  for  another,  the 
former  to  transact  business  for  the  latter. 
An  Agency  may  be  established  by  implica- 
tion— an  express  agreement  with  a  person 
that  he  is  to  become  the  agent  of  another, 
not  being  necessary — or  verbally,  or  by  writ- 
ing. A  verbal  creation  of  agency  suffices  to 
authorize  the  agent  to  make  a  contract  even 
in  cases  where  such  contract  must  be  in 
writing. 

Agency  is  of  three  kinds;  special,  gen- 
eral, and  professional.  A  special  agency  is 
an  authority  exercised  for  a  special  pur- 
pose. If  a  special  agent  exceed  the  limits 
of  his  authority,  his  principal  is  not  bound 
by  his  acts. 

A  general  agency  authorizes  the  transac- 
tion of  all  business  of  a  particular  kind,  or 
growing  out  of  a  particular  employment. 
The  principal  will  be  bound  by  the  acts  of 
a  general  agent  though  the  latter  act  con- 
trary to  private  instructions,  provided  he 
keep,  at  the  same  time,  within  the  general 
limits  of  his  authority. 

Professional  agents  are  those  licensed  by 
tlK  proper  authority  to  transact  certain 
kinds  of  business  for  a  compensation.  The 
following  are  among  this  kind  of  agents: 

I.  Attorneys.  2.  Brokers.  3.  Factors.  4. 
Auctioneers.  5.  Masters  of  Ships. 

A  person  doing  business  as  an  agent  in 
New  York  State  must  file  with  the  County 
Clerk  a  certificate  giving  name  and  address 
of  principal. 

In  regard  to  the  subject  of  an  agency, 
the  general  rule  is  that  whatever  a  man  may 
do  in  his  own  right,  he  may  also  transact 
through  another. 

Infants,  lunatics,  idiots,  aliens,  belliger- 
ents, and  persons  incapable  of  making  legal 
contracts,  can  not  act  as  principals  in  the 
appointment  of  agents.  Infants  may,  how- 
ever, become  principals  in  certain  cases,  and 


married  women  may  become  principals  the 
same  as  men. 
Agency  may  be  terminated  in  two  ways: 

(1)  by  the  act  of  the  principal  or  agent; 

(2)  by    operation    of  law.     In   the   latter 
case,  the  termination  of  the  agency  is  ef- 
fected by  lapse  of  time,  by  completion  of 
the   subject  matter  of  the  agency,   by  the 
extinction  of  the  subject  matter,  or  by  the 
insanity,    bankruptcy,    or    death    of    either 
party. 

ARBITRATION 

Arbitration  is  an  investigation  and  deter- 
mination of  subjects  of  difference  between 
persons  involved  in  dispute,  by  unofficial 
persons  chosen  by  the  parties  in  question. 

The  general  rule  is  that  any  person  capa- 
ble of  making  a  valid  contract  concerning 
the  subject  in  dispute  may  be  a  party  to  an 
arbitration.  Any  matter  which  the  parties 
may  adjust  by  agreement,  or  which  may  be 
made  the  subject  of  a  suit  at  law,  may  be 
determined  by  arbitration.  Crimes  can  not 
be  made  the  subject  matter  of  an  arbitra- 
tion. 

Questions  may  be  submitted  for  arbitra- 
tion in  the  following  ways : 

1.  By  parol. 

2.  By  writing. 

3.  Under  the  statute,  which  must  be  done 
if  the  parties  are  desirous  of  availing  them- 
selves of  its  provisions. 

4.  By  rule  of  court,  which  occurs  when 
an    action    is    pending    in    court    and    the 
parties  agree  to  take  it  before  arbitrators, 
in  accordance  with  an  order  of  the  court. 

5.  By  deposit  of  notes. 

A  person  may  be  selected  as  arbitrator, 
notwithstanding  his  natural  incapacity  or 
legal  disability  to  make  contracts. 

The  arbitrators  must  fix  the  time  and 
place  of  hearing,  and  give  due  notice  of  the 
same  to  the  parties.  They  must  be  sworn, 
if  the  statute  requires  an  oath,  unless  such 


OUTLINES   OF   LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


766 


oath  is  waived  by  the  parties  themselves. 
In  the  matter  of  hearing  evidence  the  stat- 
ute of  the  State  must  be  followed. 

The  arbitrators  may  adjourn  from  time 
to  time,  provided  the  time  does  not  extend 
beyond  the  period  appointed  for  the  de- 
livery of  the  award. 

In  arbitrations  the  parties  are  entitled  to 
the  aid  of  counsel,  the  same  as  they  would 
be  in  court. 

After  a  fair  submission  and  a  legal  award, 
the  matter  submitted  can  not  be  litigated 
on,  any  more  than  if  it  had  been"  settled  by 
a  judgment. 

An  award  may  be  impeached  where  it 
has  been  procured  by  corruption,  fraud,  or 
other  undue  means ;  by  misconduct,  corrup- 
tion, or  irregularity  on  the  part  of  the  arbi- 
trators ;  when  the  arbitrators  acknowledge 
they  have  made  a  mistake  in  their  decision; 
where  the  arbitrators  have  exceeded  their 
powers;  where  pertinent  and  material  evi- 
dence was  rejected,  etc.  If  either  party  re- 
vokes the  submission,  he  will  be  liable  for 
an  action  for  breach  of  contract,  and  the 
payment  of  damages  by  the  other  party. 

ARREST 

The  defendant  in  an  action  may  be  ar- 
rested for  the  following  causes,  when  the 
action  is  to  recover  damages : 

1.  Personal  injury. 

2.  Injury   to   property,    including   wrong- 
ful   taking,     detention,    or    conversion    of 
property. 

3.  Breach  of  promise  to  marry. 

4.  Fraud  or  deceit. 

5.  Misconduct  or  neglect  in  office,  or  in 
professional  employment. 

6.  In  an  action  to  recover  a  chattel  where 
said  chattel  or  a  part  thereof  has  been  re- 
moved, concealed,  or  disposed  of,  so  that  it 
can  not  be  found  or  be  taken  by  the  Sheriff, 
and  with  intent  that  it  should  not  be  found 
or  taken  by  the  Sheriff,  or  with  the  intent 
of    depriving    the    plaintiff    of    the    benefit 
thereof. 

7.  In  an  action  upon  contract,  express  or 
implied,  other  than  a  promise  to  marry,  where 
the  defendant  has  been  guilty  of  fraud  in 
contracting  or  incurring  the  liability. 

8.  In  an  action  upon  contract,  either  ex- 
press or  implied,  other  than  a  promise  to 
marry,  where  defendant  has,  since  the  mak- 
ing of  the  contract,  or  in  contemplation  of 
the  same,  removed  or  disposed  of  his  prop- 
erty with  the  intent  of  defrauding  his  cred- 
itors, or  where  he  is  about  to  remove  or 
dispose  of  the  sam«  with  like  intent. 


9.  In  case  of  action  to  recover  for  money 
received,  or  to  recover  property  or  damages 
for  the  conversion  or  misapplication  of  the 
same,   where   the   money   was   received,  or 
where  the  property  was  embezzled,  or  fraud- 
ulently misapplied  by  a  public  official,  or  by 
an  attorney,  solicitor,  or  counsellor,  or  by  an 
officer  or  agent  of  a  corporation  or  banking 
association  in  .he  course  of  his  employment, 
or  by  a  factor,  agent,  broker,  or  any  person 
in  a  fiduciary  capacity. 

10.  In  an  action  wherein  the  judgment  de- 
manded requires  the  performance  of  an  act, 
the  neglect  or  the  refusal  to  perform  which 
would  be  punishable  by  the  court  as  con- 
tempt, or  where  the  defendant,  not  being  a 
resident  of  the  State,  or  being  a  resident, 
is  about  to  depart  from  the  State,  by  reason 
of  which  departure  there  is  a  danger  that  a 
judgment  or  an  order  requiring  the  perform- 
ance of  the  said  act  will  be  rendered  in- 
effectual. 

Females  are  liable  to  arrest  only  in  the 
cases  mentioned  in  the  preceding  subdivi- 
sion, or  in  cases  of  wilful  injury  to  person, 
character,  or  property. 

A  debtor  may  be  arrested  in  New  York 
State  only  when  it  can  be  proved  that  he 
employed  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt,  or 
that  he  concealed  or  put  his  property  out 
of  his  hands  with  the  intent  of  defeating 
his  creditors. 

The  defendant,  when  arrested,  may  give 
bail. 

ATTACHMENT 

An  attachment  may  be  issued,  when  it  is 
a  question  of  recovering  a  sum  of  money, 
for  damages,  in  the  following  cases : 

1.  For  breach  of  contract,  whether  express 
or  implied,  other  than  a  contract  to  marry. 

2.  For   wrongful   conversion  of  personal 
property,  or  for  any  injury  to  personal  prop- 
erty, in  consequence  of  fraud,  negligence,  or 
any  other  wrong  act. 

The  plaintiff  must  prove  that  a  cause  of 
action  exists  under  one  of  the  above  heads 
before  he  is  entitled  to  a  warrant  of  attach- 
ment. In  case  of  an  action  to  recover 
damages,  his  affidavit  must  show  that  he  is 
entitled  to  recover  a  sum  therein  stated  over 
and  above  any  or  all  counter  claims  against 
him.  In  addition,  he  must  show  that  the 
defendant  is  either  a  foreign  corporation  or 
a  non-resident  of  this  State,  or  in  case  he 
is  an  individual  person  and  resides  in  the 
State,  that  he  has  departed  therefrom  with 
the  intention  of  defrauding  his  creditors,  or 
avoiding  being  served  with  a  summons,  or 
that  he  keeps  himself  concealed  within  the 

49 


766 


OUTLINES    OF   LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


State  with  like  intent  If  the  defendant  is 
a  natural  person  or  a  domestic  corporation, 
the  affidavit  must  show  that  he  or  it  has  re- 
moved his  or  its  property  from  the  State 
with  the  intention  of  defrauding  his  or  its 
creditors,  or  that  he  has  assigned,  disposed 
of,  or  secreted  his  property,  or  that  he  is  about 
to  do  so  with  like  intent.  The  plaintiff  must 
also  give  a  bond  or  undertaking  to  the 
amount  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars 
before  the  attachment  issues.  Salary  or 
wages  may  be  attached  provided  the  condi- 
tions already  mentioned  exist  for  so  doing. 
In  the  absence  of  said  conditions,  and  after 
unsatisfied  judgment  and  execution,  wages 
may  be  taken  by  supplementary  proceedings. 
The  earnings  of  the  debtor  for  his  personal 
services  for  sixty  days  previous  to  the  in- 
stitution of  said  supplementary  proceedings, 
where  such  earnings  appear  to  be  necessary 
for  the  support  of.  a  family  wholly  or  in 
part  supported  by  his  labor,  can  not  be 
reached. 

BIRTHS   AND   DEATHS 

All  marriages,  births,  and  deaths  are  re- 
quired by  law  to  be  recorded,  within  a  given 
time. 

Of  these  the  death  record  is  the  only  one, 
as  a  rule,  that  is  kept  with  measurable  ac- 
curacy. The  authorities  are  extremely  care- 
ful that  no  body  be  interred  without  special 
permission,  and  due  certificate  as  to  death, 
cause  of  death,  etc.  Births  are  only  par- 
tially reported,  and  though  failure  to  report 
the  fact  to  the  Board  of  Statistics  by  one 
or  all  of  those  present  at  the  birth  is  pun- 
ishable under  the  law  as  a  misdemeanor, 
the  authorities,  in  many  of  our  cities,  wink 
at  such  delinquencies,  although  it  is  on 
record  that  fines  have  been  imposed  on 
physicians  and  others  for  violation  of  the 
code  in  this  regard.  But  burial  permits, 
procured  for  the  removal  of  the  body  of 
the  deceased  person,  can  only  be  granted 
and  signed  by  the  Register  of  Records.  No 
permits  can  be  procured  without  a  proper 
certificate  from  the  physician  who  attended 
the  case.  In  the  event  of  sudden,  violent, 
or  suspicious  death,  whether  with  or  with- 
out the  attendance  of  a  physician,  the  Cor- 
oner steps  in  and  subpoenas  a  "properly 
qualified  physician,"  to  view  the  body  of 
the  deceased  person,  or,  if  necessary,  to 
make  an  autopsy  thereon. 

No  master  of  a  ferryboat  or  public  con- 
veyance may  carry  the  body  of  a  deceased 
person  without  presentation  of  the  death 
certificate,  duly  signed,  and  the  same  rule 


applies   to   those   in   charge   of  the   burial 
ground. 

The  statistics  cover  every  detail,  regard- 
ing the  various  diseases  causing  death,  the 
times  and  the  seasons  in  which  death  oc- 
curs; and  in  the  case  of  birth,  the  parent- 
age, whether  native  or  foreign  born,  black, 
white,  or  parti-colored,  together  with  the 
place  of  birth,  the  father  and  mother's 
names,  the  mother's  maiden  name,  the  birth- 
place (County  or  State)  of  the  father  and 
mother,  their  age  and  occupation,  the  num- 
ber of  the  child,  whether  first,  second,  etc. 
New  York  is  less  accurate  in  its  birth  re- 
turns than  any  other  city  in  the  Union,  only 
sixty-five  per  cent  of  the  births  being  re- 
ported. Massachusetts  is  the  most  exact- 
ing and  accurate  of  any  of  the  States  in  the 
matter  of  the  registering  of  births. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES 

A  mortgage  of  goods  and  chattels  will  be 
void  to  creditors  of  the  mortgagee,  if  the 
following  conditions  are  not  complied  with: 

1.  The   immediate   delivery  of  the  prop- 
erty accompanying  the  mortgage,   followed 
by  actual  and  continued  claim  of  possession. 

2.  The  filing  of  the  mortgage,  or  a  true 
copy  thereof,   as    required   by   law,   in   the 
clerk's  or  register's  office  of  the  town,  city 
or  county  where  the  mortgagor  resides,  and 
where  the  property  lies  at  the  time  the  in- 
strument was  executed.  The  mortgage  must 
be  filed  where  the  mortgagee  resides,  if  he 
is  a  resident  of  the  State;  if  not,  it  must 
be  filed  in  the  city  or  town  where  the  prop- 
erty is  located  at  the  time  of  the  execution 
of  the  mortgage.     It  must  be  filed  in  the 
Register's  Office  in  the  cities  of  New  York 
and   Brooklyn. 

CONTRACTS 

The  conditions  of  a  contract,  as  applying 
to  individuals,  are:  I.  Age;  2.  Rationality; 
and  3,  as  to  Corporations,  the  possession  of 
general  or  special  statutory  powers. 

Persons  under  age  are  incompetent  to 
make  contracts,  except  under  certain  limi- 
tations. Generally  such  persons  are  in- 
capable of  making  binding  contracts. 

As  to  rationality,  the  general  principle  of 
law  is  that  all  persons  not  rendered  incom- 
petent by  personal  disability,  or  by  con- 
siderations of  public  policy,  are  capable  of 
making  a  contract. 

Corporations  have  powers  to  make  con- 
tracts strictly  within  the  limits  prescribed 
by  their  charters,  or  by  special  or  general 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


767 


statute.  The  following  classes  of  contracts 
are  void,  unless  they  shall  be  in  writing  and 
subscribed  by  the  party  to  be  charged 
thereby : 

1.  Every  agreement  that  by  its  terms  is 
not  to  be  performed  within  one  year  from 
the  making  thereof. 

2.  Every   special   promise   to   answer   for 
the  debt,  default,  or  miscarriage  of  another 
person. 

3.  Every  agreement,  promise  or  undertak- 
ing, made  upon  consideration  of  marriage, 
except  mutual  promises  to  marry. 

4.  Every   contract    for   the   leasing   of   a 
longer  period  than  one  year,  or  for  the  sale 
of  any  lands,  or  any  interest  in  lands,  shall 
be  void,  unless  the  contract,  or  some  note 
or    memorandum    thereof,    expressing    the 
consideration,  be  in  writing  and  subscribed 
by  the  party  by  whom  the  lease  or  sale  is 
made. 

Every  contract  for  the  sale  of  any  goods, 
chattels,  or  things  in  action  shall  be  void, 
unless, 

1.  A  note  or  memorandum  of  such  con- 
tract be  made  in  writing,  and  be  subscribed 
by  the  parties  to  be  charged  thereby;  or, 

2.  Unless  the  buyer  shall  accept  and  re- 
ceive part  of  such  goods,  or  the  evidences, 
or  some  of  them,  of  such  things  in  action; 
or, 

3.  Unless    the   buyer   shall,    at   the  time, 
pay  some  part  of  the  purchase  money. 

CORPORATIONS 

Corporations  are  bodies  created  by  law, 
which  consist  of  individuals  united  under  a 
common  name,  whose  members  succeed 
each  other,  so  that  the  body  continues  the 
same,  notwithstanding  the  change  of  the 
individuals  who  compose  it. 

Three  or  more  persons  so  desiring  may 
form  a  corporation. 

The  persons  desiring  to  form  a  corpora- 
tion must  make  a  certificate  in  writing  and 
acknowledge  the  same  before  an  officer  em- 
powered to  take  the  acknowledgment  of 
deeds,  in  accordance  with  the  direction  re- 
quired by  law. 

A  duplicate  of  this  certificate  must  be 
filed  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State. 

The  stockholders  of  the  incorporated  com- 
pany are  individually  liable  to  the  company's 
creditors  to  the  amount  of  the  stock  held 
by  them  respectively,  until  all  the  capital 
stock  shall  have  been  paid  in,  and  until  a 
certificate  stating  the  amount  of  the  capital 
fixed  and  paid  in  shall  be  filed  in  the  office 
of  the  County  Clerk,  in  accordance  with  the 


requirements  of  the  law.  The  stockholders 
are  jointly  and  severally  individually  liable 
to  the  laborers  or  servants  of  the  corpora- 
tion for  work  performed  for  the  same. 

Corporations  are  liable  for  contracts  made 
by  the  duly  authorized  agent  within  the 
scope  of  his  authority,  as  well  as  for  tres- 
passes or  torts  committed  by  such  agents 
under  authority  of  such  corporations. 

Corporations  are  liable  for  negligence  or 
breach  of  duty  the  same  as  individuals. 

Corporations  are  liable  to  pay  taxes  in 
the  same  manner  as  individual  owners  of 
property. 

Corporations  are  likewise  subject  to  visi-* 
tation,    which   consists   of   an   authority   to  , 
inspect  the  actions  and  regulate  the  behavior 
of  the  members  who  share  in  the  franchise. 

ESTATES:    ADMINISTRATION    OF 

Administration  is  the  legal  right  to  settle 
and  control  the  estate  of  deceased  persons, 
as  also  the  exercise  of  that  right.  Letters 
of  administration  are  the  warrant  under  the 
seal  of  the  court  granting  the  legal  right. 

The  estate  of  a  person  who  has  died  leav- 
ing no  valid  will  behind  him,  is  distributed 
among  his  heirs  by  what  is  called  "the  op- 
eration of  law."  This  is  regulated  by  the 
statutes  of  the  State  in  which  the  deceased 
resided  at  the  time  of  his  death.  The  dis- 
tribution is  made  by  an  administrator  duly 
appointed  by  law,  and  who  is  appointed  by 
the  court  having  jurisdiction  in  such  cases 
on  being  satisfied  that  the  person  is  legally 
qualified.  The  appointment  must  be  made 
with  the  consent  of  the  person  appointed. 
It  is  generally  accepted  as  a  rule  that  any 
one  is  legally  competent  to  be  an  adminis- 
trator who  is  legally  competent  to  make  a 
contract.  Certain  classes  of  persons  are  dis- 
qualified by  statute,  as,  in  the  State  of  New 
York,  drunkards,  gamblers,  spendthrifts, 
and  so  forth.  The  relatives  of  the  de- 
ceased are  considered  as  entitled  to  the  ap- 
pointment of  administering  the  estate.  The 
order  of  precedence  is  regulated  by  statute. 
Administration  is  to  be  granted  to  the  hus- 
band on  the  wife's  personal  estate,  and  ad- 
ministration on  the  husband's  estate  is  to 
be  granted  to  the  widow  and  the  next  of 
kin  in  the  following  order,  provided  they 
will  accept: 

1.  To  the  surviving  husband  or  wife. 

2.  To  the  children. 

3.  To  the  father. 

4.  To  the  mother. 

5.  To  the  brothers. 

6.  To  the  sisters. 


768 


OUTLINES   OF   LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


7.  To  the  grandchildren. 

8.  To  any  other  of  the  next  of  kin  who 
would  be  entitled  to  a  share  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  estate. 

The  guardians  of  minors  who  are  entitled 
jjuy  administer  for  them. 

Should  none  of  the  relations  or  guardians 
accept,  the  administration  will  be  given  to 
the  creditors  of  the  deceased.  The  creditor 
applying  first,  provided  he  be  legally  com- 
petent, is  to  be  preferred.  In  case  no  cred- 
itor applies,  any  person  who  is  legally 
qualified  may  be  appointed. 

In  the  city  of  New  York,  the  public  ad- 
ministrator may  administer  the  estate  after 
the  next  of  kin.  In  the  State  of  New 
York,  the  surrogate  may  select,  among  the 
next  of  kin,  any  one  in  equal  degree,  and 
appoint  him  sole  administrator  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  others.  Where  there  are 
several  persons  of  the  same  degree  of  kin- 
dred to  the  intestate,  entitled  to  administra- 
tion, they  are  preferred  in  the  following 
order- : 

1.  Men  to  women. 

2.  Relatives  of  the  whole  blood  to  those 
of  the  half  blood. 

3.  Unmarried  to  married  women,  and  in 
case   there  be   several   persons   equally  en- 
titled, the   Surrogate  may  grant  letters  to 
one  or  more  of  them  as  he  may  judge  best. 

Letters  of  administration  unduly  granted 
may  be  revoked. 

Administration  may  also  be  granted  on 
certain  conditions,  for  a  certain  limited 
time,  or  for  a  special  purpose. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  an  administra- 
tor differ  from  those  of  an  executor  inas- 
much as  he  is  bound  to  distribute  and 
dispose  of  the  estate  according  to  the  di- 
rection of  the  law,  as  he  has  no  will  to 
follow. 

First — The  administrator  must  give  bonds 
with  sureties  for  the  faithful  administration 
of  his  trust 

Second. — He  must  make  an  inventory  of 
the  goods  and  chattels  of  the  intestate,  in 
accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the 
law. 

Third. — Two  copies  of  said  inventory  shall 
be  made,  one  of  which  will  be  lodged  with 
the  judge  of  the  court,  and  the  other  will 
be  kept  by  the  administrator.  The  latter 
will  be  obliged  to  account  for  the  property 
mentioned  in  the  inventory. 

Fourth. — The  inventory  completed,  the  ad- 
ministrator must  then  collect  the  outstand- 
ing debts  of  the  same,  and  follow  the  order 
of  payment,  as  regulated  by  the  local  stat- 
utes. 


All  the  debts  of  the  intestate  being  liqui- 
dated, the  administrator  will  divide  the  re- 
mainder of  the  assets  among  the  surviving 
relatives  of  the  deceased.  In  doing  this  he 
will  act  under  the  directions  of  the  court 

Letters  of  administration  are  of  three 
kinds:  first,  upon  the  goods,  chattels,  and 
credits  of  a  person  who  shall  have  died 
intestate,  as  considered  above;  second,  spe- 
cial letters  of  administration  authorizing  the 
administrator  to  collect  and  preserve  the 
estate  either  of  a  testator  in  certain  cases, 
or  of  an  intestate;  and  lastly,  letters  of 
administration  authorizing  the  person  ap- 
pointed to  execute  the  powers  given  by  will 
of  the  deceased,  called  letters  of  administra- 
tion, with  the  will  annexed. 

The  last  named  is  granted  when  there  are 
no  persons  named  as  executors  in  the  will; 
when  all  the  executors  named  shall  have  re- 
nounced, or  shall  be  legally  incompetent;  or 
after  testamentary  letters  shall  have  super- 
seded or  revoked. 

When  a  man  having  a  family  shall  die 
leaving  a  widow,  or  a  minor  child  or  chil- 
dren, or  a  widow  shall  die  leaving  a  minor 
child  or  children,  the  following  articles  shall 
not  be  deemed  assets,  for  the  purpose  of 
distribution,  the  payment  of  debts  or  lega- 
cies, but  shall  be  included  and  stated  in  the 
inventory  of  the  estate  without  being  ap- 
praised. 

I.  All    spinning    wheels,    weaving   looms, 
one  knitting  machine,  one  sewing  machine, 
and  stores  put  up  and  kept  for  use  in  the 
family. 

II.  The  family  Bible,  family  pictures,  and 
school  books  used  by  or  in  the  family  of  such 
deceased  person,  and  books  not  exceeding  in 
value   fifty    dollars,    which    were   kept   and 
used  as   part  of  the   family  library  before 
the  decease  of  such  person. 

III.  All  sheep  to  the  number  of  ten,  with 
their  fleeces,  and  the  yarn  and  cloth  manu- 
factured   from    the    same;    one    cow,    two 
swine,   and   the   pork   of  such   swine,   and 
necessary    food   for   such    swine,    sheep   or 
cow  for  sixty  days;  and  all  necessary  pro- 
visions, and  fuel  for  such  widow,  or  child, 
or  children,  for  sixty  days  after  the  death 
of  such  deceased  person. 

IV.  All  necessary  wearing  apparel,  beds, 
bedsteads,  and  bedding;  necessary  cooking 
utensils;   the   clothing   of   the   family;   the 
clothes  of  the  widow,  and  her  ornaments 
proper  for  her  station;  one  table,  six  chairs, 
twelve  knives  and  forks,  twelve  plates,  twelve 
teacups    and    saucers,    one    sugar-dish,    one 
milk-pot,    and    teapot    and    twelve    spoons, 
and  also  other  household   furniture  which 


OUTLINES    OF   LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


769 


shall  not  exceed  one  hundred  and  fifty  dol- 
lars in  value. 

V.  Other  necessary  household  furniture, 
provisions,  or  other  personal  property,  in 
the  discretion  of  the  appraisers,  to  a  value 
not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 

All  articles  and  property  set  apart,  in  ac- 
cordance with  law  for  the  benefit  of  a  widow 
and  a  minor  or  minors,  shall  be  and  remain 
the  sole  personal  property  of  such  widow, 
after  such  minor  or  minors  shall  have  ar- 
rived at  age. 

The  executor  or  administrator,  pending 
the  final  settlement  of  accounts,  should  not 
suffer  any  considerable  balances  to  lie  un- 
productive. When  real  securities  are  not 
to  be  had,  he  should  obtain  the  approval  of 
the  surrogate  as  to  the  investment. 

Reasonable  funeral  expenses  are  to  be 
paid  in  preference  to  any  debts,  and  are 
charged  as  expenses  of  administration. 

ESTATES:    DISTRIBUTION    OF 

When  the  deceased  shall  have  died  in- 
testate, the  surplus  of  his  personal  estate 
remaining  after  payment  of  debts,  and  where 
the  deceased  left  a  will,  the  surplus  remain- 
ing after  the  payment  of  debts  and  legacies, 
if  not  bequeathed,  shall  be  distributed  to 
the  widow,  children,  or  next  of  kin  of  the 
deceased  in  the  manner  following: 

1.  One-third   part  thereof  to  the   widow, 
and  all  the  residue  of  equal  portions,  among 
the   children,    and   such   persons   as    legally 
represent  such  children,  if  any  of  them  shall 
have  died  before  the  deceased. 

2.  If  there  be  no  children,  nor  any  legal 
representatives    of    them,    then    one    moiety 
(that    is,    one-half)    of   the    whole    surplus 
shall  be  allotted  to  the  widow,  and  the  other 
moiety  shall  be   distributed  to  the  next  of 
kin  of  the  deceased. 

3.  If  the  deceased  leave  a  widow,  and  no 
descendant,  parent,  brother  or  sister,  nephew 
or  niece,  the  widow  shall  be  entitled  to  the 
whole  surplus;  but  if  there  be  a  brother  or 
sister,  nephew  or  niece,  and  no  descendant 
or  parent,  the  widow  shall  be  entitled  to  a 
moiety  of  the  surplus,  and  to  the  whole  of 
the  residue  where  it  does  not  exceed  two 
thousand  dollars ;  if  the  residue  exceed  that 
sum,    she    shall   receive   in   addition   to   her 
moiety   two   thousand   dollars,   and   the   re- 
mainder shall  be  distributed  to  the  brothers 
and  sisters  and  their  representatives. 

4.  If  there  be  no  widow,  then  the  whole 
surplus  shall  be  distributed  equally  to  and 
among  the  children,  and  such  as  legally  rep- 
resent them. 


5.  In  case  there  be  no  widow,  and  no  chil- 
dren, and  no  representatives  of  a  child,  then 
the  whole  surplus  shall  be  distributed  to  the 
next  of  kin,  in  equal  degree  to  the  deceased, 
and  the  legal  representatives. 

6.  If  the  deceased  shall  leave  no  children, 
and    no    representatives    of    them,    and    no 
father,    and    shall    leave    a    widow    and    a 
mother,  the  moiety  not   distributed  to   the 
widow  shall  be  distributed  in  equal  shares 
to  his  mother,  and  brothers  and  sisters,  or 
the  representatives  of  such  brothers  and  sis- 
ters; and  if  there  be  no  widow,  the  whole 
surplus  shall  be  distributed  in  like  manner 
to  the  mother  and  to  the  brothers  and  sis- 
ters, or  the  representatives  of  such  brothers 
and  sisters. 

7.  If  the  deceased  leave  a  father,  and  no 
child  or  descendant,  the  father  shall  take  a 
moiety,  if  there  be  a  widow,  and  the  whole 
if  there  be  no  widow. 

8.  If  the  deceased  leave  a  mother,  and  no 
child,  descendant,   father,  brother,  sister  or 
representatives   of   a  brother  or  sister,  the 
mother,  if  there  be  a  widow,  shall  take  a 
moiety,    and    the    whole    if    there    be    no 
widow. 

Q.  When  the  descendants  or  next  of  kin 
of  the  deceased,  entitled  to  share  in  his  es- 
tate, shall  be  all  in  equal  degree  to  the  de- 
ceased, their  shares  shall  be  equal. 

10.  When    such    descendants,    or   next   of 
kin  shall  be  of  unequal  degrees  of  kindred, 
the  surplus  shall  be  apportioned  among  those 
entitled  thereto,  according  to  their  respec- 
tive stocks ;  so  that  those  who  take  in  their 
own   right,   shall   receive   equal   shares,  and 
those  who  take  by  representation  shall  re- 
ceive the  shares  to  which  the  parent  whom 
they  represent,   if  living,   would  have  been 
entitled. 

11.  No    representation    shall    be    admitted 
among   collaterals    after   brothers'    and    sis- 
ters' children. 

12.  Relations  of  the  half  blood  shall  take 
equally  with  those  of  the  whole  blood,  in 
the  same  degree,  and  representatives  of  such 
relations  shall  take  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  representatives  of  the  whole  blood. 

13.  Descendants  and  next  of  kin  of  the 
deceased  begotten  before  his  death,  but  born 
thereafter,   shall   take  in  the  same  manner 
as  if  they  had  been  born  in  the  lifetime  of 
the  deceased,  and  had  survived. 

These  provisions  apply  to  the  personal  es- 
tate of  married  women  who  die  intestate, 
leaving  descendants;  and  the  husband  of 
any  deceased  married  woman  may  demand; 
recover,  and  enjoy  the  same  distributive 


770 


OUTLINES    OF   LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


share  in  her  personal  estate  that  she,  if  a 
widow,  would  be  entitled  to  in  his  personal 
estate,  but  no  more. 

The  real  property  of  every  person  dying 
intestate  shall  descend  as  follows : 

1.  To  his  lineal  descendants. 

2.  To  his  father. 

3.  To  his  mother. 

4.  To  his  collateral  relatives. 

Should  the  inheritance  come  to  the  in- 
testate on  the  part  of  the  mother,  the  father 
does  not  take  if  the  mother  be  living;  and, 
in  such  a  case,  if  she  be  dead,  the  father 
takes  a  life  interest  only,  unless  all  the 
brothers  and  sisters  of  the  deceased  and 
their  descendants  be  dead,  or  unless  the 
deceased  had  no  brothers  or  sisters,  in 
which  case  the  father  is  entitled  to  take 
the  fee. 

In  case  there  is  no  father  or  mother,  and 
the  inheritance  came  to  the  deceased  on 
the  part  of  the  mother,  it  will  descend  to 
the  collateral  relatives  of  the  mother  in 
preference  to  those  of  the  father. 

In  case  there  is  no  father  of  mother,  and 
ceased  on  the  part  of  neither  father  nor 
mother,  it  will  descend  to  the  collateral 
relatives  of  both  in  equal  shares. 

Relatives  of  the  half  blood  inherit  equally 
with  those  of  the  whole  blood  in  the  same 
degree. 

The  mother  of  an  illegitimate  child,  dying 
without  any  descendants,  takes  the  inheri- 
tance. 

In  addition  to  the  provisions  in  favor  of 
the  widow  and  the  minor  children  from  the 
personal  estate  of  her  husband,  it  is  provided 
that  she  may  tarry  in  the  house  of  her  hus- 
band forty  days  after  his  death,  whether 
her  dower  be  sooner  assigned  or  not,  with- 
out being  liable  to  rent  for  the  same,  and 
meantime  she  shall  have  her  reasonable  sus- 
tenance off  the  estate  of  her  husband.  This 
sustenance  shall  be  provided  out  of  the  per- 
sonal property  of  her  husband,  and  through 
the  executor  or  administrator,  should  9ne 
be  appointed  prior  to  the  expiration  of  the 
forty  days,  and  shall  be  given  according 
to  the  circumstances  and  station  of  life  of 
the  family,  to  the  widow  and  children  de- 
pendent on  her.  In  providing  this  suste- 
nance, the  executor  or  administrator  may 
exercise  judgment  and  discretion,  as  he 
should  in  paying  funeral  expenses. 

ESTATES:    DOWER   OF   WIDOW 

Dower  is  the  estate  which  the  widow  of 
a  deceased  person  takes  in  the  lands  of  her 
husband,  being  a  life  estate  in  one-third  of 


the  lands  whereof  he  was  seized  of  an  es- 
tate of  inheritance  at  any  time  during  the 
marriage. 

A  widow  can  be  barred  of  her  dower  by 
her  own  act  only,  such  as  by  uniting  with 
her  husband,  in  conveying  the  land  by  ante- 
nuptial settlement,  by  acceptance  of  a  devise 
or  bequest,  in  lieu  of  a  dower,  or  by  con- 
jugal unfaithfulness;  but  to  make  this  last 
effectual  a  divorce  should  be  decreed  against 
her  for  adultery,  in  the  lifetime  of  her  hus- 
band. 

The  widow  of  an  alien  entitled  to  hold 
real  estate,  if  an  inhabitant  of  this  State 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  is  entitled  to  dower 
in  the  same  manner  as  if  such  alien  had 
been  a  native  citizen. 

Any  woman,  being  an  alien,  who  has  here- 
tofore married,  or  who  may  hereafter  marry 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  en- 
titled to  dower,  within  this  State  to  the 
same  extent  as  if  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States. 

There  are  some  restrictions  to  this  gen- 
eral rule,  as  if  a  husband  exchanges  lands, 
the  wife  not  uniting  in  the  conveyance  com- 
pleting the  exchange,  she  shall  not  be  entitled 
to  dower  in  both  but  shall  make  her  election, 
and  if  she  shall  not  begin  proceedings  to 
recover  her  dower  in  the  land  given  in  ex- 
change, within  a  year  following  the  death 
of  her  husband  she  shall  be  considered  as 
having  elected  to  take  her  dower  in  the 
lands  received  in  exchange.  Where  a  per- 
son mortgages  his  lands  before  his  mar- 
riage, his  widow  shall  not  be  entitled  to 
dower,  as  against  the  mortgagee,  or  those 
claiming  under  him,  but  she  shall  be  en- 
titled to  dower  against  everybody  else. 

When  a  husband  executes  a  mortgage  for 
purchase  money,  the  widow  will  not  be  en- 
titled to  dower,  as  against  the  mortgagee, 
or  those  claiming  under  him,  but  shall  be 
entitled,  as  against  all  other  persons,  and 
if  the  lands  so  mortgaged  be  sold  under 
such  mortgage,  she  will  be  entitled  to  dower 
in  any  surplus  remaining  after  payment  of 
the  mortgage,  and  costs  and  expenses  of 
sale,  and  she  shall  be  entitled  to  the  interest 
or  income  of  one-third  of  such  surplus  dur- 
ing life. 

A  wife  may  cut  off  her  incolate  dower,  by 
uniting  in  the  conveyance  of  land  with  her 
husband  during  the  marriage,  or  before  her 
marriage  by  consenting  to  receive  a  settle- 
ment, either  in  lands  or  money,  as  a  joint- 
ure or  provision  in  lieu  of  dower. 

Any  widow  who  shall  not  have  her  dower 
assigned  to  her  within  forty  days  after  the 
decease  of  her  husband,  may  apply  for  ad- 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


771 


measurement  of  her  dower  to  the  proper 
court,  specifying  therein  the  lands  to  which 
she  claims  dower. 

ESTATES:    LAWS    ON    WILLS 

All  persons  of  sound  mind  and  of  proper 
age  are  capable  of  disposing  of  their  prop- 
erty by  last  will  and  testament.  In  some 
of  the  States  minors  may  bequeath  personal 
property.  The  limitation  for  disposing  of 
personal  estate  by  will  is  eighteen  years  for 
males  and  sixteen  for  females. 

A  will  must  be  made  in  writing  and  sub- 
scribed with  the  testator's  name,  unless  the 
person  be  prevented  from  so  doing  by  the 
extremity  of  his  last  illness,  in  which  case 
his  name  may  be  signed  in  his  presence,  and 
by  his  express  direction.  But  in  such  a 
case  the  statute  requires  that  the  writer 
shall  also  affix  his  own  name  as  a  witness, 
or  incur  a  penalty  of  fifty  dollars. 

A  will  requires  at  least  two  attesting  wit- 
nesses. 

The  form  of  a  will  is  not  material,  pro- 
vided it  manifests,  in  a  sufficiently  clear 
manner,  the  intention  of  the  testator.  He 
may  put  it  in  any  language  he  may  choose. 

A  will  may  be  revoked  at  any  time  by  the 
testator. 

It  may  be  revoked  as  follows : 

First. — By  subsequent  instrument.  A  sec- 
ond will  nullifies  a  former  will,  providing 
it  contains  words  expressly  revoking  it,  or 
that  it  makes  a  different  and  incompatible 
disposition  of  the  property. 

Second. — By  the  destruction  of  the  will. 

Third. — By  marriage.  Marriage,  and  the 
birth  of  a  child,  after  the  execution  of  a 
will,  is  a  presumptive  revocation  of  such 
will,  provided  wife  and  child  are  left  un- 
provided for. 

An  unmarried  woman's  will  is  annulled 
by  her  marriage.  She  may  make  a  deed  of 
settlement  of  her  estate,  however,  before 
marriage,  empowering  her  to  retain  the  right 
to  make  a  will  after  marriage. 

Children  born  after  the  execution  of  the 
will,  and  in  the  lifetime  of  the  father,  will 
inherit  at  the  death  of  the  testator  in  the 
same  manner  as  if  he  had  died  without 
making  a  will. 

FoHrth. — By  alteration  of  estate.  Any 
alteration  of  the  estate  or  interest  of  the 
testator  in  the  property  devised,  implies  a 
revocation  of  the  will. 

A  sale  of  the  devised  property,  or  a  valid 
agreement  to  sell  it,  is  a  legal  revocation  of 
such  will. 


A  codicil,  so  far  as  it  may  be  inconsistent 
with  the  will,  works  a  revocation. 

A  subsequent  will,  duly  executed,  revokes 
all  former  wills,  though  no  words  to  that 
effect  may  be  used. 

Property  can  not  be  devised  to  corpora- 
tions, unless  such  corporations  are  expressly 
authorized  to  receive  bequests  by  their 
charters. 

A  will  should  not  be  written  by  a  legatee 
or  devisee,  nor  should  either  of  them,  or  an 
executor,  or  any  one  interested  in  the  will 
be  called  upon  to  witness  such  will. 

Married  women  are  now  enabled  to  de- 
vise real  estate  in  the  same  manner  and  with 
the  like  effect  as  if  they  were  unmarried. 

And  no  person  having  a  husband,  wife, 
child  or  parent  shall,  by  his  or  her  last  will 
and  testament,  devise  or  bequeath  to  any 
benevolent,  charitable,  literary,  scientific,  re- 
ligious, or  missionary  society,  association  or 
corporation,  in  trust  or  otherwise,  more  than 
one-half  part  of  his  or  her  estate,  after  the 
payment  of  his  or  her  debts,  and  any  such 
devise  or  bequest  shall  be  valid  to  the  ex- 
tent of  one-half  and  no  more. 

Every  citizen  of  the  United  States  may 
take  lands  by  devise. 

And  any  person  may  take  personal  prop- 
erty by  bequest  under  any  will,  except  a 
witness  thereto. 

INTEREST    AND    USURY 

Interest  is  a  moderate  profit  for  the  use 
of  money.  In  the  different  States  the  rate 
of  interest  is  established  by  statute.  In 
New  York  State  six  per  cent  is  the  legal 
rate  of  interest.  Any  excess  over  this, 
whether  received  directly  or  indirectly,  will 
render  the  contract  void,  and  is  a  misde- 
meanor, punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding 
$1,000  or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
six  months,  or  both.  An  excess  of  interest 
above  the  legal  rate  may  be  recovered  by 
an  action  at  law,  if  brought  in  one  year 
from  the  time  of  payment. 

Corporations  can  not  set  up  the  defence 
of  usury. 

In  case  promissory  notes  and  bills  of  ex- 
change do  not  specify  the  payment  of  inter- 
est, interest  is  not  allowable  until  maturity. 
But  from  the  moment  they  fall  due,  they 
bear  interest,  whether  it  be  so  specified  or 
not. 

As  a  rule,  compound  interest  is  not  allow- 
able, but  a  contract  is  not  usurious  or  void 
because  of  a  stipulation  for  the  payment  of 
compound  interest.  The  courts,  however, 
will  not  enforce  its  payment,  when  the 


772 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


agreement  is  made  before  any  interest  has 
accrued.  If  a  debt  already  due  has  an  ac- 
cumulation of  interest  not  paid,  the  parties 
may  agree  to  have  the  principal  and  interest 
added  together,  and  draw  interest 

Interest  is  not  allowable  upon  unliqui- 
dated demands  for  board  and  lodging,  where 
price  or  time  of  payment  is  not  agreed  upon 
between  the  parties. 

A  lender,  whether  banker  or  broker,  can 
charge  a  reasonable  amount  for  his  services 
in  addition  to  the  interest,  without  being 
liable  for  usury. 

Interest  in  advance  is  allowed  under  cer- 
tain limitations. 

LANDLORD   AND   TENANT 

Where  a  tenant  hires  rooms  from  another 
the  relation  of  landlord  and  tenant  is  formed 
with  certain  corresponding  rights  and  privi- 
leges. If  the  hiring  be  by  the  month,  the 
tenant  may  leave  when  the  month  expires, 
without  incurring  any  new  liability.  In 
such  a  case  the  landlord  has  the  liberty 
of  terminating  the  tenancy  at  the  end  of  the 
month,  and  the  power  to  dispossess  the  ten- 
ant, upon  giving  the  latter  five  days'  written 
notice  that  unless  the  tenant  removes  at  the 
end  of  the  month  the  landlord  will  resort 
to  proceedings  to  dispossess  him. 

If  the  hiring  be  by  the  year,  the  same  cor- 
responding rights  and  privileges  attach,  ex- 
cepting that  the  five  days'  preliminary  no- 
tice need  not  be  given  to  the  yearly  tenant. 
If  the  hiring  is  by  the  year,  the  tenant  can 
not  be  dispossessed  until  the  year  expires,  if 
the  rent  be  paid  in  the  meantime. 

The  difficulties  tenants  often  experience 
arise  from  a  misunderstanding  of  the  nature 
of  their  hiring — that  is,  while  they  frequent- 
ly regard  it  as  by  the  year,  the  landlord  re- 
gards it  as  by  the  month.  If  the  court 
happens  to  agree  with  the  landlord,  in  his 
construction  with  the  hiring,  the  tenant 
must  go;  and  in  this  respect  the  landlord 
has  the  advantage;  tenements  are  generally 
hired  by  the  montli,  at  a  monthly  rental,  and 
the  printed  receipt  given  provides  that  "the 
letting  is  by  the  month  only."  These  cir- 
cumstances tend  to  corroborate  the  landlord 
in  his  theory,  which  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  landlords  generally  succeed  in  their 
construction  of  those  agreements. 

If  the  tenant,  instead  of  accepting  these 
receipts  providing  that  the  hiring  is  "by  the 
month  only,"  will  get  the  landlord  to  leave 
that  provision  out,  his  chances  of  remaining 
for  the  year  are  improved;  and  if  he  can 
induce  the  landlord  to  insert  in  the  receipt 


the  words,  "the  hiring  is  for  one  year,"  his 
possession  for  that  time  is  assured.  Where 
a  tenant  hires  by  the  month  and  remains  in 
possession  after  the  expiration  of  the  month, 
the  landlord  has  an  option  either  to  treat 
the  tenant  as  a  trespasser  or  as  a  tenant 
for  a  renewed  term  of  one  month.  He  may 
treat  him  as  a  trespasser  by  dispossessing 
him,  or  as  a  tenant  for  a  new  term  of  one 
month  by  accepting  the  second  month's 
rent 

In  this  way  these  monthly  tenancies  are 
sometimes  continued  for  months,  when  all 
of  a  sudden  they  are  brought  to  a  close 
by  five  day's  notice  from  the  landlord  that 
the  tenant  must  remove  at  the  end  of  the 
month. 

If  the  hiring  is  by  the  month,  it  matters 
not  what  the  landlord's  reason  for  termina- 
ting it  may  be,  the  law  gives  him  a  legal 
right  to  bring  it  to  a  close,  and  his  motive 
for  so  doing  becomes  immaterial. 

The  only  way  for  a  tenant  to  protect  him- 
self from  this  risk  is  by  written  agreement, 
specifying  distinctly  that  he  hires  by  the 
year,  or  by  a  receipt  signed  by  the  landlord 
or  his  agent,  indicating  in  substance  the 
same  thing,  or  by  an  oral  understanding, 
had  in  presence  of  witnesses,  that  the  hiring 
is  by  the  year,  and  for  the  tenant  to  refuse 
to  accept  receipts  indicating  that  the  hiring 
is  by  the  month  only. 

Leases  for  one  year  or  less  need  no  writ- 
ten agreement  Leases  for  more  than  a 
year  must  be  in  writing;  if  for  life,  signed, 
sealed  and  witnessed  in  the  same  manner 
as  any  other  document. 

Leases  for  over  three  years  must  be  re- 
corded with  the  county  clerk  or  public  reg- 
istrar. No  particular  form  is  necessary. 

In  the  city  of  New  York,  when  the  dura- 
tion of  the  occupation  is  not  specified,  the 
agreement  shall  be  held  valid  until  the  first 
day  of  the  May  following  the  occupation 
under  such  agreement 

A  landlord  can  no  longer  distress  for  rent 
in  New  York,  nor  has  any  lien  on  the  goods 
and  chattels  of  the  tenant  for  rent  due. 
Rent  may  be  collected  by  action  after  the 
removal  of  the  tenant 

A  tenant  is  not  responsible  for  taxes,  un- 
less it  is  so  stated  in  the  lease. 

A  lease  falling  into  the  hands  of  a  party 
accidentally  would  be  invalid,  and  must,  in 
all  cases,  be  delivered  to  the  party  for  whom 
it  is  intended. 

The  tenant  may  underlet  as  much  of  the 
property  as  he  may  desire,  unless  it  is  ex- 
pressly forbidden  in  the  lease.  Tenants  at 
will  can  not  underlet. 


OUTLINES   OF   LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY   MATTERS 


773 


A  lease  made  by  a  minor  is  not  binding 
after  the  minor  has  attained  his  majority. 
But  it  binds  the  lessee,  unless  the  minor 
should  release  him.  Should  the  minor  re- 
ceive rent  after  attaining  his  majority,  the 
lease  will  be  thereby  ratified.  A  lease  given 
by  a  guardian  will  not  extend  beyond  the 
majority  of  the  ward.  A  new  lease  renders 
void  a  former  lease. 

In  case  there  are  no  writings  the  tenancy 
begins  from  the  day  possession  is  taken; 
where  there  are  writings  and  the  time  of 
commencement  is  not  stated,  the  tenancy 
will  be  held  to  commence  from  the  date  of 
said  writings. 

If  a  landlord  consents  to  receive  a  sub- 
stitute, the  former  tenant  is  thereby  re- 
leased. 

LIEN    LAWS 

Any  one  who,  as  contractor,  sub-contrac- 
tor, or  laborer,  performs  any  work,  or  fur- 
nishes any  materials,  in  pursuance  of,  or  in 
conformity  with,  any  agreement  or  contract 
with  the  owner,  lessee,  agent,  or  one  in  pos- 
session of  the  property,  toward  the  erection, 
altering,  improving,  or  repairing  of  any 
building,  shall  have. a  lien  for  the  value  of 
such  labor  or  materials  on  the  building  or 
land  on  which  it  stands,  to  the  extent  of 
the  right,  title  and  interest  of  the  owner, 
lessee  or  person  in  possession  at  the  time 
of  the  claimant's  filing  his  notice  with  the 
clerk  of  the  County  Court 

This  notice  should  be  filed  within  ninety 
days  after  completion  of  the  work,  or  the 
furnishing  of  the  materials,  and  should 
state:  (i)  Name  and  residence  of  lienor; 
(2)  Name  of  owner  and  his  interest  in 
property;  (3)  Name  of  person  employing 
lienor,  though  failure  to  state  the  true  name 
does  not  invalidate  the  lien ;  (4)  Labor  per- 
formed or  material  furnished;  (5)  Amount 
unpaid;  (6)  Time  when  first  and  last  items 
of  labor  performed  or  materials  furnished; 
(,7)  Description  of  property.  Liens  expire 
in  one  year  unless  action  is  begun  or  re- 
newed by  court  order. 

The  following  classes  of  persons  are  gen- 
erally entitled  to  lien : 

1.  Bailees,   who   may   perform  labor  and 
services  on  the  thing  bailed,  at  the  request 
of  the  bailor. 

2.  Innkeepers,  upon  the  baggage  of  guests 
they  have  accommodated. 

3.  Common  carriers,  upon  goods  carried, 
for   the   amount  of  their   freight  and  dis- 
bursements. 

4.  Venders,  on  the  goods  sold  for  pay- 


ment of  the  price  where  no  credit  has  been 
expressly  promised  or  implied. 

5.  Agents  upon  goods  of  their  principals, 
for    advancements    for    the    benefit   of   the 
latter. 

6.  All  persons  are  entitled  to  the  right  of 
lien  who  are  compelled  by  law  to  receive 
property,  and  bestow  labor  and  expense  on 
the  same. 

The  right  of  lien  may  be  waived: 

1.  By  express  contract 

2.  By  neglect. 

3.  By  new  agreement 

4.  By  allowing  change  of  possession. 

5.  By  surrendering  possession. 

The  manner  of  the  enforcement  of  a  lien, 
whether  it  be  an  innkeeper's,  agent's,  car- 
rier's, factor's,  etc.,  depends  wholly  upon  the 
nature  and  character  of  the  lien. 

LIMITATION    OF   ACTION— WHEN 
A    DEBT    IS    OUTLAWED 

Actions  upon  judgments  or  decrees  of  a 
court,  or  a  contract  under  seal,  or  for  the 
recovery  of  real  estate,  must  be  commenced 
within  a  period  of  twenty  years  from  the 
date  when  the  cause  of  action  accrued. 

All  actions  upon  unsealed  contracts,  ex- 
press or  implied,  become  outlawed  in  six 
years. 

Claims  for  damages  to  property  become 
Outlawed  in  six  years. 

Claim's  for  damages  for  injury  to  the  per- 
son or  rights  of  another  are  outlawed  in 
six  years,  except  in  cases  of  personal  in- 
juries caused  by  negligence,  when  the  claim 
is  outlawed  in  three  years. 

All  actions  for  libel,  slander,  assault,  bat- 
tery, false  imprisonment,  for  forfeitures  or 
penalties  to  the  people  of  the  State,  and  for 
seduction  and  criminal  conversation,  are  out- 
lawed in  two  years. 

Claims  for  the  specific  recovery  of  per- 
sonal property  and  on  judgments  of  courts 
not  of  record,  are  outlawed  in  six  years. 

In  the  case  enforcing  the  payment  of  a 
bill,  note,  or  other  evidence  of  debt  that 
may  be  issued  by  a  moneyed  corporation, 
or  to  enforce  the  payment  of  same  issued 
or  put  in  circulation  as  money,  there  is  no 
limitation  of  time  to  sue. 

An  acknowledgment  or  new  promise  can 
not  take  a  contract  or  other  liability  out  of 
the  statute  of  outlawry,  unless  it  be  in  writ- 
ing. 

A  payment  on  account  of  principal  or  in- 
terest takes  the  case  out  of  the  statute,  with- 
out being  in  writing. 


774 


OUTLINES    OF   LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


MARRIAGE 

Marriage  may  be  entered  into  by  any 
two  persons,  with  the  following  exceptions : 
Idiots,  lunatics,  persons  of  unsound  mind, 
persons  related  by  blood  or  affinity,  within 
certain  degrees  prohibited  by  law;  infants 
under  the  age  of  consent,  which  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  is  eighteen  for  both 
sexes,  and  all  persons  already  married  and 
not  legally  divorced. 

The  law  relating  to  marriage,  touching 
the  prohibited  degrees  of  kindred,  age,  and 
so  forth,  varies  according  to  the  statutes  of 
the  different  States. 

Marriage  may  be  solemnized  before  a  jus- 
tice of  the  peace  or  a  minister,  a  judge  of 
a  court  of  record,  a  mayor,  alderman,  police 
justice  or  magistrate. 

But  a  precise  compliance  with  all  the  re- 
quirements of  law  has  not  been  deemed 
necessary;  and  in  some  important  provi- 
sions it  has  been  held  that  a  disregard  of 
them  was  punishable,  but  did  not  vitiate 
the  marriage;  as  the  want  of  consent  of 
parents  or  guardians,  where  one  party  is  a 
minor.  The  essential  thing  seems  to  be 
the  declaration  of  consent  by  both  parties, 
before  a  person  authorized  to  receive  such 
declaration  by  law. 

Consent  is  the  essence  of  this  contract,  as 
of  all  other  contracts.  Hence  it  can  not  be 
valid,  if  made  by  those  who  had  not  suffi- 
cient minds  to  consent,  such  as  idiots  or 
insane  persons.  Hence  such  marriages  are 
void  at  common  law  and  by  the  statutes  of 
several  of  the  States.  It  is  usual,  however, 
for  such  marriages  to  be  declared  void  by 
a  competent  tribunal  after  a  due  ascertain- 
ment of  the  facts.  In  some  of  the  States 
this  can  be  done  by  common  law  courts. 

From  the  necessity  of  consent,  likewise,  a 
marriage  obtained  by  force  or  fraud  is  void ; 
out  the  force  or  fraud  must  be  certain  and 
extreme. 

The  same  is  true  if  another  husband  or 
wife  of  either  of  the  parties  be  living. 

Bigamy  or  polygamy  is  an  indictable  of- 
fence in  all  the  States,  but  exceptions  are 
made  in  cases  of  long-continued  absence, 
with  belief  of  the  death  of  the  party,  etc. 
But  these  exceptions  to  the  criminality  of 
the  act  do  not  change  the  question  as  to 
the  validity  of  the  second  marriage,  which 
is  the  same  as  before.  And  so  if  the  parties 
are  within  the  prohibited  degrees  of  kindred. 

The  consent  of  parents  or  guardians  to 
the  marriage  of  minors  depends  on  the 
statutes  of  the  several  States.  Generally, 
if  not  universally,  the  marriage  would  be 


held  valid,  though  the  person  celebrating  it 
might  be  held  punishable. 

In  the  statutes  of  some  of  the  States  there 
are  provisions  to  the  effect  that  a  marriage 
not  lawfully  celebrated  by  reason  of  the 
fraud  of  one  of  the  parties  shall  yet  be  held 
valid  in  favor  of  the  innocent  party,  as  in 
case  the  husband  imposed  upon  the  wife  by 
a  forged  or  unauthorized  license  or  a  pre- 
tended clergyman. 

MARRIAGE:    CONTRACTS    FOR 

Contracts  to  marry  at  a  future  time  are 
valid  and  as  effectual  in  law  as  any;  and, 
in  actions  upon  them,  damages  may  be  re- 
covered for  pecuniary  loss  or  for  suffering 
and  injury  to  condition  and  prospects. 

Where  the  promise  is  mutual,  an  action 
for  breach  of  promise  may  be  maintained 
against  a  woman. 

This  action  can  not  be  maintained  against 
an  infant.  But  the  infant  may  bring  an 
action,  in  this  case,  against  an  adult. 

A  promise  to  give  to  a  woman,  or  settle 
upon  her,  a  specific  sum  or  estate  on  her 
marriage,  is  valid. 

MARRIAGE    AND    DIVORCE 

The  law  and  practice  in  relation  to  di- 
vorce differ  in  the  different  States,  being 
exactly  alike  in  no  two  of  them. 

Absolute  divorce  can  be  obtained  in  the 
State  of  New  York  for  adultery  alone. 

Limited  divorce  is  granted  on  the  follow- 
ing grounds : 

1.  Idiocy  or  lunacy. 

2.  Consent  of  either  party  having  been  ob- 
tained by  force  or  fraud. 

3.  Want  of  age  or  physical  capacity. 

4.  The    former   husband   or   wife   of  the 
respective  parties  being  still  living. 

5.  Inhuman  treatment,  abandonment,  neg- 
lect or  failure  on  the  part  of  the  husband 
to  provide  for  the  wife. 

6.  Such  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  de- 
fendant as  would  render  it  dangerous  for 
plaintiff  to  cohabit  with  defendant. 

A  divorce  a  vinculo  annuls  the  marriage 
entirely,  and  restores  the  parties  to  all  the 
rights  of  unmarried  persons,  and  relieves 
them  from  all  liabilities  that  grew  out  of 
the  marriage,  except  so  far  as  may  be  pro- 
vided by  the  statutes  or  made  a  portion  of 
the  decree  by  the  court.  Thus  the  statutes 
of  some  States  provide  that  the  guilty  party 
shall  not  marry  again.  The  court  generally 
has  the  power  to  decree  the  terms  of  the 
separation,  regarding  alimony,  possession  of 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


775 


children,  and  so  forth.  Strict  care  is  taken 
to  prevent  divorce  being  obtained  by  collu- 
sion. It  will  not  be  granted  merely  upon 
the  consent  or  default  of  the  party  charged, 
but  only  on  the  proof  of  cause  alleged. 

The  causes  of  divorce  from  bed  and  board 
are  now  very  commonly  made  sufficient  for 
divorce  from  the  bond  of  marriage.  As  a 
general  rule,  a  woman  divorced  from  the 
bed  and  board  of  her  husband  acquires  the 
rights  of  an  unmarried  woman,  with  regard 
to  property,  business,  and  contracts.  The 
husband  is  relieved  from  his  general  duty 
of  maintaining  her,  the  courts  generally  ex- 
ercising their  power  of  decreeing  such  main- 
tenance by  the  husband  as  the  character  and 
circumstances  of  the  case  render  fit. 

In  some  of  the  States  it  is  the  custom  of 
the  legislatures  to  grant  divorces  by  private 
acts,  and  this  is  sometimes  done  for  the 
feeblest  of  reasons. 

As  a  general  rule,  a  divorce  granted  in  a 
State  in  which  both  parties  had  their  actual 
domicile,  and  also  were  married,  is  valid 
everywhere.  Again,  every  State  generally 
recognizes  the  validity  of  a  divorce  granted 
where  both  parties  have  their  actual  domi- 
cile, if  granted  in  accordance  with  the  law 
of  that  place. 

In  the  United  States  the  law  on  this  sub- 
ject is  generally  regulated  by  statutes,  and 
these  differ  very  much.  In  the  absence  of 
statutory  provision,  the  rule  of  the  courts 
generally  is  that  a  divorce  which  was  valid 
where  granted,  and  which  was  obtained  in 
good  faith,  is  valid  everywhere. 

MARRIAGES:    FOREIGN 

It  is  a  doctrine  of  English  and  American 
law  that  a  marriage  which  is  valid  where 
contracted  is  valid  everywhere.  But  it  is 
subject  to  some  qualification.  A  marriage 
contracted  elsewhere  would  not  be  held  valid 
in  a  State  the  law  of  which  forbade  it  as 
incestuous,  although  an  issue  might  be  made 
whether  it  would  be  held  incestuous  so  far 
as  to  annul  the  marriage,  if  within  the  de- 
grees prohibited  by  the  laws  of  the  State  in 
which  the  question  arose,  or  only  if  it  be 
between  kindred  who  are  too  near  to  marry 
by  the  law  of  the  civilized  world. 

If  a  married  man,  a  citizen  of  one  of  our 
States,  went  into  a  Mormon  territory,  and 
there  married  again,  he  would  not  be  held 
on  his  return  to  be  the  lawful  husband  of 
two  wives ;  or  if  a  Mormon  came  to  any  of 
the  States  with  two  or  more  wives,  he  would 
not  be  held  to  be  the  lawful  husband  of  all 
of  them. 


Though  the  rule  is  true  that  a  marriage 
which  is  void  when  contracted  is  valid  no- 
where, there  are  exceptions  to  it:  as  if  two 
/vmericans  intermarried  in  China,  where  the 
marriage  was  performed  in  presence  of  an 
American  chaplain,  according  to  American 
forms.  If  such  marriage  were  held  void  in 
China,  it  would  be  held  valid  in  the  United 
States. 

The  incidents  of  marriage,  and  contracts 
in  relation  to  marriage,  such  as  settlement 
of  property,  are  construed  by  the  law  of  the 
place  where  these  were  made,  this  being 
supposed  to  be  the  intention  and  agreement 
of  the  parties.  But  this  rule  does  not  hold 
when  the  parties  are  married  while  accident- 
ally or  temporarily  absent  from  their  homes, 
as  then  there  is  no  domicile,  and  the  mar- 
riage is  regarded  as  constructively  domestic. 

MARRIED  WOMEN:    RIGHTS   OF 

Any  and  all  property  owned  by  a  woman 
at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  together  with 
the  rents,  issues,  and  profits  thereof,  and  the 
property  that  comes  to  her  by  descent,  de- 
vise, bequest,  gift  or  grant,  or  which  she 
acquires  by  her  trade,  business,  labor,  or 
services  performed  on  her  separate  account, 
shall,  notwithstanding  her  marriage,  remain 
her  sole  and  separate  property,  and  may  be 
used,  collected,  and  invested  by  her  in  her 
own  name,  and  shall  not  be  subject  to  the 
interference  or  control  of  her  husband,  or 
be  liable  for  his  debts,  unless  for  such  debts 
as  may  have  been  contracted  for  the  support 
of  herself  or  children  by  her  as  his  agent. 

A  married  woman  may  also  bargain,  sell, 
assign,  transfer,  and  convey  such  property 
and  enter  into  contracts  concerning  the 
same  on  her  separate  trade,  labor  or  busi- 
ness with  the  same  effect  as  if  she  were 
not  married.  But  her  husband  is  not  liable 
for  such  contracts,  and  they  do  not  render 
him  or  his  property  in  any  wise  liable  there- 
for. She  may  also  sue  and  be  sued  in  all 
matters  having  relation  to  her  sole  and  sep- 
arate property  in  the  same  manner  as  if  she 
were  sole. 

A  married  woman's  contract  may  be  en- 
forced against  her  and  her  separate  estate : 

First — When  the  contract  is  created  in  or 
respecting  the  carrying  on  of  the  wife's 
trade  or  business. 

Second — When  it  relates  to  or  is  made  for 
the  benefit  of  her  sole  or  separate  estate. 

Third — When  the  intention  to  charge  the 
separate  estate  is  expressed  in  the  contract 
creating  the  liability. 

When  a  husband  receives  a  principal  sum 


776 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


of  money  belonging  to  his  wife,  the  law 
presumes  that  he  receives  it  for  her  use,  and 
that  he  must  account  for  it,  or  expend  it  on 
her  account  by  her  authority  or  direction,  or 
that  she  gave  it  to  him  as  a  gift. 

Should  he  receive  interest  or  income  and 
spend  it  without  her  knowledge  and  with- 
out objection,  a  gift  will  be  presumed  from 
acquiescence. 

Money  received  by  a  husband  from  his 
wife  and  expended  by  him,  under  his  direc- 
tion, on  his  land,  in  improving  the  home  of 
the  family,  is  a  gift,  and  can  not  be  recov- 
ered by  the  wife,  or  reclaimed,  or  an  ac- 
count demanded 

An  appropriation  of  her  separate  property 
by  a  wife,  herself,  to  the  use  and  benefit  of 
her  husband,  in  the  absence  of  an  agree- 
ment to  repay,  or  any  circumstances  from 
which  such  an  agreement  can  be  inferred, 
will  not  create  the  relation  of  debtor  and 
creditor,  nor  render  the  husband  liable  to 
account. 

And  though  no  words  of  gift  be  spoken, 
a  gift  by  a  wife  to  her  husband  may  be 
shown  by  the  nature  of  the  transaction  it- 
self, or  it  may  appear  from  the  attending 
circumstances. 

A  wife  who  deserts  her  husband  without 
cause  is  not  entitled  to  the  aid  of  a  Court 
of  Equity  in  getting  possession  of  such  chat- 
tels as  she  has  contributed  to  the  furnish- 
ing and  adornment  of  her  husband's  house. 
Her  legal  title  remains,  and  she  could  con- 
vey her  interest  to  a  third  party  by  sale, 
and  said  party  would  have  a  valid  title,  un- 
less her  husband  should  prove  a  gift. 

A  wife's  property  is  not  liable  to  a  lien 
of  a  sub-contractor  for  materials  furnished 
to  the  husband  for  the  erection  of  a  build- 
ing thereon,  where  it  is  not  shown  that  the 
wife  consented  to  the  improvements,  was 
notified  of  the  intention  to  furnish  the  ma- 
terials, or  a  settlement  made  with  the  con- 
tractor and  given  to  the  wife,  to  her  agent 
or  trustee. 

NOTES    AND    BILLS    OF    EXCHANGE 

Notes  are  entitled  to  three  days'  grace  in 
most  States,  that  is,  the  note  is  not  payable 
till  the  third  day  after  the  day  expressed  for 
its  payment.  Notes  made  payable  "on  de- 
mand" are  not  entitled  to  grace,  and  grace 
has  been  abolished  in  New  York,  although 
notes  due  Saturday  are  payable  Monday. 

In  the  following  cases  there  are  no  days 
of  grace : 

i.  Bills  of  exchange  or  drafts,  payable  at 
sight  at  any  place  within  this  State,  shall 
be  deemed  due  and  shall  be  payable  on 


presentation,  without  the  allowance  of  any 
days'  grace. 

2.  Checks,  bills  of  exchange  or  drafts  ap- 
pearing on  their  face  to  have  been  drawn 
upon  any  bank,  or  banking  association,  or 
banker,  carrying  on  banking  business  under 
the  act  to  authorize  the  business  of  banking, 
which  are  on  their  face  payable  on  any  speci- 
fied day,  or  in  any  number  of  days  after  the 
date  or  sight  thereof,  shall  be  deemed  due 
and  payable  on  the  day  mentioned  for 
payment  of  same,  nor  shall  it  be  necessary 
to  protest  the  same  for  non-acceptance. 

When  the  note  or  bill  falls  due  on  Sun- 
day or  Saturday,  or  any  public  holiday  when 
general  business  is  suspended,  the  present- 
ment for  payment  must  be  made  on  the 
Monday  following  the  Sunday  or  Saturday, 
or  the  day  succeeding  the  holiday. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  note  or  bill  must 
be  presented  for  payment  on  the  last  day  it 
falls  due,  and  the  drawers  and  indorsers 
must  be  notified  of  non-payment  not  later 
than  the  following  day. 

Notes  and  bills,  when  made  payable  to  or 
at  any  person's  order  and  indorsed  in  blank, 
pass  by  delivery. 

The  words  "value  received,"  though  or- 
dinarily used,  are  not  indispensable,  as  value 
is  held  to  be  implied. 

Notes  do  not  bear  interest  except  when 
it  is  so  stated.  After  maturity  all  notes 
bear  legal  interest. 

The  holder  of  a  note  that  is  made  payable 
to  order  may  sue  in  his  own  name. 

A  promissory  note  given  by  a  minor  is 
void. 

The  indorser  of  an  accommodation  is  a 
surety  for  the  maker,  and  he  is  liable  to 
the  costs  of  collection  that  may  be  brought 
against  such  maker  or  indorser. 

Any  promise  to  pay,  without  specifying 
the  time  of  payment,  is  equivalent  to  a 
promise  to  pay  on  demand. 

PARTNERSHIP 

The  general  rule  is  that  every  person  of 
sound  mind,  and  not  otherwise  restrained 
by  law,  may  enter  into  a  contract  of  part- 
nership. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  partners,  which 
may  be  classed  as  follows : 

1.  Ostensible    partners,    or    those    whose 
names    are    made    public   as   partners,    and 
who  in  reality  are  such,  and  who  take  all 
the  benefits  and  risks. 

2.  Nominal  partners,  or  those  who  appear 
before  the  public  as  partners,  but  who  have 
no  real  interest  in  the  business. 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


777 


3.  Dormant,  or  silent,  partners,  or  those 
Whose  names  are  not  known  or  do  not  ap- 
pear as  partners,  but  who,  nevertheless,  have 
an  interest  in  the  business. 

4.  Special  partners,  or  those  who  are  in- 
terested in  the  business  only  to  the  amount 
of  the  capital  they  have  invested  in  it. 

5.  General  partners,  who  manage  the  busi- 
ness, while  the  capital,  either  in  whole  or 
in  part,  is  supplied  by  a  special  partner  or 
partners.     They  are  liable  for  all  the  debts 
and  contracts  of  the  firm. 

A  nominal  partner  renders  himself  liable 
for  all  the  debts  and  contracts  of  the  firm. 

A  dormant  partner,  if  it  becomes  known 
that  he  has  an  interest,  whether  creditors 
trusted  the  firm  on  his  account  or  not,  be- 
comes liable  equally  with  the  other  partners. 

The  partnership  firm  is  responsible  for 
any  acts  done  by  any  partner,  touching  the 
partnership  business. 

The  representation  or  misrepresentation  of 
any  fact  made  by  any  partner  within  the 
sc  pe  of  the  business,  is  binding  on  the  firm. 

A  notice  to  or  by  any  of  the  firm  is  deemed 
a  notice  to  or  by  all  of  them. 

Each  partner  is  liable  to  third  parties  for 
the  whole  partnership  debts. 

The  articles  of  partnership  must  in  all 
cases  be  in  writing. 

All  partnerships  in  New  York  State  must 
file  in  the  County  Clerk's  office  a  certificate 
showing  who  comprise  the  partnership. 

A  violation  of  these  provisions  constitutes 
a  misdemeanor,  and  is  punishable  by  a  fine 
not  exceeding  $1,000. 

The  following  are  the  exceptions  to  this 
rule: 

1.  Firms    having  business    relations    with 
foreign  countries. 

2.  Firms  that  have  transacted  business  in 
this  State  for  five  years  or  more. 

In  the  above  cases,  a  certificate  of  the 
change  in  the  persons  constituting  the  part- 
nership, and  declaring  the  persons  thus  deal- 
ing under  the  partnership  name,  shall  be 
made  and  filed  with  the  County  Clerk,  and 
published  for  four  consecutive  weeks  in  a 
newspaper  of  the  town  which  shall  be  the 
principal  place  of  business  of  such  firm. 

Should  a  firm  fail  to  comply  with  these 
provisions,  the  law  would  refuse  to  lend  Its 
aid  to  such  a  firm  in  enforcing  its  contracts. 

PROPERTY  EXEMPT  FROM  AT- 
TACHMENT ON  EXECUTION 

The  different  States  have  different  laws 
relative  to  the  property  exempted  by  statute 
from  attachment  and  execution. 


In  the  State  of  New  York  the  following 
personal  property  is  exempt: 

First — All  spinning-wheels,  weaving-looms, 
and  stoves  put  up  or  kept  for  family  use  in 
any  dwelling-house,  and  one  sewing-machine 
with  appurtenances. 

Second — The  family  Bible,  family  pic- 
tures, and  school-books  used  by  or  in  the 
family,  and  books — not  exceeding  fifty  dol- 
lars in  value — part  of  the  family  library. 

Third — A  pew  or  seat  in  church,  used  by 
the  debtor  or  his  family. 

Fourth — Ten  sheep,  with  their  fleeces,  and 
the  yarn  or  cloth  manufactured  therefrom, 
together  with  one  cow  and  two  swine,  and 
the  necessary  food  for  them. 

Fifth — All  pork,  beef,  fish,  flour,  and 
vegetables  provided  for  family  use;  and 
fuel,  oil  and  candles  necessary  for  family 
for  sixty  days. 

Sixth — All  necessary  wearing  apparel, 
beds,  bedsteads,  and  bedding  for  debtor  and 
family;  all  arms  and  accoutrements  required 
by  law ;  all  necessary  cooking  utensils ;  one 
table,  six  chairs,  six  knives  and  forks,  six 
plates,  six  tea-cups  and  saucers,  one  sugar- 
dish,  one  milk-pot,  one  tea-pot,  six  spoons, 
one  crane  with  appendages,  one  pair  of 
andirons,  one  shovel  and  tongs,  and  all  the 
tools  and  implements  of  a  mechanic  neces- 
sary to  carry  on  his  trade,  to  the  value  of 
twenty-five  dollars. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  when  owned  by 
a  householder  or  anybody  having  a  family 
for  which  he  provides,  the  following  ex- 
emptions are  made.  All  necessary  house- 
hold furniture,  working  tools,  professional 
instruments,  furniture,  and  library;  a  team 
not  worth  o^er  $250,  and  the  food  necessary 
for  such  team  for  ninety  days,  except  on 
executions  for  purchase-money  for  such,  or 
for  wages  of  a  domestic  in  the  family,  in 
which  case  the  debtor  is  not  entitled  to  the 
benefit  of  the  exemptions ;  lastly,  land  not 
over  a  quarter  of  an  acre  set  apart  for 
burial-place,  and  the  vault  thereon. 

The  following  real  property  is  exempted: 

The  lot  and  building  thereon  to  the  value 
of  one  thousand  dollars,  owned  and  occu- 
pied as  a  residence  by  the  debtor.  This 
exemption  continues  after  the  death  of  the 
judgment-debtor  for  the  benefit  of  his  wid- 
ow and  family,  until  the  youngest  child  be- 
comes of  age,  and  until  the  death  of  the 
widow,  on  condition  that  one  or  more  of 
the  family  occupy  the  premises. 

To  be  valid,  the  release  of  the  exemption 
must  be  in  writing,  subscribed  by  the  house- 
holder, and  acknowledged  in  the  same  way 
as  a  conveyance  of  real  estate.  No  prop- 


778 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


erty  is  exempted  from  sale  for  the  non- 
payment of  taxes,  assessments,  or  a  debt 
contracted  for  the  purchase-money  of  the 
property,  or  contracted  previous  to  the  rec- 
ording of  the  deed  as  required  by  law. 

If  the  sheriff  holding  the  execution  thinks 
the  property  worth  more  than  one  thousand 
dollars,  he  must  summon  six  qualified  jurors 
of  his  county,  and  have  the  premises  ap- 
praised and  sold  accordingly  within  sixty 
days,  unless  the  debtor  pays  meantime  the 
surplus  over  and  above  one  thousand  dol- 
lars. In  case  the  premises  are  sold,  the 
debtor  receives  one  thousand  dollars,  the 
surplus  going  to  the  liquidation  of  the  debt. 

PROPERTY  EXEMPT   FROM  FORCED   SALES 


Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

California, 

Colorado, 

Connecticut, 

Delaware, 

Florida, 

Georgia, 

Idaho, 

Illinois, 

Indiana, 

Iowa, 

Kansas, 

Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland, 

Massachusetts, 

Michigan, 

Minnesota,  . 

Mississippi, 

Missouri, 

Montana, 

Nebraska, 

Nevada, 

New    Hampshire, 

New   Jersey, 

New  York, 

North  Carolina, 

North  Dakota, 

Ohio, 

Oregon, 

Pennsylvania, 

Rhode  Island, 

South  Carolina, 

South  Dakota, 

Tennessee, 

Texas, 

Utah, 

Vermont, 

Virginia, 

Washington, 

West  Virginia, 

Wisconsin, 

Wyoming, 


Personal 

property,  Acres  Homestead 
value     of  land     value 


$1000 
500 
900 

IOOO 

500 

2OO 
IOOO 

300 
300 
300 
600 

2OO 
800 
2OO 


1 6O 
1 60 


I  60 
SO 


40 
1 60 


$2000 
2500 
5000 

2OOO 


1600 
5000 


2000  to  cover  value  of 
all  exemptions. 


300 
100 
450 
400 
800 
550 
300 
900 

900 
450 
200 

250 

500 

1500 

IOO 

175 
300 
500 
500 
1500 

I2OO 


ZOO 
2OO 
9OO 
200 
450 
9OO 


40 
So 
So 
1 60 

1 60 


1 60 


1 60 


500 

800 
1500 

2000 
ISOO 
5000 
20OO 
50OO 
SOO 
IOOO 
IOOO 
IOOO 

IOOO 


IOOO 
IOOO 

5000 

IOOO 

500 

IOOO 

5000 

IOOO 

5000 


WILLS 

All  persons  of  sound  mind  and  proper 
age  may  dispose  of  their  property  by  last 
will  and  testament.  In  some  States  minors 
may  bequeath  personal  property.  The  limi- 
tation for  disposing  of  personal  estate  by 


will  is  eighteen  years  for  males  and  six- 
teen years  for  females. 

All  wills  must  be  made  in  writing  and 
subscribed  with  the  testator's  full  name,  un- 
less the  person  be  prevented  from  so  doing 
by  the  extremity  of  his  last  illness,  when 
his  name  may  be  signed  in  his  presence,  and 
by  his  express  direction. 

A  will  requires  at  least  two  attesting  wit- 
nesses. 

The  form  of  a  will  is  not  material,  pro- 
vided it  manifests,  in  a  sufficiently  xlear 
manner,  the  intention  of  the  testator.  It 
may  be  put  in  any  language  he  may  choose. 

A  will  may  be  revoked  at  any  time  by  the 
testator. 

The  following  are  among  the  modes  of 
revoking  a  will : 

First.  By  subsequent  instrument.  A  sec- 
ond will  nullifies  a  former  one,  provided  it 
contains  words  expressly  revoking  it,  or 
that  it  makes  a  different  and  incompatible 
disposition  of  the  property. 

Second.  By  the  destruction  of  the  will. 

Third.  By  marriage.  Marriage,  and  the 
birth  of  a  child  after  the  execution  of  a 
will,  is  a  presumptive  revocation  of  such 
will,  provided  a  wife  and  a  child  are  left 
unprovided  for. 

The  will  of  an  unmarried  woman  is  an- 
nulled by  her  marriage.  She  may  make  a 
deed  of  settlement  of  her  estate,  however, 
before  marriage,  empowering  her  to  retain 
the  right  to  make  a  will  after  marriage. 

Children  born  after  the  execution  of  the 
will,  and  in  the  lifetime  of  the  father,  will 
inherit  at  the  death  of  the  testator  in  like 
manner  as  if  he  had  died  without  making  a 
will. 

Fourth.  By  alteration  of  estate.  Any  al- 
teration of  the  estate  or  interest  of  the 
testator  in  the  property  devised,  implies  % 
revocation  of  the  will. 

A  sale  of  the  devised  property,  or  a  valid 
agreement  to  sell  it,  is  a  legal  revocation  of 
such  will. 

A  codicil,  so  far  as  it  may  be  inconsistent 
with  the  will,  works  as  a  revocation. 

A  subsequent  will,  duly  executed,  revokes 
all  former  wills,  though  no  words  to  that 
effect  may  be  used. 

Property  can  not  be  devised  to  corpora- 
tions, unless  they  are  expressly  authorized 
to  receive  bequests  by  their  charters. 

A  will  should  not  be  written  by  a  legatee 
or  devisee,  nor  should  either  of  them,  or  an 
executor,  or  any  one  interested  in  the  will 
be  called  upon  to  witness  such  will. 


OUTLINES    OF   LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


779 


Aliens  not  authorized  by  law  to  hold 
property  can  not  receive  bequests. 

All  debts  and  incumbrances  must  be 
settled  before  the  bequests  shall  be  dis- 
tributed. 

A  codicil,  that  is  an  addition  or  supple- 


ment to  a  will,  must  be  executed  with  the 
same  formalities  as  the  will  itself.  The 
witnesses  may  be  the  same  or  different 
ones.  When  there  are  several  codicils,  the 
later  operate  to  revive  and  republish  the 
earlier  ones. 


LAWS    GOVERNING    APPLICATIONS    FOR    PATENTS 


APPLICATIONS  for  letters  patent  must  be 
made  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  and 
signed  by  inventors.  A  complete  applica- 
tion comprises  the  first  fee  of  $15,  a  peti- 
tion, specification,  oath  (in  English  lan- 
guage) and  drawings,  model  or  specimen 
when  required.  A  drawing  is  required  when- 
ever the  case  admits  of  it.  A  model  is  re- 
quired or  admitted  as  a  part  of  tEe  applica- 
tion only  when,  on  examination,  the  primary 
examiner  finds  it  necessary  or  useful. 

Specification  and  claim  must  be  signed 
by  inventor  and  attested  by  two  witnesses. 

The  oath  made  is  that  inventor  believes 
himself  to  be  original  and  first  discoverer 
of  the  art,  machine,  manufacture,  composi- 
tion, or  improvement ;  that  he  does  not  be- 
lieve or  know  that  -it  was  ever  before  known 
or  used,  and  the  country  of  which  he  is  a 
citizen  'or  subject.  This  oath  may  be  made 
before  any  duly  authorized  person  in  the 
United  States,  or  if  the  applicant  is  in  a 
foreign  country,  before  any  minister,  charge 
d'affaires,  consul  or  commercial  agent,  hold- 
ing a  commission  under  the  United  States 
Government. 

Drawings  must  be  artistically  executed. 
The  Patent  Office  will  make  necessary  cor- 
rections at  the  applicant's  option  and  cost. 
The  office  will  furnish  the  drawings  at  cost 
for  applicants  who  desire  that  assistance. 

A  working  model  is  often  desirable.  Ap- 
plications filed  are  classified  according  to 
the  various  arts,  and  are  examined  in  order 
of  filing.  Upon  rejection  of  application  ex- 
aminer must  cite  the  best  references  at  his 
command.  If  domestic  patents  be  cited, 


their  dates  and  numbers,  the  names  of  the 
patentees,  and  the  classes  of  invention  are 
stated.  The  applicant  may  amend  before  or 
after  first  rejection  or  action,  and  he  may 
amend  as  often  as  the  examiner  presents 
new  reasons  for  rejection,  showing  how 
amendments  avoid  references  and  objections. 

Patents  for  designs  are  granted  for  3^, 
7,  or  14  years. 

A  reissue  is  granted  to  original  patentee 
when  original  patent  is  inoperative  on  ac- 
count of  defective  specification. 

Provisions  are  made  for  hearings  before 
the  commissioner,  and  interviews  with  ex- 
aminers. 

Any  citizen  who  has  made  a  new  inven- 
tion or  discovery  and  desires  further  time 
to  mature  same  may,  on  payment  of  $10, 
file  in  patent  office  a  caveat  setting  forth 
objects  and  characteristics  of  the  invention. 
Such  caveat  is  operative  for  one  year. 

Following  is  a  schedule  of  fees,  payable 
in  advance :  Filing  original  application,  $15 ; 
issuing  of  patent,  $20;  designs  (3^  years), 
$10;  designs  (7  years),  $15;  designs  (14 
years),  $30;  caveats,  $10;  reissue,  $30;  fil- 
ing disclaimer,  $10.  Certified  copies  of 
patents,  10  cents  per  100  words.  Certified 
copies,  printed  patents,  80  cents.  Uncertified 
printed  copies  of  specifications  and  drawings 
or  any  number  of  unclassified  copies,  5  cents 
each.  For  copies  by  sub-classes,  3  cents 
each.  Copies  by  classes,  2  cents  each. 
Recording  every  assignment,  agreement, 
power  of  attorney,  or  other  paper,  of  300 
words  or  under,  $i.  For  every  300  and 
under  1,000,  $2;  for  over  1,000,  $3. 


NATURALIZATION    LAWS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


THE  conditions  under  and  the  manner  in 
which  an  alien  may  be  admitted  to  become 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States  are  prescribed 
by  Sections  2165-74  of  the  Revised  Statutes 
of  the  United  States. 

DECLARATION    OF    INTENTION 

The  alien  must  declare  upon  oath  before 
a  circuit  or  district  court  of  the  United 


btates,  or  a  district  or  supreme  court  of 
the  Territories,  or  a  court  of  record  of 
any  of  the  States  having  common  law  ju- 
risdiction, and  a  seal  and  clerk,  two  years 
at  least  prior  to  his  admission,  that  it  is, 
bpna  fide,  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States,  and  to  renounce  for- 
ever all  allegiance  and  fidelity  to  any  for- 
eign prince  or  State,  and  particularly  to  the 


780 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


one   in   which    he   may   be   at    the   time   a 
citizen  or  subject. 

OATH    ON    APPLICATION    FOR   ADMISSION 

He  must,  at  the  time  of  his  application 
to  be  admitted,  declare  on  oath,  before  some 
one  of  the  courts  above  specified,  that  he 
will  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  and  that  he  absolutely  and  entirely 
renounces  and  abjures  all  allegiance  and 
fidelity  to  every  foreign  prince,  potentate, 
State  or  sovereignty,  and  particularly,  by 
name,  to  the  prince,  potentate,  State  or 
sovereignty  of  which  he  was  before  a  citi- 
zen or  subject,  which  proceedings  must  be 
recorded  by  the  clerk  of  the  court. 

CONDITIONS   FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

If  it  shall  appear  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  court  to  which  the  alien  has  applied 
that  he  has  resided  continuously  within  the 
United  States  for  at  least  five  years,  and 
within  the  State  or  Territory  where  such 
court  is  at  the  time  held  one  year  at  least; 
and  that  during  that  time  "he  has  behaved 
as  a  man  of  good  moral  character,  attached 
to  the  principles  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  well  disposed  to  the 
good  order  and  happiness  of  the  same," 
he  will  be  admitted  to  citizenship. 

TITLES    OF    NOBILITY 

If  the  applicant  has  borne  any  hereditary 
title  or  order  of  nobility,  he  must  make  an 
express  renunciation  of  the  same  at  the  time 
of  his  application. 

SOLDIERS 

Any  alien  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years 
and  upward,  who  has  been  in  the  armies  of 
the  United  States  and  has  been  honorably 
discharged  therefrom,  may  become  a  citizen 
on  his  petition,  without  any  previous  dec- 
laration of  intention,  provided  that  he  has 
resided  in  the  United  States  at  least  one 
year  previous  to  his  application,  and  is  of 
good  moral  character.  (It  is  judicially  de- 
cided that  residence  of  one  year  in  a  par- 
ticular State  is  not  requisite.) 

MINORS 

Any  alien  under  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years  who  has  resided  in  the  United  States 
three  years  next  preceding  his  arriving  at 
that  age,  and  who  has  continued  to  reside 
therein  to  the  time  he  may  make  applica- 
tion to  be  admitted  a  citizen  thereof,  may, 
after  he  arrives  at  the  age  of  twenty-one 


years,  and  after  he  has  resided  five  years 
within  the  United  States,  including  the 
three  years  of  his  minority,  be  admitted  a 
citizen;  but  he  must  make  a  declaration  on 
oath  and  prove  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
court  that  for  two  years  next  preceding  it 
has  been  his  bona  fide  intention  to  become 
a  citizen. 

CHILDREN    OF     NATURALIZED    CITIZENS 

The  children  of  persons  who  have  been 
duly  naturalized,  being  under  the  age  of 
twenty-one  years  at  the  time  of  the  natu- 
ralization of  their  parents,  shall,  if  dwelling 
in  the  United  States,  be  considered  as  citi- 
zens thereof. 

CITIZENS'  CHILDREN  WHO  ARE  BORN  ABROAD 

The  children  of  persons  who  now  are  or 
have  been  citizens  of  the  United  States  are, 
though  born  out  of  the  limits  and  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  United  States,  considered  as 
citizens  thereof. 

CHINESE 

The  naturalization  of  Chinamen  is  ex- 
pressly prohibited  by  Seetion  14,  Chapter 
126,  Laws  of  1882. 

PROTECTION   ABROAD  TO  NATURALIZED  CITIZENS 

Section  2000  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of 
the  United  States  declares  that  "all  nat- 
uralized citizens  of  the  United  States  while 
in  foreign  countries  are  entitled  to  and  shall 
receive  from  this  government  the  same  pro- 
tection of  persons  and  property  which  is 
accorded  to  native-born  citizens." 

THE  RIGHT  OF   SUFFRAGE 

The  right  to  vote  comes  from  the  State, 
and  is  a  State  gift.  Naturalization  is  a 
federal  right,  and  is  a  gift  of  the  Union, 
not  of  any  one  State.  In  nearly  one-half 
the  Union  aliens  (who  have  declared  inten- 
tions) vote  and  have  the  right  to  vote 
equally  with  naturalized  or  native-born  citi- 
zens. In  the  other  half  only  actual  citizens 
may  vote.  The  federal  naturalization  laws 
apply  to  the  whole  Union  alike,  and  provide 
that  no  alien  may  be  naturalized  until  after 
five  years'  residence.  Even  after  five  years' 
residence  and  due  naturalization  he  is  not 
entitled  to  vote  unless  the  laws  of  the  State 
confer  the  privilege  upon  him,  and  he  may 
vote  in  one  State  (Minnesota)  four  months 
after  landing,  if  he  has  immediately  declared 
his  intention,  under  United  States  law,  to 
become  a  citizen. 


OUTLINES   OF   LAW   ON   EVERY-DAY   MATTERS  781 


FORMS    OF    COMMON    LEGAL    DOCUMENTS 


IN  legal  documents  of  all  descriptions  the 
form  is  an  all-important  consideration. 
This  is  true  for  two  very  good  reasons : 
(i)  The  wording  of  a  document  in  accord- 
ance with  certain  general  forms  is  required 
by  legal  conventions,  if  not  by  direct  laws 
on  the  subject:  (2)  The  unescapable  neces- 
sity of  being  clear  and  explicit  is  best  at- 
tained by  the  use  of  certain  forms  that 
have  long  been  in  use. 

On  the  subject  of  clearness,  we  may  say 
that  legal  documents  follow  rules  that  are 
the  reverse  of  those  recognized  in  rhetoric. 
Instead  of  being  simply  and  directly 
worded,  they  are  prolix,  redundant,  often 
complicated  and  difficult  of  comprehension 
by  the  lay  mind.  To  the  lawyer,  however, 
these  violations  of  pure  and  chaste  style 
are  essential  to  adequate  and  unmistakable 
descriptions  and  precise  statements.  The 
reason  of  this  is  that  a  brief  sentence,  while 
clear  for  all  ordinary  purposes,  can  be 
shown  to  admit  of  several  interpretations. 
Hence,  unless  sufficiently  detailed  state- 
ments are  used,  there  may  be  an  oppor- 
tunity for  misunderstanding.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  in  the  case  of  wills  and  deeds 
to  real  property.  Many  a  valid  will  has 
been  broken  simply  because  the  person  who 
drew  it  up  did  not  provide  against  all  pos- 
sible contingencies.  The  same  is  true  of 
realty  deeds :  flaws  in  titles  have  often  been 
created  by  the  carelessness  or  oversight  of 
those  who  prepared  the  papers. 

For  the  instruction  and  assistance  of  the 
reader  a  number  of  specimen  legal  forms 
are  given  in  the  following  pages.  Some 
of  these  may  be  adopted  as  they  stand, 
without  requiring  the  services  of  an  at- 
torney. In  the  cases,  however,  of  wills, 
realty  deeds,  business  agreements,  mort- 
gages— hi  short,  matters  involving  sums  of 
money  or  property  rights — the  conditions 
can  not  always  be  perfectly  covered.  Con- 
sequently, a  wise  man  will  consult  a  reli- 
able lawyer  before  signing  his  name.  Ten 
dollars  paid  in  lawyer's  fees  has  often  saved 
as  many  thousands  to  people  who  would, 
otherwise,  have  blundered  gravely. 

GENERAL  FORM  OF  AGREEMENT 

THIS  AGREEMENT,  made  the  first  day  of  May, 
one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  one,  between 
JOHN  DOE,  of  the  city  of  Hartford,  in  the  county 
of  Hartford  and  State  of  Connecticut,  of  the  first 
part,  and  RICHARD  ROE,  of  the  village  of  Wind- 
sor, in  said  county  and  State,  of  the  second  part — 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  JOHN  DOE,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  covenants  on  the  part  of  the 


party  of  the  second  part,  hereinafter  contained, 
doth  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with  the  said  RICH- 
ARD ROE,  that  [here  insert  the  agreement  on  the 
part  of  John  Doe]. 

And  the  said  RICHARD  ROE,  in  consideration  of 
the  covenants  on  the  part  of  the  party  of  the 
first  part,  doth  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with 
the  said  JOHN  DOE,  that  [here  insert  the  agree- 
ment on  the  part  of  Richard  Roe], 

In  witness   whereof,    we   have   hereunto   set   our 
hands    and    seals,    the    day    and    year    first    above 
written. 
Sealed  and  delivered,") 

in  presence  of  JOHN  DOE.  [L.S.] 

THOS.  BROWN.          [    RICHARD  ROE.    [L.S.] 

JOHN   SMITH,  J 

[When  required  this  clause  may  be  inserted:] 

And  it  is  further  agreed,  between  the  parties 
hereto,  that  the  party  that  shall  fail  to  perform 
this  agreement  on  his  part,  will  pay  to  the  other 
the  full  sum  of  fifty  dollars,  as  liquidated,  fixed, 
and  settled  damages. 

AGREEMENT  FOR  THE  PURCHASE  OF  A 
HOUSE  AND  LOT 

MEMORANDUM  of  an  agreement  made  this  isth 
day  of  November,  in  the  year  1900,  between  JOHN 
SMITH,  Jeweler,  of  the  city  of  New  York,  and 
HENRY  BROWN,  Merchant,  of  the  same  city,  wit- 
nesseth — That  the  said  JOHN  SMITH  agrees  to  sell, 
and  the  said  HENRY  BROWN  agrees  to  purchase, 

for  the  price  or  consideration  of  dollars,  the 

house  and  lot  known  and  distinguished  as  number 

ninety-nine,  in  street,  in  the  said  city  of  New 

York.  The  possession  of  the  property  is  to  be  de- 
livered, on  the  first  day  of  May  next,  when  twenty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  purchase  money  is  to  be  paid  in 
cash,  and  a  bond  and  mortgage  on  the  premises, 
bearing  six  per  cent  interest,  payable  in  five  years 
(such  interest  payable  quarterly),  is  to  be  executed 
for  the  balance  of  the  purchase  money,  at  which 
time  also  a  deed  of  conveyance  in  fee  simple,  con- 
taining the  usual  full  covenants  and  warranty,  is 
to  be  delivered,  executed  by  the  said  JOHN  SMITH 
and  wife,  and  the  title  made  satisfactory  to  the 
said  HENRY  BROWN;  it  being  understood  that  this 
agreement  shall  be  binding  upon  the  heirs,  execu- 
tors, administrators,  and  assigns  of  the  respective 
parties;  and  also  that  the  said  premises  are  now 

insured  for dollars,  and,  in  case  the  said  house 

should  be  burnt  before  the  said  first  day  of  May 
next,  that  the  said  JOHN  SMITH  shall  hold  the  said 
insurance  in  trust,  and  wjll  then  transfer  the  same 
to  said  HENRY  BROWN  with  the  said  deed. 

In  witness,  etc.  [as  in  General  Form], 

AGREEMENT  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  .REAL 
ESTATE 

THIS    AGREEMENT,    made    the  day    of  , 

in   the   year   one  thousand   nine   hundred   and   one, 

between  A.  B.  of  ,  of  the  first  part,  anfl  C.  D. 

of  ,  of  the  second  part,  in  manner  following: 

The   said   party   of   the   first   part   in   consideration 

of  the  su»  of  ,  to  be  fully  paid  as  hereinafter 

mentioned,  hereby  agrees  to  sell  unto  the  said 
party  of  tl'e  second  part  (here  describe  property). 
And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  hereby 
agrees  to  purchase  said  premises  at  the  said  con- 
sideration of  dollars,  and  to  pay  the  same 

as  follows:  (Here  give  table  of  payments_.)  And 
the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  on  receiving  such 
payment  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  above  men- 
tioned, shall,  at  his  own  proper  costs  and  ex- 
penses, execute,  acknowledge  and  deliver  to  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  or  to  his  assigns,  a 
proper  deed  containing  a  general  warranty  and 
the  usual  full  covenants  for  the  conveying  and 
assuring  to  him  or  them  the  fee  simple  of  the 
said  premises,  free  from  all  incumbrance,  it  be- 

50 


782 


OUTLINES    OF   LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


ing  understood  and  agreed  that  the  instruments 
referred  to  in  within  contract,  to  be  executed 
and  delivered,  shall  conform  to  the  requirements 
of  Chapter  475,  Law  of  1800,  relating  to  Deeds, 
Bonds,  and  Mortgages,  so  far  as  the  same  is  ap- 
plicable thereto,  and  which  deed  shall  be  deliv- 
ered on  the  day  of at o'clock  A.M., 

at  .     The  risk  of  loss  or  damage  by  fire  prior 

to  the  completion  of  this  contract  is  hereby  as- 
sumed by  the  party  of  the  (first  or  second)  part. 
The  rents  of  the  said  premises  (if  any)  shall  be 
adjusted,  apportioned  and  allowed  up  to  the  day 
of  taking  title.  And  it  is  understood  that  the  stip- 
ulations aforesaid  are  to  apply  to  and  bind  the 
heirs,  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns  of 
the  respective  parties. 

In  witness,  etc.   [as  in  Central  Form]. 
State  of  ,  County  of ^ss: 

On  this  day  of  in  the  year  one  thou- 
sand nine  hundred  before  me  personally  came 

,  to  me  known,  and  known  to  me  to  be  the 
individuals  described  in  and  who  executed  the  fore- 
going instrument,  and  they  thereupon  acknowledged 
to  me  that  they  had  executed  the  same. 


AGREEMENT  FOR  BUILDING  A  HOUSE 

MEMORANDUM. — That  on  this  day  of  , 

it  is  agreed  between  A.  B.  of and  C.  D.  of 

,  in  manner  following,  viz.:  the  said  C.  D., 

for  the  considerations  hereinafter  mentioned,  doth 
for  himself,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  administra- 
tors, covenant  with  the  said  A.  B.,  his  executors, 
administrators,  and  assigns,  that  he,  the  said  C.  D. 
or  his  assigns,  shall  and  will,  within  the  space  of 
— —  next  after  the  date  hereof,  in  a  good  and  work- 
manlike manner,  and  at  his  own  proper  charge  and 

expense,  at ,  well  and  substantially  erect,  build, 

and  finish,  one  house,  or  messuage,  according  to  the 
draught,  scheme,  and  explanation  hereunto  an- 
nexed, with  such  stone,  brick,  timber,  and  other 
materials,  as  the  said  A.  B.  or  his  assigns  shall 
find  and  provide  for  the  same.  In  consideration 
whereof,  the  said  A.  B.  doth  for  himself,  his  ex- 
ecutors, and  administrators  covenant  with  the  said 
C.  D.,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns, 
well  and  truly  to  pay  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  ex- 
ecutors, administrators,  and  assigns,  the  sum  of 

$ of  lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  in 

manner  following,  viz.:  [one-half,  one-third,  etc.], 

part  thereof  at  the  beginning  of  the  said  work; 

another  part  thereof  when  the  said  work  shall  be 

half  done;  and  the  remaining  in  full  for  the 

said  work,  when  the  same  snail  be  completely  fin- 
ished: And  also  that  he,  the  said  A.  B.,  his  ex- 
ecutorSj  administrators,  or  assigns,  shall  and  will 
from  time  to  time,  as  the  same  shall  be  required, 
at  his  and  their  own  proper  expense,  find  and  pro- 
vide stone,  brick,  timber,  and  other  materials  nec- 
essary for  making,  building,  and  finishing  the  said 
house.  And  for  the  performance  of  all  and  every 
the  articles  and  agreements  above  mentioned,  the 
said  A.  B.  and  C.  D.  do  hereby  bind  themselves, 
their  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  each 

to  the  other,  in  the  penal  sum  of  firmly  by 

these  presents. 

In  witness,  etc.  las  in  General  Form], 

AGREEMENT  TO  BE   SIGNED   BY  AN  AUC- 
TIONEER,  AFTER   A   SALE  OF  LAND 
AT  AUCTION 

I  HEREBY  acknowledge  that  A.  B.  has  been  this 
day  declared  by  me  the  highest  bidder  and  pur- 
chaser of  [describe  the  land],  at  the  sum  of  

dollars  [or,  at  the  sum  of  dollars  cents 

per  acre  or  foot],   and  that  he   has   paid  into  my 

hands  the  sum  of  ,  as  a  deposit,  and   in  part 

payment  of  the  purchase  money:  and  1  hereby  agree 
that  the  vendor,  C.  D.,  shall  in  all  respects  fulfil 
the  conditions  of  sale  hereunto  annexed.  Witness 

my  hand,  at  -  ""  ,  on  the  day  of  ,   A.D. 

1901. 

L  S.,  Auctioneer. 


ARTICLES    OF    COPARTNERSHIP 

ARTICLES   of   copartnership   made   and   concluded 

this  day  of  ,   in   the   year   one   thousand 

nine  hundred  and  one,  by  and  between  A.  it.,  book- 
seller, of  the  first  part,  and  C.  D.,  bookseller,  of 
the  second  part,  both  of ,  in  the  county  of . 

Whereas,  it  is  the  intention  of  the  said  parties 
to  form  a  copartnership,  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing on  the  retail  business  of  booksellers  and  sta- 
tioners, for  which  purpose  they  have  agreed  on  the 
following  terms  and  articles  of  agreement,  to  the 
faithful  performance  of  which  they  mutually  bind 
and  engage  themselves  each  to  the  other,  his  execu- 
tors and  administrators. 

First.     The  style  of  the  said  copartnership  shan 

be  " and  company":  and  it  shall  continue  for 

the  term  of years  from  the  above  date,  except 

in  case  of  the  death  of  either  of  the  «aid  parties 
within  the  said  term. 

Second.  The  said  A.  B.  and  C.  D.  *\e  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  stock,  a  schedule  of  -which  is  con- 
tained in  their  stock  book,  in  the  proportion  of 
two-thirds  to  the  said  A.  B.,  and  of  one-third  to 
the  said  C.  D. ;  and  the  said  parties  shall  continue 
to  be  owners  of  their  joint  stock  in  the  same  pro- 
portions; and  in  case  of  any  addition  being  made 
to  the  same  by  mutual  consent,  the  said  A.  B.  shall 
advance  two-thirds,  and  the  said  C  D.  one-third  of 
the  cost  thereof. 

Third.  All  profits  which  may  accrue  to  the  said 
partnership  shall  be  divided,  and  all  losses  happen- 
ing to  the  said  firm,  whether  from  bad  debts,  de- 
preciation of  goods,  or  any  other  cause  or  accident, 
and  all  expenses  of  the  business,  shall  be  borne 
by  the  said  parties  in  the  aforesaid  proportions  of 
their  interest  in  the  said  stock. 

Fourth.  The  said  C.  D.  shall  devote  and  give 
all  his.  time  and  attention  to  the  business  of  the 
said  firm  as  a  salesman,  and  generally  to  the  care 
and  superintendence  of  the  store;  and  the  said 
A.  B.  shall  devote  so  much  of  his  time  as  may  be 
requisite,  in  advising,  overseeing,  and  directing  the 
importation  of  books  and  other  articles  necessary 
to  the  said  business. 

Fifth.  All  the  purchases,  sales,  transactions,  and 
accounts  of  the  said  firm  shall  be  kept  in  regular 
books,  which  shall  be  always  open  to  the  inspection 
of  both  parties  and  their  legal  representatives  re- 
spectively. An  account  of  stock  shall  be  taken, 
and  an  account  between  the  said  parties  shall  be 
settled,  as  often  as  once  in  every  year,  and  as 
much  oftener  as  either  partner  may  desire  and  in 
writing  request. 

Sixth.  Neither  of  the  said  parties  shall  subscribe 
any  bond,  sign  or  indorse  any  note  of  hand,  ac- 
cept, sign,  or  indorse  any  draft  or  bill  of  exchange, 
or  assume  any  other  liability,  verbal  or  written, 
either  in  his  own  name  or  in  the  name  of  the  firm, 
for  the  accommodation  of  any  other  person  or  per- 
sons whatsoever,  without  the  consent  in  writing  of 
the  other  party;  nor  shall  either  party  lend  any 
of  the  funds  ot  the  copartnership  without  such  con- 
sent of  the  other  partner. 

Seventh.  Ko  importation,  or  large  purchase  of 
books  or  other  things,  shall  be  made,  nor  any 
transaction  out  of  the  usual  course  of  the  retail 
business  shall  be  undertaken  by  either  of  the  part- 
ners, without  previous  consultation  with,  and  the 
approbation  of,  the  other  partner. 

Eighth.  Neither  party  shall  withdraw  from  the 
joint  stock,  at  any  time,  more  than  his  share  of 
the  profits  of  the  business  then  earned,  nor  shall 
either  party  be  entitled  to  interest  on  his  share  of 
the  capital;  but  if,  at  the  expiration  of  the  year, 
a  balance  of  profits  be  found  due  to  either  partner, 
he  shall  be  at  Ijberty  to  withdraw  the  said  balance, 
or  to  leave  it  in  the  business,  provided  the  other 
partner  consent  thereto,  and  in  that  case  he  shall 
be  allowed  interest  on  the  said  balance. 

Ninth.  At  the  expiration  of  the  aforesaid  term, 
or_  earlier  dissolution  of  this  copartnership,  if  the 
said  parties  or  their  legal  representatives  can  not 
asrree  in  the  division  of  the  stock  then  on  hand,  the 
whole  copartnership  effects,  except  the  debts  due 
to  the  firm,  shall  be  sold  at  public  auction,  at  which 
both  parties  shall  be  at  liberty  to  bid  and  pur. 
chase  like  other  individuals,  and  the  proceeds  shall 


OUTLINES   OF   LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY   MATTERS 


783 


be  divided,  after  payment  of  the  debts  of  the  firm, 
in  the  proportions  aforesaid. 

Tenth.  For  the  purpose  of  securing  the  perform- 
ance of  the  foregoing  agreements,  it  is  agreed  that 
either  party,  in  case  of  any  violation  of  them  .or 
either  of  them  by  the  other,  shall  have  the  right  to 
dissolve  this  copartnership  forthwith,  on  his  be- 
coming informed  of  such  violation. 

In  witness,  etc.  las  in  General  Form.] 

AGREEMENT  TO  CONTINUE  THE  PART- 
NERSHIP; TO  BE  INDORSED  ON  THE 
BACK  OF  THE  ORIGINAL  ARTICLES 

WHEREAS,  the  partnership  evidenced  by  the  with- 
in-written articles  has  this  day  expired  by  the  limi- 
tations contained  therein  [or,  will  expire  on  the 

day  of  next],  it  is  hereby  agreed,  that 

the  same  shall  be  continued  on  the  same  terms, 
and  with  all  the  provisions  and  restrictions  therein 

contained,  for  the  further  term  of  years  from 

this  date  [or  from  the  day  of  next.] 

In  witness,  etc.  [as  in  General  Form.] 

DEED    WITHOUT    COVENANTS 

THIS  indenture,  made  the  day  of  ,  in 

the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  ,  between 

A.  B.,  of,  etc.,  of  the  first  part,  and  C.  D.,  of,  etc., 
of  the  second  part,  Witnesseth:  That  the  said  party 
of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the 
sum  of  fifty  dollars,  to  him  in  hand  paid,  bf  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part,  the  receipt  whereof 
is  hereby  acknowledged,  hath  bargained  and  sold, 
and  by  these  presents  doth  bargain  and  sell,  unto 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  and  to  his  heirs 
and  assigns  forever,  all.  etc.  [Here  describe  the 
property.]  Together  with  all  and  singular,  the  her- 
editaments and  appurtenances  thereunto  belonging, 
or  in  any  wise  appertaining,  and  the  reversion  and 
reversions,  remainder  and  remainders,  rents,  issues, 
and  profits  thereof;  and  also  all  the  estate,  right, 
title,  interest,  claim,  or  demand,  whatsoever  of  him 
the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  either  in  law  or 
equity,  of,  in,  and  to,  the  above  bargained  prem- 
ises, and  every  part  and  parcel  thereof:  To  have 
and  to  hold  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  the  sole  and  only  proper 
use,  benefit,  and  behoof,  of  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  forever. 

In   witness   whereof,    we   have   hereunto   set   our 
hands  and  seals,  the  day  and  year  first  above  writ- 
ten. 
Sealed  and  delivered  1 

in  presence  of        i  A.  B.     [L.  s.} 

j 


JOHN  SMITH, 
FRANK  ROBINSON. 


C.  D.  [L.  s.] 


CONVEYANCES  OF  LANDS  ON  SALE  BY 
MORTGAGE 

THIS  indenture,  made  the  day  of  ,  in 

the  year  between  A.  B.,  of,  etc.,  of  the  one 

part,  and  C.  D.,  of,  etc.,  of  the  other  part.  Where- 
as, E.  F.,  of,  etc.,  did,  by  a  certain  indenture  of 

mortgage  dated  the  day  of  ,  in  the  year 

,    for   the   consideration   of  ,    bargain   and 

sell  unto  the  said  A.  B.,  and  to  his  heirs  and  as- 
signs forever,  all  that  certain,  etc.;  together  with 
all  and  singular  the  hereditaments  and  appurte- 
nances thereunto  belonging:  To  have  and  to  hold 
the  said  granted  and  bargained  premises,  with  the 
appurtenances,  unto  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  to  the  only  proper  use  and  behoof  of  the 
said  A.  B.,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever;  provided, 
nevertheless,  and  the  said  indenture  of  mortgage 
•was  thereby  declared  to  be  upon  condition,  that  if 
the  said  E.  F.,  his  heirs,  executors,  or  administra- 
tors, should  well  and  truly  pay  unto  the  said 
A.  B.,  his  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns, 

the  just  and  full  sum  of ,  with  lawful  interest 

for  the  same,   on   or  before  the  day  of , 

in  the  year  ,   according  to  the  condition  of  a 

certain  bond  or  writing,  obligatory,  bearing  even 
date  with  the  said  indenture  of  mortgage,  that 
then,  and  in  such  case,  the  said  indenture,  and  the 
said  writing  obligatory,  "hould  be  void  and  of  no 


effect:  and  the  said  E.  F.  did,  by  the  said  in- 
denture, for  himself,  his  heirs,  and  assigns,  agree 
with  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  adminis- 
trators, and  assigns,  that  in  case  it  should  so  hap- 
pen, that  the  said  sum  of  ,  and  the  interest 

for  the  same,  should  be  due  and  unpaid  at  the 
time  limited  for  the  payment  thereof,  in  the  whole 
or  in  part  thereof,  that  then  it  should  and  might 
be  lawful  for  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs  or  assigns, 
at  any  time  after  default  in  payment,  to  bargain, 
sell,  and  dispose  of  the  said  mortgaged  premises, 
with  the  appurtenances,  at  public  vendue,  and  out 
of  the  moneys  to  arise  from  the  sale  thereof,  to 

retain  and  keep  the  said  sum  of  dollars,  and 

the  interest,  or  so  much  thereof  as  might  be  due, 
together  with  the  costs  and  charges  of  such  sale, 
or  sales,  rendering  the  overplus  money,  if  any,  to 
the  said  E.  F.,  his  heirs,  executors,  administrators, 
or  assigns:  And,  whereas  the  said  E.  F.  did  not 
pay  to  the  said  A.  B.  the  said  sum  of  money,  with 
the  interest,  at  the  time  limited  for  payment,  or  at 
any  time  since:  and  the  said  A.  B.  hath,  therefore, 
in  pursuance  of  the  authority  so  given  to  him  as 
aforesaid,  and  according  to  the  statute  in  such  case 
made  and  provided,  caused  the  premises  to  be  ad- 
vertised and  sold  at  public  auction;  and  the  same 

has  been  struck  off  to  the  said  C.  D.,  for  , 

being  the  highest  sum  bid  for  the  same. 

Now,  therefore,  this  indenture  witnesseth  that 
the  said  A.  B.,  in  pursuance  of  the  power  and 
statute  aforesaid,  and  also  for  and  in  consideration 

of  the  said  sum  of  ,  to  him  in  hand  paid,  by 

the  said  C.  D.,  at  and  before  the  ensealing  and  de- 
livery hereof,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  ac- 
knowledged, hath  granted,  bargained,  aliened,  re- 
leased, and  confirmed,  and  by  these  presents  doth 
grant,  bargain,  sell,  alien,  release,  and  confirm 
unto  the  said  C.  D.,  and  to  his  heirs  and  assigns 
forever,  all  the  farm,  piece,  or  parcel  of  land  above 
mentioned,  together  with  the  hereditaments  and 
appurtenances,  as  the  same  is  described  and  con- 
veyed by  said  indenture  of  mortgage;  and  all  the 
estate,  right,  title,  interest,  claim,  and  demand  at 
law  and  in  equity,  of  him  the  said  A.  B.,  and  also 
of  the  said  E.  F.,  as  far  forth  as  the  said  A.  B. 
hath  power  to  grant  and  convey  the  same,  of,  in, 
and  to  .the  premises,  and  every  part  and  parcel 
thereof:  To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  above 
granted  and  bargained  premises,  with  the  appur- 
tenances, unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  heirs  and  as- 
signs, to  the  sole  and  only  proper  use  and  behoof 
of  the  said  C.  D.,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  forever. 

In  witness,  etc.  [as  in  General  Form  of  Agree- 
ment.'] 

DEED     OF    GIFT    OF    PERSONAL    ESTATE 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B., 
of,  etc.,  in  consideration  of  the  natural  love  and 
affection  which  I  have  and  bear  for  my  son, 
C.  B.,  and  also  for  divers  other  good  causes  and 
considerations,  I,  the  said  A.  B.,  hereunto  mov- 
ing, have  given,  granted,  and  confirmed,  and  by 
these  presents,  do  give,  grant,  and  confirm  unto 
the  said  C.  B.,  all  and  singular,  my  goods.^  chattels, 
leases,  and  personal  estate  whatsoever,  in  whose 
hands,  custody,  or  possession  soever  they  be:  To 
have,  hold,  and  enjoy,  all  and  singular,  the  said 
goods,  chattels,  and  personal  estate,  aforesaid,  unto 
the  said  C.  B.,  his  executors,  administrators,  and 
assigns,  to  the  only  proper  use  and  behoof  of  the 
said  C.  B.,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  as- 
signs, forever.  And  I,  the  said  A.  B.,  all  and 
singular,  the  said  goods,  chattels,  personal  estate, 
and  other  the  premises,  to  the  said  C.  B.,  his  ex- 
ecutors, administrators,  and  assigns,  against  me, 
the  said  A.  B.,  my  executors  and  administrators, 
and  all  and  every,  other  person  and  persons,  what- 
soever, shall  and  will  warrant,  and  forever  defend, 
by  these  presents;  of  all  and  singular  which  said 
goods,  chattels,  personal  estate,  and  other  prem- 
ises, I,  the  said  A.  B.,  have  put  the  said  C.  B.  in 
full  possession,  by  delivering  to  him  one  pewter 
dish,  at  the  time  of  the  sealing  and  delivery  of 
these  presents,  in  the  name  of  the  whole  premises 
hereby  granted. 

In  witness,  etc.  las  in  General  Form  of  Agree- 
ment.'} 


784  OUTLINES   OF   LAW   ON   EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


DEED  OF  GIFT  BY  A  FATHER  TO  A  SON 

OF  HIS  PERSONAL  PROPERTY,  ON 

CONDITIONS 

THIS  indenture,  made  the,  etc.,  between  A.  B., 
of,  etc.,  of  the  one  part,  and  C.  B.,  of,  etc.,  of  the 
other  part.  Whereas,  the  said  A.  B.,  being  the 
father  of  the  said  C.  B.,  by  reason  of  his  age  and 
infirmities,  is  not  capable  of  attending  to  his  estate 
aud  affairs  as  formerly,  and  has  therefore  agreed, 
for  advancement  of  the  said  C.  B.,  to  make  over 
his  property  to  the  said  C.  B.,  so  that  the  said 
C.  B.  should  pay  the  debts  of  the  said  A.  B.,  and 
afford  him  a  maintenance  as  is  hereinafter  men- 
tioned: Now  this  indenture  Witnesseth;  That  the 
said  A.  B.,  in  order  to  carry  the  said  agreement 
into  effect,  and  in  consideration  of  the  natural  love 
and  affection  which  he  hath  for  and  toward  his 
son,  the  said  C  B.,  and  of  the  provisos,  cov- 
enants, and  agreements,  hereinafter  mentioned,  by 
the  said  C.  B.,  to  be  observed  and  performed,  hath 
given,  granted,  bargained,  sold,  and  assigned,  and 
by  these  presents  doth  give,  grant,  bargain,  sell, 
and  assign,  unto  the  said  C.  B.,  his  executors,  ad- 
ministrators, and  assigns,  all  and  singular,  his 
household  goods  and  implements  of  household, 
stock  in  trade,  debts,  rights,  credits,  and  personal 
estate,  whereof  he  is  now  possessed,  or  any  way 
interested  in  or  entitled  unto,  of  what  nature  or 
kind  soever  the  same  are,  or  wheresoever  or  _in 
whosesoever  hands  they  be  or  may  be  found,  with 
their  and  every  of  their  rights,  members,  and  ap- 
purtenances: To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  goods, 
household  stuff,  stock  in  trade,  debts,  rights,  and 
personal  estate,  and  the  other  the  premises,  unto 
the  said  C.  B.,  his  executors,  administrators,  and 
assigns,  forever,  without  rendering  any  account  or 
being  therefore  in  any  wise  accountable  to  the  said 
A.  B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  or  administrators,  for 
the  same. 

And  the  said  C.  B.,  for  himself,  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, and  administrators,  doth  covenant,  promise, 
grant,  and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said  A.  B.,  his 
executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  in  manner 
and  form  following,  that  is  to  say;  that  he,  the 
said  C.  B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators, 
shall  and  will,  settle,  pay,  discharge,  and  satisfy, 
or  cause  to  be  settled,  paid,  discharged,  and  satis- 
fied, all  accounts,  debts,  judgments,  and  demands 
of  every  nature  and  kind  whatsoever,  now  out- 
standing against,  or  now  due  from  or  payable  by 
the  said  A.  B.,  or  for  the  payment  of  which  the 
said  A.  B.  shall  be  liable,  or  be  held  liable  either 
at  law  or  equity  on  account  of  any  matter,  cause, 
or  thing  heretofore  had  suffered,  done,  or  per- 
formed, and  at  all  times  hereafter,  free,  discharge, 
and  keep  harmless,  and  indemnified,  the  said  A. 
B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  from  all 
and  every  such  accounts,  debts,  judgments,  and  de- 
mands, and  from  all  actions,  suits,  and  damages, 
that  may  to  him  or  them  arise,  by  reason  of  the 
non-payment  thereof;  and,  moreover,  that  he,  the 
said  C.  B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  administra- 
tors, shall  and  will  yearly,  and  every  year,  during 
the  term  of  the  natural  life  of  the  said  A.  B.,  by 
four  equal  quarterly  payments,  the  first  to  begin 

on  the  day  of  next,  well  and  truly  pay, 

or  cause  to  be  paid,  to  the  said  A.  B.,  or  his  as- 
signs, the  sum  of  ,  for,  or  toward  his  _  support 

and  maintenance,  or  find  or  provide  for  him  suffi- 
cient meat,  drink,  washing,  lodging,  apparel,  and 
attendance,  suitable  to  his  state  and  situation,  at 
the  choice  and  election,  from  time  to  time,  of  the 
said  A.  B. 

Provided  always,  and  upon  this  condition,  and 
it  is  the  true  intent  and  meaning  of  these  presents, 
that  if  the  said  C.  B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  ad- 
ministrators, shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  pay  the  said 
accounts,  debts,  judgments,  and  demands,  accord- 
ing to  his  covenant  aforesaid,  or  shall  suffer  the 
said  A.  B.  to  be  put  to  any  cost,  charge,  trouble, 
or  expense,  on  account  of  the  same,  or  shall  neglect 
or  refuse  to  pay  the  said  annual  sum,  in_  manner 
aforesaid,  or  to  find  and  provide  for  the  said  A.  B., 
as  aforesaid,  that  then,  in  all,  any.  or  either  of  the 
cases  aforesaid,  it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  to  and 
for  the  said  A.  B.,  all  and  singular,  the  premises 


hereby   granted    to   take,    repossess,    and    enjoy,    as 
in   his   former  estate. 

In  witness,  etc.  [«  in  Central  Form  of  A  fret- 
me»t}. 

A  WILL  OF   REAL  ESTATE 

IN  the  name  of  God,  Amen.  I,  A.  C.,  being  of 
sound  and  disposing  mind  and  memory,  and  con- 
sidering the  uncertainty  of  this  life,  do  make,  pub- 
lish, and  declare  this  to  be  my  last  will  and  testa- 
ment, as  follows:  First,  after  my  lawful  debts  are 
paid,  I  give  and  bequeath  unto  my  beloved  wife, 

J.  C,  the  sum  of  .     Item,  I  give  and  bequeath 

to  my  eldest  son,  G.  C.,  the  sum  of .     Item,  I 

give  and  bequeath  unto  my  two  youngest  sons,  J. 

C.  and  F.  C.,  the  sum  of  each.     Item,  1  give 

and  bequeath  to  my  daughter-in-law,  S.  H.,  widow, 

the    sum   of   ;    which   said   several    legacies    or 

sums  of  money  I  will  and  order  to  be  paid  to  the 
said  respective  legatees,  within  six  months  after 
my  decease.  I  further  give  and  devise  to  my  said 
eldest  son  G.  C.,  his  heirs,  and  assigns,  all  that 
messuage  or  tenement,  situated,  lying,  and  being 
in,  etc.,  together  with  all  my  other  freehold  estate 
whatsoever,  to  hold  to  him  the  said  G.  C.,  his 
heirs  and  assigns,  forever.  And  I  hereby  give  and 
bequeath  to  my  said  younger  sons,  J.  C.  and  F.  C, 
all  my  leasehold  estate,  of  and  in  all  those  mes- 
suages or  tenements,  with  the  appurtenances,  situ- 
ate, etc.,  equally  to  be  divided  between  them.  And 
lastly,  as  to  all  the  rest,  residue,  and  remainder 
of  my  personal  estate,  goods,  and  chattels,  of  what 
kind  and  nature  soever,  I  give  and  bequeath  the 
same  to  my  said  beloved  wife,  J.  C.  I  hereby  ap- 
point D.  L.  to  be  executor  of  this  my  last  will  and 
testament:  hereby  revoking  all  former  wills  by  me 
made.  In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  sub- 
scribed my  name,  and  affixed  my  seal,  the  

day   of  ,   in   the  year   of   our   Lord   one   thou- 
sand nine  hundred  and  one. 
WITNESSES, 

P.  N. 

L.  Y.  A.  C.  [L.  s.] 

O.W. 

Subscribed  by  the  testator  named  in  the  fore- 
going will,  in  the  presence  of  each  of  us,  and  at 
the  time  of  making  such  subscription  the  above 
instrument  was  declared  by  the  said  testator  to  be 
his  last  will  and  testament,  and  each  of  us,  at  the 
request  of  said  testator  and  in  his  presence  and 
in  the  presence  of  each  other,  sign  our  names  as 
witnesses  thereto,  at  the  end  of  the  will. 

P.  N.,  residing  at ,  in County. 

L.  Y.,  residing  at ,  in County. 

O.  W.,  residing  at ,  in County. 

CODICIL   TO   A   WILL 

WHEREAS,  I,  A.  C.,  of,  etc.,  have  made  my  last 
will  and  testament  in  writing,  bearing  date,  etc. 
[and  have  thereby,  etc.].  Now  I  do  by  this  my 
writing,  which  I  hereby  declare  to  be  a  codicil  to 
my  said  will,  to  be  taken  as  a  part  thereof  [will 
and  direct,  etc.],  give  and  bequeath  to  my  niece 
M.  S.,  one  gold  watch,  one  large  diamond  ring, 
and  one  silver  coffee-pot.  And  whereas,  in  and 
by  my  last  will  and  testament,  I  have  given  and 
bequeathed  to  my  daughter-in-law,  G.  H.,  the  sum 

of  ,   I   do  hereby  order  and   declare,   that  my 

will  is  that  only  the  sum  of be  paid  unto  her, 

in  full  of  the  said  legacy  I  have  as  aforesaid  given 
and  bequeathed  unto  her;  and  that  the  remaining 
part  of  the  said  legacy  be  given  and  paid  to  my 
nephew  E.  G.  And  lastly,  it  is  my  desire  that  this 
my  present  codicil  be*  annexed  to,  and  made  a  part 
of  my  last  will  and  testament,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand 

and  seal,  this  day  of  ,  etc. 

A.  C.     [L.  s.] 

The  above  instrument  was,  at  the  date  thereof, 
declared  to  us  by  the  testator,  A.  C.,  to  be  a  codicil 
to  be  annexed  to  his  last  will  and  testament;  and 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


785 


he  acknowledged,  to  each  of  us,  that  he  had  sub- 
scribed the  same;  and  we,  at  his  request,  sign  our 
names  hereto  as  attesting  witnesses. 

D.  F.,  residing  at ,  in County. 

G.  H.,  residing  at ,  in County. 

GENERAL   FORM,    DISPOSING  OF  BOTH 
REAL   AND    PERSONAL   ESTATE 

IN  the  name  of  God,  Amen.  I,  A.  B.,  of,  etc., 
being  in  good  bodily  health,  and  of  sound  and  dis- 
posing mind  and  memory,  calling  to  mind  the 
frailty  and  uncertainty  of  human  life,  and  being 
desirous  of  settling  my  worldly  affairs,  and  direct- 
ing how  the  estates  with  which  it  has  pleased  God 
to  bless  me,  shall  be  disposed  of  after  my  de- 
cease, while  I  have  strength  and  capacity  so  to  do, 
do  make  and  publish  this  my  last  will  and  testa- 
ment, hereby  revoking  and  making  null  and  void 
all  other  last  wills  and  testaments  by  me  hereto- 
fore made.  And,  first,  I  commend  my  immortal 
being  to  Him  who  gave  it,  and  my  body  to  the 
earth,  to  be  buried  with  little  expense  or  ostenta- 
tion, by  my  executors  hereinafter  named. 

And  as  to  my  worldly  estate,  and  all  the  prop- 
erty, real,  personal,  or  mixed,  of  which  I  shall  die 
seized  and  possessed,  or  to  which  I  shall  be  entitled 
at  the  time  of  my  decease,  I  devise,  bequeath,  and 
dispose  thereof  in  the  manner  following,  to  wit: 

Imprimis.  My  will  is,  that  all  my  just  debts  and 
funeral  charges  shall,  by  my  executors  hereinafter 
named,  be  paid  out  of  my  estate,  as  soon  after  my 
decease  as  shall  by  them  be  found  convenient. 

Item.  I  give,  devise,  and  bequeath  to  my  be- 
loved wife,  C.  B.,  all  my  household  furniture,  and 
my  library  in  my  mansion  or  dwelling-house,  my 
pair  of  horses,  coach,  and  chaise,  and  their  har- 
nesses; and  also  fifteen  thousand  dollars,  in 
money,  to  be  paid  to  her  by  my  executors  herein- 
after named,  within  six  months  after  my  decease: 
To  have  and  to  hold  the  same  to  her,  and  her  ex- 
ecutors, administrators,  and  assigns,  forever.  I 
also  give  to  her  the  use,  improvement,  and  income 
of  my  dwelling-house,  land,  and  its  appurtenances, 
situated  in  ,  my  warehouse,  land,  and  its  ap- 
purtenances, situated  in  ,  to  have  and  to  hold 

the  same  to  her   for  and  during  her  natural  life. 

Item.  I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  honored 
mother,  O.  B.,  two  thousand  dollars,  in  money,  to 
be  paid  to  her  by  my  executors  hereinafter  named, 
within  six  months  after  my  decease;  to  be  for  the 
sole  use  of  herself,  her  heirs,  executors,  adminis- 
trators, and  assigns. 

Item.     I   give,   devise,   and  bequeath  to   my  son, 

E.  B.,  the  reversion  or  remainder  of  my  dwelling 
or  mansion-house,  land,  and  its  appurtenances,  sit- 
uated in ,  and  all  profit,  income,  and  advantage 

that  may  result  therefrom,   from  and  after  the  de- 
cease of  my  beloved  wife,  C.   B. :    To  have  and  to 
hold   the    same   to    him,    the   said    E.    B.,    his    heirs 
and  assigns,  from  and  after  the  decease  of  my  said 
wife,  to  his  and  their  use  and  behoof  forever. 

Item.     I   give,    devise,    and   bequeath   to   my  son, 

F.  B.,    the    reversion    or    remainder    of    my    ware- 
house, land,  and  its  appurtenances,  situated  in  , 

and  all  the  profit,   income,  and  advantage  that  may 
result    therefrom,    from    and    after    the    decease    of 
my  beloved  wife,  C.   B. :    To  have  and  to  hold  the 
same  to  the  said  F.  B.,   his  heirs  and  assigns,  from 
and  after  the   decease   of  my  said  wife,   to   his   and 
their  use  and  behoof  forever. 

Item.  All  the  rest  and  residue  of  my  estate, 
real,  personal,  or  mixed,  of  which  I  shall  die 
seized  and  possessed,  or  to  which  I  shall  be  en- 
titled at  the  time  of  my  decease,  I  give,  devise, 
and  bequeath,  to  be  equally  divided  to  and  among 
my  said  sons,  E.  B.  and  F.  B.  And, 

Lastly.  I  do  nominate  and  appoint  my  said 
sons,  E.  B.  and  F.  B.,  to  be  the  executors  of  this 
my  last  will  and  testament. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I,  the  said  A.  B.,  have  to 
this  my  last  will  and  testament  subscribed  my 

name,  and  affixed  my  seal,  this  day  of  , 

in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  nine  hun- 
dred and  .  A.  B.  [L.  s.] 

This  will  must  be  attested  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  preceding  forms. 


DEVISE  FROM  A  HUSBAND  TO  HIS  WIFE, 
OF  AN  ESTATE  FOR  LIFE,  IN  LIEU  OF 
DOWER;  REMAINDER  TO  HIS  CHIL- 
DREN AS  TENANTS  IN  COMMON 

Item.  I  give  and  devise  unto  my  said  wife,  all 
that  my  said  messuage  or  tenement,  with  the  ap- 
purtenances, situate,  etc.,  with  the  lands  and  her- 
editaments thereunto  belonging,  and  the  rents, 
issues,  and  profits  thereof,  for  and  during  the 
term  of  her  natural  life;  and  from  and  after  the 
decease  of  my  said  wife,  I  give  and  bequeath  the 
said  messuage  or  tenement,  lands,  and  heredita- 
ments, unto  such  child  or  children,  as  I  shall  leave 
or  have  living  at  the  time  of  my  decease,  and  to 
their  heirs  and  assigns  forever,  as  tenants  in  com- 
mon, and  if  I  shall  have  no  such  child  or  children, 
etc.,  then  I  give  and  devise,  etc.,  which  said  legacy 
given  to  my  said  wife  as  aforesaid,  I  hereby  de- 
clare is  intended  to  be,  and  is  so  given  to  her,  in 
full  satisfaction  and  recompense  of,  and  for  her 
dower  and  thirds,  which  she  may,  or  can  in  any 
wise  claim  or  demand  out  of  my  estate. 

Item.  I  give  and  devise  all  the  rest  and  residue 
of  my  estate,  both  real  and  personal  (not  herein- 
before by  me  given  and  bequeathed),  unto,  etc. 


MORTGAGE  OF  LANDS  BY  HUSBAND  AND 
WIFE 

THIS  Indenture,  made  the  day  of  ,  in 

the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  nine  hundred 

and ,  between  F.  F.,  of  the  city  of  New  York, 

merchant,  and  J.,  his  wife,  of  the  first  part,  and 
L.  M.,  of  said  city,  merchant,  of  the  second  part, 
witnesseth:  That  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part, 
for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  ,  law- 
ful money  of  the  United  States,  to  them  in  hand 
paid,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged, 
have  granted,  bargained,  sold,  aliened,  released, 
conveyed,  and  confirmed,  and  by  these  presents  do 
grant,  bargain,  sell,  alien,  release,  convey,  and 
confirm,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  p_art, 
and  to  his  assigns  forever,  all  that  certain  lot,  etc. 
[here  follows  description  as  to  boundaries,  length 
of  lines,  etc.] ;  together  with  all  and  singular  the 
hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereunto  belong- 
ing, or  in  any  wise  appertaining,  and  the  reversion 
and  reversions,  remainder  and  remainders,  rents, 
issues,  and  profits  thereof;  and  also  all  the  estate, 
right,  title,  interest,  dower,  possession,  claim,  and 
demand  whatsoever,  of  the  said  parties  of  the  first 
part,  of,  in,  and  to  the  same,  and  every  part  there- 
of, with  the  appurtenances:  To  have  and  to  hold 
the  said  hereby  granted  premises,  with  the  appur- 
tenances, unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  his  and  their  only  proper 
use,  benefit,  and  behoof  forever.  Provided  always, 
and  these  presents  are  upon  this  condition,  that 
if  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part,  their  heirs,  ex- 
ecutors, administrators,  or  assigns,  shall  pay  unto 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  ad- 
ministrators, or  assigns,  the  sum  of  ,  on  or 

before  the  day  of  ,  which  will  be  in  the 

year  ,  with  interest,  according  to  the  condition 

of  a  bond  of  the  said  F.  F.,  to  the  said  L.  M., 
bearing  even  date  herewith,  then  these  presents 
shall  become  void,  and  the  estate  hereby  granted 
shall  cease  and  utterly  determine.  But  if  default 
shall  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  said  sum  of 
money,  or  the  interest,  or  of  any  part  thereof,  at 
the  time  hereinbefore  specified  for  the  payment 
thereof,  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part,  in  such 
case,  do  hereby  authorize  and  fully  empower  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  admin- 
istrators, and  assigns,  to  sell  the  said  hereby 
granted  premises,  at  public  auction,  and  convey 
the  same  to  the  purchaser,  in  fee  simple,  agree- 
ably to  the  act  in  such  case  made  and  provided, 
and  out  of  the  moneys  arising  from  such  sale,  to 
retain  the  principal  and  interest  which  shall  then 
be  due  on  the  said  bond,  together  with  all  costs 
and  charges,  and  pay  the  overplus  (if  any)  to  the 
said  F.  F.,  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, administrators,  or  assigns. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  parties  to  these  presents 


786 


OUTLINES    OF   LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


have   hereunto   set   their   hands  and  seals,   the   day 

and  year  first  above  written. 

Seated  and  deliv- 1   JULIA  FOREST.  [u  s.] 

SresUce   oCf       f  FRANCIS  FOREST,     [us.} 

JOHN  SMITH. 

A  MORTGAGE  GIVEN  FOR  PART  OF  THE 
PURCHASE  MONEY  OF  LAND 

THIS  Indenture,  made  the  day  of  ,  in 

the  year  of  our  Lord  ,  between  A.  B.,  of  the 

city  of  New  York,  merchant,  of  the  first  part,  and 
R.  T.,  of  the  said  city,  esquire,  of  the  second  part, 
u-itnesseth :  That  the  said  party  of  the  first  part, 
for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  three  thou- 
sand dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United  States, 
to  him  in  hand  paid,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby 
acknowledged,  hath  granted,  bargained,  sold, 
aliened,  released,  conveyed,  and  confirmed,  and  by 
these  presents  doth  grant,  bargain,  sell,  alien,  re- 
lease, convey,  and  confirm,  unto  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  and  to  his  heirs  and  assigns  for- 
ever, all  those  three  certain  lots,  pieces,  and  parcels 
of  land,  situate,  lying,  and  being,  etc.  [here  follows 
precise  descriptions  as  to  boundaries,  dimensions, 
etc.];  the  said  three  lots  of  land  being  part  of  the 
premises  this  day  conveyed  to  the  said  A.  B.  by 
the  said  R.  T.  and  his  wife,  and  these  presents  are 
given  to  secure  the  payment  of  part  of  the  con- 
sideration money  of  the  said  premises;  together 
with  all  and  singular  the  hereditaments  and  ap- 
purtenances thereunto  belonging,  or  in  any  wise 
appertaining,  and  the  reversion  and  reversions,  re- 
mainder and  remainders,  rents,  issues,  and  profits 
thereof,  and  also,  all  the  estate,  right,  title,  inter- 
est, dower,  possession,  claim,  and  demand  whatso- 
ever, of  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  of,  in,  and 
to  these  same,  and  every  part  thereof,  with  the  ap- 
purtenances. To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  hereby 
granted  premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  as- 
signs, to  his  and  their  only  proper  use,  benefit, 
and  behoof  forever.  Provided  always,  and  these 
presents  are  upon  this  condition,  that  if  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  executors,  admin- 
istrators, and  assigns,  shall  pay  unto  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators, 
or  assigns,  the  sum  of  three  thousand  dollars,  law- 
ful money  aforesaid,  on  or  before  the. day  of 

next,   with   interest  thereon  at  the  rate  of  six 

per  cent  per  annum,  payable  half  yearly,  on  the 
first  days  of  May  and  November  in  each  year,  un- 
til the  whole  principal  sum  shall  be  fully  paid  and 
satisfied,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  bond 
of  the  said  A.  B.  to  the  said  R.  T.,  bearing  even 
date  herewith,  then  these  presents,  and  the  estate 
hereby  granted,  shall  cease  and  be  void.  And  it 
default  be  made^  in  the  payment  of  the  said  sum  of 
money,  or  the  interest,  or  of  any  part  thereof,  at 
the  time  hereinbefore  specified  for  the  payment 
thereof,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  in  each  case 
does  hereby  authorize  and  fully  empower  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators, and  assigns,  to  sell  the  said  hereby  granted 
premises  at  public  auction,  and  convey  the  same  to 
the  purchaser,  in  fee  simple,  according  to  law,  and 
out  of  the  moneys  arising  from  such  sale  to  re- 
tain the  principal  and  interest  which  shall  then  be 
due  on  the  said  bond,  together  with  all  the  costs 
and  charges,  and  the  overplus  (if  any)  pay  to  the 
said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  executors, 
administrators,  and  assigns.  And  it  is  also  agreed, 
by  and  between  the  parties  to  these  presents,  that 
until  the  payment  of  the  said  principal  and  fnterest 
moneys  in  full,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  party  of 
the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  or 
assigns,  to  keep  the  buildings  erected,  or  to  b« 
erected,  upon  the  lands  above  conveyed,  insured 
apainst  loss  or  damage  by  fire,  and  these  presents 
shall  operate  to  secure  the  repayment  of  the  pre- 
mium or  premiums  paid  for  effecting  or  continuing 
such  insurance. 

In   witness,    etc.    [as   in   Mortgage  of  Lands   by 
Husband  and  Wife}. 


MORTGAGE  ON  GOODS  OR  CHATTELS 

To  all  to  whom  these  presents  shall  come:  Know 

ye,  that  I,  A.  B.,  of  ,  party  of  the  first  part, 

for  securing  the  payment  of  the  money  hereinafter 
mentioned,  and  hi  consideration  of  the  sum  of  one 

dollar  to  me  duly  paid  by  C  D.  of  ,  of  the 

second  part,  at  or  before  the  ensealing  and  deliv- 
ery  of  these  presents,  the  receipt  whereof  is  here- 
by acknowledged,  having  bargained  and  sold,  and 
by  these  presents  do  grant,  bargain,  and  sell  unto 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  two  bay  horses, 
and  all  other  goods  and  chattels  mentioned  in  the 
schedule  hereunto  annexed,  and  now  in  the  posses- 
sion of  ;  to  have  and  to  bold  all  and  singular 

the  goods  and  chattels  above  bargained  and  sold, 
or  intended  so  to  be,  unto  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  as- 
signs, forever.  And  I,  the  said  party  of  the  first 
part,  for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors,  and  adminis- 
trators, all  and  singular,  the  said  goods  and  chat- 
tels above  bargained  and  sold  unto  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  his  heirs,  executors,  adminis- 
trators, and  assigns,  against  me,  the  said  party  of 
the  first  part,  and  against  all  and  every  person  or 
persons  whomsoever,  shall  and  will  warrant  and 
forever  defend;  upon  condition,  that  if  I,  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  shall  and  do  well  and  truly 
pay  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his 
executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  the  full  sum 
of  dollars,  on  the  day  of  next,  ac- 
cording to  the  tenor  and  effect  of  a  certain  promis- 
sory note,  bearing  even  date  herewith,  made  by 
me  in  favor  of  the  said  C.  D.,  then  these  presents 
shall  be  void.  And  I,  the  said  party  of  the  first 
part,  for  myself,  my  executors,  administrators,  and 
assigns,  do  covenant  and  agree,  to  and  with  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  ad- 
ministrators, and  assigns,  that  in  case  default  shall 
be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  said  sum  above 
mentioned,  then  it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  for, 
and  I,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  do  hereby 
authorize  and  empower  the  sai_d  party  of  the  sec- 
ond part,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  as- 
signs, with  the  aid  and  assistance  of  any  person 
or  persons,  to  enter  my  dwelling-house,  store,  and 
other  premises,  and  such  other  place  or  places  as 
the  said  goods  or  chattels  are,  or  may  be  placed, 
and  take  and  carry  away  the  said  goods  and  chat- 
tels, and  to  sell  and  dispose  of  the  same  for  the 
best_  price  they  can  obtain;  and  out  of  the  money 
arising  therefrom,  to  retain  and  pay  the  said  sum 
above  mentioned,  and  all  charges  touching  the 
same,  rendering  the  overplus  (if  any)  unto  me,  or 
to  my  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns.  And 
until  default  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  said 
sum  of  money,  I  am  to  remain  and  continue  in  the 
quiet  and  peaceable  possession  of  the  said  goods 
and  chattels,  and  the  full  and  free  enjoyment  of 
the  same. 

In  witness,  etc.  [as  in  Mortgage  of  Lands  by 
Husband  and  Wife}. 

POWER  OF  ATTORNEY  TO  COLLECT 
DEBTS 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.   B., 

of    ,    have    constituted,    made,    and    appointed, 

and  by  these  presents  do  constitute,  make,  and  ap- 
point T.  U.,  of  ,  to  be  my  true  and  lawful 

attorney,  for  me  and  in  my  name  and  stead,  and 
to  my  use,  to  ask,  demand,  sue  for,  levy,  recover, 
and  receive,  all  such  sum  and  sums  of  money, 
debts,  rents,  goods,  wares,  does,  accounts,  ana 
other  demands  whatsoever,  which  are  or  shall  be 
due,  owing,  payable,  and  belonging  to  me,  or  de- 
tained from  me,  in  any  manner  of  ways  or  means 
whatsoever,  by  I.  K.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  ad- 
ministrators, or  any  of  them,  giving  and  granting 
unto  my  said  attorney,  by  these  presents,  my  full 
and  whole  power,  strength,  and  authority,  in  and 
about  the  premises,  to  have,  sue,  and  take  all  law- 
ful ways  and  means,  in  my  name,  for  the  recovery 
thereof;  and  upon  the  receipt  of  any  such  debts, 
dues,  or  sums  of  money  aforesaid,  acquittances,  or 
other  sufficient  discharges,  for  me  and  in  my  name 
to  make,  seal,  and  deliver;  and  generally  all  and 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


every  other  act  and  acts,  thing  and  things,  device 
and  devices,  in  the  law  whatsoever,  needful  and 
necessary  to  be  done  in  and  about  the  premif-js, 
for  me  and  in  my  name  to  do,  execute,  and  per- 
form, as  largely  and  amply,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  as  I  might  or  could  do,  if  personally 
present,  or  as  the  matter  required  more  special 
authority  than  is  herein  given;  and  attorneys,  one 
or  more  under  him,  for  the  purpose  aforesaid,  to 
make  and  constitute,  and  again  at  pleasure  to  re- 
voke, ratifying,  allowing,  and  holding,  for  firm 
and  effectual,  all  and  whatsoever  my  said  attorney 
shall  lawfully  do  in  and  about  the  premises,  by 
virtue  hereof. 

In    witness,    etc.    las  in   Power   of   Attorney    to 
Sell  and  Lease  Lands}. 

POWER    TO    RECEIVE    A    LEGACY 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  whereas 

A.  B.,  late  of  ,  deceased,  by  his  last  will  and 

testament  did  give  and  bequeath  unto  me,  C.  D., 

of  ,  a  legacy  of  ,  to  be  paid  unto  me  on 

,  of  which  said  will  E.  F.,  of  ,  and  C.  H., 

of  ,  are  joint  executors  as  in  and  by  the  said 

will  may  appear:  now  know  ye,  that  I,  the  said 
C.  D.,  have  made,  ordained,  constituted,  and  ap- 
pointed T.  K.,  of  ,  my  true  and  lawful  at- 
torney, for  me  and  in  my  name,  and  for  my  use 
and  benefit,  to  ask,  demand,  and  receive,  of  and 
from  the  said  E.  F.  and  G.  H.,  the  legacy  given 
and  bequeathed  unto  me,  the  said  C.  D.,  by  the 
said  will  of  the  said  A.  B.,  as  aforesaid;  and  upon 
receipt  thereof  by,  or  payment  thereof  to,  my  said 
attorney,  a  general  release  or  discharge  for  the 
same  to  make,  execute,  and  deliver;  hereby  ratify- 
ing, confirming,  and  allowing  whatsoever  my  said 
attorney  shall  lawfully  do  in  the  premises. 

In  witness,  etc. 

STOCK    POWER 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,   that  I,  A.   B., 
of  .    do    hereby   make,   constitute,    and   appoint 

C.  D.,   of  ,   my  true  and  lawful   attorney,   for 

me  and  in  my   name   to   sell,   transfer,   and   assign 

shares  of  capital  stock,   standing  in  my  name 

on  the  books  of  the  Merchants'    Bank   in   the  city 

of  ,   with  power  also  an  attorney  or  attorneys 

under  him  for  that  purpose  to  make  and  substitute, 
with  like  power,  and  to  do  all  lawful  acts  requisite 
for    effecting    the    premises;    hereby    ratifying    and 
confirming  all  that  my  said  attorney  or  his  substi- 
tute   or    substitutes    shall    do    therein   by   virtue   of 
these    presents. 

In   witness,   etc. 

TRANSFER   OF    STOCK 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,  that_  I,  C.  D., 

of  ,  for  value  received,  have  bargained,  sold, 

assigned,  and  transferred,  and  by  these  presents  do 

bargain,  sell,  assign,  and  transfer  unto  E.  F.,  

shares  of  capital  stock,  standing  in  my  name  on 
the  books  of  the  Merchants'  Bank  in  the  city  of 

• ,  and  do  hereby  constitute  and  appoint  A.  B., 

of  ,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  irrevocable 

for  me  and  in  my  name  and  stead,  but  to  his  use, 
to  sell,  assign,  transfer,  and  set  over  all  or  any 
part  of  the  said  stock,  and  for  that  purpose  to 
make  and  execute  all  necessary  acts  of  assign- 
ment and  transfer,  and  one  or  more  persons  to 
substitute  with  like  full  power;  hereby  ratifying 
and  confirming  all  that  my  said  attorney,  or  his 
substitute  or  substitutes,  shall  lawfully  do  by 
virtue  hereof. 

In  witness,  etc. 

POWER   TO   RECEIVE    DIVIDEND 

KNOW  all  men  by_  these  presents,   that  I,  A.   B., 
of  ,    do   authorize,    constitute,    and   appoint   C. 

D.  to   receive   from  the  cashier  of  the   Merchants' 
Bank  of  ,  the  dividend  now  due  to  me  on  all 


stock   standing   to  my   name    on   the   books   of   the 
said    company,    and    receipt    for    the    same;    hereby 
ratifying  and  confirming  all  that  may   lawfully  be 
done  in  the  premises  by  virtue  hereof. 
In  witness,  etc. 

GENERAL  RELEASE  OF  ALL  DEMANDS 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B., 
of,  etc.,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of 

,    to   me   paid   by    C.    D.,    of,    etc.    (the   receipt 

whereof  I  do  hereby  acknowledge),  have  remised, 
released,  and  forever  discharged,  and  I  do  hereby, 
for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  and 
assigns,  remise,  release,  and  forever  discharge  the 
said  C.  D.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  administra- 
tors, of  and  from  all  debts,  demands,  actions,  and 
causes  of  action,  which  I  now  have,  in  law  or 
equity,  or  which  may  result  from  the  existing  state 
of  things,  from  any  and  all  contracts,  liabilities, 
doings,  and  omissions,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world  to  this  day. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my 
hand  and  seal,  this  sixteenth  day  of  May,  nineteen 
hundred  and  one. 

JOHN  SMITH.     [L.S.] 

AGREEMENT  FOR  A  LEASE 

THIS  agreement,   made  the  day  of  ,  in 

the  year  nineteen  hundred  and  one,  between  A.  B. 

of  ,  and  C.  D.  of  said  city,  merchant,  witness- 

eth,  That  A.  B.  agrees,  by  indenture,  to  be  exe- 
cuted on  or  before  the  day  of  next,  to 

demise  and  let  to  the  said  C.  D.  a  certain  house 
and  lot  in  said  city,  now  or  late  in  the  occupation 

of  E.  F.,  known  as  No.  — ,  in  street,  to  hold 

to    the   said    C.    D.,    his    executors,    administrators, 

and  assigns,   from  the  day  of  ,  aforesaid, 

for  and  during  the  term  of  three  years,  at  or  un- 
der the  clear  yearly  rent  of  dollars,  payable 

quarterly,  clear  of  all  taxes  and  deductions  except 
the  ground  rent.  In  which  lease  there  shall  be 
contained  covenants  on  the  part  of  the  said  C.  D., 
his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  to  pay 
the  rent  (except  in  case  the  premises  are  destroyed 
by  fire,  the  rent  is  to  cease  until  they  are  rebuilt  by 
the  said  A.  B.),  and  to  pay  all  taxes  and  assess- 
ments (except  the  ground  rent) ;  to  repair  the 
premises  (except  damages  by  fire) ;  not  to  carry  on 
any  offensive  business  on  the  same  (except  by  writ- 
ten permission  of  the  said  A.  B.) ;  to  deliver  the 
same  up  at  the  end  of  the  term,  in  good  repair 
(except  damages  by  fire,  aforesaid) ;  with  all  other 
usual  and  reasonable  covenants,  and  a  proviso  for 
the  re-entry  of  the  said  C.  D.,  his  heirs  and  as- 
signs, in  case  of  the  non-payment  of  the  rent  for 
the  space  of  fifteen  days  after  either  of  the  said 
rent-days,  or  the  non-performance  of  any  of  the 
covenants.  And  there  shall  also  be  contained  cove- 
nants on  the  part  of  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  for  quiet  enjoyment;  to  renew  said  lease, 
at  the  expiration  of  said  term,  for  a  further  pe- 
riod of  twenty-one  years  at  the  same  rent,  on  the 
said  C.  D.,  his  executors,  administrators,  or  as- 
signs, paying  the  said  A.  B.,  his  executors,  admin- 
istrators, or  assigns,  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dol- 
lars, as  a  premium  for  such  renewal;  and  that  in 
case  of  accidental  fire,  at  any  time  during  the 
term,  the  said  A.  B.  will  forthwith  proceed  to  put 
the  premises  in  as  good  repair  as  before  such  fire, 
the  rent  in  the  meantime  to  cease.  And  the  said 
C.  D.  hereby  agrees  to  accept  such  lease  on  the 
terms  aforesaid.  And  it  is  mutually  agreed,  that 
the  cost  of  this  agreement,  and  of  making  and 
recording  said  lease,  and  a  counterpart  thereof,, 
shall  be  borne  by  the  said  parties  equally: 

As  witness  our  hands  and  seals,  the  day  and 
year  first  above  written. 

In  presence  of    )  C.  D.     [t,.  s.] 

J.  S.  f  A.  B.     [i,.  s.] 

LANDLORD'S    AGREEMENT    OF    LEASE 

THIS  is  to  certify,  that  I  have,  this  day  of 

,  1901,  let  and  rented  unto  Mr.  C.  D.  my  house 

and  lot,    known  as   No.  — ,   in  street,   in   the 


788 


OUTLINES   OF    LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


city  of  ,  with  the  appurtenances,  and  the  sole 

and  uninterrupted  use  and  occupation  thereof,   for 

one  year,  to  commence  the  day  of  next, 

at  the  yearly  rent  of  dollars,  payable  quar- 
terly, on  the  usual  quarter-days;  rent  to  cease  in 
case  the  premises  are  destroyed  by  fire. 

A.  B. 

TENANT'S  AGREEMENT 

THIS  is  to  certify,  that  I  have  hired  and  taken 
from  Mr.  A.  B.  his  house  and  lot,  known  as  No. 

— ,  in  street,  in  the  city  of ,  with  the 

appurtenances,  for  the  term  of  one  year,  to  com- 
mence the  first  day  of  next,  at  the  yearly 

rent  of dollars,  payable  quarterly  on  the  usual 

quarter-days.  And  I  do  hereby  promise  to  make 
punctual  payment  of  the  rent  in  manner  aforesaid, 
except  in  case  the  premises  become  untenantable 
from  fire  or  any  other  cause,  when  the  rent  is  to 
cease;  and  do  further  promise  to  quit  and  sur- 
render the  premises,  at  tne  expiration  of  the  term, 
in  as  good  state  and  condition  as  reasonable  use 
and  wear  thereof  will  permit,  damages  by  the  ele- 
ments excepted. 

Given  under  my  hand  and 'seal,  the  day  of 

,  1901. 

In  presence  of    1 


J.  S. 


C.  D.     [L.  s.] 


SECURITY  FOR   RENT 


IN  consideration  of  the  letting  of  the  premises 
above  described,  and  for  the  sum  of  one  dollar,  I 
do  hereby  become  surety  for  the  punctual  payment 
of  the  rent,  and  performance  of  the  covenants  in 
the  above  written  agreement  mentioned,  to  be  paid 
and  performed  by  C.  D.,  as  therein  specified  and 
expected;  and  if  any  default  shall  be  made  therein 
I  do  hereby  promise  and  agree  to  pay  unto  Mr. 
A.  B.  such  sum  or  sums  of  money  as  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  make  up  such  deficiency,  and  fully  satisfy 
the  conditions  of  the  said  agreement,  without  re- 
quiring any  notice  of  non-payment  or  proof  of  de- 
mand being  made. 

Given,  etc.  [as  in  Tenant's  Agreement], 

TENANT'S  AGREEMENT  FOR  A  HOUSE, 

EMBRACING  A  MORTGAGE  OF  HIS 

CHATTELS 

THIS  is  to  certify,  that  I,  A.  B.,  have  hired  and 
taken  from  C.  D.,  the  premises  known  as  No.  — , 

in  street,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  for  the 

term  of  one  year  from  the  first  day  of  May  next, 
at  the  yearly  rent  of  six  hundred  dollars,  payable 
quarterly.  And  I  hereby  promise  to  make  punctual 
payment  of  the  rent  in  manner  aforesaid,  and  quit 
and  surrender  the  premises  at  the  expiration  of  said 
term,  in  as  good  state  and  condition  as  reasonable 
use  and  wear  thereof  will  permit,  damages  by  the 
elements  excepted;  and  engage  not  to  let  or  under- 
let the  whole  or  any  part  of  the  said  premises,  or 
occupy  the  same  for  any  business  deemed  extra- 
hazardous  on  account  of  fire,  without  the  written 
consent  of  the  landlord,  under  the  penalty  of  for- 
feiture and  damages.  And  I  do  hereby  mortgage 
and  pledge  all  the  personal  property,  of  what  kind 
soever,  which  I  shall  at  any  time  have  on  said 
premises,  and  whether  exempt  by  law  from  distress 
for  rent  or  sale  under  execution,  or  not,  to  the 
faithful  performance  of  these  covenants,  hereby 
authorizing  the  said  C.  D.,  or  his  assigns,  to  dis- 
train upon  and  sell  the  same,  in  case  of  any  fail- 
ure on  my  part  to  perform  the  said  covenants,  or 
any  or  either  of  them. 

Given,  etc. 

LANDLORD'S   AGREEMENT 

THIS  fa  to  certify,  that  I,  C.  D.,  have  let  and 
rented  unto  A.  B.  the  premises  known  as  No.  — , 

in   street,    in  the  city  of   New   York,    for  the 

term  of  one  year  from  the  first  day  of  May  next, 
at  the  yearly  rent  of  six  hundred  dollars,  payable 


quarterly.  The  premises  are  not  to  be  used  or  oc- 
cupied tor  any  business  deemed  extra-hazardous  on 
account  of  fire,  nor  shall  the  same,  or  any  part 
thereof,  be  let  or  underlet,  except  with  the  consent 
of  the  landlord  in  writing,  under  the  penalty  of 
forfeiture  and  damages. 
Given,  etc. 

AGREEMENT  FOR  PART  OF  A  HOUSE 

MEMORANDUM  of  an  agreement  entered  into,  the 

day  of  ,  1901,  by  and  between  A.  B.,  of 

— — ,  and  C.  D.,  of,  etc.,  whereby  the  said  A.  B. 
agrees  to  let,  and  the  said  C.  D.  agrees  to  take, 
the  rooms,  or  apartments  following,  that  is  to  say: 
an  entire  first  floor  and  one  room  in  the  attic 
story  or  garret,  and  a  back  kitchen  and  cellar  op- 
posite, with  the  use  of  the  yard  for  drying  linen, 
or  beating  carpets  or  clothes,  being  part  of  a 
house  and  premises  in  which  the  said  A.  B.  now 

resides,  situate  and  being  in  No.  — ,  in  street. 

In  the  city  of  ,  to  have  and  to  hold  the  said 

rooms  and  apartments,  and  the  use  of  the  said 
yard  as  aforesaid,  for  and  during  the  term  of  half 

a  year,  to  commence  from  the  day  of  » 

instant,  at  and  for  the  yearly  rei~j  of  dollars, 

lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  payable  month- 
ly, by  even  and  equal  portions,  the  first  payment 

to  be  made  on  the  day  of  next  ensuing 

the  date  thereof;  and  it  is  further  agreed  that,  at 
the  expiration  of  the  said  term  of  half  a  year, 
the  said  C.  D.  may  hold,  occupy,  and  enjoy  the 
said  rooms  or  apartments,  and  have  the  use  of  the 
said  yard  as  aforesaid,  from  month  to  month,  for 
so  long  a  time  as  the  said  C.  D.  and  A.  B.  may 
and  shall  agree,  at  the  rent  above  specified;  and 
that  each  party  be  at  liberty  to  quit  possession  on 
giving  the  other  a  month's  notice  in  writing.  And 
it  is  also  further  agreed,  that  when  the  said  C.  D. 
shall  quit  the  premises,  he  shall  leave  them  in  as 
good  condition  and  repair  as  they  shall  be  in  on 
his  taking  possession  thereof,  reasonable  wear  ex- 
cepted. 

Witness,  etc. 

NOTICE  TO  QUIT,  BY  LANDLORD 

PLEASE  to  take  notice  that  you  are  hereby  re- 
quired to  surrender  and  deliver  up  possession  of 

the  house  and  lot  known  as  No.  —  in  street, 

in  the  city  of  ,    which   you   now  hold   of  me; 

and  to  remove  therefrom   on  the  first  day  of  

next,  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  the  statute  re- 
lating to  the  rights  and  duties  of  landlord  and 
tenant. 

Dated  this  day  of  ,   1901. 

To  Mr.  C.  D.  A.  B.,  Landlord. 

NOTICE  TO   QUIT,    BY  TENANT 

PLEASE  to  take  notice,  that  on  the  first  day  of 
May  next  I  shall  quit  possession  and  remove  from 
the  premises  I  now  occupy,  known  as  house  and 
lot  No.  — ,  in  street,  in  the  city  of . 

Dated  this  day  of  ,    1901. 

To  Mr.  A.  B.  Yours,  etc.,  C.  D.. 

THE   LIKE  WHERE  THE   COMMENCEMENT 
OF  THE  TENANCY   IS   UNCERTAIN 

MR.  C.  D. — I  hereby  give  you  notice  to  quit,  and 
deliver  up  o*n  the  day  of  next  the  pos- 
session of  the  messuage  or  dwelling  house  [or, 
rooms  and  apartments,  or  farm  lands  and  prem- 
ises], with  the  appurtenances,  which  you  now  hold 

of  me,  situate  _in  the  of  ,  in  the  county 

of  ,  provided  your  tenancy  originally  com- 
menced at  that  time  of  the  year;  or  otherwise,  that 
you  quft  and  deliver  up  the  possession  of  the  said 
messuage,  etc.,  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  your 
tenancy,  which  shall  expire  next  after  the  end  of 
one  half-year  from  the  time  of  your  being  served 
with  this  notice. 

Dated,  etc.  [as  in  Notice  to  Quit,  by  Landlord]. 


OUTLINES   OF    LAW   ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


789 


NOTICE  TO  THE   TENANT   EITHER  TO 

QUIT   THE   PREMISES   OR  TO 

PAY    DOUBLE   VALUE 

SIR:  I  hereby  give  you  notice  to  quit,  and  yield 

up,  on  the  day  of next,  possession  of  the 

messuage,  lands,  tenements,  and  hereditaments, 

which  you  now  hold  of  me,  situate  at  in  the 

parish  of  ,  and  county  of  ,  in  failure 

whereof  I  shall  require  and  insist  upon  double  the 
value  of  the  said  premises,  according  to  the  statute 
in  such  case  made  and  provided. 

Dated,  etc.  [as  in  Notice  to  Quit,  by  Landlord}. 

OATH  OF  HOLDING  OVER 

CITY  OF ,  ss. 

A.  B.,  of  said  city,  merchant,  being  duly  sworn, 

doth  depose  and  say,  that  on  or  about  the  day 

of  ,   the  deponent  rented  unto  C.   D.,   of  said 

city,   printer,  the  house  and  lot  known  as  No.  — , 

in  street,    in  said  city,    for   the   term   of   one 

year  from  the  first  day  of  May  then  next,  which 
said  term  has  expired,  and  that  the  said  C.  D.  or 
his  assigns  hold  over  and  continue  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  said  premises,  without  the  permission 
of  this  deponent. 

Sworn  before  me,  this  day  of  . 

A.  B. 
O.  P.,  Commissioner  of  Deeds. 

ASSIGNMENT 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B., 
having  become  insolvent,  did,  in  conjunction  with 
so  many  of  my  creditors,  residing  within  the 
United  States,  whose  debts,  in  good  faith,  amount 
to  two-thirds  of  all  the  debts  owing  by  me  to  cred- 
itors residing  within  the  United  States,  present  a 
petition  to  the  Hon.  J.  P.  H.,  County  Judge  of 

county  [or,  as  the  case  may  be],  praying  for 

relief,  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  the  statute  au- 
thorizing an  insolvent  debtor  to  be  discharged  from 
his  debts;  whereupon  the  said  Judge  ordered  no- 
tice to  be  given  to  all  my  creditors  to  show  cause, 
if  any  they  had,  before  him,  at  a  certain  day  and 
place,  why  the  prayer  of  the  petitioner  should  not 
be  granted;  which  notice  was  duly  published,  and 
no  good  cause  appearing  to  the  contrary,  he  being 
satisfied  that  the  proceedings  were  just  and  fair, 
and  that  I  had  in  all  things  conformed  to  those 
matters  required  by  the  said  statute,  directed  an 
assignment  of  all  my  estate  to  be  made  by  me  for 
the  benefit  of  all  my  creditors.  Now,  therefore, 
know  ye,  that,  in  conformity  to  the  said  direction, 
I  have  granted,  released,  assigned,  and  set  over, 
and  by  these  presents,  do  grant,  release,  assign, 
and  set  over,  unto  J.  K.,  of  etc.,  and  L.  M.,  of, 
etc.,  assignees  nominated  to  receive  the  same,  all 
my  estate,  real  and  personal,  both  in  law  and 
equity,  in  possession,  reversion,  or  remainder,  and 
all  books,  vouchers,  and  securities  relating  thereto, 
to  hold  the  same  unto  the  said  assignees,  to  and 
for  the  use  of  all  my  creditors. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand 

and   seal   this  day   of  ,    in  the   year   one 

thousand  nine  hundred  and  . 

Sealed  and  delivered  j 

in  presence  of      >  A.  B.     [L.  s.] 

G.  H.  ) 

NOTE  WITH   SURETY 

$100.  NEW  YORK,  April  12,  1901. 

Six  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  John 
Thompson,  or  order,  one  hundred  dollars,  value 
received.  JOHN  BROWN. 

GEO.  SMITH,   Surety. 

AN   UNNEGOTIABLE   NOTE 

$1000.  NEW  YORK,  April  10,   1901. 

THREE  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  John 
Thompson  one  thousand  dollars,  for  value  received. 
JAMES  FOWLER. 


A  NEGOTIABLE  NOTE 

$1000.  NEW  YORK,  April  19,  1901. 

THREE  months  after  date,  1  promise  to  pay  John 
Thompson,  or  order,  one  thousand  dollars,  for 
value  received.  JAMES  FOWLER. 

A  NOTE,   OR  DUE   BILL,   PAYABLE   ON 
DEMAND 

$100.  CINCINNATI,  O.,  April  14,  1901. 

ON   demand  I  promise   to  pay  Charles  Jones,  or 
order,   one   hundred  dollars,   for  value  received. 
HENRY  WARING,   120  State  Street. 

A    NOTE    BEARING    INTEREST 

fioo.  NEW  ORLEANS,  LA.,  May  i,  1901. 

Six  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  George 
Robinson,  or  order,  one  hundred  dollars,  with  in- 
terest, for  value  received. 

PHILIP  REDMOND. 

A  NOTE  PAYABLE  BY  INSTALMENTS 

$3000.  PHILADELPHIA,  PA.,  April  20,  1901. 

FOR  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Smith  & 
Brown,  or  order,  three  thousand  dollars,  in  the 
manner  following,  viz.:  one  thousand  dollars  in 
one  year,  one  thousand  dollars  in  two  years,  and 
one  thousand  dollars  in  three  years,  with  interest 
on  all  said  sums,  payable  semi-annually,  without 
defalcation  or  discount. 

HUGH  FAULKNER,  120  Chestnut  Street. 

SEALED  NOTE 

$5000.  CLEVELAND,  O.,  May  8,   1901. 

FOR  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Smith  ft 
Edgar,  or  order,  five  thousand  dollars,  in  three 
years  from  the  date  hereof,  with  interest,  payable 
semi  -  annually,  without  defalcation  or  discount. 
And  in  case  of  default  of  my  payment  of  the  in- 
terest or  principal  aforesaid  with  punctuality,  I 
hereby  empower  any  attorney-at-law,  to  be  ap- 
pointed by_  said  Smith  &  Edgar,  or  their  assigns, 
to  appear  in  any  court  which  said  Smith  &  Edgar, 
or  their  assigns,  may  select,  and  commence  and 
prosecute  a  suit  against  me  on  said  note,  to  con- 
fess judgment  for  all  and  every  part  of  the  inter- 
est or  principal  on  said  note,  in  the  payment  of 
which  I  may  be  delinquent. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  this  8th  day  of 
May,  A.  D.  1901. 

JOHN  DREW.     [SEAL.] 

Attest,  GEORGE  WHITE. 

DUE    BILL,    PAYABLE   IN    GOODS 

DUE  John  Jones,  or  bearer,  fifty  dollars  in  mer- 
chandise, for  value  received,  payable  on  demand. 

THOMAS  BOLAND. 
NEW  YORK,  May  3,   1901. 

ORDER  FOR  GOODS 

MR.  J.  TONGUE.  NEW  YORK,  April  16,   1901. 

PLEASE  pay  John  Jones,  or  order,  one  hundred 
dollars  in  merchandise,  and  charge  the  same  to 
account  of  HENRY  WALFORD. 


BILL  OF  EXCHANGE 

$1000.  HARTFORD,  CONN.,  April  20,   1901. 

THIRTY  days  after  sight,  pay  to  the  order  of 
Messrs.  John  Smith  &  Co.  one  thousand  dollars, 
and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 

RICHARD  JAY. 
To  Messrs.  WILSON  &  RIVERS,  New  York. 


790 


OUTLINES    OF   LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


A   SET   OF   BILLS   OF   EXCHANGE 

NEW  YORK,  April  26,   1901. 
No.  1 88.— Ex.  £300. 

THREE  days  after  sight  of  this,  my  first  of  ex- 
change (second  and  third  unpaid),  pay  to  Charles 
Walker,  or  order,  three  hundred  pounds  sterling, 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 

JOHN  SMITH. 

NEW  YORK,  April  26,  1901. 
No.  1 88.— Ex.  £300. 

THREE  days  after  sight  of  this,  my  second  of 
exchange  (first  and  third  unpaid),  pay  to  Charles 
Walker,  or  order,  three  hundred  pounds  sterling, 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 

JOHN  SMITH. 

NEW  YORK,  April  8,   1901. 
No.  1 88. — Ex.  £300. 

THREE  days  after  sight  of  this,  my  third  of  ex- 
change (first  and  second  unpaid),  pay  to  Charles 
Walker,  or  order,  three  hundred  pounds  sterling, 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 

JOHN  SMITH. 

MONEY  ORDER 

NEW  YORK,  May  20,  1901. 
MR.   HENRY  DENHIS: 

PLEASE  pay  Charles  Robinson,  or  order,  one  hun- 
dred dollars,  and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 
JOSEPH  DOYLE. 

NOTICE  OF  NON-PAYMENT 

TO  BE  GIVEN  TO  THE  DRAWER  AND   INDORSERS 

NEW  YORK,   Feb.  26,   1901. 

PLEASE  to  take  notice,  that  a  certain  bill  of  ex- 
change, dated  ,  for  $1000,  drawn  by  ,  on 

and  accepted  by  ,  of  and  by  you  in- 
dorsed, was  this  day  protested  for  non-payment, 
and  the  holders  look  to  you  for  the  payment 
thereof.  Yours,  etc., 

To  Mr.  A.  B.  J.  T.,  Notary  Public. 

RECEIPT   IN   FULL   OF  ALL  DEMANDS 

$500.  NEW  YORK,  March  28,   1901.  _ 

RECEIVED  of  John  Smith  five  hundred  dollars,  in 
full  of  all  demands  against  him. 

WM.  JONES. 

RECEIPT   ON   ACCOUNT 

$100.  NEW  YORK,  March  28,   1901. 

RECEIVED  of  John 'Smith  one  hundred  dollars,  to 
apply  on  account.  WM.  JONES. 

RECEIPT  FOR  MONEY  PAID  FOR  ANOTHER 

$100.  NEW  YORK,  March  28,   1901. 

RECEIVED  of  J.  G.  Wells  one  hundred  dollars,  in 
full  of  all  demands  against  John  Smith. 

WM.  JONES. 

GENERAL   FORM   OF   ASSIGNMENT 

TO    BE    WRITTEN    OR    INDORSED    ON    THE    BACK    OF    ANY 
INSTRUMENT 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  the 
vrithin-named  A.  B.,  in  consideration  of  one  hun- 
dred dollars  to  me  paid  by  C.  D.,  have  assigned 
to  the  said  C.  D.,  and  his  assigns,  all  my  interest 
in  the  within  written  instrument,  and  every  clause, 
article,  or  thing  therein  contained;  and  I  do  here- 
by constitute  the  said  C.  D.,  my  attorney,  in  my 
name,  but  to  his  own  use,  and  at  his  own  risk  and 
cost,  to  take  all  legal  measures  which  may  be 
proper  for  the  complete  recovery  and  enjoyment 
of  the  assigned  premises,  with  power  of  substitu- 
tion. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my 
hand  and  seal,  this  tenth  day  of  May,  one  thou- 
sand nine  hundred  and  one. 


Executed   and   delivered  I 
in  the  presence  of       f 


A.  B.     [SEAL.] 


ASSIGNMENT  OF  A   LEASE 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  the 
within-named  A.  B.,  the  lessee,  for  and  in  consid- 
eration of  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  me 
in  hand  paid  by  C.  D.,  of,  etc.,  at  and  before  the 
sealing  and  delivery  hereof  (the  receipt  whereof  I 
do  hereby  acknowledge),  have  granted,  assigned, 
and  set  over,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant,  as- 
sign, and  set  over,  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  execu- 
tors, administrators,  and  assigns,  the  within  in- 
denture of  lease,  and  all  that  messuage,  etc.,  there- 
by demised,  with  the  appurtenances;  and  also  all 
my  estate,  right,  title,  term  of  years  yet  to  come, 
claim,  and  demand  whatsoever,  of,  in,  to,  or  out 
of  the  same.  To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  mes- 
suage, etc.,  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  executors,  ad- 
ministrators, and  assigns,  for  the  residue  of  the 
term  within  mentioned,  under  the  yearly  rent  and 
covenants  within  reserved  and  contained,  on  my 
part  and  behalf  to  be  done,  kept,  and  performed. 

In  testimony,  etc.  [as  in  General  Form  of  As- 
signment], 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  A  MORTGAGE 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B., 
the  mortgagee  within  named,  for  and  in  considera- 
tion of  the  sum  of  sixteen  hundred  dollars,  to  me 
paid  by  C.  D.,  of,  etc.,  at  and  before  the  sealing 
and  delivery  hereof  (the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby 
acknowledged),  have  granted,  bargained,  sold,  as- 
signed, and  set  over,  and  by  these  presents  do 
grant,  bargain,  sell,  assign,  and  set  oyer,  unto  the 
said  C.  D.,  his  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  and 
assigns,  the  within  deed  of  mortgage,  and  all  my 
right  and  title  to  that  messuage,  etc.,  therein  men- 
tioned and  described,  together  with  the  original 
debt  for  which  the  said  mortgage  was  given,  and 
all  evidence  thereof,  and  all  the  rights  and  appur- 
tenances thereunto  belonging.  To  have  and  to 
hold  all  and  singular  the  premises  hereby  granted 
and  assigned,  or  mentioned,  or  intended  so  to  be, 
unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  forever; 
subject,  nevertheless,  to  the  right  and  equity  of 
redemption  of  the  within  named  E.  F.,  his  heirs 
and  assigns  (if  any  they  have),  in  the  same. 

In  testimony,  etc.  [as  in  General  Form  of  Assign- 
ment]- \ 

ASSIGNMENT   OF  A   PATENT 

WHEREAS,  letters  patent,  bearing  date  —  —  day 

of  ,  in  the  year  ,  were  granted  and  issued 

by  the  government  of  the  United  States,  under  the 

seal  thereof,  to  A.  B.,  of  the  town  of  ,  in  the 

county  of  ,  in  the  State  of  ,  for  [here 

state  the  nature  of  the  invention  in  general  terms, 
as  in  the  patent],  a  more  particular  and  full  de- 
scription whereof  is  annexed  to  the  said  letters 
patent  in  a  schedule;  by  which  letters  patent  the 
full  and  exclusive  right  and  liberty  of  making  and 
using  the  said  invention,  and  of  vending  the  same 
to  others  to  be  used,  was  granted  to  the  said  A. 
B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  or  as- 
signs, for  the  term  of  fourteen  years  from  the 
said  date: 

Now  know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I, 
the  said  A.  B.,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the 
sum  of  dollars,  to  me  in  hand  paid  (the  re- 
ceipt whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged),  have 
granted,  assigned,  and  set  over,  and  by  these  pres- 
ents do  grant,  assign,  and  set  over,  unto  C.  D.,  of 

the  town  of ,  in  the  county  of  ,  and  State 

of  ,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns, 

forever,  the  said  letters  patent,  and  all  my  right, 
title,  and  interest,  in  and  to  the  said  invention,  so 
granted  unto  me:  To  have  and  to  hold  the  said 
letters  patent  and  invention,  with  all  benefit,  profit, 
and  advantage  thereof,  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his 
executdrs,  administrators,  and  assigns,  in  as  full, 
ample,  and  beneficial  a  manner,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  as  I,  the  said  A.  B.,  by  virtue  of  the 
said  letters  patent,  may  or  might  have  or  hold  the 
same,  if  this  assignment  had  not  been  made,  for 
and  during  all  the  rest  and  residue  of  the  said 
term  of  fourteen  years. 

In  testimony,  etc.,  [as  in  General  Form  of  As- 
signment], 


OUTLINES    OF    LAW    ON    EVERY-DAY    MATTERS 


791 


ASSIGNMENT  OF  A  POLICY  OF  INSUR- 
ANCE 

KNOW    all    men    by    these    presents,    that    I,    the 
within-named   A.    B.,    for   and   in    consideration   of 

the  sum  of ,  to  me  paid  by  C.  D.,  of,  etc.  (the 

receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged),  have 
granted,  sold,  assigned,  transferred,  and  set  over, 
and  by  these  presents  I  do  absolutely  grant,  sell, 
assign,  transfer,  and  set  over  to  him,  the  said  C. 
D.,  all  my  right,  property,  interest,  claim,  and  de- 
mand in  and  to  the  within  policy  of  insurance, 
which  have  already  arisen,  or  which  may  hereafter 
arise  thereon,  with  full  power  to  use  my  name  so 
far  as  may  be  necessary  to  enable  him  fully  to 
avail  himself  of  the  interest  herein  assigned,  or 
hereby  intended  to  be  assigned.  The  conveyance 
herein  made,  and  the  powers  hereby  given,  are  for 
myself  and  my  legal  representatives  to  said  C.  D. 
and  his  legal  representatives. 

In   testimony,   etc.    [as  in   General  Form   of  As- 
signment]. 

ASSIGNMENT     OF    DEMAND    FOR    WAGES 
OR  DEBT 

IN  consideration  of  $100  to  me  in  hand  paid  by 

M.  D.,   of  the  city  of  ,  the  receipt  whereof  is 

hereby  acknowledged,  I,  L.  C.,  of  the  same  place, 
have  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do  sell,  assign, 
transfer,  and  set  over,  unto  the  said  M.  D.,  a  cer- 
tain debt  due  from  N.  E.,  amounting  to  the  sum 
of  $150,  for  work,  labor,  and  services,  by  me  per- 
formed for  the  said  N.  E.  (or  for  goods  sold  and 
delivered  to  the  said  N.  E.),  with  full  power  to 
sue  for,  collect,  and  discharge,  or  sell  and  assign 
the  same  in  my  name  or  otherwise,  but  at  his  own 
cost  and  charges;  and  I  do  hereby  covenant  that 
the  said  sum  of  $150  is  justly  due  as  aforesaid, 
and  that  I  have  not  done  and  will  not  do  any  act 
to  hinder  or  prevent  the  collection  of  the  same  by 
the  said  M.  D. 

Witness  my  hand,   this  April   10,   1901. 

L.  C. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  ACCOUNT  INDORSED 

THEREON 

IN  consideration  of  $i,   value  received,   I   hereby 
sell  and  assign  to  M.  D.  the  within  account  which 


is  justly  due  from  the  within  named  N.  E.,  and 
I  hereby  authorize  the  said  M.  D.  to  collect  the 
same.  L.  C. 

Troy,  April   10,   1901. 

BOND  TO  A  CORPORATION 

KNOW  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B., 

of,  etc.,  am  held  and  firmly  bound  unto  the  

Insurance  Company,  in  the  sum  of  one  thousand 
dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  to  be 
paid  to  the  said  Insurance  Company  or  as- 
signs; for  which  payment,  well  and  truly  to  be 
made,  I  bind  myself,  my  heirs,  executors,  and  ad- 
ministrators, firmly  by  these  presents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal.  Dated  the  day  of 

,  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  . 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  such, 
that  if  the  above  bounden  A.  B.,  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, or  administrators,  shall  well  and  truly  pay, 
or  cause  to  be  paid  unto  the  above  named  In- 
surance Company,  or  assigns,  the  just  and  full 
sum,  etc.  [as  in  Common  Bond]. 

COMMON  CHATTEL  MORTGAGE 

THIS  Indenture,  made  the  day  of,  etc., 

between  A.  B.,  of,  etc.,  of  the  first  part,  and  C.  D., 
of,  etc.,  of  the  second  part,  witnesseth:  That  the 
said  party  of  the  first  part,  in  consideration  of  the 

sum  of  dollars,  to  him  duly  paid,  hath  sold, 

and  by  these  presents  doth  grant  and  convey,  to 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  and  his  assigns, 
the  following  described  goods,  chattels,  and  prop- 
erty [here  describe  them,  or  refer  to  them  thus, 
"as  in  the  schedule  annexed"],  now  in  my  posses- 
sion, at  the  of  aforesaid;  together  with 

the  appurtenances,  and  all  the  estate,  title,  and  in- 
terest of  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  therein. 
This  grant  is  intended  as  a  security  for  the  pay- 
ment of  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  with  inter- 
est, on  or  before  the  expiration  of  one  year  from 
the  date  hereof;  and  the  additional  sum  of  one 
hundred  and  sixty  dollars,  with  interest,  on  the 

day  of  — ,  19 — ;  which  payments,  if  duly 

made,  will  render  this  conveyance  void. 

In  witness,  etc.  [as  in  Bill  of  Sale  and  Chattel 
Mortgage]. 


CIVIL   SERVICE    RULES 


IN  the  exercise  of  the  power  vested  in  the 
President  by  the  Constitution,  and  by 
virtue  of  the  i,753d  section  of  the  Revised 
Statutes,  and  of  the  civil  service  act  ap- 
proved January  16,  1883,  the  following  rules 
for  the  regulation  and  improvement  of  the 
executive  civil  service  are  hereby  amended 
and  promulgated: 

RULE  I. — No  person  in  said  service  shall  use  his 
official  authority  or  influence  either  to  coerce  the 
political  action  of  any  person  or  body  or  to  inter- 
fere with  any  election. 

RULE  II. — No  person  in  the  public  service  shall 
for  that  reason  be  under  any  obligation  to  con- 
tribute to  any  political  fund,  or  to  render  any 
political  service,  and  he  will  not  be  removed  or 
otherwise  prejudiced  for  refusing  to  do  so. 

RULE  III. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  collectors, 
postmasters,  assistant  treasurers,  naval  officers,  sur- 
veyors, appraisers,  and  custodians  of  public  build- 
ings, at  places  where  examinations  are  to  be  held, 
to  allow  and  arrange  for  the  reasonable  use  of 
-suitable  rooms  in  the  public  buildings  in  their 
charge,  and  for  heating,  lighting,  and  furnishing 
the  same,  for  the  purposes  of  such  examinations; 
and  all  other  executive  officers  shall  in  all  legal 
and  proper  ways  facilitate  such  examinations  and 
the  execution  of  these  rules. 

RULE  IV. — i.  All  officials  connected  with  any 
office  where,  or  for  which,  any  examination  is  to 
take  place,  will  give  the  Civil  Service  Commission, 
and  the  chief  examiner,  such  information  as  may 
be  reasonably  required  to  enable  the  Commission 
to  select  competent  and  trustworthy  examiners;  and 
the  examinations  by  those  selected  as  examiners, 
and  the  work  incident  thereto,  will  be  regarded  as 
a  part  of  the  public  business  to  be  performed  at 
such  office. 

2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  executive  officer 
promptly  to  inform  the  Commission,  in  writing,  of 
the  removal  or  discharge  from  the  public  service 
of  any  examiner  in  his  office,  or  of  the  inability  or 
refusal  of  any  such  examiner  to  act  in  that  capacity. 
RULE  V.— There  shall  be  five  branches  of  the 
service,  classified  under  the  civil  service  act  (not 
including  laborers  or  workmen,  or  officers  required 
to  be  confirmed  by  the  Senate),  as  follows: 

1.  Departmental  Branch. 

2.  Custom-House  Branch. 

3.  Post-Office  Branch. 

4.  Government  Printing  Branch. 

5.  Internal   Revenue  Branch. 

The  Custom-House  Branch  includes  all  officers 
and  employees  who  have  been,  or  may  hereafter 
be,  classified,  who  are  serving  in  any  customs 
district. 

The  Post-Office  Branch  includes  all  officers  and 
employees  who  have  been,  or  may  hereafter  be, 
classified,  who  are  serving  in  any  free-delivery 
post-office.  • 

The  Government  Printing  Branch  includes  all 
positions  in  the  Government  Printing  Office  except 
those  of  Public  Printer,  and  unskilled  laborers  or 
workmen. 

(792) 


The  Internal-Revenue  Branch  includes  all  officers 
and  employees  in  any  internal-revenue  district  who 
have  been,  or  may  hereafter  be,  classified  under 
the  civil-service  act. 

RULE  VI. — i.  There  shall  be  open,  competitive 
examinations  for  testing  the  fitness  of  applicants 
for  admission  to  the  service.  Such  examinations 
shall  be  practical  in  their  character,  and,  so  far 
as  may  be,  shall  relate  to  those  matters  which  will 
fairly  test  the  relative  capacity  and  fitness  of  the 
persons  examined  to  discharge  the  duties  of  the 
branch  of  the  service  which  they  seek  to  enter. 

2.  There  shall,  so  far  as  they  may  be  deemed 
useful,  be  competitive  examinations  of  a  suitable 
character  to  test  the  fitness  of  persons  for  promo- 
tion in  the  service. 

RULE  VII. — i.  The  general  examinations  under 
the  first  clause  of  Rule  VI  for  admission  to  the 
service  shall  be  limited  to  the  following  subjects: 
ist.  Orthography,  penmanship,  and  copying,  ad. 
Arithmetic — fundamental  rules,  fractions,  and  per- 
centage, ad.  Interest,  discounts,  and  elements  of 
book-keeping  and  of  accounts.  4th.  Elements  of 
the  English  language,  letter-writing,  and  the  proper 
construction  of  sentences.  5th.  Elements  of  the 
geography,  history,  and  government  of  the  United 
States. 

2.  Proficiency  in  each  of  these  subjects  shall  be 
credited  in  grading  the  standing  of  the  persons  ex- 
amined in  proportion  to  the  value  of  a  knowledge 
of  such  subjects  in  the  branch  or  part  of  the  service 
which  the  applicant  seeks  to  enter. 

3.  No  one  shall  be  entitled  to  be  certified  for  ap- 
pointment whose  standing  upon  a  just  grading  in 
the    general   examination   shall    be   less   than   sixty- 
five  per  centum  of  complete  proficiency  in  the  first 
three    subjects    mentioned    in    this    rule,    and    the 
measure  of  proficiency  shall  be  deemed  adequate. 

4.  For  places  in  which  a  lower  degree  of  educa- 
tion will  suffice,  the  Commission  may  limit  the  ex- 
aminations   to    less    than    the    five    subjects    above 
mentioned;  but  no  person  shall  be  certified  for  ap- 
pointment,  under  this  clause,   whose  grading  shall 
be   less   than  an    average  of  sixty-five  per   centum 
on  such  of  the  first  three  subjects  or  parts  thereof 
as  the   examination   may  embrace. 

5.  The  Commission  may  also  order  examinations 
upon  other  subjects  of  a  technical  or  special  char- 
acter,   to   test  the   capacity   which   may  be   needed 
in  any  part  of  the  Classified  Service  which  requires 
peculiar  information   or  skill.     Examinations  here- 
under  may  be  competitive  or  non-competitive,  and 
the   maximum   limitations   of  age   contained  in   the 
twelfth   Rule  shall   not  apply  to  applicants  for  the 
same.      The    application    for,    and   notice   of,   these 
special    examinations,    the   records  thereof  and  the 
certification  of  those  found  competent  shall  be  such 
as  the   Commission   may   provide   for.      After  con- 
sulting the  head  of  any  Department  or  office,  the 
Commission  may  from  time  to  time  designate,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  President,  the  positions 
therein    for    which    applicants   may  be    required   to 
pass  this  special  examination. 

RULE  VIII. — No  question  in  any  examination,  or 
proceeding  by,  or  under,  the  Commission  or  ex- 
aminers, shall  call  for  the  expression  or  disclosure 
of  any  political  or  religious  opinion  or  affiliation, 
and  if  such  opinion  or  affiliation  be  known,  no 


CIVIL   SERVICE   RULES 


793 


discrimination  shall  be  made  by  reason  thereof  by 
the  examiners,  the  Commission,  or  the  appointing 
power.  The  Commission  and  its  examiners  shall 
discountenance  all  disclosure,  before  either  of  them, 
of  such  opinion  by  or  concerning  any  applicant  for 
examination  or  by  or  concerning  any  one  whose 
name  is  on  any  register  awaiting  appointment. 

RULE  IX. — All  regular  applications  for  the  com- 
petitive examinations  for  admission  to  the  classi- 
fied service  must  be  made  on  blanks  in  a  form  ap- 
proved by  the  Commission.  All  requests  for  such 
blanks,  and  all  applications  for  examination,  must 
be  addressed  as  follows:  i.  If  for  the  Classified 
Departmental  Service,  to  the  U.  S.  Civil  Service 
Commission,  Washington,  D.  C.  2.  If  for  the  Clas- 
sified Postal  Service,  to  the  postmaster  under  whom 
service  is  sought.  3.  If  for  the  Classified  Customs 
Service,  to  the  head  of  either  customs  office  in 
which  service  is  sought.  All  officers  receiving  such 
applications  will  indorse  thereon  the  date  of  the 
reception  thereof  and  transmit  the  same  to  tha 
proper  examining  board  of  the  district  or  office 
where  service  is  sought,  or,  if  in  Washington,  to 
the  Civil  Service  Commission. 

RULE  X. — Every  examining  board  shall  keep  such 
records,  and  such  papers  on  file,  and .  make  such 
reports  as  the  Commission  shall  require;  and  any 
such  paper  or  record  in  the  charge  of  any  examina- 
tion board  or  any  officer  shall  at  all  times  be  open 
to  examination  as  the  Commission  shall  direct,  and 
upon  its  request  shall  be  forwarded  to  the  Com- 
mission for  inspection  and  revision. 

RULE  XI. — Every  application,  in  order  to  entitle 
the  applicant  to  appear  for  examination  or  to  be 
examined,  must  state,  under  oath,  the  facts  on  the 
following  subjects:  i.  Full  name,  residence,  and 
post-office  address.  2.  Citizenship.  3.  Age.  4. 
Place  of  birth.  5.  Health  and  physical  capacity 
for  the  public  service.  6.  Right  of  preference  by 
reason  of  military  or  naval  service.  7.  Previous 
employment  in  the  public  service.  8.  Business 
or  employment  and  residence  for  the  previous  five 
years.  9.  Education.  Such  other  information  shall 
be  furnished  as  the  Commission  may  reasonably 
require  touching  the  applicant's  fitness  for  the  pub- 
Jic  service.  The  applicant  must  also  state  the  num- 
ber of  members  of  his  family  in  the  public  service, 
and  where  employed,  and  must  also  assert  that  he 
s  not  disqualified  under  section  8  of  the  civil  ser- 
vice act,  which  is  as  follows:  "That  no  person 
habitually  using  intoxicating  •  beverages  to  excess 
shall  be  appointed  to  or  retained  in  any  office,  ap- 
pointment, or  employment  to  which  the  provisions 
of  this  act  are  applicable."  No  person  under  en- 
listment in  the  Army  or  Navy  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  examined  under  these  Rules. 

RULE  XII. — i.  Every  regular  application  must  be 
supported  by  proper  certificates  of  good  moral  char- 
acter, health,  and  physical  and  mental  capacity  for 
doing  the  public  work,  the  certificates  to  be  in 
such  form  and  number  as  the  regulations  of  the 
Commission  shall  provide;  but  no  certificate  will 
be  received  which  is  inconsistent  with  the  tenth 
section  of  the  civil  service  act, 

2.  No  one  shall  be  entitled  to  be  examined  for 
admission  to  the  Classified  Postal  Service  if  under 
sixteen  or  over  thirty-five  years  of  age;  or  to  the 
Classified  Customs  Service,  or  to  the  Classified  De- 
partmental Service,  if  under  eighteen  or  over  forty- 
five  years  of  age;  but  no  one  shall  be  examined 
for  appointment  to  any  place  in  the  Classified  Cus- 
toms Service  except  that  of  clerk  or  messenger  who 
is  under  twenty-one  years  of  age;  but  these  limi- 
tations of  age  shall  not  apply  to  persons  honorably 
discharged  from  the  military  or  naval  service  of 
the  country,  who  are  otherwise  duly  qualified. 

RULE  XIII.— i.  The  date  of  the  reception  of  all 


regular  applications  for  the  Classified  Departmental 
Service  shall  be  entered  of  record  by  the  Commis- 
sion, and  of  all  other  regular  applications  by  the 
proper  examining  boards  of  the  district  or  office 
for  which  they  are  made;  and  applicants  when  in 
excess  of  the  number  that  can  be  examined  at  a 
single  examination  shall,  subject  to  the  needs  of 
apportionment,  be  notified  to  appear,  in  their  or- 
der, on  the  respective  records.  But  any  applicants 
in  the  several  States  and  Territories  for  appoint- 
ment in  the  Classified  Departmental  Service  may  be 
notified  to  appear  for  examination  at  any  place  at 
which  an  examination  is  to  be  held,  whether  in 
any  State  or  Territory,  or  in  Washington,  which 
shall  be  deemed  most  convenient  for  them. 

2.  The  Commission  is  authorized,  in  aid  of  the 
apportionment  among  the  States  and  Territories, 
to  hold  examinations  at  places  convenient  for  ap- 
plicants from  different  States  and  Territories,  or 
for  those  examination  districts  which  it  may  desig- 
nate and  which  the  President  shall  approve. 

RULE  XIV. — Those  examined  shall  be  graded, 
and  shall  have  their  grade  marked  upon  a  register 
after  those  previously  thereon,  in  the  order  of 
their  excellence  as  shown  by  their  examination 
papers,  except  that  those  from  the  same  State  or 
Territory  may  be  entered  upon  the  register  to- 
gether, in  the  order  of  relative  excellence,  to 
facilitate  apportionment.  Separate  registers  may  be 
kept  of  those  seeking  to  enter  any  part  of  the 
service  in  which  special  qualifications  are  required. 

RULE  XV. — The  Commission  may  give  a  certifi- 
cate to  any  person  examined,  stating  the  grade 
which  such  a  person  attained  and  the  proficiency 
in  the  several  subjects,  shown  by  the  markings. 

RULE  XVI. — i.  Whenever  any  officer  having  the 
power  of  appointment  or  employment  shall  so  re- 
quest, there  shall  be  certified  to  him,  by  the  Com- 
mission or  the  proper  examining  board,  four  names 
for  the  vacancy  specified,  to  be  taken  from  those 
graded  highest  on  the  proper  register  of  those  in 
his  branch  of  the  service  and  remaining  eligible, 
regard  being  had  to  the  apportionment  of  appoint- 
ments to  States  and  Territories;  and  from  the  said 
four  a  selection  shall  be  made  for  the  vacancy. 

2.  These  certifications   for  the  service  at  Wash- 
ington shall  be  made  in  such  order  as  to  apportion, 
as  nearly   as   may  be   practicable,   the   original   ap- 
pointments   thereto    among   the    States    and    Terri- 
tories and  the  District  of  Columbia,  upon  the  basis 
of  population  as  ascertained  at  the  last  preceding 
census. 

3.  In  case  the  request  for  any  such  certification 
or   any   law   or   regulation   shall   call   for  those   of 
either   sex,   the   four   highest   of  that  sex   shall   be 
certified,  otherwise  sex  shall  be  disregarded  in  such 
certification. 

4.  No  person  upon  any  register  shall  be  certified 
more   than   four  times  to   the   same   officer  in  the 
customs   or  postal   service,   or  more  than  twice  to 
any  department  at  Washington,  unless  upon  request 
of  the  appointing  officer;  nor  shall  any  one  remain 
eligible  more  than  one  year  upon  any  register.     No 
person    while    remaining    eligible    on    any    register 
shall   be  admitted   to  a  new  examination,   and  no 
person   having   failed   upon   any  examination   shall 
within   six  months   thereafter   be   admitted   to   an- 
other examination  without  the  consent  of  the  Com- 
mission.     But   these    restrictions   shall   not  extend 
to  examinations  under  clause  5  of  Rule  7. 

5.  Any  person  appointed  to  or  employed  in  any 
part  of  the  classified  service,  after  due  certification 
for  the  same  under  these  rules,  who  shall  be  dis- 
missed or  separated  therefrom  without  fault  or  de- 
linquency   on    his    part,    may    be    reappointed    or 
re-employed    in   the   same   part   or    grade    of   such 
service  at  the  same  office,  within  eight  months  next 


794 


CIVIL   SERVICE    RULES 


following    such    dismissal    or    separation,    without 
further  examination. 

RULE  XVII. — i.  Every  original  appointment  or 
employment  in  said  classified  service  shall  be  for 
the  probationary  period  of  six  months,  at  the  end 
of  which  time,  if  the  conduct  and  capacity  of  the 
person  appointed  have  been  found  satisfactory,  the 
probationer  shall  be  absolutely  appointed  or  em- 
ployed; but,  otherwise,  be  deemed  out  of  the  service. 

2.  Every  officer  under  whom  any  probationer  shall 
serve    during   any   part   of  the   probation   provided 
for  by  these  rules  shall  carefully  observe  the  qual- 
ity and  value  of  the  service  rendered  by  such  pro- 
bationer, and  shall  report  to  the  proper  appointing 
officer,    in    writing,    the    facts    observed    by    him, 
showing   the   character    and    qualifications    of   such 
probationer,  and  of  the  service  performed  by  him; 
and  such  reports  shall  be  preserved  on  file. 

3.  Every  false  statement  knowingly  made  by  any 
person  in  his  application  for  examination,  and  every 
connivance  by  him  at  any  false  statement  made  in 
any   certificate   which  may   accompany   his   applica- 
tion,  shall   be   regarded  as  good  cause   for  the  re- 
moval or  discharge  of  such  person  during  his  pro- 
bation. 

RULE  XVIII. — Every  head  of  a  department  or 
office  shall  notify  the  Commission  of  the  name  of 
every  person  appointed  to,  or  employed  in,  the 
classified  service  under  him  (giving  the  date  of  the 
appointment  and  .the  designation  of  the  office  or 
place)  from  those  examined  under  the  Commis- 
sion; and  shall  also  inform  the  Commission  of  the 
date  of  any  rejection  or  final  appointment  or  em- 
ployment of  any  probationer,  and  of  the  promotion, 
removal,  discharge,  resignation,  transfer,  or  death 
of  any  such  person  after  probation.  Every  head 
of  any  office  in  the  postal  or  customs  service  shall 
give  such  information  on  these  subjects  to  the 
Board  of  Examiners  for  his  office  as  the  regula- 
tions of  the  Commission  may  provide  for. 

RULE  XIX. — There  are  excepted  from  examina- 
tion the  following:  i.  The  confidential  clerk  or 
secretary  of  any  head  of  a  department  or  office. 
2.  Cashiers  of  collectors.  3.  Cashiers  of  postmas- 
ters. 4.  Superintendents  of  money-order  divisions 
in  post-offices.  5.  The  direct  custodians  of  money 
for  whose  fidelity  another  officer  is  under  official 
bond;  but  these  exceptions  shall  not  extend  to  any 
official  below  the  grade  of  assistant  cashier  or 
teller.  6.  Persons  employed  exclusively  in  the  se- 
cret service  of  the  Government,  or  as  translators, 
or  interpreters,  or  stenographers.  7.  Persons  whose 
employment  is  exclusively  professional.  8.  Chief 
clerks,  deputy  collectors,  and  superintendents,  or 
chiefs  of  divisions  or  bureaus.  But  no  person  so 
excepted  shall  be  either  transferred,  appointed,  or 
promoted,  unless  to  some  excepted  place,  without 
an  examination  under  the  Commission.  Promotions 
may  be  made  without  examination  in  offices  where 
examinations  for  promotion  are  not  now  held,  un- 
til rules  on  the  subject  shall  be  promulgated. 

RULE  XX. — If  the  failure  of  competent  persons 
to  attend  and  be  examined,  or  the  prevalence  of 
contagious  disease  or  other  sufficient  cause,  shall 
make  it  impracticable  to  supply  in  due  season  for 
any  appointment  the  names  of  persons  who  have 
passed  a  competitive  examination,  the  appointment 
may  be  made  of  a  person  who  has  passed  a  non- 
competitive  examination,  which  examination  the 
Commission  may  provide  for;  but  its  next  report 
shall  give  the  reason  for  such  resort  to  non-com- 
petitive examination. 

RULE  XXI. — i.  No  person  shall  be  promoted, 
without  examination  under  these  rules,  from  any 
position  for  which  an  examination  is  not  required 
to  any  position  for  which  an  examination  is  re- 
quired under  the  rules;  nor  shall  any  person  who 


has  passed  only  a  limited  examination  under  clause 
4  of  Rule  7,  for  the  lower  classes  or  grades  in 
the  Departmental  or  Customs  Service,  be  promoted 
within  two  years  after  appointment  to  any  position 
giving  a  salary  of  $1,000,  or  upward,  without  first 
passing  an  examination  under  clause  i  of  said  rule, 
and  such  examination  shall  not  be  allowed  within 
the  first  year  after  appointment 

2.  But  a  person  who  has  passed  the  examination 
under  said   clause   i,   and  has  accepted  a  position 
giving  a  salary  of  $900  or  less,  shall  have  the  same 
right   of   promotion   as   if   originally   appointed   to 
a  position  giving  a  salary  of  $  1,000  or  more. 

3.  The  Commission  may  at  any  time  certify  for 
a  $900  or  any  lower  place  in  the  classified  service 
any  person  upon  the  register  who  has  passed  the 
examination  under  clause  i  of  Rule  7,  if  such  per- 
son   does    not    object    before    such   certification    is 
made. 

RULE  XXII. — The  Civil  Service  Commission  will 
make  appropriate  regulations  for  carrying  these 
rules  into  effect. 

RULE  XXIII. — Every  violation,  by  any  officer  in 
the  executive  civil  service,  of  these  rules,  or  of 
the  nth,  i2th,  I3th,  or  i4th  section  of  the  Civil 
Service  Act,  relating  to  political  assessments,  shall 
be  good  cause  for  removal. 

[Rules  6,  7,  8,  n,  13,  16,  18,  and  19  were 
amended  and  promulgated  Nov.  7.  Rule  12  was 
amended  and  promulgated  Dec.  5,  1883.  Rule  16 
was  amended  and  promulgated  Jan.  18,  1884. 
Present  Rule  21  was  promulgated  Jan.  18,  1884. 
Former  Rule  21  is  now  22;  and  22  is  Rule  23.] 

REGULATIONS 

The  United  States  Civil  Service  Commis- 
sion, acting  under  the  authority  of  the  Civil 
Service  Act  of  January  16,  1883,  and  the 
rules  promulgated  by  the  President,  makes 
the  following  regulations: 

CHIEF    EXAMINER 

1.  The    Chief    Examiner    shall,    as    far    as    prac- 
ticable, except  when  otherwise  directed  by  the  Com- 
mission,  attend  the  examinations  held  by  the  sev- 
eral  boards   of   examiners.     He   shall   take   care  to 
secure  accuracy,  uniformity,  and  justice  in  all  their 
proceedings,    which   shall    at   all   times  be   open   to 
him;    but   leaving   the    duty   of   the   examiners,    in 
marking  and  grading  those  examined,   unimpaired. 
The   Commission   will,    in   its    discretion,    designate 
one  of  its  own  members,  or  request  the  detail  of  a 
suitable    person,    to    supervise    examinations    when- 
ever deemed  needful. 

2.  He  shall  prepare  and  submit  to  the  approval 
of    the    Commission    proper    forms    and    questions. 
He  shall  take  care   that  the   rules  and  regulations 
are  complied   with,  and  bring  every  case  of  injus- 
tice  and    irregularity   observed   by   him   to   the  at- 
tention   of  the    Commission.      He    shall    take   such 
part  as  the  Commission  shall  assign  him  in  the  work 
at    Washington.     It    shall    be   his    duty   to    confer, 
from   time   to   time,    with   the   heads   of  the   postal 
and  customs  officers  which  he  officially  visits,  con- 
cerning the  regularity,  sufficiency,  and  convenience 
of  the  examinations  for  the  service  under  them. 

SECRETARY 

3.  The   Secretary  shall   keep  the  minutes  of  the 
proceedings   of  the   Commission,   and   have  charge 
of  and  be   responsible   for  the  safe-keeping  of  the 
books,    records,    papers,    and   other   property   in   its 
office.     He   shall    make   the    proper    certification   of 
those   eligible   for   the   Departmental    Service.     He 


CIVIL    SERVICE    RULES 


795 


shall  generally  conduct  the  correspondence  of  the 
Commission  and  perform  such  other  appropriate 
duties  as  it  may  assign  to  him. 

BOARDS    OF    EXAMINERS 

4.  The    general    Board    of    Examiners    for    the 
Departmental   Service  shall  consist  of  two  persons 
from  the  Treasury  Department,  two  from  the  Post- 
Office   Department,   two   from  the  Interior   Depart- 
ment, and  one  from  each  of  the  other  Departments. 
But  any  three  members  may  be  designated  by  the 
Commission    to    constitute    the    acting    Examining 
Board   for  any  examination. 

The  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Examiners  for 
the  Departmental  Service  shall  keep  a  record  of 
its  proceedings  and  have  charge  of  its  papers. 

5.  In   case  of  examinations  to  be   held  at   other 
places    than    those    having    the    classified    service, 
the  Commission  will  designate  an  Examining  Board 
for  that  purpose. 

6.  For  each  post-office,  the  Board  of  Examiners 
shall   consist   of  three   persons. 

7.  The  examiners  for  each  customs  district  shall 
consist  of  two  persons  selected  from  the  office  of 
the  collector,  and  one  from  each  of  the  other  cus- 
toms offices  which  are  subject  to  the  rules;  but  if 
there   be   no   office    subject   thereto   except   that   of 
the  collector,  the  three  shall  be  selected  from  his 
office. 

8.  The    examiners    may    serve    as    a    Board    for 
conducting   any   examination;    and   the    Examiners 
for  any  customs  district  will  determine  which  three 
shall  hold  any  examination,  taking  care  that,  if  an 
examinati         is    wholly    or    mainly    for    any    office, 
one    or    more    of    the    examiners    from    that    office 
shall  be  on  the  acting  Board.     In  case  of  a  failure 
or   disagreement    as    to    which   three    shall    be   the 
Board    for    any    examination,    the    Commission    or 
Chief  Examiner  shall  designate  the  local  examiners 
who    shall    serve.      In    case    of    the    disability    or 
necessary   absence   of   one   of  the  three   examiners 
selected,  the  other  two  may  conduct  the  examina- 
tion. 

g.  Each  Examining  Board  in  the  postal  and 
customs  service  shall  select  one  of  its  members  to 
serve  as  secretary,  and  it  shall  be  his  duty  to 
keep  a  complete  record  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
Board  and  of  all  examinations  held.  He  shall 
also  keep  the  Record  of  Applicants  and  Examina- 
tions, and  the  Register  of  Persons  Eligible  for 
Appointment.  He  shall  have  charge  of  all  books 
and  papers  belonging  to  the  Board  and  shall  be 
responsible  for  their  safe-keeping.  On  application 
of  the  proper  appointing  officer,  he  shall  certify  to 
such  officer,  in  conformity  to  the  rules,  the  names 
of  the  four  persons  of  highest  grade  remaining 
on  the  register.  He  shall  also  answer  all  proper 
requests  for  application  blanks,  and  send  due 
notifications  to  applicants  to  be  examined,  and  shall 
give  all  other  notices  required  to  be  given  by 
the  Board. 

10.  No  examiner  or  officer  serving  under  the 
Commission  must  attempt  to  control  or  influence 
appointments,  removals,  or  promotions. 

it.  Care  must  be  taken  by  the  examiners  not 
to  allow  such  visitors  as  they  may  admit,  nor  any 
conversation  or  other  cause,  to  obstruct  or  distract 
those  being  examined. 

12.  Examiners   must   not   disclose    for  public  in- 
formation, unless  by  consent,   the  names  of  those 
examined,    nor   more   than  the   general   results   of 
examinations. 

13.  Complaints,     which    show    injustice    or    un- 
fairness on  the  part  of  any  Examining  Board,   or 
any  one  acting  under  the  Commission,  will  be  con- 
sidered   by   the    Commission,    and    if    necessary   it 


will  revise  the  marking  and  grading  on  the  papers, 
or  order  a  new  examination,  or  otherwise  do  jus- 
tice in  the  premises. 

14.  The  head  of  each  post-office  and  of  each  cus- 
toms office,  to  which  the  rules  are  applicable,  should 
inform  the  local  Board  of  Examiners  of  probable 
vacancies,    and   examinations   for  filling  them   mar 
be  held  in  due  season,  and  should  also  inform  such 
local  Board  of  the  name  of  every  person  appointed 
or   employed   in   the    classified   service   under    him 
(giving   the    date    of   the   employment   or    appoint- 
ment and  the   designation  of  the  office   or  place) 
from  those  examined  under  said  Board. 

15.  The  Board  of   Examiners  for  each  office  or 
district   must   promptly  notify  the    Commission   of 
the   need   of   holding   an   examination    in    and   for 
such  office  or  district,    and  may   appoint   the  time 
for  the  same,  but  subject  to  any  change  the  Com- 
mission   may   find   it    necessary   to   make    for   the 
more  convenient  and  effective  discharge  of  its  duty 
to  see  that  the  examinations  are  accurate,  uniform, 
and    just.      The    notice    must    state    under    which 
clause   or  clauses  of   Rule  7  the  applicants  are  to 
be  examined,  and  must,  when  practicable,  be  given 
at    least    twenty    days    before    the   time    appointed 
therein  for  the  examinations. 

EXAMINATIONS 

1 6.  Notices  in   writing  should  be  mailed  to  ap- 
plicants   for    examination    in   the    postal   and   cusc 
terms  service  at  least  eight   days  before  the  exam- 
ination, except  hi  cases  of  non-competitive  and  spe- 
cial   examinations,    and   they   shall    clearly   specify 
the  place  and  the  time,  including  the  hour,  of  hold- 
ing the   same. 

17.  All   competitive   examinations   for  admission 
to  the  civil  service  shall  be  in  writing,  except  that 
tests    of   physical    qualities    or   expertness   may   be 
added  as  the   Commission  shall  approve. 

1 8.  The  examination  sheets  will  be  given  out  in 
the  order  of  their  numbers;  each,   after  the  first, 
being  given   only  when  the   applicant   shall   return 
to  the  examiners  the  last  sheet  taken  by  him. 

19.  Not  more  than  ten  questions  shall  be  given 
in    any    subject    of   the    examination;  ,and,    to    fa- 
cilitate the  marking,  the  questions  in  the  same  sub- 
ject shall,  as   far  as  practicable,  be  equal  in  diffi- 
culty.    Care    shall    also    be    taken    that    the    time 
allotted   for   the    examination    shall    be    reasonably 
sufficient   for  answering  the  questions. 

20.  In     general,      no     competitive     examination 
should    occupy   more   than   five   hours,    and  every 
Examiner  will  exercise  all  due  diligence  to  secure 
fairness,   and  to  prevent  all  collusion  or  fraud  in 
the  examinations. 

21.  The    examination    papers    of   each    applicant 
shall    be    marked    only    with    a    number,    and    his 
name  with  his  number  shall  be  placed  in  a  sealed 
envelope,  which  shall  not  be  opened  till  after  his 
papers  are  marked. 

22.  The    examination    papers    shall,    so    far    as 
practicable,    be    reviewed    by   each   "Examiner   sep- 
arately, and  in  any  case  of  disagreement  the  aver- 
age of  the  markings,  to  be  made  on  the  papers  by 
all,    shall  be  the   final   marking  on  each  question, 
subject  to  the  regulation  as  to  revision. 

23.  The  views   of  the   heads   of  post-offices   and 
customs  officers,   as  to  whether  applicants  for  the 
several  parts   of  the  service  under  them   shall  be 
examined   in   the   five   subjects   under   clause    i    of 
Rule  7,  or  only  in  a  less  number  of  subjects  un- 
der clause  4  of  that  rule,  will  be  accepted  by  the 
Commission    so    far    as    its    duty    to    require    uni- 
formity, and  adequate  tests  of  capacity  for  doing 
the  public  work,  will  permit. 


CIVIL   SERVICE    RULES 


MARKING    AND    GRADING 

24.  To  whichever  of  the  five  subjects,  or  parts 
thereof,  mentioned  in  Rule  7,  a  competitive  exam- 
ination may  extend,   the   marking  and  grading  of 
the  applicant  upon  each  is  to  be  conducted  in  the 
same  way. 

25.  To  determine  the  Standing  of  the  applicant 
in   any   subject,   mark   and   credit  each  answer   in 
proportion  to  its  completeness  and  accuracy  accord- 
ing to  regulations  prescribed  for  each  subject;  the 
perfect    answer    being    credited    100.      Divide    the 
sum    of   the    credits   by   the   number   of   questions 
upon   the   subject:   the  quotient   will  be  the  appli- 
cant's Standing  in  that  subject. 

26.  To    determine    whether    any    applicant    has 
reached  an   Average    Standing  of   65   per  centum 
in  the  first  two  or  the  first  three  subjects,  add  the 
figures  marking  the   applicant's  Standing  in  each; 
divide   their   sum    by  the   number   of   the   subjects 
and    the    quotient    will    be   the    Average    Standing 
therein. 

27.  No  applicant  is  entitled  to  go  upon  the  Reg- 
ister of  those  eligible  for  appointment  whose  Aver- 
age Standing  upon  the  first  three  subjects,  or  such 
parts   thereof  as  are   covered  by  the   examination, 
is  below  65  per  centum;  therefore,  when  the  mark- 
ing and  grading  have  been  carried  so  far  as  to  show 
such  Average  Standing  to  be  below  65  per  centum, 
they  need  not  be  carried  further;   and  if  the  ex- 
amination includes  no  part  of  the  4th  or  5th  sub- 
ject,  such   Average   Standing  will  be  the  General 
Average  to  be  entered  on  the  Register. 

28.  To  whatever  number  of  subjects  the  exam- 
ination may  extend,   the  General  Average  will  be 
ascertained   by   dividing   the   sum    of   the   marking 
showing  the  Standings  in  each  of  the  subjects  by 
the  number  of  subjects. 

29.  Every  example,   though  it  be  a  case  of  dic- 
tation or  copying,  is  regarded  as  a  question  under 
these  regulations,  and,  although  only  a  portion  of 
the  topics  included   in  a  subject   under   Rule   7  is 
embraced  in  the  examination,  it  will,   for  the  pur- 
pose of  the  marking,  be  treated  as  a  subject. 

The    following   example    illustrates    these    direc- 
tions : 


showing  that  it  is  impracticable  to  supply,  in  due 
season,  for  any  appointment  the  names  of  per- 
sons who  have  passed  a  competitive  examination 
by  reason  of  the  failure  of  competent  persons  to 
attend  to  be  examined,  or  the  prevalence  of  con- 
tagious disease,  or  other  sufficient  cause. 

31.  If  the  Commission  shall  not  disapprove  the 
holding    of    a    non-competitive    examination,     the 
Secretary    of    the    Commission    in   Washington,   or 
of    the    Examining    Board    for    any    post-office    or 
customs    district,    shall    notify    for    such    examina- 
tions   any  persons    whose    names   may   be   on   the 
record  as  applicants  for  places  analogous  to  those 
to  be  filled,  and  whom  the  exigency  of  time  may 
allow  to  be  notified,  not  less  in  number  than  the 
vacancies  and  places  to  be  provided  for,  nor  more 
than  four  for  each  of  them. 

32.  If  the  number  of  applicants  on  the  record  be 
insufficient  to  furnish  such  supply,  then  the  Exam- 
ining Board,  or  in  its  absence  the  Secretary,  may 
notify   other   suitable    persons,    nominated   by   said 
Board    or    Secretary,    upon   consultation    with   the 
head  of  the  office,   who,   taken  together   with  said 
regular    applicants    notified,    shall,    if    practicable, 
be  not  less  in  number  than  four  to  each  place  to 
be  filled.     The  persons  selected  for  appointment  or 
employment  shall  be  required  to  make  oath  to  the 
proper     application     paper    before     entering    upon 
their  official  duties. 

33.  The   non-competitive   examination   shall   con- 
form   as    nearly   as   practicable,   in   subjects,    ques- 
tions,   and   marking,    to   the   competitive    examina- 
tions  of  the  same   grade;   but  no  person  shall  be 
appointed    under    such    non-competitive  •  examina- 
tion  whose   average   standing  upon   the  first   three 
subjects,   clause   i,   Rule   7,   or  such  parts  thereof 
as  may  be  used,   is  less  than  65  per  centum;  Pro- 
vided, There  are  those  who  pass  at  or  above  that 
grade  from  whom  the  place  can  be  filled. 

34.  The   names   of   all   the   persons   passing  the 
examination  shall  be  certified  to  the  proper  officer, 
and    the    existing    vacancies    shall   be    filled    there- 
from; but  no  person,  by  reason  of  such  non-com- 
petitive   examination,    shall    be    appointed    at    any 


[Sum  of  credits  in  each  subject  divided  by  number  of  questions  gives  credit  in  that  subject.] 


O 

.c 

£ 

2 

u 

J3 
»J 

First  subject. 

oj 

Second 
subject. 

o| 

Third 
subject. 

sl 

.a  8 

Fourth 
subject. 

0^ 

Fifth 
subject. 

I! 

•O  3 

•o  a 

•O  3 

•o  a 

go- 

v  cr 

ccr 

U 

U 

U 

U 

o 

80 

Question  i 

40 

Question  i 

70 

Question  i 

60 

Question  i 

60 

45 

Question  2 

9° 

Question  2 

45 

Question  2 

50 

Question  a 

00 

Question  3 

Question  3 

go 

Question  3 

35 

Question  3 

c 

56 

Question  4 

§5 

Question  4 

Question  5 

100 

Question  5 

too 

' 

3" 

260 

390 

335 

230 

5 

5 

s 

• 

3 

62.2 

65 

78 

67 

76.66 

The  grade  at  which  the  applicant  will  go  upon  the  Register,  is,  therefore 
62.2  -f  65  -f  78  -f  67  +  76.66  -  348.86  -  2*1?*  _  69.77. 


XON-COMPETITIVE      EXAMINATIONS      UNDER      RULE     2O 

In  case  the  necessity  shall  exist  at  any  office 
or  Department  for  holding  a  non-competitive  ex- 
amination under  Rule  20,  the  following  conditions 
shall  be  observed: 

30.  The  Commission  shall  be  immediately  noti- 
fied of  such  necessity  and  of  the  grounds  thereof, 


other   time  than   during   such  exigency  or  to  any 
other   vacancy  or   place. 

35.  A  record  shall  be  kept  by  the  local  Exam- 
ining Board,  and  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Com- 
mission at  Washington,  of  the  persons  thus  noti- 
fied, examined,  and  appointed,  or  employed,  and 
copies  of  notices  and  the  examination  papers 
shall  be  preserved;  and  said  Board  shall,  after 


CIVIL   SERVICE    RULES 


797 


each  such  examination  and  appointment,  make  full 
report  to  the  Civil  Service  Commission  of  all 
the  facts. 

36.  In  case  a  majority  of  the  Commission  may 
not  be  present  when  an  examination  hereunder  may 
need  to  be  held  at  Washington,   the  same  may  be 
conducted  under  the  charge  of  the  chief  examiner 
and  any  two  members  of  the  Board  of  Examiners. 

SPECIAL   EXAMINATIONS 

37.  Special    Boards    of    Examiners    will,    when 
deemed  necessary,   be   designated  by   the   Commis- 
sion for  the  examinations  in  special  and  technical 
subjects  under  clause  5,   Rule  7,  and  one  or  more 
members  of  each  such  Board  will  be  selected  from 
the    office   or    bureau    for    which    the    Board    is   to 
serve.     These    special    Boards   shall   be    subject   to 
the   regulations  prescribed  by  the   Commission   for 
the  general   Examining  Boards  as  far  as  they  are 
applicable,  except  as  herein  otherwise  provided. 

38.  Applications     for    any     special     examination 
must  be  made  in  the  form  prescribed  by  the  Com- 
mission,  and   must  be   accompanied  by  certificates 
as   required   in    the   case    of  ordinary   applications. 
The  minimum  limitations  of  age  shall  be  the  same 
as    those    prescribed    by    Rule    12    for   the    several 
branches   of  the  service,   but   no  maximum  limita- 
tions  shall  be   required   except   such   as   the   Com- 
mission  may   from  time  to  time  prescribe. 

39.  Whenever    a    special    examination    is    to    be 
held,    notice    in    writing,   specifying   the   time    and 
place  of  the  examination,   shall  be  sent  to  a  suit- 
able   number    of    the    applicants    in    the    order    of 
their    application    for   the    same,    in   time   to   allow 
their  attendance. 

40.  Each   special   examination  shall  embrace  the 
subjects    approved    by    the    Commission    therefor, 
after  consultation  with  the  head  of  the  office  con- 


cerned or  the  special  Examining  Board  for  such 
office;  and  shall,  as  far  as  appropriate,  be  con- 
ducted under  the  same  general  regulations,  as 
to  the  marking  of  the  examination  papers  and  the 
grading  of  the  persons  examined,  as  those  for 
ordinary  examinations. 

41.  A  special  record  of  applicants  and  a  special 
register    of   eligibles    shall    be    kept    for   each   part 
of    the    service    or    office    requiring    special    exam- 
inations; and  when  the  Commission,  or  the  proper 
Examining    Board,    shall    be    notified    by    the    ap- 
pointing officer  of  a  vacancy  in  such  part  of  tfae 
service,   certification  shall  be  made  to   him  of  the 
names  of  the   four  persons  graded  highest  on  the 
special  list  of  eligibles  for  the  same,   or  of  a  less 
number,  if  four  names  do  not  rejmain  thereon. 

42.  In    case    that    competent    special    applicants 
do   not   apply,   or   do   not   appear   for   a  competitive 
examination,    after    a   suitable   notice,    a    non-com- 
petitive examination  may  be  held  in  as  near  con- 
formity as  may  be  to  the  regulations  provided  for 
non-competitive  examinations  for  admission  to  the 
service.     For  such  examination,   applicants  on  the 
general  Record,  and  persons  on  the  general  Regis- 
ter   of    Eligibles    whose    application    papers    claim 
the    special   knowledge    required,    may   be   notified, 
and  if  they  appear  shall  be  examined,  as  if  special 
applicants;   but   no  person   so   examined   shall   for- 
feit his  right  to  the  general  examinations,  or  lose 
his  place  on  any  register  of  eligibles  by  reason  of 
his  special  examination. 

Information  required  in  addition  to  the  fore- 
going may  be  obtained  upon  written  application  to 
the  Civil  Service  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Positions  in  the  Philippine  Civil  Service,  for  ap- 
plicants between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty, 
may  be  secured  through  application  to  the  Civil 
Service  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C. 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    WOMEN    DESIROUS    OF 
ENTERING    THE    CIVIL    SERVICE 


THE    APPLICATION     FOR    EXAMINATION 

To  every  person  requesting  to  enter  the  classi- 
fied service,  a  blank  application  paper  is  sent.  The 
filing  of  this  paper  is  the  first  step  in  the  appli- 
cant's examination.  In  the  proper  blanks  she 
gives  her  name,  age,  residence,  and  occupation, 
for  each  of  the  past  five  years,  and  such  other 
facts  in  regard  to  herself  and  her  experience,  edu- 
cation, and  qualifications  as  are  important  to  be 
known.  All  these  statements  are  made  under 
oath,  and  are  required  to  be  confirmed  by  the 
vouchers  of  •  not  less  than  three  or  more  than 
five  persons,  who  state,  in  blank  certificates  on 
the.  same  sheet,  their  knowledge  of  the  applicant, 
and  their  belief  in  the  truth  of  her  statements, 
and  vouch  for  her  character,  capacity,  and  good 
reputation.  No  recommendations  outside  of  these 
vouchers  are  allowed  to  be  received  or  considered 
by  the  Commission,  the  examiners,  or  the  appoint- 
ing officers. 

The  application  thus  filed  is  returned  to  the 
Commission,  or  to  the  proper  Examining  Board, 
and  if  its  statements  show  that  the  applicant  is 
regularly  vouched  for,  and  that  she  is  entitled  by 
age,  health,  and  citizenship  to  be  examined  for 
the  service  she  seeks,  her  name  is  entered  upon 
the  proper  record,  with  the  date  of  her  application, 
and  her  paper  is  placed  on  file.  When  the  ex- 


amination is  held,  at  a  point  which  is  deemed  con- 
venient for  her,  she  is  notified  to  be  present. 
If  the  applications  on  file,  at  any  office,  are  in  ex- 
cess 'of  the  number  that  can  be  examined  at  one 
time,  the  earlier  applicants,  by  Rule  13,  are  sum- 
moned first;  except  that  at  Washington  the  duty 
of  apportionment  may  require  those  to  be  first 
examined  who  are  from  States  whose  qualified  ap- 
plications are  in  deficient  numbers.  This  excludes 
all  preference  of  applicants  through  favor  or 
patronage,  and  is  the  spirit  of  the  act,  section  5, 
which  makes  all  wilful  and  corrupt  obstruction  of 
the  right  of  examination  a  criminal  offence.  The 
applicants  who  are  in  excess  of  the  number  that 
can  be  examined  at  one  time  stand  first  upon  the 
record  to  be  notified  for  the  next  examination. 
Examinations  are  held  as  frequently  as  the  needs 
of  the  service  require.  Thus  far  all  applicants 
(except  some  from  the  District  of  Columbia,  where 
the  number  is  excessive,  and  in  one  or  two  similar 
cases  outside)  have  been  notified  to  attend  the 
first  examinations  held  after  their  applications 
were  received. 

The  application  paper  is  itself  a  sort  of  pre- 
liminary examination;  it  asks  the  same  questions 
that  any  wise  and  experienced  business  man  or 
appointing  officer  would  desire  to  ask  concerning 
the  circumstances,  health,  character,  and  experi- 

51 


798 


CIVIL   SERVICE    RULES 


ence  of  the  applicant,  and  it  frequently  deters 
from  the  examinations  unworthy  or  incompetent 
persons,  who  find  themselves  unable  to  answer  sat- 
isfactorily the  inquiries  proposed,  or  unwilling  to 
give  the  information  asked  for.  Of  the  best  of 
place-seekers,  many  may  be  weeded  out  by  the 
necessity  of  making  this  sworn  statement  oi  their 
career,  while  to  genuine  and  worthy  applicants  it 
opens  the  way  for  the  proper  statement  of  their 
qualifications. 

WHO    MAY    COMPETE 

A  competition  theoretically  perfect  would  be 
one  in  which  every  person,  from  any  part  of  the 
country,  could  compete  for  every  vacancy.  But 
the  needs  of  the  public  business,  as  well  as  the 
provisions  of  the  act  that  the  examination  shall 
be  practical,  and  shall  fairly  test  capacity  and  fit- 
ness needed  for  discharging  the  duties  of  the  place 
sought,  require  limitations.  The  qualifications 
needed  for  carriers  or  for  weighers,  for  exam- 
ple, are  quite  different  from  those  needed  for 
copyists,  or  for  some  grades  of  clerks.  Ques- 
tions appropriate  for  ordinary  clerkships  would 
be  unfit  tests  for  telegraphers  or  pension  -  office 
examiners.  Provision  is  therefore  made  under 
which  the  application  paper  designates  the  grade 
or  description  of  places  sought;  and  it  follows 
that  the  real  competition  is  between  all  those  who 
seek  the  same  grade  or  places. 

Further  than  this,  the  act,  requiring  the  appoint- 
ments to  the  service  at  Washington  to  be  appor- 
tioned among  the  States,  Territories,  and  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  practically  makes  the  competition 
between  those  from  the  same  State  or  Territory 
rather  than  an  inter-State  competition.  In  some 
cases,  perhaps,  this  State  competition  may  put  into 
the  service  a  person  inferior  to  the  one  whom  the 
broader  competition  would  have  supplied.  But  it 
gives  to  each  State  and  Territory,  what  it  has  not 
yet  had,  a  proportion  of  the  appointments  nu- 
merically due  to  the  population,  and  it  will  un- 
questionably stimulate  education  in  the  States  as 
well  as  increase  the  local  interest  in  all  matters 
affecting  the  administration  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment. 

SUBJECTS    FOR   EXAMINATION 

The  branches  embraced  in  the  general  examina- 
tion for  ordinary  clerkships  and  other  places  of 
the  same  grade  are  given  in  Rule  7.  In  none  of 
these  branches  do  the  questions  go  further  than 
is  covered  by  the  ordinary  instruction  in  the  com- 
mon schools  of  the  country.  If  limited  examina- 
tion is  provided  under  clause  4  of  Rule  7,  for 
copyists,  messengers,  carriers,  night  inspectors, 
and  other  employees  of  similar  grades,  including 
only  a  part  of  the  branches  above  named,  the  sub- 
jects and  questions  being  varied  in  number  and 
grade  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  service,  this  allows  persons  of  only 
limjted  attainments  to  secure  the  positions  for 
which  they  are  competent.  The  common-school 
education  must  have  been  exceedingly  defective 
which  does  not  enable  one  to  pass  this  examina- 
tion. 

It  will  be  noticed  that,  even  in  the  general  or 
higher  grade  of  examination  under  clause  I,  Rule 
i,  proficiency  in  the  first  three  subjects  secures 
eligibility  for  appointment.  Therefore  failure  'n 
the  last  two  will  exclude  no  one  from  the  service, 
though  a  good  standing  therein  raises  the  grade 
of  the  applicant  and  gives  her  the  better  chance 
for  an  appointment. 

If  any  shall  notice,  with  regret,  that  only  com- 
mon-school education  is  exacted  for  entering  the 


public  service  at  the  higher  grade,  and  that  thus 
only  small  direct  reward  is  offered  to  academic 
and  college  learning,  it  may  be  remembered,  on 
the  other  hand,  that  both  by  rewarding  excel- 
lence in  the  common  schools  and  by  barring  out 
corrupt  influence  from  public  office,  learning  of 
every  grade,  and  good  character  and  effort  in 
every  position  are  stimulated  and  strengthened. 
The  common  schools  are  the  gates  to  the  academies, 
and  the  academies  are  the  gates  to  the  colleges. 

SPECIAL    AND    TECHNICAL    EXAMINATIONS 

While  only  the  common-school  education  is  re- 
quired of  the  applicant  for  the  ordinary  clerkship 
and  subordinate  places  in  the  classified  service, 
there  are  other  places,  comparatively  few  in  num- 
ber, for  which  higher  qualifications  are  requisite. 
Among  these  are  clerkships  in  the  State  Depart- 
ment, which  demand  some  knowledge  of  modern 
languages,  and  of  other  special  subjects;  assistant 
examiners,  draughtsmen,  and  other  places  requir- 
ing technical  knowledge  or  skill,  in  the  Patent 
Office;  pension  examiners  and  other  clerkships  in 
several  Departments  requiring  some  knowledge  of 
law;  draughtsmen  and  other  employees  in  the  Su- 
pervising, Architect's  Office,  and  Engineer  De- 
partment, and  employees  in  other  technical  or 
scientific  bureaus  or  divisions  of  the  service.  Rule 
7,  clause  5,  provide:  for  the  special  examinations 
for  such  places.  Special  Boards  of  Examiners 
have  already  been  designated  in.  the  State  Depart- 
ment, the  Patent  Office,  and  the  Pension  Bureau. 
Special  examinations  have  been  held  of  a  teleg- 
rapher for  the  Department  of  Justice,  and  a  tele- 
graphic draughtsman  for  the  Engineer  Department. 

QUESTIONS    AND    EXAMINATIONS 

In  order  to  secure  uniformity  and  justice,  the 
questions  for  the  examinations  are  almost  invari- 
ably prepared  by  the  Commission;  those  for  any 
Examining  Board  outside  Washington  being  for- 
warded for  its  use  just  before  any  examination  is 
to  be  held.  They  are  printed  upon  sheets  with 
adequate  space  below  each  question  for  writing  or 
solution.  The  applicant  gets  her  first  knowledge 
of  the  question  as  the  sheets  are  given  her,  one 
after  the  otuer  as  her  work  advances,  at  her  ex- 
amination table.  The  examinations  are  open  to 
such  spectators  as  can  be  accommodated  without 
interfering  with  the  quiet  due  to  those  being  ex- 
amined, but  the  answers  are  not  exhibited  without 
the  consent  of  the  person  who .  wrote  them.  The 
question  sheets,  with  answers  thereon,  are  pre- 
served as  a  part  of  the  permanent  records  of  the 
Commission,  so  that  the  fairness  of  the  marking 
and  grading  can  be  tested  as  well  a  year  as  a  week 
after  they  are  made.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
add  that,  except  in  the  very  few  examinations 
needed  for  places  requiring  technical  or  scientific 
knowledge,  no  very  difficult  questions  have  been 
used.  The  examples  in  arithmetic  do  not  go  be- 
yond the  needs  of  the  public  business.  .Every 
question  in  geography,  history,  or  Government 
is  confined  to  that  of  the  United  States.  Not  a 
word  of  a  foreign  language,  nor  a  technical  term 
of  art  or  science,  nor  any  example  in  algebra,  ge- 
ometry, or  trigonometry,  has  been  employed  in 
any  one  of  the  general  or  limited  examinations; 
and  these  examinations  alone  are  used  for  at 
least  ninety-five  out  of  every  hundred  places  with- 
in the  classified  service. 

CERTIFYING   FOR    APPOINTMENT 

Those  who  huve  attained  a  grade  showing  fit- 
ness for  appointment  at  Washington  are  placed 


CIVIL   SERVICE    RULES 


799 


upon  the  proper  register  kept  by  the  Commission 
for  the  service  there;  and  at  other  places  by  the 
Examining  Board  at  each  place.  (See  Rules  13, 
14,  and  16,  and  Regulations  4  to  10.)  These  reg- 
isters are  permanent  books  of  record,  showing  the 
age,  grade,  residence,  date  of  entry  thereon  as 
eligible  for  appointment  for  all  parts  and  grades 
of  the  service.  When  a  vacancy  occurs  at  Wash- 
ington, the  Commission,  and  when  at  a  post-office 
or  customs  office  the  Examining  Board  of  the 
•ame,  certifies  from  the  proper  register  four  per- 
•ons  who  are  graded  highest  among  those  entered 
thereon  for  the  grade  or  part  of  the  service  in 
which  the  vacancy  exists.  In  the  latter  offices, 
where  no  appointment  is  required,  the  four  graded 
highest  must  in  every  case  be  certified.  At  Wash- 
ington, the  Commission  takes  the  four  names  from 
the  list  of  those  from  one  or  more  States  (having 
names  upon  the  register)  which  have  the  strong- 
est claim  on  the  basis  of  the  appointment.  But 
the  highest  in  the  grade,  from  the  State  or  States 
which  have  such  claim,  must  be  taken;  and  the 
whole  action  in  that  regard  appears  on  record.  The 
grade  is  won  by  the  applicant  herself.  The  order 
of  selection  is  fixed  by  the  law  and  the  rules. 
This  excludes  both  favor  and  patronage. 

WOMEN    IN    THE    SERVICE 

Nowhere,  on  the  part  of  the  Commission  or  its 
subordinates,  is  there  any  favor  or  disadvantage 
allowed  by  reason  of  sex.  Only  under  free,  open, 
competitive  examinations  have  the  worthiest  women 
the  opportunities,  and  the  Government  the  pro- 
tection, which  arise  from  allowing  character  and 
capacity  to  win  the  precedence  and  the  places 
their  due.  The  need  for  political  influence,  or 
for  importunate  solicitations,  especially  disagree- 
able to  women,  for  securing  appointments  in  the 
classified  service,  exists  no  longer.  Rule  16,  clause 
3,  controls  the  certification  of  women  for  appoint- 
ment so  completely  that  the  Commission  has  no 
discretion  on  the  subject.  The  law  in  force  be- 
fore the  passage  of  the  Civil  Service  Act  gave  the 
heads  of  Departments  authority  to  decide  when 
women  are  required  or  can  be  accepted.  Both 
the  Civil  Service  Act  and  the  Rules  leave  that 
authority  unimpaired. 

In  order  to  prevent  disappointment,  we  ought 
to  add  that,  perhaps  because  the  examinations 
naturally  appeal  to  the  hopes  and  the  ambition  of 
women,  a  greater  number  of  them,  in  proportion 
to  the  places  treated  by  the  Departments  as  open 
to  their  sex,  has  been  examined,  and  hence  the 
number  of  women  waiting  to  be  certified  is  large 
in  a  like  ratio. 

REMOVALS 

The  power  of  removal  and  its  exercise,  for  just 
reasons,  are  essential  both  to  discipline  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  public  service.  A  life  tenure 
would  be  indefensible. 

The  Civil  Service  Act  and  Rules  leave  the  au- 
thority and  duty  of  removal  undisturbed,  with  this 
exception,  that  the  second  rule  forbids  a  removal 
for  refusing  to  perform  a  political  service,  or  to 
pay  a  political  assessment;  and  the  last  rule  adds 
every  violation  of  either  a  rule,  or  the  provisions 
of  the  act  against  assessments  to  the  good  causes 
for  removal  which  existed  before.  The  act  and 
rules  have  greatly  diminished  the  pressure  upon 
appointing  officers  for  removals,  and  have  taken 
from  them  the  temptation  to  make  removals  of 
their  own  motion  for  the  mere  purpose  of  making 
a  vacancy  for  a  favorite.  Many  removals,  and 
those  the  most  indefensible  in  former  years,  were 
unquestionably  made  not  because  the  person  re- 


moved was  not  a  useful  public  servant,  but  be- 
cause some  powerful  influence  was  'to  be  concili- 
ated, some  friend  was  to  be  gratified,  or  some 
dangerous  enemy  was  to  be  placated  by  putting  a 
particular  person  in  the  vacancy. 

Nevertheless,  save  in  the  particulars  mentioned, 
the  power  to  remove  for  even  most  partisan  and 
selfish  reasons  remains  unchanged.  The  changes 
are  only  in  the  opportunity  of  filling  the  vacancy 
with  favorites  and  henchmen,  and  in  the  greater 
peril  from  a  frowning,  hostile  public  opinion. 

PROMOTIONS      AND      OTHER      EXCEPTIONS      FROM      THE 
RULES 

Rule  19,  recognizing  needs  in  the  public  service 
familiar  to  those  acquainted  with  the  conditions 
of  good  administration,  allows  the  applicant  for 
certain  places  to  be  appointed  without  examination. 
The  confidential  or  fiduciary  relations  sustained 
by  those  who  fill  some  of  these  places,  the  occa- 
sional need  of  employing  persons  of  professional 
standing  or  of  peculiar  capacity  in  others,  and  the 
lack  of  temptation  for  disregarding  the  public  in- 
terests in  filling  others,  are  the  reasons  for  all  but 
one  of  these  exceptions. 

The  entire  exceptions  (outside  those  relat- 
ing to  promotions),  cover  but  few  places — not  ex- 
ceeding 135  in  all  the  Departments  at  Washing- 
ton; and  in  the  postal  and  customs  service  the 
ratio  of  excepted  places  is  smaller  still. 

PROBATION 

The  rules  provide  for  a  probationary  service  of 
six  months  before  any  absolute  appointment  can 
be  made.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  appointee 
goes  out  of  the  service,  unless  then  reappointed. 
During  the  probation,  the  character  of  the  ser- 
vice rendered  by  the  probationer,  and  her  fidelity, 
are  carefully  observed,  as  the  question  of  a  per- 
manent appointment  depends  upon  them. 

The  probation  is  a  practical  scrutiny  continued 
through  six  months  in  the  very  work  which  the  ap- 
plicant is  to  do.  This  part  of  the  system  meets 
oft-repeated  objections  based  on  the  assumption 
that  no  merely  literary  examination  can  show  all 
the  qualities  required  in  a  good  officer.  Nobody 
pretends  that  an  examination  in  any  branch  of 
learning  is  an  adequate  test  of  business  capacity. 
Congress  clearly  recognized  its  inadequacy,  and 
therefore  provided  that  in  all  cases  there  shall  be 
a  period  of  probation  before  any  absolute  appoint- 
ment or  employment.  Instead  of  this  practical 
test  being  foreign  to  the  competitive  system,  it 
is  original  with  that  system,  and  is  everywhere 
an  important  part  of  it. 

It  has  been  shown,  moreover,  upon  each  of  the 
several  trials  of  competitive  examinations,  that  in 
a  large  majority  of  instances  the  superior  men  in 
the  competitions  are  also  the  superior  men  in  the 
public  work.  The  proportion,  among  the  bright 
minds,  of  thos  who  have  good  business  capacity, 
is  at  least  as  great  as  the  proportion  of  those  hav- 
ing that  capacity  among  men  of  very  dull  minds. 
Between  these  extremes,  they  who  excel  in  the 
schools  do  so  by  reason  of  the  fidelity,  patient 
labor,  and  good  habits — qualities  which  also  fit 
them  for  the  public  service. 

The  first  person  to  enter  the  public  service  any- 
where under  the  present  rules — a  young  man  at 
the  Post-Office  at  St.  Louis — was  the  first  in  the 
competition,  and  he  was  the  first  to  be  promoted 
for  merit  at  the  end  of  his  probation.  The  first 
person  appointed  under  the  rules  to  a  department 
at  Washington  was  a  lady  who  stood  first  on  the 
competitive  list  of  her  sex. 


COMMERCE  AND  MONEY 


COMMERCE  of  all  grades,  from  the  limited  trade  of  a  country  store 
to  the  traffic  between  nations,  demands  some  definite  and  recog- 
nized medium  of  exchange.      After  human  society  had  emerged 
from  its  most  primitive  form,  it  rapidly  outgrew  the  possibility  of  con- 
ducting business  by  simple  exchange  of  commodities.     Consequently,  money 
in  its  most  rudimentary  shapes  appeared  in  history,  and  the  development 
has  continued  to  the  present  day,  as  will  be  learned  in  these  pages. 


SKINS  of  wild  animals  cured  constitute 
one  of  the  earliest  forms  of  currency 
known,  and  while  employed  in  the  most 
ancient  times,  are  not  yet  disused  in  some 
portions  of  the  world.  Such  a  medium 
seems  appropriate  among  those  who  subsist 
by  the  chase,  as  all  primeval  peoples  must 
in  some  degree,  and  it  is  not,  therefore, 
surprising  to  find  that  in  the  transactions 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  Fur  Company  with  the 
Indians  the  unit  of  value  by  which  the 
price  of  other  articles  was  reckoned  was 
the  beaver  skin. 

Pastoral  people  employ  similarly  the  skins 
of  tame  animals,  originally  delivering  the 
entire  skin,  a  cumbrous  process  deficient  in 
convenience  and  economy,  but  finally  em- 
ploying a  small  disk  cut  from  the  leather 
as  a  representative  of  its  value.  Live  stock 
is  also  widely  employed,  as  it  has  been  from 
the  days  of  Abraham,  and  though  a  rude, 
it  is  still  a  substantially  uniform  denomina- 
tor of  value.  The  Greeks  stamped  the  image 
of  an  ox  on  a  piece  of  leather,  and  the 
image  had  thence  the  current  value  of  the 
animal  represented.  In  the  East,  the  camel, 
the  ass,  and  the  sheep  have  been,  ever  since 
they  were  subdued  to  the  uses  of  mankind, 
employed  to  reckon  possessions  or  determine 
the  amount  of  tribute  or  marriage  portions. 
In  Lapland  and  some  portions  of  Sweden 
(800) 


and  Norway  the  amount  of  wealth  possessed 
by  a  person  is  denominated  in  reindeer. 
Among  the  Tartars  the  number  of  mares 
similarly  determines  the  opulence  of  their 
possessors.  Among  the  Esquimaux  it  is 
customary  to  speak  of  one  another  as  worth 
so  many  dogs. 

Slaves  have  been  employed  to  determine 
ratios  of  value  since  the  state  of  bondage 
was  first  established  among  men.  In  New 
Guinea  the  slave  is  still  the  unit  by  which 
the  value  of  other  possessions  is  recorded, 
as  he  used  to  be  among  the  Portuguese 
traders  of  the  Gold  Coast.  The  Portuguese 
also  found  small  mats  called  libongoes, 
valued  at  about  il/2  pence  each,  employed 
as  currency  on  the  African  coast,  and 
bunches  of  red  feathers  serve  by  their 
comparative  stability  to  mark  the  fluctua- 
tions of  yams  and  breech-clouts  in  some  of 
the  tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Some 
tribes  of  North  American  Indians  found 
wampum  as  useful  in  their  rather  limited 
mercantile  transactions  as  the  merchant  of 
South  Street  or  Burling  Slip  finds  green- 
backs or  bills  of  exchange. 

Cowry  shells  are  still  extensively  used  in 
East  India,  Siam,  and  among  some  of  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Among 
the  Fijians  whales'  teeth  pass  readily  from 
hand  to  hand,  effecting  all  necessary  inter- 


COMMERCE   AND     MONEY 


801 


changes,  the  red  teeth  being  taken  at  about 
twenty  times  the  value  of  the  white  ones. 
Ornaments  of  all  kinds  have  in  all  times 
constituted  measures  of  value.  In  Egypt, 
Phoenicia,  Etruria,  and  many  other  ancient 
countries,  as  well  as  in  Ireland  and  North- 
umbria,  rings  have  been  found  which  were 
designed  to  serve  the  double  purpose  of 
ornament  and  currency,  and  the  same  dual 
function  may  be  ascribed  to  the  anklets, 
armlets,  and  ear-rings  which  are  worn 
throughout  British  India,  Persia,  Egypt, 
and  Abyssinia.  The  Goths  and  Celts  fash- 
ioned their  rings  of  thick  golden  wire 
wound  in  spirals,  from  which  various 
lengths  could  be  broken  to  accommodate 
the  varying  needs  of  traffic.  Gold  chains 
have  been  similarly  employed.  In  many 
countries  golden  beads  are  yet  hoarded, 
worn,  and  circulated,  fulfilling  thus  the 
triple  functions  of  money,  inasmuch  as 
they  constitute  at  once  a  store  of  value, 
a  standard  of  value,  and  an  instrument  of 
exchange.  Amber  was  used  as  currency  by 
the  savage  races  of  the  Baltic  in  the  period 
of  the  Romar  dominion,  as  it  still  is  in 
some  of  the  regions  of  the  East.  The 
Egyptian  scarabee,  carved  on  sard  or  ne- 
phrite or  other  precious  stones,  circulated 
freely  throughout  the  Mediterranean  coasts 
and  islands  probably  before  the  first  Phoe- 
nician coin  was  impressed ;  and  engraved 
gems  and  precious  stones  were  employed 
to  transfer  wealth  as  well  from  one  country 
to  another  as  from  hand  to  hand  until  a 
comparatively  recent  period.  In  Africa  ivory 
tusks  pass  to  and  fro  in  the  process  of 
trade,  rudely  defining  the  ratio  of  value  of 
other  articles.  Among  the  Tartars,  bricks 
of  tea,  or  cubes  of  that  herb  pressed  into 
a  solid  form,  pass  from  hand  to  hand  as 
freely  as  beaver  skins  do  at  the  trading 
posts  of  Hudson  Bay  or  the  Saskatchewan. 
Among  the  Malayans  the  only  currency  en- 
tirely equal  to  the  requirements  of  trade 
consists  of  rough  hardware,  such  as  hoes, 
shovels,  and  the  like.  Pieces  of  cotton  cloth 
of  a  fixed  length,  called  Guinea  cloth,  for 
a  long  period  constituted  the  unit  of  value 
in  Senegal,  Abyssinia,  Mexico,  Peru,  Si- 
beria, and  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  In  Sumatra,  cubes  of  beeswax  of 
a  fixed  weight;  in  Scotland,  hand-made 
nails ;  in  Switzerland,  eggs ;  in  Newfound- 
land, dried  codfish ;  in  Virginia,  tobacco ; 
in  Yucatan,  cacao-nuts ;  in  the  Greek  Islands 
and  the  Levant,  olive-oil ;  in  the  regions  of 
the  Upper  Nile,  salt,  have  all,  at  one  time 
or  another,  served  the  purposes  of  com- 
mercial interchange.  In  agricultural  coun- 


tries it  is  not  strange  that  corn  should  have 
early  been  adopted  as  a  measure  of  value. 
The  leases  of  the  great  school  foundations 
of  Britain,  Cambridge,  Oxford,  and  Eton, 
with  probably  many  others,  were  "corn 
leases,"  that  is,  specifying  that  the  rental 
should  consist  of  so  many  quarters  of  corn. 
In  Norway,  corn  is  deposited  in  banks  and 
loaned  and  borrowed  on  time  or  call  loans, 
as  money  is  with  us.  In  Central  America 
and  Mexico,  maize  was  long  employed  to 
serve  the  uses  of  currency. 

METALLIC  MONEY 

In  New  England,  in  the  early  colonial 
days,  leaden  bullets  were  employed  to  in- 
dicate value,  and  that  metal  is  still  coined 
and  circulated  in  Burmah.  Pewter  has 
often  been  coined,  and  in  many  countries, 
though  not  to  the  same  extent  as  tin.  In 
fact  tin  coins  are  not  only  of  immense  an- 
tiquity, but  their  impress  has  been  sanc- 
tioned by  government  authority  down  to  a 
recent  period.  The  Phoenician  mariners 
freighted  their  galleys  with  the  tin  of 
Britain  before  Carthage  was  founded,  and 
coins  of  the  same  oiled  the  wheels  of  com- 
merce in  the  marts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  be- 
fore Solomon  built  the  temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem. In  England,  as  late  as  the  period  of 
William  and  Mary,  tin  halfpence  and  far- 
things were  struck,  though  they  failed  to 
become  a  permanent  part  of  the  circulation. 
In  numismatical  collections,  series  of  tin 
coins  stamped  with  the  effigy  and  legend 
of  several  of  the  Roman  emperors,  are 
abundant.  In  Java  as  well  as  Mexico,  tin 
coins  were  once  current,  and  the  metal, 
measured  by  weight,  is  still  a  sort  of  legal 
tender  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca. 

In  all  civilized  countries,  gold,  silver,  and 
copper  have  always  constituted  the  main 
elements  of  coinage  and  the  most  familiar 
forms  of  currency.  The  ratio  of  value  be- 
tween the  first  two  has  probably  varied  less 
during  the  last  2,500  years  than  that  be- 
tween any  other  known  substances.  Copper 
has  fluctuated  more,  but  its  function  has 
always  been  subsidiary  and  limited  to  small 
transactions.  In  the  hierarchy  of  the  met- 
als used  as  coins,  gold  may  represent  the 
king,  silver  the  lord,  and  copper  the  slave. 
The  latter  is  now  practically  emancipated, 
bronze  and  nickel  taking  its  place.  Indium, 
osmium,  and  palladium  have  been  proposed 
as  substitutes  for  gold,  and  aluminium  and 
manganese  for  silver,  but  without  any  prac- 
tical result  thus  far.  Platinum,  which  is 
mainly  found  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  has 
been  coined  to  some  extent  by  the  Russian 


802 


COMMERCE    AND    MONEY 


Government;  but,  although  a  beautiful  and 
valuable  metal,  possessing  many  of  the 
qualities  to  render  it  acceptable  as  coin,  its 
employment  as  money  has  been  found  to 
be  impracticable. 

Great  numbers  of  alloys  have  been  em- 
ployed in  coinage,  and  indeed  it  may  be 
said  that  almost  the  entire  system  of  metal- 
lic currency  throughout  the  world  is  com- 
pose 1  of  alloys.  The  Tuscan  sequin,  the 
purest  coin  known  in  history,  contained  999 
parts  of  gold  in  1,000.  The  six-ducat  piece 
of  Naples  was  next  in  purity,  having  only 
an  alloy  of  4,  while  old  Byzantine  coins 
called  bezants  contained  an  alloy  of  14  parts 
in  looo.  Pure  gold  and  silver,  however, 
are  soft  metals,  and,  untempered  by  others, 
are  subject  to  serious  loss  by  abrasion. 
They  are,  therefore,  rendered  more  useful 
by  the  admixture  of  a  small  portion  of  cop- 
per, which,  in  the  English  system,  in  the 
case  of  gold,  may  be  expressed  decimally 
by  916.66,  and  of  silver  925  parts  in  1,000. 
Nickel  is  usually  alloyed  with  three  parts 
of  copper,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  its 
adoption  as  a  subsidiary  coinage  in  Ger- 
many, coincident  with  the  demonetization 
of  silver,  caused  it  to  advance  rapidly  in 
price,  while  the  latter  was  as  rapidly  de- 
clining. The  old  Roman  as  was  made  of 
the  mixed  metal  called  ces,  a  compound  of 
copper  and  tin,  and  in  quality  and  value 
not  unlike  bronze.  Brass  was  also  exten- 
sively used  from  the  time  of  Hiram  of 
Tyre  to  that  of  the  Emperor  Otho.  The 
old  Kings  of  Northumbria  coined  a  small 
money  called  stycas  out  of  a  natural  alloy, 
composed  of  copper,  zinc,  gold,  silver,  lead, 
and  tin,  which  the  metallurgists  of  that  rude 
northern  coast  had  not  enough  chemical 
skill  to  separate. 

Lycurgus  established  an  iron  coinage  for 
Lacedaemon,  not  only  making  the  coins  of 
such  weight  and  bulk  as  to  forbid  their 
export,  but  depriving  them  of  their  metallic 
value  by  causing  them  while  heated  to  be 
plunged  into  vinegar,  thereby  destroying 
their  malleability. 

While  these  coins  were  the  largest  of 
which  historic  mention  is  made,  the  Portu- 
guese rei,  too  small  to  be  actually  coined, 
is  doubtless  the  smallest  unit  of  value  in 
the  money  systems  of  the  world.  It  is  only 
about  the  nineteenth  part  of  an  English 
penny,  and  is  considerably  smaller  than  the 
Chinese  cash,  which,  of  actual  coins,  is  per- 
haps of  the  lowest  value  known.  In  Sweden, 
during  the  eighteenth  century,  huge  squares 
of  copper  weighing  between  three  and  four 
pounds,  with  a  s'amp  in  each  corner  and 


one  in  the  centre,  were  issued  as  coin,  and 
curious  specimens  of  them  may  still  be  seen 
in  numismatical  collections.  These,  with 
the  Maundy  money,  a  ^mall  portion  of 
which  is  still  annually  struck  at  the  British 
Mint  and  distributed  by  his  Majesty  in  alms 
probably  represent  the  extremest  'variatioi 
of  dimensions  known  among  modern  sys- 
tems of  coinage,  the  smallest  piece  of  the 
Maundy  money  being  a  silver  penny. 

The  Chinese  probably  illustrate  in  th/» 
most  extreme  manner  the  length  to  which 
loose  views  concerning  currency  can  be  car- 
ried. The  history  of  their  currency  presents 
that  mingling  of  the  grotesque  with  the 
tragic  which  most  of  their  actions  have 
when  viewed  through  Western  eyes.  Coined 
money  was  known  among  them  as  early  as 
the  eleventh  century  before  Christ,  but  their 
inability  to  comprehend  the  principles  upon 
which  a  currency  should  be  based  has  led 
them  into  all  sorts  of  extravagances,  which 
have  been  attended  by  disorder,  famine,  and 
bloodshed.  Coins  came  at  last  to  be  made 
so  thin  that  one  thousand  of  them  piled 
together  were  only  three  inches  high ;  then 
gold  and  silver  were  abandoned ;  and  cop- 
per, tin,  shells,  skins,  stones,  and  paper  were 
given  a  fixed  value  and  used  until,  by  abuse, 
all  the  advantages  to  be.  derived  from  the 
use  of  money  were  lost,  and  there  was  noth- 
ing left  for  the  people  to  do  but  to  go 
back  to  barter,  and  this  they  did  more  than 
once.  They  can  not  be  said  now  to  have  a 
coinage;  2,900  years  ago  they  made  round 
coins  with  a  square  hole  in  the  middle,  and 
they  have  made  no  advance  beyond  that 
since.  The  well-known  cash  is  a  cast-brass 
coin  of  that  description,  and  although  it  is 
valued  at  about  one  mill  and  a  half  of 
United  States  money,  and  has  to  be  strung 
in  lots  of  one  thousand  to  be  computed 
with  any  ease,  it  is  the  sole  measure  of 
value  and  legal  tender  of  the  country. 
Spanish,  Mexican,  English,  and  United 
States  money  are  employed  in  China;  they 
pass  because  they  are  necessary  for  larger 
operations,  and  because  faith  in  their  stand- 
ard value  has  become  established ;  but  these 
coins  are  accepted  and  used  simply  as 
stamped  ingots,  with  their  weight  and  fine- 
ness indicated. 

COINED    MONEY   OF    GREAT 
BRITAIN 

In  Great  Britain  money  of  the  current 
and  standard  coinage  is  frequently  signified 
by  the  term  sterling,  as  "one  pound  ster- 
ling," etc.  With  respect  to  the  origin  of 


COMMERCE   AND    MONEY 


803 


the  word  sterling,  there  are  three  opinions. 
The  first  is  that  it  is  derived  from  Sterling 
Castle,  and  that  Edward  I.,  having  pene- 
trated so  far  into  Scotland,  caused  a  coin 
to  be  struck  there,  which  he  called  Sterling. 
The  second  opinion  derives  it  from  the 
figure  of  a  bird  called  starling,  which  ap- 
pears about  the  cross  in  the  ancient  arms 
of  England.  The  third  most  probably  as- 
signs its  true  origin,  by  deducing  it  from 
Esterling;  for  in  the  time  of  Henry  III  it 
is  called  Moneta  Esterlingorum,  the  money 
of  the  Esterlings  or  people  of  the  East, 
who  came  hither  to  refine  the  silver  of 
which  it  was  made,  and  hence  it  was  valued 
more  than  any  other  coin,  on  account  of 
the  purity  of  its  substance.  The  denomina- 
tion of  the  weights  and  their  parts  is  of 
the  Saxon  or  Esterling  tongue,  as  pound, 
shilling,  penny,  and  farthing,  which  are  so ' 
called  in  their  language  to  the  present  day. 
The  term  sterling  is  now  disused  in  Eng- 
land in  all  ordinary  transactions,  but  is  still 
used  in  Scotland  to  distinguish  sums  from 
the  ancient  money  of  the  country,  as  re- 
ferred to  in  old  deeds  and  notices  of  pecu- 
niary transactions.  The  old  Scots'  money, 
previous  to  the  Union  of  1707,  was  in 
pounds,  shillings,  and  pence,  but  these  were 
only  a  twelfth  of  the  value  of  sterling 
money  of  the  same  denomination;  thus  a 
pound  Scots  was  only  twenty  pence  sterling. 
The  word  sterling  is  also  in  use  in  the  col- 
onies, to  distinguish  the  legal  standard  of 
Great  Britain  from  the  currency  money  in 
these  places. 

It  is  customary  to  estimate  the  purity  of 
gold  by  an  imaginary  standard  of  24  carats. 
If  in  a  piece  of  gold  weighing  24  carats 
there  be  1-24  of  alloy,  then  the  piece  is  one 
below  the  standard.  What  is  called  jew- 
elers' gold  is  seldom  purer  than  20  fine  to 
4  of  alloy — the  alloy  being  usually  silver, 
but  sometimes  copper,  which  gives  a  deeper 
red  tinge  to  the  metal.  Perfectly  pure  gold 
is  never  seen  either  in  trinkets  or  coins, 
for  it  is  too  ductile,  and  for  that  and  other 
reasons  requires  a  certain  quantity  of  alloy. 
Sovereigns,  and  other  modern  English  gold 
coins,  contain  one-twelfth  of  alloy,  but  this 
twelfth  is  not  reckoned  as  gold  in  point  of 
value.  At  present  the  gold  coin  of  Great 
Britain  is  issued  at  very  nearly  its  precise 
market  value  as  bullion.  A  pound  weight 
of  gold  of  22  carats  fineness  produces  coins 
to  the  amount  of  £46  143.  6d.,  which  is  about 
:he  price  at  which  bullion  sells  for  in  the 
market.  Thus  the  gold  of  that  country  is 
coined  free  of  expense.  In  coining  silver, 
the  government  was  allowed,  by  the  Act 


of  56  Geo.  Ill,  a  profit  or  seigniorage  of 
about  six  per  cent;  the  pound  weight  of 
silver,  which  should  produce  62  shillings, 
being  coined  into  66  shillings.  The  silver 
coins  being  therefore  of  a  little  less  real 
value  than  the  sums  they  represent,  they 
are  not  liable  to  be  melted  down  by  silver- 
smiths for  the  manufacture  of  articles  in 
their  trade. 

The  word  money  is  from  the  Temple  of 
Juno  Moneta,  in  which  money  was  coined 
by  the  Romans.  Pecuniary  is  from  pecus,  a 
flock — flocks  and  herds  of  animals  being 
originally  equivalent  to  money,  or  things 
constituting  wealth.  Cash,  in  commerce, 
signifies  ready  money,  or  actual  coin  paid 
on  the  instant,  and  is  from  the  French  word 
caisse,  a  coffer  or  chest  in  which  money  is 
kept.  Pound  never  was  a  coin;  the  term 
was  originally  employed  to  signify  a  pound 
weight  of  silver,  but  afterward  it  was  em- 
ployed to  mean  twenty  shillings  in  tale,  or 
by  counting.  Guinea  took  its  name  from 
the  coast  of  Guinea  in  Africa,  whence  the 
gold  for  it  was  originally  brought;  at  first, 
the  piece  was  current  at  twenty  shillings, 
afterward  it  was  equal  to  2is.  6d.,  and 
finally  settled  at  2fs.  In  the  present  day  the 
guinea  is  not  coined,  and  the  term  only  re- 
mains to  indicate  2is.  Honorary  fees  and 
gifts  are  still  usually  reckoned  in  guineas, 
though  paid  in  other  money.  Shilling  and 
penny  are  both  from  Saxon  words ;  the  penny 
was  first  coined  in  silver.  Groat  was  a  name 
given  to  silver  pieces  equal  to  four  pennies 
in  value,  coined  by  Edward  III ;  the  word 
groat  is  a  corruption  of  grosses  or  great 
pieces,  and  was  given  to  distinguish  this 
larger  coinage  from  pennies  or  small  coins. 
Farthing  is  a  corruption  of  fourthing,  or 
the  fourth  part  of  a  penny. 

COINED  MONEY  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES 

What  is  termed  money  in  the  United 
States  now  consists  of  gold,  silver,  nickel, 
and  composition  coins,  and  the  paper  cur- 
rency, in  bills,  issued  by  the  banks  under  a 
national  banking  law. 

In  compliance  with  the  first  section  of  the 
Act  of  March  3,  1873,  the  director  of  the 
mint  made  an  estimate  of  the  value  in 
United  States  money  of  the  standard  coins 
of  foreign  countries,  and  by  order  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  October  i,  1900, 
the  following  are  now  to  be  taken  in  es- 
timating the  values  of  all  foreign  merchan- 
dise made  out  in  any  of  said  currencies,  im- 
ported since  the  latter  date: 


COMMERCE   AND    MONEY 


COUNTRY 

MONETARY  UNIT 

STAND- 
ARD 

VAUXN 
U.  S. 
MONEY 

STANDARD    COIN 

Argentine  Republic. 

Peso  

Gold.. 

Goia. 
Gold.  . 

$    .96.5 
'30.3 

•  19-3 

•45-  1 
•54-6 

1.  00 

•45.  1 
.36.5 
.26.8 
•45-1 
4-94-3 
•»9-3 
4.86.6 
.19-3 
.33.8 
.32.4 
.19-3 
.49.8 

1.00 

•49 

.40.2 
.26.£ 
•48.7 
i.  08 
•Si-S 
•»9-3 
.26.8 
.19-3 
.04.4 
•  45-1 

Argentine,  i-a  A.,  Peso  and  divisions. 
20  crowns  and  10  crowns. 
Gold,  10  and  20  francs;  silver,  5  francs. 
Boliviano  and  divisions. 
Gold,  5  to  20  milreis;  silver,  1-2  to  2  milreis. 

Peso  and  divisions. 
Condor,  doubloon,  and  escudo. 
10  and  20  crowns. 
Gold:  Condor  ($9.64.7),  Sucre  and  divisions. 
5,  10,  25,  and  50  piasters;  silver,  i  to  20  piasters. 
S,  10,  20,  50,  100  frs.  ;  silver  coins. 
1-2  sovereign  and  sovereign. 
5,   10,  20,  50,  and  100  drachmas. 
5,   10,  and  20  marks. 
Sovereign,  rupee,  and  divisions. 
5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  lire, 
i,  2,  5,  10,  and  20  yen;  silver,  10,  20,  50  sen. 

Peso  or  dollar,  5,   10,  25,  and  50  centavos. 
Gold:   10  florins;  silver:   1-2  to  2  1-2  florins. 
10  to  20  crowns. 
Gold:  libra   ($4.86  1-2);  silver:  sol. 
i,  2,  5,  and  10  milreis. 
Gold:  Imperial  ($7.71.8);  silver:  1-4,  1-2,  i  ruble. 
Gold:  25  pesetas;  silver;  5  pesetas   (peso). 
10  and  20  crowns. 
5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  francs. 
25,  50,  100,  250,  and  500  piasters. 
Gold:  condor,   ($9.64.7);  silver:  peso. 

Bolivia  

Boliviano  
Milreis,  1,000  reis.  . 
Dollar  
Peso  
Peso  
Crown  
Sucre.  
Pound,  i  oo  Piasters 
Franc  
Pound  Sterling  
Drachma  
Mark  
Rupee,  15  to  Sov.  .. 
Lira  
Yen  (gold)  
Dollar  
Dollar  

ouvcr. 
Gold.  . 
Gold.  . 
Silver. 
Gold.. 
Gold.. 
Silver. 
Gold.  . 
Gold.. 
Gold.. 
Gold.. 
Gold.. 
Silver. 
Gold.. 
Gold.. 
Gold.. 
Silver. 
Gold.  . 
Gold.. 
Gold.  . 
Gold.. 
Gold.  . 
Gold.. 
Gold.. 
Gold.. 
Gold.. 
Gold.  . 

British  Pos.  in  N.  A  . 
Central  America.  .  . 
Chili  

Ecuador  

EflTVDt.  . 

Greece  

German  Empire.  .  . 

Italy  

Liberia  
Mexico  

Netherlands  
Norway  

Florin  
Crown  
Sol  
Milreis,  1,000  reis.  . 
Ruble,  100  copecks. 
Peseta,  100  centimes 
Crown  
Franc  
Piaster  
Peso  

Peru  
Portugal  

Russia  

Spain  

Sweden  • 

Switzerland  
Turkey  
U.  S.  of  Colombia.  . 

The  gold  pieces  are: 

1.  The  double  eagle,  or  $20  piece.    Coinage 
of  the  double  eagle  was  authorized  by  the 
Act  of  March  3,   1849.     Its  weight  is  516 
grains.     Its  fineness  is  900.     (This  technical 
form  of  expression  means  that  900  parts  in 
1,000  are  pure  metal,  the  other  100  parts  are 
alloy.) 

2.  The  eagle  or  $10  piece.    Its  coinage  was 
authorized  by  the  Act  of  April  2,  1792.    The 
weight  was  first  established  by  law  at  270 
grains,  but  was  changed  forty-two  years  af- 
terward, by  the  Act  of  June  28,   1834,  to 
258    grains,    where    it    has    remained    ever 
since.     Its   fineness   was   in   the   beginning 
made  916  2-3,  but  was  changed  by  the  Act 
of  June  28,  1834,  the  same  Act  that  lowered 
its   weight,   to  899.225.     Two  years  and  a 
half  subsequently  its  fineness  was  increased 
— less  than  one  part  in  a  thousand — to  900. 
Its  weight  and  fineness  have  remained  thus 
fixed  to  the  present  day. 

3.  The  half  eagle,  or  $5  piece.    This  ele- 
gant coin  has  undergone  the  same  vicissi- 
tudes as  the  eagle.    Its  coinage  was  author- 
ized by  the  same  Act  of  April  2,  1792.     Its 
weight  was  135  grains  and  its  fineness  916^2. 
By  the  Act  of  June  28,  1834,  its  weight  was 
reduced  to   129   grains   and   its  fineness  to 
899.225.    By  the  Act  of  January  16,  1857,  its 
fineness  was  slightly  raised  to  the  uniform 
standard   of  900.     Its   weight  and  fineness 
have  thus  remained  to  our  time. 

4.  The  quarter  eagle,  or  $2.50  piece.    This 
fine  coin  belongs  to  fhf   sr.me  family  with 


the  eagle  and  half  eagle.  Its  coinage  was 
authorized,  its  weight  and  fineness  corre- 
spondingly altered  by  the  same  Acts.  The 
statute  of  1792  made  its  weight  67.5  grains 
and  its  fineness  916^4.  Its  weight  was  re- 
duced to  64.5  grains  and  its  fineness  to 
800.225  by  the  Act  of  1834.  The  Act  of 
1837  raised  its  fineness  to  900. 

5.  The    dollar.      This    pretty    little    gold 
piece  was  created  by  the  Act  of  March  3, 
1849,  the  same  Act  that  authorized  the  coin- 
age of  the  double  eagle.     It  has  remained 
unchanged.     Its  weight  is  25.8  grains  and 
its  fineness  900. 

6.  Three-dollar  piece.     An  Act  of  Febru- 
ary 21,  1853,  established  this  irregular  coin. 
Its  weight,  77.4  grains,  and  its  fineness,  900, 
ar^  of  the  normal  standard,  and  have  not 
been  changed  by  subsequent  Acts. 

In  gold  coin  the  alloy  was  at  first  a  com- 
pound of  silver  and  copper.  It  was  forbid- 
den by  statute  that  the  alloy  should  be 
more  than  half  silver.  It  is  now  nearly 
all  copper,  owing  to  advances  in  the  art  of 
assaying  and  improved  methods  in  coinage. 

There  are  four  coining  mints,  located  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa;  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  Car- 
son City,  Nev. ;  and  New  Orleans,  La.,  the 
last  one  being  put  in  operation  on  January 
20,  1879.  The  largest  proportion  of  assay- 
ing and  refining  is  done  at  New  York  City; 
Helena,  .Montana;  Boise  City,  Idaho;  and 
Denver,  Colorado. 

In  the  closing  year  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury (1900)  there  were  3,587  National  Banks 


COMMERCE   AND    MONEY 


805 


in  the  United  States.  Their  combined  capi- 
tal was  $604,756,505,  but  this  amount  was 
augmented  by  a  combined  surplus  of  $253,- 
475,898.  On  this  total  amount  dividends  of 
$24^28,936  were  paid  out  of  net  earnings  of 
$40,151,038.  On  this  showing  the  ratio  of 
dividends  to  established  capital  was  about 
4.01  per  cent,  but  with  the  surplus  capital 
counted  in  with  the  regular  the  proportion 
of  dividends  to  the  amount  invested  was 
but  2.82  per  cent.  Even  when  the  earnings 
are  considered,  in  connection  with  their 
ratio  to  the  combined  capital  and  surplus 
of  the  National  Banks  of  the  country,  we 
find  that  these  earnings  represent  only  4.68 
per  cent  of  the  money  that  these  National 
Banks  carry  in  their  own  names. 

The  first  silver  coins  were  struck  in  1794 
(authorized  in  1792),  at  the  Philadelphia 
Mint,  and  consisted  of  1,758  dollars  and 
10,600  half  dollars,  and  a  few  half  dimes 
(5  cents),  more  for  curiosities  than  use. 
In  the  succeeding  year  the  issue  was  203,033 
dollars,  323,038  half  dollars,  no  quarters,  no 
dimes,  and  86,416  half  dimes.  In  1796  the 
mint  coined  only  72,920  dollars  and  3,918 
half  dollars,  with  2,948  quarters.  In  1797 
the  number  of  dollars  issued  was  2,776,  and 
the  mint  records  state  that  there  were  no 
half  dollars  and  only  252  quarters.  Dollars 
only  were  coined  in  1798.  In  1796  the  head 
of  Liberty  was  changed,  and  a  new  head, 
inferior  in  point  of  comeliness,  substituted. 
This  also  had  flowing  locks,  but  these  were 
bound  by  a  broad  fillet,  and  hence  the  name 
"fillet  dollars."  In  1798  there  were  no  halves 
or  quarters,  and  there  were  none  in  1799, 
nor  again  in  1800.  But  in  the  following 
year  the  half  dollars  were  commenced  again, 
being  of  the  fillet  series,  with  the  heraldic 
eagle  on  the  reverse. 

In  1804,  according  to  the  records,  19,570 
dollars  were  issued,  156,519  halves,  and  6,738 
quarters.  There  are  but  two  dollars  of  1804 
known  to  exist,  and  these  are  said  to  have 
been  struck  surreptitiously  from  the  original 
die  at  the  Philadelphia  mint  in  1827.  The 
value  of  these  two  to  numismaticians  is 
enormous;  as  high  as  $1,000  has  been  re- 
fused for  one  of  them. 

The  first  dollar  pieces  (1792)  contained 
416  grains  of  silver  of  892.7  fineness,  and 
this  proportion  was  maintained  until  1873, 
when  the  quantity  of  silver  was  reduced  to 
412.5  grains,  and  the  fineness  increased  to 
900.  The  fifty  cent  pieces,  from  1792  to  1837, 
contained  208  grains,  892.7  fineness,  and  the 
twenty-five  cent  pieces  a  proportionate 
amount;  and  both  were  subjected  to  a  re- 
duction in  number  of  grains  and  increase 


in  fineness  in  1873.  The  ten-cent  pieces 
contained  41.6  grains,  of  standard  fineness, 
and  now  bear  38.58  grains  under  the  new 
standard  of  fineness.  From  1851  to  1853, 
the  five  cent  pieces  were  composed  of  12,375 
grains,  750  fine,  and  from  1853  to  1873,  when 
their  coinage  was  abolished,  11.52  grains, 
900  fine.  The  old  copper  cents,  authorized 
in  1792,  contained  264  grains;  the  next  year 
the  amount  was  reduced  to  208,  and  three 
years  later  to  168.  As  a  purely  copper 
token  this  coin  was  abolished  shortly  after 
the  last  reduction  in  the  number  of  grains. 
The  two  cent  piece  of  April,  1864,  contained 
96  grains  of  copper,  zinc,  and  tin,  and  was 
discontinued  in  1873.  The  half  cent  pieces 
were  established  in  1792,  containing  132 
grains;  this  amount  was  reduced  in  1793 
to  104,  and  in  1796  to  84.  None  are  coined 
now.  An  Act  of  March,  1875,  authorized 
the  coinage  of  a  silver  twenty  cent  piece, 
containing  77.16  grains,  ooo  fine.  This  coin 
being  but  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  twenty- 
five  cent  piece,  led  to  such  a  general  con- 
fusion of  the  two,  that  in  1878  its  coinage 
was  stopped.  But  few  are  now  found  in 
circulation.  The  one  cent  piece  of  present 
use  was  authorized  in  1857,  and  consisted 
ol  72  grains  of  copper  and  nickel,  and  in 
1864  this  composition  was  changed  to  48 
grains  of  copper,  zinc,  and  tin.  Finally, 
the  five  and  three  cent  nickel  pieces  were 
authorized  in  1866  and  1865  respectively; 
the  latter  has  a  comparatively  small  circu- 
lation. 

SAVINGS  BANKS  AND  OTHER 

SCHEMES  FOR  POPULAR 

SAVINGS 

The  number  of  savings  banks  in  the 
United  States,  in  1900,  according  to  the 
report  of  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency, 
was  1,002.  These  banks  represented  6,107,- 
083  depositors,  or  considerably  less  thaft 
one  in  every  ten  of  our  population.  Their 
total  deposits,  however,  reached  the  sum 
of  $2,449,547,885.  In  Great  Britain  the 
number  of  depositors  was  larger,  viz.: 
9,493,838,  yet  the  total  savings  of  these 
depositors  amounted  to  only  $916,836,845.  A 
computation  of  the  deposits  of  all  the  pa- 
trons of  savings  banks  in  the  world  shows 
that  their  savings  amount  to  the  sum  of 
about  seven  billions  of  dollars.  France  paid 
Germany  an  indemnity  of  about  a  billion 
dollars.  All  the  savings  bank  depositors 
in  the  world  could  pay  this  indemnity  but 
seven  times.  In  the  United  States  we  pay 
little  attention  to  the  statement  that  an 


806 


COMMERCE    AND    MONEY 


individual  is  worth  $100,000,000.  Yet  that 
means  that  he  owns  one-seventieth  as  much 
as  all  the  depositors  of  the  world  have  in 
bank. 

Savings  banks  receive  and  take  charge  of 
small  sums,  the  savings  of  industry,  and 
were  instituted  for  the  benefit  of  workmen 
and  others,  who  were  able  to  spare  a  little 
from  their  earnings.  It  is  believed  that 
Quaker  thrift  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  led  to 
the  inception  of  the  idea,  and  that  the  first 
savings  bank  in  the  world  was  founded  in 
that  city  in  1816.  As  the  scheme  grew  in 
popularity  throughout  the  United  States, 
guardians  of  minor  children,  administrators 
of  estates  of  deceased  persons,  and  other 
holders  of  trust  funds,  found  the  savings 
banks  very  serviceable  as  places  of  deposit 
for  money  that  had  to  be  laid  away  for  a 
specified  period  of  time.  Hence,  the  exigen- 
cies of  business  transactions  forced  an  in- 
novation upon  the  original  plan.  In  the 
United  States  this  use  of  savings  banks  is 
still  maintained ;  but  during  the  past  fifteen 
years  Safe  Deposit  and  Trust  Companies 
have  been  numerously  established  for  the 
special  purpose  of  holding  funds,  both  in 
trust  and  in  legal  dispute,  besides  securities 
of  all  kinds,  jewelry,  diamonds,  and  articles 
of  like  value.  Thus  a  guardian,  an  ad- 
ministrator, or  a  society  will  invest  money 
in  Government,  State,  or  City  bonds,  or, 
if  permitted  by  the  terms  of  the  trust,  in 
real  estate  or  stock  of  various  corporations, 
and  place  the  bond,  certificate  of  stock,  or 
other  acknowledgment  of  the  indebtedness, 
with  a  safe  deposit  or  trust  company,  for 
safe-keeping.  The  savings  banks  are  al- 
lowed by  law  to  invest  their  money  in 
first-class  securities  only. 

The  average  rate  of  interest  allowed  by 
savings  banks  in  the  United  States  on  de- 
oosits  is  four  per  cent;  it  is  frequently  be- 
low that  rate.  Some  of  the  larger  banks 
will  not  permit  individual  deposits  beyond 
a  special  amount  at  one  time,  while  others 
decrease  the  rate  of  interest  as  the  amount 
of  deposits  increases,  claiming  that  their 
vast  aggregates  of  deposits  can  not  be  in- 
vested, under  the  law,  in  a  manner  that 
will  warrant  the  maximum  rate  of  interest 
after  paying  current  expenses. 

From  Philadelphia  the  original  concep- 
tion or  plan  of  the  savings  bank  extended 
all  over  the  United  States,  throughout 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  other  coun- 
tries. Several  Acts  of  Parliament  were 
successively  passed  between  1817  and  1828 
for  the  regulation  of  savings  banks  in  Eng- 
land; and  in  the  year  last  mentioned  the 


whole  of  these  were  consolidated  in  one 
statute  (9  Geo.  IV,  chap.  92).  This  Act, 
together  with  another  passed  in  1833,  con- 
ferring additional  and  important  privileges 
on  savings  banks  (3  Will.  IV,  chap.  14), 
constitutes  the  existing  law  relative  to 
these  establishments.  In  1835  the  Act  was 
extended  to  Scotland. 

Several  new  features  of  taking  care  of 
small  savings  have  been  instituted  that  de- 
serve mention  in  this  connection.  Let  us 
glance  first  at  the  operations  of  the  so- 
called  creditors'  loan  societies  of  Germany, 
founded .  by  Schulze-Delitzsch,  and  which 
practically  discharge  the  function  of  banks 
for  workingmen.  In  1878  these  numbered 
upward  of  1,800,  and  the  balances  reported 
by  929  show  aggregate  advances  for  the 
year  amounting  to  $375,000,000 — a  sum 
which,  distributed  among  the  laboring 
population,  should  have  afforded  material 
relief  in  a  time  of  financial  stringency. 

Impressive  testimony  to  the  stability  and 
usefulness  of  these  workmen's  banks  is  the 
success  with  which  they  withstood  the  then 
prostration  of  industry  and  commerce  in 
the  German  Empire.  Indeed,  the  system 
is  so  well  accredited  by  experience  that  it 
has  been  introduced  in  other  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, and  especially  in  Italy  and  Belgium, 
where  co-operative  credit  banks  have  be- 
come numerous  enough  to  form  unions  and 
hold  congresses. 

The  second  of  these  novel  schemes  is  the 
system  of  Penny  Banks,  introduced  into 
England  in  1857,  the  first  being  opened 
at  Greenock,  where  five  thousand  depos- 
itors availed  themselves  of  its  advantages 
in  the  first  year.  From  year  to  year  penny 
banks  have  been  on  the  increase,  and  from 
recent  statistics  it  has  been  shown  that  at 
the  present  time  progress  is  in  every  way 
satisfactory. 

Rapid  as  has  been  the  progress  of  the 
penny-bank  movement  in  England,  it  is  far 
behind  France  and  Belgium.  In  both  those 
countries,  school  banks  have  been  instituted 
with  much  greater  success  than  has  hitherto 
crowned  the  attempt  made  in  England,  and 
it  is  to  the  development  of  these  school- 
banks  that  the  marvelous  increase  in  the 
total  amount  deposited  in  savings  banks 
generally  is  to  be  attributed.  In  the  United 
States  school-banks  have  been  organized, 
thus  far,  in  but  few  places  throughout  the 
vast  educational  reaches  of  the  country. 
An  exhibit  of  such  a  system,  with  tables 
of  statistics  for  the  few  schools  in  which 
this  primary  instruction  in  saving  had  been 
introduced,  was  made  at  the  World's  Co- 


COMMERCE   AND    MONEY 


807 


lumbian    Exposition,    but    little    has    since 
been  accomplished. 

In  Belgium  an  admirable  plan  is  adopted. 
P'rizes  are  given  by  the  government  to 
elementary  scholars  for  general  proficiency, 
in  the  shape  of  a  deposit  book,  with  a  small 
sum  entered  therein  to  the  credit  of  the 
recipient.  In  this  way  good  conduct  is  re- 
warded, and  in  addition  a  practical  lesson 
in  thrift  is  imparted.  From  1873-75,  1,051 
deposit  books  were  distributed  in  this  way. 

This  leads  to  a  consideration  of  a  third 
scheme.  The  report  of  the  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral of  England  of  July,  1877,  gave  the  fol- 
lowing particulars.  During  1876,  authority 
was  given  for  one  hundred  and  seventy-two 
penny  banks  in  various  parts  of  Great 
Britain  to  invest  their  funds  in  the  Post- 
Office  Savings  Bank,  and  since  that  time 
the  progress  has  been  even  more  remark- 
able, one  hundred  and  seventeen  penny 
banks  having  been  authorized  during  the 
quarter  ending  March  31,  1877,  exceeding 
by  forty-one  the  number  during  the  cor- 
responding quarter  in  1876.  Of  these  two 
hundred  and  eighty-nine  penny  banks,  eigh- 
teen were  in  board  schools,  twenty  in  Sun- 
day schools,  and  thirty  in  other  schools,  one 
being  in  a  Poor-law  Union-school,  under 
the  management  of  the  master  and  chaplain 
of  the  workhouse.  Farthing  deposits  were 
received  from  these  pauper  children,  and 
as  much  as  £4  i8s.  was  invested  on  behalf 
of  the  penny  bank  between  April  and  De- 
cember, 1876. 

Since  then  the  attention  of  English  phi- 
lanthropists and  students  of  social  economy 
has  been  directed  to  the  conservation  of  the 
penny. 

Every  post-office,  being  a  money-order 
office,  is  open  for  the  purpose  of  the 
savings  bank,  during  the  money-order  office 
hours.  Deposits  may  be  made  in  amounts 
of  $i  for  any  number  of  dollars  (cents  not 
being  received),  provided  tti*e  "deposits  made 
in  any  one  year  ending  June  30  do  not  ex- 
ceed $300,  and  provided  the  total  amount 
standing  in  such  depositor's  name  on  the 
books  of  the  Postmaster-General  does  not 
exceed  $1.000  exclusive  of  interest  This 
provision  is  made  to  prevent  the  system 
from  clashing  with  the  general  banking 
business  of  the  country.  The  privilege  of 
purchasing  Government  bonds  is  allowed 
the  depositor,  so  that  if  he  desires  to  still 
use  the  Post-Office  Savings  Bank  after  he 
has  accumulated  $1,000,  he  can  have  that 
amount,  or  any  portion  of  it  not  less  than 
$100,  transferred  to  bonds,  redeemable  on 
three  months'  notice. 


THE  following  explanations  of  the  prin- 
cipal terms  used  in  commerce  will  illustrate 
the  mode  of  conducting  business  transac- 
tions. 

FIRM. — Every  business,  whether  private  or 
public,  is  conducted  under  a  specified  desig- 
nation or  title,  called  the  name  of  the  firm. 
This  name  may  be  that  of  a  single  indi- 
vidual to  whom  the  business  belongs,  or  of 
two  or  more  individuals,  or  any  title  which 
it  may  be  found  advisable  to  adopt.  Some- 
times the  name  of  a  firm  remains  long  after 
all  indicated  by  it  are  dead;  in  such  a  case, 
the  lusiness  has  passed  into  the  hands  of 
new  proprietors,  who,  though  legally  respon- 
sible for  its  obligations,  are  not,  for  some 
private  reason,  inclined  to  change  the  old 
and  well-known  title  of  their  firm.  A  par- 
ticular firm  or  business  concern  is  some- 
times personified  in  the  term  house — as, 
Such  a  house  does  a  great  deal  of  busi- 
ness, etc. 

COMPANY. — Two  or  more  individuals  en- 
gaged in  one  business  constitute  a  company 
or  copartnership,  each  individual  being  called 
a  partner.  Companies  are  of  two  kinds, 
private  and  public.  A  private  company  or 
partnership  is  organized  without  incorpora- 
tion, each  member  having  certain  duties  to 
perform  and  a  certain  share  in  the  concern. 
In  companies  of  the  private  and  common 
description,  no  individual  can  leave  the 
concern  at  his  own  pleasure,  for  by  doing 
so  he  might  seriously  injure  or  embarrass 
his  partners.  He  can  withdraw  only  after 
giving  a  reasonable  warning,  by  which  time 
is  allowed  to  wind  up  the  concern,  or  place 
it  in  a  condition  to  pay  him  back  the  capital 
which  he  has  risked,  or  the  profits  which 
are  his  due.  No  partner,  however,  can  trans- 
fer his  shares  to  another  person,  by  which 
a  new  member  would  be  introduced  into 
the  firm  without  the  consent  of  the  partners. 

The  profits  of  partnerships  are  divided  ac- 
cording to  a  specified  agreement.  Generally, 
in  the  case  of  partnerships  of  two  or  three 
persons,  each  receives  the  same  share  on 
the  occasion  of  an  annual  division,  but  in 
other  cases,  a  partner  may  not  be  entitled 
to  more  than  a  fourth  or  sixth  part  of  what 
another  receives.  The  amount  of  capital 
which  a  partner  invests  in  the  concern,  the 
service  he  can  be  to  the  business,  and  other 
circumstances,  regulate  the  amount  of  his 
share.  When  each  of  two  persons  sinks 
the  same  capital,  but  one  takes  the  whole 
of  tb~  trouble,  then  he  on  whom  the  trouble 


808 


COMMERCE    AND    MONEY 


falls,  who  is  called  the  active  partner,  is 
entitled  to  receive  a  stated  sum  in  the  form 
of  salary  over  and  above  his  share  of  profits. 
Whatever  be  the  share  which  individual 
partners  have  in  a  concern,  the  whole  are 
equally  liable  for  the  debts  incurred  by  the 
company,  because  the  public  gives  credit 
only  on  the  faith  that  the  company  gen- 
erally is  responsible.  He  who  draws  the 
smallest  fraction  of  profit,  failing  the  others, 
may  be  compelled  to  pay  all  the  debts. 

Public  companies  are  very  different;  they 
consist  of  three  or  more  partners,  or  pro- 
prietors of  shares,  the  aggregate  amount 
of  which  forms  a  joint  stock,  and  hence 
such  associations  are  called  joint-stock  com- 
panies. They  are  public,  from  being  con- 
stituted of  all  persons  who  choose  to  pur- 
chase shares,  and  these  shares  or  rights  of 
partnership  are  also  publicly  salable  at  any 
time  without  the  consent  of  the  company. 
The  value  of  a  share  in  a  joint-stock  com- 
pany is  always  the  price  it  will  bring  in 
the  market;  and  this  may  be  either  greater 
or  less,  in  any  proportion,  than  the  sum 
which  its  owner  stands  credited  for  in  the 
stock  of  the  company.  Unless  specially  pro- 
vided for  in  the  fundamental  deed  of  co- 
partnery,  every  member  of  a  joint-stock 
company  is  liable  in  his  whole  personal 
property  or  fortune  for  the  debts  of  the 
concern. 

It  is  an  axiom  in  commerce,  that  business 
is  much  better  conducted  by  single  indi- 
viduals, for  their  own  behoof,  than  by  com- 
panies of  any  kind;  as  respects  joint-stock 
associations,  they  are  only  useful  in  very 
great  concerns  requiring  enormous  capital, 
and  involving  serious  risk-  of  loss. 

CAPITAL. — The  capital  of  a  business  man 
is  strictly  the  amount  of  money  which  he 
embarks  in  his  trade,  or  trades  upon,  that 
is,  employs  for  buying  goods,  paying  wages 
of  servants,  and  liquidating  all  debts  when 
due.  Within  the  limits  of  his  capital,  busi- 
ness is  upon  a  secure  footing;  but  if  he 
proceeds  beyond  these  in  any  material  de- 
gree, he  is  said  to  be  over-trading,  and  is 
exposed  to  the  chance  of  ruin  or  very  seri- 
ous embarrassment.  Trading  beyond  the 
amount  of  available  capital  is,  nevertheless, 
a  prevailing  error,  and  causes  innumerable 
bankruptcies.  With  a  comparatively  small 
capital,  a  tradesman  may  carry  on  a  large 
business,  by  receiving  payments  shortly  after 
making  his  outlays.  By  this  means,  there 
is  a  rapid  turning  over  of  money,  and  small 
profits  upon  the  various  transactions  speed- 
ily mount  up  to  a  large  revenue.  For  ex- 
ample, if  a  tradesman  turn  over  his  capital 


twelve  times  in  the  year,  at  each  time  re- 
ceiving money  for  what  he  sells,  he  can 
afford  to  do  business  on  a  twelve  times  less 
profit  than  if  he  could  turn  over  the  same 
capital  only  once  in  a  year.  This  leads  to 
a  consideration  of  credit. 

CREDIT. — Credit  in  business  is  of  the  na- 
ture of  a  loan,  and  is  founded  on  a  confi- 
dence in  the  integrity  of  the  person  cred- 
ited, or  the  borrower.  An  individual  wishes 
to  buy  an  article  from  a  tradesman,  but  he 
has  not  money  to  pay  for  it,  and  requires 
to  have  it  on  credit,  giving  either  a  special 
or  implied  promise  to  pay  its  value  at  a 
future  time.  This  is  getting  credit;  and  it 
is  clear  that  the  seller  is  a  lender  to  the 
buyer.  In  all  such  cases,  the  seller  must 
be  remunerated  for  making  his  loan.  He 
can  not  afford  to  sell  on  credit  on  the  same 
favorable  terms  as  for  ready  money;  be- 
cause, if  he  were  to  receive  the  money  when 
he  sold  the  article,  he  could  lay  it  out  to 
some  advantage,  or  turn  it  over  with  other 
portions  of  his  capital.  By  taking  credit, 
the  buyer  deprives  the  seller  of  the  op- 
portunity of  making  this  profit,  and  accord- 
ingly he  must  pay  a  higher  price  for  the 
article,  the  price  being  increased  in  propor- 
tion to  the  length  of  credit.  It  very  or- 
dinarily happens  that  the  seller  himself  has 
purchased  the  article  on  credit ;  but  this 
only  serves  to  increase  its  price  to  the  con- 
sumer, and  does  not  prevent  the  last  seller 
from  charging  for  the  credit  which  he  gives 
and  the  risk  of  ultimate  non-payment  which 
he  runs.  Credit  for  a  short  period  is  al- 
most essential  in  all  great  transactions ;  but 
when  going  beyond  fair  and  reasonable  lim- 
its, it  acts  most  perniciously  on  trade,  by 
inducing  heedless  speculation,  and  causing 
an  undue  increase  in  the  number  of  dealers 
with  little  or  no  capital.  An  excessive  com- 
petition among  these  penniless  adventurers 
is  the  consequence;  each  strives  to  undersell 
the  other,  with  the  hope  of  getting  money 
to  meet  his  obligations,  and  thus  vast  quan- 
tities of  goods  are  sometimes  thrown  upon 
the  market  below  the  original  cost,  greatly 
to  the  injury  of  the  manufacturer  and  the 
regular  trader.  What  are  called  "gluts  in 
the  market"  frequently  ensue  from  causes 
of  this  nature. 

INVOICE. — A  bill  or  account  of  goods, 
which  is  forwarded  separately,  announcing 
the  date  of  their  despatch  and  the  particular 
conveyance  by  which  they  are  sent.  If  the 
seller  fail  to  forward  an  invoice  by  mail, 
and  the  goods  be  lost  at  sea  while  on  their 
way,  the  purchaser  is  not  answerable,  for 
he  is  not  supposed  to  know  how  or  when 


COMMERCE   AND    MONEY 


809 


the  goods  were  sent,  and  therefore  could 
not  insure  against  their  loss.  The  careful 
sending  of  invoices  forms  an  important 
duty  of  a  merchant's  clerk. 

Invoices  of  merchandise  imported  into  the 
United  States  are  required  by  law  to  be 
made  out  in  the  weights,  measures,  and  the 
currency  of  the  country  or  place  from  which 
the  importation  is  made,  and  to  be  verified 
before  a  consul  or  commercial  agent  of  the 
United  States,  if  there  be  such  officer  at 
the  place,  if  not  then  before  any  public 
officer  authorized  to  administer  oaths. 

BILL  OF  LADING. — A  formal  acknowledg- 
ment or  receipt  given  by  sailing  masters  for 
goods  put  on  board  their  vessels,  including 
a  promise  to  deliver  them  safely  as  marked 
and  addressed  to  their  designed  destination, 
always,  however, '  excepting  loss  or  injury 
by  the  act  of  God,  the  nation's  enemies,  fire, 
or  the  dangers  or  accidents  of  the  sea.  The 
certificates  generally  in  use  in  the  United 
States  except  only  the  dangers  of  the  sea, 
and  are  made  out  in  triplicate;  the  master 
retains  one  bill,  the  shipper  one,  and  the 
third  is  forwarded  to  the  consignee.  The 
receipt  of  a  railroad  freight  agent,  or  cap- 
tain of  a  canal  or  steamboat,  is  equivalent 
to  a  bill  of  lading  as  between  the  original 
parties,  but  in  the  hands  of  an  assignee 
there  is  a  distinction.  The  bill  of  lading 
is  assignable,  and  the  assignee  is  entitled 
to  the  goods,  subject,  however,  to  the  ship- 
per's right. 

LLOYD'S. — Lloyd  is  not  the  designation  of 
any  individual  or  of  any  company:  it  is  a 
name  used  in  reference  to  a  set  of  subscrip- 
tion rooms  or  coffee-house,  in  London. 
Formerly  the  place  of  resort  was  in  the 
Royal  Exchange,  but  since  the  destruction 
of  that  building  by  fire,  the  place  of  meet- 
ing is  in  the  neighborhood  of  that  locality. 
One  of  the  rooms  at  Lloyd's  is  devoted  to 
subscribers  who  follow  the  profession  of 
marine  insurers,  technically  called  under- 
writers, from  their  writing  under,  or  sub- 
scribing to,  certain  obligations  in  deeds 
presented  for  their  acceptance.  When  a 
person  wishes  to  insure  a  ship,  or  goods  in 
a  ship,  against  damage  or  loss  at  sea,  he 
offers  the  risk  to  these  underwriters,  and 
they  are  at  liberty  to  accept  it  for  a  specified 
premium.  The  policy  or  deed  expressive  of 
the  insurance  is  usually  signed  by  more  than 
one  underwriter,  so  as  to  divide  the  risk. 
Lloyd's  is  not  only  a  centre  point  in  the 
metropolis  for  all  sea  insurance  business, 
but  is  the  place  to  which  every  species  of 
intelligence  respecting  shipping  is  forwarded 
from  all  parts  of  the  world;  and  this  in- 


formation is  exhibited  publicly  in  one  of  the 
rooms,  for  the  inspection  of  all.  The  in- 
telligence is  for  the  most  part  sent  by  ap 
pointed  agents,  one  part  of  whose  duty  con- 
sists in  investigating  the  cause  of  damage 
to  vessels  and  taking  charge  xof  wrecked 
property  for  behoof  of  the  underwriters, 
whoever  they  may  be.  The  lists 'made  up 
and  exhibited  at  Lloyd's  furnish  authentic 
information  for  the  use  of  merchants  and 
shippers  of  goods  all  over  the  United  King- 
dom. 

INSOLVENCY,  BANKRUPTCY. — -When  a  per- 
son is  not  in  circumstances  to  pay  his  debts 
in  full  he  is  insolvent,  which  is  nearly 
equivalent  to  being  bankrupt ;  the  term  bank- 
rupt, however,  is  more  commonly  applied  to 
one  who  is  legally  announced  as  being  in- 
solvent. The  term  bankrupt  is  derived  from 
bancus,  a  bench,  and  ruptus,  broken,  in  allu- 
sion to  the  benches  formerly  used  by  the 
money-dealers  in  Italy,  which  were  broken 
in  case  of  their  failure  to  pay  their  debts. 
The  law  prescribes  a  certain  form  of  pro- 
cedure in  the  case  of  commercial  insolvency, 
which  has  the  effect  of  deliberately  investi- 
gating the  cause  of  the  misfortune,  and  re- 
lieving the  bankrupt  from  all  obligations, 
on  yielding  up  his  entire  property.  A  bank- 
rupt in  the  United  States  who  has  received 
a  discharge  or  certificate  from  a  competent 
authority,  being  released  from  all  pecuniary 
claims,  may  again  enter  business  for  his 
own  behoof  without  any  fear  of  molesta- 
tion; but  a  debtor  who  has  merely  taken 
the  benefit  of  the  Insolvent  Act  in  England, 
or  process  of  cessio  bonorum  in  Scotland, 
though  immediately  relieved  from  prison  and  , 
left  at  liberty  to  pursue  any  line  of  industry, 
the  property  he  -  may  accumulate  is  at  all 
times  liable  to  seizure  by  his  former  credi- 
tors. 

A  commission  of  bankruptcy  in  Scotland 
is  entitled  a  sequestration,  meaning  that  the 
property  of  the  bankrupt  is  officially  seques- 
trated, or  taken  possession  of,  for  behoof 
of  creditors. 

CUSTOMS. — The  revenue  duties  levied  on 
imported  goods,  usually  called  customs  du- 
ties. The  place  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ment at  ports  of  entry  where  vessels  and 
merchandise  are  entered  and  duties  upon  im- 
ported goods  are  collected,  and  where  ves- 
sels obtain  their  clearance  and  other  papers, 
is  called  a  custom-house;  the  collectors,  ap- 
praisers, surveyors,  naval  officers,  and  their 
deputies,  examiners,  clerks  at  the  head  of  di- 
visions, inspectors,  gaugers  and  weighers, 
but  not  subordinate  clerks,  are  called  cus- 
tom-house officers,  and  are  sworn  to  faithful 


810 


COMMERCE   AND    MONEY 


service;  the  persons  who  act  for  merchants 
in  the  business  of  entering  and  clearing 
goods  and  vessels,  and  in  the  transac- 
tions of  general  business,  are  known  offi- 
cially as  custom-house  brokers.  A  custom- 
house entry  is  a  statement  made  in  writing 
to  the  collector  of  the  district,  by  the  own- 
ers or  consignees  of  the  merchandise  on 
board  any  ship  or  vessel,  which  they  desire 
to  land.  While  the  taxes  or  duties  laid  on 
articles  produced  and  consumed  at  home 
are  generally  qualified  by  the  adjective  "ex- 
cise," and  are  best  known  in  the  United 
States  as  "internal  revenue"  taxes — the  tax 
imposed  upon  retailers  of  liquors,  wines,  and 
beer,  in  the  form  of  a  license  to  conduct 
such  business,  emanates  in  many  of  the 
large  cities  from  an  appointive  body  known 
as  a  Board  of  Excise — duties  is  the  official 
name  in  the  United  States  for  the  taxes 
levied  or  imposed  by  the  government  on 
foreign  goods  imported  into  the  country ; 
also  money  paid  to  the  government  on  ex- 
porting goods.  The  former  is  called  im- 
port duty,  the  latter  export  duty.  Foreign 
goods  are  said  to  be  bonded,  when  the  pay- 
ment of  the  duties  is  secured  by  a  bond,  or 
when  warehoused  in  a  government  store,  and 
under  the  control  of  the  collector  of  the 
port  until  entered  for  consumption  and  the 
duties  are  paid.  Bonded  warehouses  are 
buildings  in  which  imported  merchandise  is 
stored  until  the  importer  makes  entry  for 
withdrawal  for  consumption  and  pays  the 
duties,  or  until  he  withdraws  the  merchan- 
dise for  re-exportation  to  a  foreign  country 
without  paying  the  duties.  These  stores 
are  owned  and  conducted  by  private  in- 
dividuals, and  their  occupation  is  termed 
"the  storage  business."  Such  stores  are 
required  to  be  first-class  fire-proof  build- 
ings, and  to  be  used  for  no  other  business, 
and  they  must  be  approved  by  the  Secre- 
*ary  of  the  Treasury  before  receiving  any 
merchandise.  A  government  officer  is  placed 
in  charge  of  every  store,  at  the  expense  of 
the  owner,  and  the  business  is  conducted 
under  voluminous  provisions  and  require- 
ments established  by  the  government.  The 
officer  of  the  customs  detailed  to  take  charge 
of  a  bonded  warehouse,  and  under  whose 
supervision  bonded  goods  are  received  and 
delivered  from  the  store,  is  called  a  bonded 
store-keeper.  Goods,  wares,  and  merchan- 
dise imported  into  the  United  States,  sub- 
ject to  the  payment  of  ad  valorem  duties, 
are  required  by  law  to  be  appraised  at  their 
"actual  market  value,"  at  the  time  and  place 
of  export.  As  it  is  frequently  very  difficult 
to  establish  an  actual  market  value  in  a 


foreign  port,  many  goods  being  made  only 
and  expressly  for  foreign  markets,  and  not 
sold  or  offered  for  sale  at  the  place  of 
their  manufacture  or  shipment,  serious  liti- 
gations often  arise  between  the  merchant 
and  the  government.  This  difficulty  has  led 
to  the  recognition  by  the  commercial  world 
of  the  distinctions,  cash  value,  market  value, 
and  intrinsic  value,  although  the  laws  name 
but  one — the  "actual  market  value." 

TOI-NAGE  DUTY  is  a  duty  imposed  for  the 
purpose  of  revenue,  and  is  levied  upon  all 
vessels  engaged  in  foreign  commerce,  and 
also,  except  in  certain  cases  specially  ex- 
empted by  law,  on  all  vessels  engaged  in 
domestic  trade.  These  duties  are  required 
to  be  paid  by  vessels  before  clearance  papers 
will  be  granted,  or  on  their  arrival  before 
permits  will  be  given  to  discharge  their  car- 
goes. Tonnage  is  the  gauge  of  a  ship's  di- 
mensions, nominally  understood  to  be  the 
number  of  tons  burden  that  a  ship  will 
carry.  The  rates  of  duty  fixed  by  law  on 
each  article  of  merchandise  imported  from 
foreign  countries  form  the  tariff,  the  de- 
tails of  which  differ  with  every  country. 

DEBENTURE.— This  is  a  formal  certificate 
given  by  the  collector  of  a  port  of  entry 
to  an  importer,  for  drawback  of  duties  on 
imported  merchandise,  the  duties  on  which, 
when  the  merchandise  is  exported,  are  to 
be  refunded.  Debentured  goods  are  mer- 
chandise upon  which  the  drawback  has  been 
paid. 

•  BILL  OF  ENTRY,  a  written  account  or  in- 
ventory of  goods  entered  at  the  custom- 
house, whether  imported  or  intended  for 
exportation. 

BILL  OF  SALE,  a  writing  given  by  the  seller 
of  goods  or  merchandise  to  the  purchaser, 
by  which  the  seller  conveys  away  the  right 
and  interest  he  has  in  the  goods  therein 
named.  In  the  United  States  it  may  be 
given  without  a  seal,  but  the  laws  of  Great 
Britain  require  it  to  be  under  seal. 

BILL  OF  SIGHT,  in  England,  an  order  ob- 
tained by  the  consignee  of  goods,  of  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  which  he  is  ignorant, 
to  enter  them  by  bill  of  sight. 

BILL  OF  EXCHANGE. — The  common  bill  of 
exchange  is  an  order  drawn  on  a  person  or 
banking-house,  requesting  him  or  it  to  pay 
money  to  some  person,  or  to  the  order  of 
a  person  named  therein.  The  person  who 
draws  the  bill  or  draft  is  called  the  drawer; 
the  one  on  whom  the  demand  is  made  is 
called  the  drawee;  and  the  person  to  whom 
the  money  is  directed  to  be  paid  is  called 


COMMERCE   AND    MONEY 


811 


the  payee.  The  indorser  writes  his  name  on 
the  back  of  the  bill;  he  to  whom  the  bill 
is  transferred  by  such  indorsement  is  the 
indorsee;  and  whoever  is  entitled  to  receive 
the  payment  is  the  holder. 

(Vide  Forms  of  Commercial  Papers.) 

PROMISSORY  NOTE. — This  is  a  promise  or 
engagement  in  writing  to  pay  a  specified 
sum  at  a  time  therein  limited,  or  on  de- 
mand, or  at  sight,  to  a  person  therein  named, 
or  his  order  or  assigns,  or  to  the  bearer. 
If  the  note  is  given  with  a  specified  rate  of 
interest,  it  is  a  negotiable  note,  and  may 
be  bought  and  sold  without  difficulty. 

A  NEGOTIABLE  NOTE 

$500          NEW  YORK,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  2,  1901. 

Three  months  after  date,  for  value  re- 
ceived, I  promise  to  pay  John  Smith,  or 
order,  Five  Hundred  Dollars,  with  interest 

JOHN  BROWN. 

NOTE   NOT   NEGOTIABLE 

$1,000  CHICAGO,  ILL.,  Nov.  30,  1901. 

Nine  months  after  date,  for  value  re- 
ceived, I  promise  to  pay  John  Brown,  One 
Thousand  Dollars. 

JOHN  SMITH. 

NEGOTIABLE    NOTE    IN    MISSOURI 

$100  ST.  Louis,  Mo.,  Oct.  30,  1901. 

Three  months  after  date,  I  promise  to 
pay  to  H.  B.  Brown,  One  Hundred  Dollars, 
for  value  received;  negotiable  and  payable 
without  defalcation  or  discount. 

GEORGE  WILSON,  JR. 

A   CASH   DUE-BILL 

$50  BOSTON,  MASS.,  Nov.  16,  1901. 

Due  Ralph  S.  Johnson,  or  order,  on  de- 
mand, Fifty  Dollars,  value  received. 

CHAS.  I.  JACOBS. 

A   MERCHANDISE  DUE-BILL 

$75      SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL.,  Sept.  28,  1001. 

Due  John  F.  Morton,  Seventy-five  Dol- 
lars, in  merchandise  from  our  store. 

SMITH  &  TOWNLEY. 

• 

A   SIGHT   DRAFT 

$700         NEW  ORLEANS,  LA.,  July,  5,  1901. 
At  sight,  pay  to  the  order  of  Mrs.  Jane 


Wilson,  Seven  Hundred  Dollars,  value  re- 
ceived, and  charge  the  same  to  my  account. 

F.  G.  ALBERSON. 
To  FIRST  NATIONAL  BANK, 

Rome,  N.  Y. 

A  TIME  DRAFT 
$25  SYRACUSE,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  i,  1901. 

Thirty  days  after  date,  pay  to  the  order 
of  S.  E.  Buck,  Twenty-five  Dollars,  value 
received,  and  charge  to  our  account. 

MOORE  &  RICHARDSON. 
To  H.  V.  ROSE, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

A   BILL   OF  EXCHANGE 

i 
Exchange  for 

£500.      NEW  YORK,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  10, 1001. 
Sixty  days  after  sight  of  this  First  of  Ex- 
change  (second  and  third  unpaid),  pay  to 

the  order  of 

Stephen    G.    Reynolds Five 

Hundred    Pounds    Sterling 

Value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  ac- 
count       JOHN  Y.  STANTON. 

To  BARING  BROS., 

London,  Eng. 
No.  172. 

2 

Exchange  for 
£500       NEW  YORK,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  10,  1901. 

Sixty  days  after  sight  of  this  Second  of 
Exchange  (first  and  third  unpaid),  pay  to 

the   order  of Stephen 

G.  Reynolds Five  Hun- 
dred Pounds  Sterling Value 

received,  and  charge  the  same  to  account. 
JOHN  Y.  STANTON. 

To  BARING  BROS., 

London,  Eng. 

No.  172. 

3 

Exchange  for 

£500      NEW  YORK,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  10, 1901. 

Sixty   days  after  sight  of  this   Third  of 

Exchange  (first  and  second  unpaid),  pay  to 

the    order    of 

Stephen    G.    Reynolds Five 

Hundred    Pounds    Sterling 

Value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  ac- 
count         JOHN  Y.  STANTON. 

To  BARING  BROS., 

London,  Eng. 
No.  172. 


BOOK-KEEPING 


THERE  are,  properly  speaking,  only  two  methods  of  book-keeping, 
founded  on  distinct  principles — viz.,  Single  and  Double  Entry.  Sin- 
gle Entry  is  the  more  simple,  and  is  generally  adopted  by  shop-keep- 
ers and  others  who  deal  in  a  great  variety  of  articles,  where  the  sales  are 
small  and  numerous ;  and  to  such  it  is  peculiarly  applicable,  as  they  have 
seldom  time  to  record  them  particularly.  There  is  merely  required  a 
memorial  of  occurrences,  in  the  order  of  time,  with  a  Ledger,  in  which 
the  names  of  all  parties  between  whom  transactions  take  place  are  en- 
tered; debtor  and  creditor  accounts  of  each  party  being  arranged  on  the 
two  opposite  pages  which  are  presented  at  an  opening,  the  first  on  the 
right  hand,  and  the  second  on  the  left.  By  this  method  the  Ledger  is  de- 
fective, since  it  contains  no  accounts  of  cash,  bills,  or  goods ;  consequently 
it  affords  to  the  owner  no  knowledge  of  these  particulars,  but  only  re- 
cords the  debts  due  to  and  by  him,  with,  at  most,  the  accounts  of  stock, 
family  expenses,  and  shop  furniture.  The  Italian  method  of  Double  En- 
try differs  from  Single  Entry  chiefly  in  making  cash,  stock,  goods,  etc., 
parties  as  well  as  persons,  and  in  making  a  debtor  and  creditor  account  in 
every  transaction.  Thus,  if  cloth  is  sold  to  A,  A  is  made  debtor  to  cloth, 
and  cloth  creditor  to  A;  if  cash  is  received  from  B,  cash  is  made  debtor 
to  B,  and  B  creditor  to  cash ;  and  in  every  case  the  party,  whether  animate 
or  inanimate,  which  receives  is  debtor  to  that  which  pays,  and  inversely. 
A  double  entry  is  therefore  requisite  in  every  transaction,  and  a  balance 
may  at  any  time  be  struck  between  things  as  well  as  persons ;  and  in  order 
to  avoid  the  confusion  which  would  arise  in  a  direct  transfer  of  account 
from  the  Waste-book  to  the  Ledger  before  the  proper  relation  of  debtor 
and  creditor  in  each  transaction  is  distinctly  ascertained  and  recorded,  they 
are  first  entered  in  the  Journal  in  the  same  form  in  which  they  must  ap- 
pear in  the  Ledger.  But  in  order  to  form  a  proper  criterion  of  the  exist- 
ing methods  of  book-keeping,  it  will  be  necessary  to  compare  them,  as  we 

will  now  do,  before  proceeding  further. 
(812) 


BOOK-KEEPING 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  AND  SINGLE   ENTRY 


AS  THE  Ledger,  when  kept  by  Single 
Entry,  contains  no  accounts  of  cash, 
bills,  and  goods,  it  consequently  affords  to 
the  owner  no  knowledge  of  these  particu- 
lars; but  these  must  be  collected  from  the 
subsidiary  books.  In  a  simple  trade,  such 
as  the  set  by  single  entry  which  follows 
this,  the  information  wanted  may  be  ob- 
tained by  the  present  arrangement  of  the 
Day  Book,  Cash  Book,  and  Stock  Book ;  but 
in  an  extensive  and  diversified  concern  this 
arrangement  would  by  no  means  be  advis- 
able, as  the  objects  in  question  could  not 
be  easily  and  concisely  obtained.  Posting 
from  a  number  of  books,  when  one  only  is 
necessary,  is  of  itself  an  insuperable  objec- 
tion, because  it  is  more  liable  to  errors 
and  omissions ;  and  from  the  unsightly  ap- 
pearance these  books  would  exhibit  by  the 
multiplicity  of  figures,  the  eye  would  soon 
become  fatigued  and  bewildered.  It  is  both 
a  slovenly  and  tedious  method  to  enter  each 
sum  singly  into  the  Ledger,  and  unneces- 
sarily swells  the  accounts  with  lines,  as  by 
the  Italian  method,  which  increase  the  la- 
bor and  difficulty  of  balancing.  Besides, 
previous  to  taking  a  general  balance,  the 
number  of  entries,  such  as  interest,  com- 
mission, and  postage,  arising  from  the  ac- 
counts current,  must  unavoidably  be  made 
either  with  a  journal  entry,  or  each  en- 
tered singly  by  a  simple  transfer  from  one 
account  to  another,  which  is,  in  fact,  a 
double  entry,  and  would  be  both  awkward 
and  improper.  The  Cash  Book  might  be 
constructed  with  columns  to  show  the 
monthly  amounts  of  the  cash  received  and 
paid  on  account  of  bills  receivable  and  bills 
payable,  etc. ;  yet  the  information  in  other 
respects  would  not  be  obtained,  for  the 
amounts  of  the  sales,  of  consignments  and 
shipments,  etc.,  monthly,  would  not  be  shown 
by  Single  Entry. 

Although  the  Ledger,  by  the  Italian  meth- 
od of  book-keeping,  contains  accounts  of 
cash,  bills,  goods,  and  other  property,  yet 
the  arrangement  of  it  and  the  Journal  is 
by  no  means  adequate  to  the  purposes  of  an 
extensive  and  complicated  concern.  By  mak- 
ing all  the  original  entries  in  one  book, 
namely,  the  Waste  Book,  a  jumble  of  trans- 
actions so  heterogeneous  is  produced  as  can 
not  fail  to  render  the  business  not  only 
more  complex  in  itself,  and  consequently 


more  difficult,  than  if  a  separate  book  were 
kept  for  each  kind;  but  when  despatch  is 
required,  as  in  selling,  shipping  goods,  etc., 
the  greatest  inconvenience  is  experienced, 
as  only  one  person  can  be  employed  at  once 
in  making  the  entries.  But  the  principal  de- 
fects lie  in  journalizing  daily,  in  posting 
each  sum  singly  into  the  Ledger,  and  open- 
ing separate  accounts  for  each  kind  of 
goods.  Hence  the  impracticability  of  fol- 
lowing this  method  without  the  books  of 
an  extensive  business  falling  behind,  the  pa- 
tience of  the  book-keeper  exhausted,  or,  per- 
haps, his  health  destroyed.  Besides  swelling 
the  Journal  and  particularizing  the  Ledger 
to  an  unwieldy  size,  it  renders  the  balanc- 
ing of  the  latter  a  laborious  and,  in  most 
cases,  a  difficult  task. 

By  the  practice  at  present  followed  in 
the  counting-house,  the  Waste  Book  is  not 
recognized  by  that  title.  It  is  represented, 
however,  by  a  number  of  subsidiary  books, 
suited  to  the  nature  of  the  business  carried 
on,  each  containing  such  transactions  as  ex- 
clusively apply  to  its  title.  Thus,  a  Cash 
Book,  in  which  is  entered  the  money  re- 
ceived and  paid;  a  Bill  Book,  in  which  are 
recorded  the  bills  received  and  accepted ;  a 
Purchase  Book,  or  Invoice  Book  Inward,  in 
which  are  entered  or  posted  invoices  of  all 
goods  purchased;  a  book  of  shipments,  or 
Invoice  Book  Outward,  in  which  are  entered 
all  goods  shipped;  an  Account  Sales  Book, 
in  which  are  entered  the  particulars  of  such 
goods  as  are  sold  on  commission,  with  the 
charges  attending  them;  a  Day  Book,  in 
which  are  entered  the  sales  of  goods  on  the 
merchant's  own  account,  with  such  other 
transactions  as  do  not  apply  to  any  of  the 
above  books;  an  Account  Current  Book, 
containing  duplicates  of  the  accounts  as  they 
stand  in  the  Ledger,  with  the  particulars 
of  each  article  drawn  out  in  a  plain  cir- 
cumstantial manner,  being  exact  copies  of 
the  accounts  transmitted  or  delivered  to  the 
persons  whose  names  they  bear.  These  are 
the  principal  subsidiary  books  used  either 
in  inland  or  foreign  trade,  and  from  which 
the  Journal  or  Ledger  are  made.  The  di- 
vision of  the  Waste  Book  into  a  number  of 
books  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  business, 
is  a  valuable  modern  improvement,  both  for 
simplicity  and  despatch.  By  bringing  each 
kind  of  transactions  together,  and  dividing 

52 


814 


BOOK-KEEPING 


the  labor  among  a  number  of  hands,  the  ut- 
most simplicity,  accuracy,  and  despatch  are 
obtained. 

The  arrangement  of  the  Journal,  by  com- 
bining together  each  class  of  accounts,  and 
carrying  only  the  amounts  of  these  once  a 
month  into  the  Ledger,  not  only  simplifies 
the  Journal,  but  greatly  abridges  the  former 
of  these  books,  because  no  more  than  twelve 
lines  yearly  will  be  required  in  general  at 
the  accounts,  though  transactions  be  ever 
so  numerous. 

The  Ledger,  when  kept  by  this  method, 
may  therefore  be  considered  a  general  in- 
dex to  the  Journal,  as  that  book  is  to  the 
subsidiary  books.  By  this  means  the  case 
of  each  account  is  brought  into  a  concise 
point  of  view,  and  is  easily  examined,  with- 
out fatiguing  the  eye  with  a  multiplicity  of 
figures,  which  unavoidably  takes  place  when 
each  sum  is  posted  separately,  as  by  the 
Italian  method.  It  must  also  be  observed 
that  instead  of  opening  distinct  accounts 
for  each  kind  of  goods,  as  by  the  Italian 
method,  only  one  general  account  of  goods 
is  by  the  present  practice  opened;  for  when 
the  articles  are  numerous,  one  account  of 
goods  in  the  Ledger  is  quite  sufficient,  and 
will  be  found  to  answer  every  useful  pur- 
pose. In  an  extensive  business,  where  sep- 
arate accounts  for  each  kind  of  goods  have 
been  attempted,  it  was  found  difficult  to 
keep  the  Journal  and  Ledger  from  falling 
behind.  The  Stock  Book  is  the  proper  place 
for  every  particular  of  this  sort,  which  may 
be  kept  exclusively  by  one  of  the  junior 
clerks,  when  the  business  requires  it.  The 
result  of  the  general  account  in  the  Ledger 
of  goods  will  always  correspond  with  the 
particular  profits  and  losses  from  the  Stock 
Book. 

But  superior  as  the  present  practice  is  for 
saving  both  time  and  labor  in  posting,  it 
will  be  found  still  more  so  at  balancing  the 
Ledger.  What  was  formerly  a  laborious, 
and,  in  some  cases,  next  to  an  impracticable 
task,  where  that  book  was  posted  daily, 
namely,  to  bring  the  stock  and  balance  ac- 
counts to  agree  (chiefly  owing  to  the  nu- 
merous entries  on  the  property  and  nominal 
accounts),  is  by  the  present  method  com- 
pletely avoided,  and  that  which  was  before 
the  labor  of  weeks  can  now  be  accom- 
plished m  as  many  hours  or  days. 

It  will  be  of  more  advantage  to  the  learner 
to  procure  or  prepare  for  himself  several 
sheets  of  ruled  paper,  with  cash  columns, 
and  enter  each  transaction  in  the  order  of 
time,  than  to  trace  the  entries  m  the  Day 


Book  and  Cash  Book  which  we  have  pre- 
pared. In  the  first  case  he  will  find  the 
task,  as  he  proceeds,  familiar  and  interest- 
ing, while  his  knowledge  and  self-reliance 
will  be  increasing;  whereas,  in  the  other 
case,  he  will  acquire  so  superficial  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  accounts  that  it  will 
soon  vanish  from  his  memory.  The  Day 
Book  is  arranged  so  as  to  admit  of  entries 
bei.  z  made  both  of  sales  and  purchases,  the 
former  on  the  right  side,  and  the  latter  on 
the  left.  By  this  means  he  will  be  taught 
what  debit  and  credit  entries  are  before  he 
is  called  upon  to  post  the  Ledger,  and,  more- 
over, avoid  the  risk  of  carrying  error  and 
confusion  forward  to  the  last  stage  of  his 
work.  It  has  been  observed  that  in  an  ex- 
tensive business  it  is  preferable  to  enter  the 
purchases  in  one  book  and  the  sales  in  an- 
other; and  by  adding  these  up  monthly  the 
amounts  of  each  would  be  shown,  which 
would  enable  the  owner  to  extend  or  lessen 
the  purchases  as  circumstances  point  out. 
The  Day  Book  as  now  given  will  also  serve 
this  purpose,  only  that  instead  of  having 
separate  books  for  the  sales  and  purchases, 
they  are  here  arranged  in  one,  and  disposed, 
as  we  have  said,  in  the  form  of  debtor  and 
creditor.  It  therefore  follows  that  if  we 
add  at  any  time  to  the  credit  side  the  value 
of  the  articles  remaining  on  hand,  the  dif- 
ference between  the  sums  total  on  the  two 
sides  will  show  the  whole  gain  or  loss  upon 
the  goods,  and  by  entering  the  charges,  etc., 
attending  the  business,  with  the  discount, 
both  against  and  in  favor  of  it,  to  the 
proper  sides,  this  book  will  exhibit  the  re- 
sult of  the  whole. 

The  following  general  rule  is  sufficient  to 
direct  the  learner  respecting  debtor  and 
creditor.  The  person  from  whom  you  hny 
goods  on  trust,  or  receive  money,  is  Cred- 
itor; and,  on  the  contrary,  the  person  to 
whom  you  sell  goods  on  credit,  or  pay 
money,  is  Debtor. 

For  instance,  if  you  buy  goods  on  credit 
from  John  Carter,  "he,  being  the  deliverer,  is 
creditor  for  the  value,  and  when  you  pay 
him  for  them,  he,  being  the  person  who  re- 
ceives, is  debtor.  On  the  same  principle,  if 
you  sell  goods  on  credit  to  Philip  Meek, 
he,  being  the  receiver,  is  debtor;  and  when 
he  pays  you  for  them,  he,  being  the  deliv- 
erer, is  creditor.  The  same  rule  is  observed 
when  you  contract  or  discharge  a  debt  by 
any  other  transaction.  Thus  the  person 
who  becomes  indebted  to  you  is  debtor,  and 
:he  person  to  whom  you  become  indebted 
is  creditor.  In  the  same  manner,  the  per- 


BOOK-KEEPING 


son  whose  debt  you  pay  is  made  debtor, 
and  he  who  pays  a  debt  to  you,  or  for  you, 
is  creditor. 

In  the  Day  Book,  enter  on  the  debtor,  or 
left-hand,  page  all  the  purchases,  with  the 
discounts  allowed  by  you,  as  these  occur ; 
also  all  the  petty  expenses,  monthly.  Enter 
on  the  creditor,  or  right-hand,  page  all  the 
sales,  with  the  discount  or  interest  allowed 
to  you;  also  the  value  of  goods  on  hand  at 
balancing. 

The  Cash  Book. — This  book  is  very  use- 
ful, whether  the  Ledger  be  kept  by  Single 
or  Double  Entry,  in  order  to  show  at  all 
times  the  money  you  receive  and  pay,  and 
how  much  at  any  time  should  remain  in 
hand.  On  the  debtor,  or  left-hand,  page  is 
entered  every  sum  you  receive;  ana  on  the 
creditor,  or  right-hand,  page  every  sum  you 
pay.  The  difference  between  the  two  sides 
is  called  the  balance,  which  should  always 
agree  with  the  money  remaining  in  hand. 
This  book  is  generally  added  up  and  the 
amounts  set  down  at  the  end  of  each 
month ;  and  the  balance  is  entered  on  the 
credit  side  to  make  the  two  sides  equal,  and 
likewise  upon  the  debtor  side  of  the  suc- 
ceeding month. 

The  Bill  Book  is  divided  into  two  parts. 
In  the  first  are  entered  all  bills  which  you 
receive,  and  are  therefore  called  Bills  Re- 
ceivable. It  is  ruled  with  a  number  of 
columns  for  recording  the  several  clauses 
of  the  bill.  When  kept  correctly  the  blank 
spaces  in  the  last  column  toward  the  right 
hand  will  always  show  the  bills  which  re- 
main in  your  possession.  As  soon  as  a  bill 
passes  out  of  your  hands,  by  being  either 
paid,  discounted,  or  indorsed  to  another  per- 
son, it  must  be  marked  off  in  the  above 
column.  In  the  second  part  are  entered  all 
the  bills  which  you  accept,  or  agree  to  pay, 
and  are  therefore  called  Bills  Payable.  As 
soon  as  you  pay  a  bill,  it  should  also  be 
marked  off  in  the  column  toward  the  right 
hand ;  when,  of  course,  the  blank  spaces  will 
just  present  such  bills  of  yours  as  are  un- 
paid. 

A  dealer  who  does  a  cash  business  only 
requires  but  a  single  book — the  Cash  Book. 
In  it  he  enters  on  its  appropriate  side  all 
his  transactions :  on  the  one  side  all  he 
pays  out,  and  what  for,  on  the  other  all  he 
receives  and  its  vouchers.  The  balance  be- 
tween the  two  sides  will  at  any  time  show 
the  state  of  his  affairs.  Suppose,  for  in- 
stance, his  Cash  Book  shows  on  the  debtor 
side  a  total  transaction  of  $1,450.73,  and  on 
the  credit  side  $659.32,  the  difference,  $791.- 


1.450  73 

659  32 
Balance  791  41 

i,45o  73 

1,450  73 

To    balance 
brought  for- 
ward. .            .     7QI  4.1 

41,  is  the  sum  which  he  ought  to  have  on 
hand.  These  will  appear  on  the  Cash  Book, 
thus: 


Dr. 


Cr. 


The  transaction  of  which  the  foregoing 
forms  a  total  may  be  like  the  following : 


Dr. 


CASH 


Cr. 


1901. 

Jan.   i.  Capital 
2.  Safes. 

1,000  oo 
10   15 

Jan.  i.  Pd.  Smith& 
Co.    for 

3- 

8  94 

10   bbU 

4- 

17    20 

flour. 

52  50 

12    80 

2.  Expenses 

20  IS 

6. 

19   72 

3- 

IO  OO 

8. 

20    07 

4- 

19  SO 

9- 

10  15 

5. 

425 

n. 

24  44 

6. 

i  30 

12. 

18  41 

8.  Wa 

ges.. 

50  oo 

13. 

7  16 

9-  Exp 

enses 

24  oo 

IS- 

9    02 

10. 

19  72 

1  6. 

18  27 

n. 

oo  40 

17- 

21    06 

12. 

72  1  6 

19. 

26  81 

13. 

40  01 

20. 

41   94 

15. 

2790 

22. 
*3- 

73  20 
64  1  6 

1  6.  Wa 
17.  Exp 

?es.. 

:nses 

50  oo 
27  oo 

24. 

47  23 

18. 

1925 

20. 

7  '4 

22.  Wages.  . 
23.  Expenses 

So  oo 
178+ 

24. 

86  20 

$1,450  73 

$659  33 

A  single  operation  will  enable  you  to  as- 
certain at  any  time  the  state  of  your  affairs. 
Thus : 

Balance  of  cash   on   hand 79141 

Cost  of  goods  in   stock 20000 

991  41 

If  you  owe  anything  on  your  stock,  you 
must  arrive  at  the  result  differently.  Thus : 


Balance  of  cash  on  hand 791  41 

Cost  of  goods  in   stock 400  oo 

1,191  41 
Deduct  amounts  due   for  stock . . .    200  oo 


Balance    as    before 991  41 

So  if  you  give  no  credit,  but  sell  only  fof 
cash  over  your  counter,  you  need  only  the 


816 


BOOK-KEEPING 


one  book,  the  Cash  Book,  which  will  at  any 
time  you  wish,  if  correctly  kept,  show  the 
actual  state  of  your  business. 

But  as  very  few  tradesmen  or  dealers  con- 
fine themselves  to  a  cash  business,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  have  other  books,  so 
when  credit  is  given  a  Ledger  is  demanded, 
so  that  the  dealer  may  at  all  times  know 
not  only  what  cash  he  has  on  hand,  but 
what  money  is  owing  him. 

Suppose  you  are  a  bookseller,  and  your 
customers  keep  running  accounts,  you  will 


find  it  necessary  to  have  at  least  three  books, 
a  Cash  Book,  for  the  entries  of  the  moneys 
received  and  paid  out;  a  Blotter,  as  it  is 
usually  called,  for  recording  the  daily  trans- 
actions; and  a  Ledger  for  posting  the  ac- 
counts. 

A  customer,  say  Mr.  Robert  Walpole, 
comes  to  you  and  asks  how  his  account 
stands.  Looking  at  the  index  in  the  front 
of  your  ledger,  you  find  Mr.  Walpole's  ac- 
count on  page  96.  Turning  to  this  page, 
you  discover  the  following  statement: 


Dr. 


MR.  ROBERT  WALPOLE 


Cr. 


IQOI. 

1901. 

Tan 

a 

To  mdse  

66 

afi 

Tan. 

[Q 

2j 

By  cash  

80 

00 

7 

17 

My      acceptance      at      3 

16 

Your     acceptance     at     3 

months,  dated  April  10 

60 

(KJ 

months,  due  April   13.. 

50 

00 

10 

24 

Cash  paid  your  order  in 

favor  of  Brown  &  Co.... 

18 

'4 

144 

52 

130 

00 

The  debtor  side,  or  what  he  owes  you,  is 
$144.52,  and  the  creditor  side,  or  what  you 
owe  him,  is  $130.00;  the  difference,  $14.52, 
being  in  your  favor,  is  therefore  his  debit 


to  you.  If  he  pays  you,  enter  it  both 
on  the  Cash  Book  and  on  the  credit  side 
of  the  account  in  the  ledger,  thus  making 
it  balance. 


NARRATIVE    OF    TRANSACTIONS 

1899- 

Jan.    i.  Began  trade  with  $2,000. 

Bought  goods  as  follows: 

Of  J.  W.  Bouton $150  20 

Of  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co 241  oo 

Of  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co 300  oo 

Of  D.  Appleton  &  Co 124  30 

Sold   24   Annuals   over   the 
counter  for  ready  money, 

amounting  to 14  80 

Jan.   2.  Paid  J.  W.  Bouton,  Cash 80  oo 

Paid  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.  ditto.  120  oo 
Paid  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.  ditto.  150  oo 
Paid  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  ditto.    61  oo 
Accepted  the  following  bills 
drawn  on  me : 

J.  W.  Bouton,  at  2  months    40  oo 
Dodd,   Mead  &  Co.,  at  2 

months 90  oo 

A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.,  at  3 

months 60  oo 

D.     Appleton    &    Co.,     i 

month 40  oo 

Bought  of  A.  D.  F.  Randolph, 

goods,  value 198  64 


HOW  THEY   ARE  TO    BE   ENTERED 
IN   THE    BOOKS 

This  item  being  Cash  in  hand,  must  be 
placed  on  the  debtor  side  of  the  Cash  Book. 

To  be  entered  in  the  Day  Book  as  goods 
bought  at  the  time  of  receiving  the  in- 
voices. Each  name,  with  the  relative  amount 
of  invoice,  to  form  a  separate  entry. 

To  the  Dr.  side  of  Cash  Book,  as  ready 
money  received  for  goods. 

To  be  entered  on  the  Cr.  side  of  Cash 
Book,  each  name  and  amount  forming  a 
separate  line. 


To  be  entered  in  the  Bills  Payable  Book, 
on  separate  lines,  according  to  the  printed 
form  sold  for  that  purpose. 


As  before. 


BOOK-KEEPING 


817 


Jan.   3.  Sold  Tenter  &  Co.,  of  Phila- 
delphia, as  follows: 
120  Dodd,  Mead  & 
Co.'s  Hand  Books, 

at    200 24  oo 

80   Novels 26  oo 

40  Assorted  Books. .  24  oo 


Terms,  half  Cash,  half  Bills 

at  3  months. 
Received     from    Tenter    & 

Co.'s  house  in  town,  cash. 


7400 


36  20 


Idem,  bill  at  3  months 36  20 


To  be  charged  in  the  Day  Book,  explain- 
ing every  particular  relating  to  the  condi- 
tions of  sale,  and  how  forwarded. 


To  be  entered  in  Cash  Book  as  cash  re- 
ceived for  account  of  Tenter  &  Co.,  Phila- 
delphia. 

To  be  entered  in  the  Bills  Receivable  to 
the  account  of  Tenter  &  Co.,  Philadelphia, 
according  to  the  printed  forms. 


As  before. 

As  before. 
As  before. 


Sold  B.  Flock,  of  Pittsburg, 

42  assorted  books 50  80 

Received  from  Flock's  house 

in  town,  cash 20  oo 

And  a  bill  at  3  months  date.     30  80 
Jan.   4.  Sold  Roberts  Bros.,  Boston, 

36  Elements  of  Commerce.    74  32         As  before. 
Received  from  Roberts  Bros., 
of  New  York,  for  account 
of  their  house  in  Boston, 
their    acceptance    at    two 

months   for 

Paid  A.  D.  F.  Randolph  on 
account  of  what  I  owe  him : 
Bill  paid  to  me  by 

Flock 30  80 

Bill  paid  to  me  by 

Roberts  Bros.  ..  74  32 


7432 


Together 105  12 


Jan. 


Bought  of  W.  H.  Vernon,  20 
reams  of  paper 170  oo 

Sold  him  240  odd  volumes 
all  at 

Sold  for  ready  money  over 
the  counter,  6  vols.  Hume 
and  Smollett's  History  of 

England  6  60 

6.  Paid  trade  charges  and  wages 

this   day 4  22 

Paid  expenses  to  this  day. .       6  60 
Feb.    5.  Paid  cash  for  my  acceptance 

f  o  D.  Appleton  &  Co 40  oo 


Mar.    5.  Idem  to  J.  W.  Bouton 40  oo 

Idem  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.. ..     oo  oo 
Apr.    5.  Idem  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co....    60  oo 


As  before. 

This  is  a  very  peculiar  entry,  and  one  which  per- 
sons ignorant  of  book-keeping  will,  find  compara- 
tively difficult  to  arrange.  As  it  is,  however,  a 
transaction  which  occurs  continually,  due  attention 
ought  to  be  given  to  it. 

There  are  two  ways  of  entering  it — one  by  the 
Cash  Book,  the  other  by  the  Day  Book.  If  by  the 
former,  the  amount  must  be  first  entered  on  the 
Dr.  side  as  received  for  the  bills,  and  then  the  Cr. 
side  as  paid  to  the  parties.  This,  however,  is  a 
mode  I  do  not  like,  because,  in  the  first  place,  it 
is  not  a  cash  transaction  at  all;  and,  secondly,  be- 
cause an  entry  on  the  Dr.  side  of  the  Cash  Book 
is  obliged  to  be  created  in  order  to  balance  the 
other  on  the  Cr.  side.  An  entry  by  the  Day  Book 
is  far  the  best,  as  nothing  more  is  necessary  than 
to  charge  the  person  to  whom  the  bills  are  paid, 
with  the  amount  of  them,  in  the  same  way  as  for 
goods  sold.  The  latter  method  is  the  one  adopted 
in  the  examples. 

Day  Book,  as  before. 


82  30        As  before. 


As  before. 

To  be  entered  on  the  Cash  Book,  under 
the  head  of  Trade  Expenses. 

Idem. 

To  be  entered  in  the  Cash  Book  to  the 
charge  of  Bills  Payable,  specifying  the  num- 
ber of  the  Bill,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  having 
been  debited  with  the  amount  when  my  ac- 
ceptance was  givea 

Idem. 

Idem. 

Idem. 


818 


BOOK-KEEPING 


6.  Received     the     amount     of  To  be  entered  in  the  Cash  Book  to  the 

Tenter's   acceptance,   paid  account  of  Bills  Receivable,  specifying  the 

me  on  the  3d  Jan '.    36  3O    number,  Tenter  &  Co.  having  been  credited 

for  the  Bill  when  I  received  it  from  them. 

7.  Flock's  acceptance  returned  As  I  was  obliged  to  take  up  this  Bill,  in 

to  me  by  A.  D.   F.  Ran-  other  words  to  pay  it,  for  account  of  Flock, 

dolph,  to  whom  I  had  paid  who  ought  to  have  paid  it,  I  charge  Flock 

it,  it  not  having  been  hon-  in  the  Cash  Book  with  the  amount  I  pay 

ored  by  the  acceptor 30  80     to  A.  D.  F.  Randolph. 

&  Paid  one  month's  Rent 8000         In  the   Cash   Book,  in  the  same  way  I 

Income  Tax    20  24     entered  trade  and  other  expenses. 
City  Taxes.     15  20 
Nov.    I.  Sold  the  following  goods: 

Ramsden  &  Co 20  oo        To  be  entered  in  the  Day  Book,  as  before. 

S.    Green 18  24 

G,  Barrows 80  oo 

W.  Sinn 120  oo 

V.  S.  Brown '74  20 

Dec.    i.  Received  the   following  ac- 
ceptances, at  three  months : 

Ramsden  &  Co 2000        To   be   entered    in   the    Bills   Receivable 

S.  Green 18  24     Book,  as  before. 

G.  Barrows 80  oo 

W.  Sinn 120  oo 

V.  S.  Brown 74  20 

Dec.  20.  Bought  goods  as  follows : 

From  Leggat  Bros 52  20         To  be  entered  in  the  Day  Book,  as  before. 

From    Houghton,    Mifflin 
&  Co 200  oo 

From  S.  R.  Wells 192  40 

From   James    R.    Osgood 

&    Co 170  80 

Dec.  30.  Gave  my  acceptances  as  fol- 
lows, at  three  months : 

Leggat  Bros 52  20        To  be  entered  in  the  Bills  Payable  Book, 

To  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  200  oo     as  before. 

To  S.  R.  Wells 192  40 

To  James  R.  Osgood  &  Co.  170  80 


Having  entered  all  these  various  items  in 
their  proper  books,  as  explained,  we  proceed 
to  transfer  them  under  their  respective  heads 
in  the  Ledger,  which  is  technically  called 
POSTING.  First,  taking  the  Day  Book,  we 
post  all  under  the  date  of  the  1st  of  Janu- 
ary; then  follows  the  Cash  Book  in  the 
same  way,  and  finally  the  two  Bill  Books, 
care  being  taken  to  mark  the  proper  page 
of  the  Ledger  in  the  columns  left  for  that 
purpose  in  the  other  books,  and  vice  versa 
to  note  in  the  Ledger,  in  like  manner,  the 
folio  of  the  book  from  which  the  entry  has 
been  extracted.  Thus,  day  by  day,  all  the 
entries  in  the  Ledger  are  condensed  from 
these  four  books. 

All  the  items  contained  in  the  Cash  Book, 
Bills  Receivable  and  Payable  Books,  and 
Day  Book  having  been  properly  posted  in 
the  Ledger,  the  next  operation  will  be  to 
BALANCE!  This  is  generally  done  on  the 


last  day  of  the  year,  at  which  time  the  value 
of  the  stock  on  hand  is  taken.  By  reference 
to  the  Ledger,  it  will  be  seen  how  those 
accounts  are  ruled  off  which  balance  of 
themselves,  and  in  what  way  the  balances 
of  the  others  are  brought  down,  some  being 
amounts  we  owe,  and  others  due  to  us. 
The  balances  due  us  stand  upon  the  Debtor 
side,  those  we  owe  on  the  Creditor  side. 

Having  done  this,  we  next  proceed  to 
draw  up  the  Balance  Sheet,  by  which  we 
shall  ascertain  the  amount  of  profit  made 
or  loss  incurred  upon  the  year's  transac- 
tions, after  having  paid  all  expenses  and 
trade  charges.  In  order  to  do  this  prop- 
erly, we  must  collect  into  one  sum  all  we 
owe,  and  into  another  all  we  are  possessed 
of,  and  the  difference  between  the  two  will 
be  the  amount  we  are  worth.  The  amounts 
we  owe  are  to  be  found  in  the  Ledger  and 
the  Bills  Payable  Book.  The  amounts  due 


BOOK-KEEPING 


819 


to  us  in  the  Ledger,  also,  and  the  Bills 
Receivable  Book.  Besides  these  we  must 
reckon  as  assets,  Cash  in  hand,  as  will  ap- 
pear by  balancing  Cash  Book,  and  Stock 

Dr.  BALANCES 

AMOUNTS  DUE  TO  ME,  OR  ASSETS 


on  hand,  which  must  be  taken  at  a  proper 
valuation.  Below  will  be  found  a  GENERAL 
BALANCE  SHEET,  drawn  up  according  to 
these  instructions. 

3ist  December,   1901  Cr. 

AMOUNTS  I  OWE,  OR  LIABILITIES 


Folio  in 
Ledger 

Accounts  extracted 

Balances  as 
per  Ledger 

Folio  in 
Ledger 

Accounts  extracted 

Balances  as 
per  Ledger 

7 

B. 

Am 
U 

*   1 
h 
Bal 

Est 
h 

Bal 

\ 

pay 
chn 
hav 
of 

$2, 

$30 

80 

I 
3 

3 

4 

I 

L  1 
Doc 
A. 
D. 
A. 
VV. 

An 
n 

Bil 

d 

Bal 

V.   Bouton  

$3° 
3' 
9° 

22 
82 
87 

20 
00 
00 
60 
60 
00 

ount    of   book    debts    due 
>    me  

Id,  Mead  &  Co  

S.  Barnes  &  Co  

Appleton  &  Co  

D.  F.  Randolph  

H.   Vernon  

ount  of  book  debts  due  by 
e   

$30 
313 

1,390 

80 

44 

80 

28 

$343 

40 

40 

80 

44 

Sills      Receivable      in     my 

s  accepted  by  me  not  yet 
ae*   

ance   of  Cash  in   hand.  .  . 
imated   value    of   stock   in 
and     

ance  carried  down  

$958 
2,090 

ance  in  my  favor  

$3,049 

24 
44 

$3,049 

24 

$2,090 

Vhich     shows     that     after 
ing      house      and      trade 
rges,     rent    and    taxes,    I 
e  made  a  clear  net  profit 
$90.44    on    my    capital    of 

5OO. 

*  Enumerate  each  item 
Dr.                                                                      CASH 

*  Enumerate  each  bill  separately 
BOOK                                                                   Cr. 

1901. 
Jan.  i.... 

3- 
4- 

Feb.  x.  .. 
March  i. 

April  i... 
6... 

May  i.... 

* 

* 

6 
I 

* 

To  Capital  

$2,OOC 
14 

2C 

< 

80 

00 
20 

60 

1901 
Jan.  2.... 

6.... 

Feb.  5.... 
March  5. 

April  5.. 

7- 

8.. 

i 

2 

3 

4 

* 

* 
* 

* 
7 

* 

Bv  am't  paid  T.  W.  Bouton.  . 

$80 

I2O 
ISO 
62 

II 

00 

00 

oo 

00 

20 

20 
40 

Cash     received     for     goods 

Co. 
Co. 
es, 

l.  . 

Tenter  &  Co.,  received  for 
account  of  their  house  in 
Baltimore    

By  Trade  Charges,  Expens 
and  Wages  to  this  day. 

Balance  to  next  montl 

B    Flock 

Cash     received     for     goods 

$423 
$1,654 

$2,06; 

60 

$2,077(60 

$1,654 

40 

4O 

By    Bill     Payable,     No.     104, 

$40 
1,614 

(10 
40 

$1,654 

Balance    

To    Balance  

$1,614 

40 

$1,654 

$1,614 

40 

By    Bill    Payable,     No.     101, 

$40 
90 

00 
00 

$1,484 
3« 

40 
24 

By    Bill     Payable,     No.     102, 

Bill  receivable,  No.  101,  re- 
ceived  in  cash,   this  day 

Balance    

130 

$1,484 

$1,525 

04 

To    Balance  

$r,3le 

80 

$1,614 

40 

NOTE.  —  The  amounts  marked  in  the  folio  margin 
with  a  star,  are  not  by  single  entry    posted  in  the 
Ledger;   the  Cash  Book  alone,  under  that  system, 
oeing    quite    sufficient    for    their    registry.      Only 
accounts   with   persons   are   kept;    not    with   things 
as  in  Double  Entry.     At  the  same  time  they  may, 
if  wished,   be   posted  under  their   respective   heads 
as    matters   of   reference,    but  care   must  be   taken 
not  to  include  them  in  the  Balance,  of  which  they 
form  no  part. 

By    Bill    Payable,     No.     103, 

$6c 

3« 
8c 

2C 

IS 

M 

So 

00 

24 

20 

A.    D.    F.    Randolph    for 
Flock's  Acceptance,  due 
this    day   returned   un- 

One    month's    rent    due 
this   day  

City  Taxc1" 

$206 
1,3'S 

24 

80 

$1,522 

04 

820 


BOOK-KEEPING 


DAY    BOOK 

DAY    BOOK—  CoHtintud 

Folio  in 
Ledger 

T 

*5c 

20 

Folio  in 
Ledger 

_ 

$170 

00 

3«» 

Bought  of  J.  W.  Bouton 

Bought  of  W.  H.  Vernon 

i 

9 

a 

Bought  of  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

$240 

10 

9 

Sold  W.   H.  Vernon 
240  Odd  Volumes  all  for 

ffe 

3 

4 

Bought  of  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co. 

$3°° 

00 

60 

10 

Sold  Ramsden  &  Co. 

$*> 

00 

Bought  of  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

$124 

IX 

Sold  S.  Green 
Books    

$.8 

»4 

5 

Bought  of  A.  D.  F.  Randolph 

$188 

60 

12 

Sold  G.  Barrows 
Books    

$«o 

00 

6 

Sold  Tenter  &  Co 
Half  Cash 
Half  Three  Months'  Bill 
120     Dodd,     Mead    &     Co.'s 

«2 

*4 

00 
00 

00 

*3 

Sold  W.  Sinn 

$120 

00 

M 

Sold  V.  S.  Brown 
Books    

$74 

20 

40   Books   (assorted)  

*S 

Bought  of  Leggat  Bros. 

$S» 

oo 

00 

40 

80 

injt. 

Forwarded    by    Union    Ex. 

$74 

00 

16 

Bought    of    Houghton,     Mif- 
flin  &  Co. 

$200 

7 

Sold  B.  Flock 

ISO 

80 

.«.!- 

i? 

Bought  of  S.   R.  Wells 

$192 

8 

Sold   Roberts   Bros. 
72  Elements  of  Commerce. 
Forwarded  per  U.  S.  Express 

$74 

32 

80 

32 

12 

18 
N.B.—  Tl 

Bought  of  J.  R,  Osgood  &  Co. 
Goods  as  per  invoice  

le    folios   should    be    marked 

$170 

in    red 

5 

Paid  A.  D.  F.  Randolph 
Flock's      Acceptance,      due 
April    7  

$3* 
74 

Roberts   Bros'.   Acceptance, 

$107 

1901 


BILLS    RECEIVABLE 


Folio 

Number 
of  Bill 

On  whose  account 

Date 

Time 

When  due 

Amount 

6 
1 

10 

ii 

12 
»3 

'4 

101 
102 
103 

104 
'OS 

106 

r°7 
1  08 

Tenter  &  Co... 
B.     Flock  

January       3 

3  months 
3  

April   6 

$36 
32 
74 
$M3 

20 
80 

3» 
3* 

00 

24 

oo 

00 

20 
44 

Ramsden    &    Co  

4 
December 

March  7 

1900 
March  4 

20 

18 

83 

1*0 

74 

W.    Sinn  
V.    S.    Brown  



3  

4 

« 

$3" 

1901 


BILLS    PAYABLE 


Folio 

Number 
of  Bill 

By  whom  drawn 

• 

Date 

Time 

When  due 

Amount 

i 

9 

3 

4 

,1 

\l 

IOI 

102 

i°3 
*°4 

105 
106 
107 
108 

T.    W.    Bouton  .  . 

January       2 

2  months 

March  5 

$40 

9° 
60 

4° 

oo 
oo 

00 

oo 
oo 

20 

oo 

£ 

40 

Dodd,    Mead   &   Co 

A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co 

April    5 
Feb.     5 

1000 

April    2 

D.  Appleton  &  Co  *  

3 

Leggat    Bros  
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co  

December  30 
30 

3 

$230 

fS2 

200 
192 

170 

IS.  R.  Wells  

! 

30 

30 

3  

a 

$6.5 

BOOK-KEEPING 


821 


THE     LEDGER 


Folio  i                                                                    J.  W.   BOUTON 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                Cr. 

190*. 
Jan. 

2 
2 
31 

I 
I 

To    cash  

$80 
4° 
30 

00 
<JO 
20 

IpOI. 

Jan. 

i 

i 

• 
$15° 

Dec. 

To  balance  carried  down.  .  . 
To  bills  payable,  No.   101... 

'5° 

20 

15° 

Dec. 

31 

By  balance  brought  down.  .  . 

150 

Folio  2                                                               DODD,  MEAD  &  CO. 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                        Cr. 

1901. 
Jan. 

2 
2 
31  • 

I 
I 

To    cash  

$120 
90 
31 

00 

oo 

00 

1901. 
Jan. 

i 

1 
i 

$20  t 

To  bills  payable,   No.    102.. 
To  balance  carried  down  .... 

Dec. 

241 

00 

241 

Dec. 

3i 

By  balance  brought  down  .  .  . 

31 

Folio  3                                                               A.  S.  BARNES  &  CO. 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                        Cr. 

1901. 
Jan. 

2 
2 
3» 

I 
I 

To  cash  

$150 
60 
90 

oc 

00 
00 

1901. 
Jan. 

i 

i 

By   goods  .  .  .  . 

$300 

To  bills  payable,  No.  103.. 
To  balance  carried  down  .  .  . 

Dec. 

300 

oo 

30° 

Dec. 

3i 

By  balance  brought  down  .  . 

90 

Folio  4                                                              D.  APPLETON  &  CO. 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                        Cr. 

igoi. 
Jan. 

2 
2 
31 

I 
I 

To  cash  

$62 

4° 

22 

00 
00 

60 

1901. 
Jan. 

i 

z 

By   goods  

$124 

To  bills  payable,  No.  104.  .. 
To  balance  carried  down  .  .  . 

Dec. 

124 

60 

124 

Dec. 

3* 

By  balance  brought  down.  . 

22 

Folio  5                                                               A.  D.  F.  RANDOLPH 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                        Cr. 

MOI. 

Jan. 
Dec. 

4 
3» 

i 

To  two  bills  receivable,  paid 

$106 
82 

00 

60 

1901. 
Jan. 

i 

1 
i 

$188 

To  balance  carried  down.  .  .  . 

1  83 

60 

1  88 

Dec. 

31 

By  balance  brought  down.  . 

82 

Folio 
Dr. 

S 

TENTEI 

1  & 

CO 

.,   PHII 

*ADEI 

,PHIA 

Cr. 

1901. 

1901. 
Jan. 

By    cash  

$36 

I 

By  bill  receivable,  No.   101  . 

3^ 

$72 

40 

72 

Folio  7                                                     W.  SINN,  PARTSBURG,  WEST  VA. 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                       Cr. 

1901. 
Jan. 
April 

Dec. 

3 

7 

3' 

i 
i 

$50 
30 
81 
3° 

a, 

So 
60 
80 

(1901. 

Jan. 

3 
4 
31 

ii 

i 

$20 

3° 
30 

81 

To  your  acceptance  returned 

By  bill  receivable,  No   102. 
By  balance  carried  down  ... 

Dec. 

To  balance  brought  down... 

822 


BOOK-KEEPING 


Folio  8                                                           ROBERTS  BROS.,  BOSTON 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                        Cr. 

1901. 
Jan. 

4 

i 

To   goods  

_$74 

J« 

1901. 
Jan. 

t. 

i 

By  bill   receivable,    No.    103. 

$74 

Folio  9                                                                   W.  H.  VERNON 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                               Cr. 

1901. 
Jan. 
Dec. 

4 
3« 

i 

To   goods  

$8» 
87 

30 

00 

11901. 
Jan. 

4 

i 

$169 

To  balance   carried   down.  .  . 

169 

3° 

169 

Dec. 

3» 

By  balance  brought  down... 

87 

Folio  10                                                                 RAMSDEN  &  CO 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                                 Cr. 

1901. 
Nov. 

i 

i 

$20 

20 

1901. 

Dec. 

z 

i 

By  bill   receivable,   No   104.  . 

$*> 

Folio  ii                                                                    S.  GREEN 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                        Cr. 

1901. 

Nov. 

i 

X 

To   goods  

$18 

24 

1901. 
Dec. 

i 

i 

By  bill  receivable,  No.  105.. 

$18 

Folio  12                                                            GEORGE    BARROWS 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                                  Cr. 

1901. 

Nov. 

i 

i 

$80 

DO 

I9OI. 

Dec. 

i 

i 

By  bill  receivable,   No.    106 

$80 

Folio  13                                                                         W.  SINN 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                        Cr. 

1901. 
Nov. 

i 

i 

$130 

'JO 

I9OI. 

Dec. 

i 

i 

By  bill  receivable,  No.   107. 

$120 

Folio  14                                                                   V.    S.    BROWN 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                        Cr. 

1901. 
Nov. 

i 

i 

$74 

20 

I9OI. 

Dec. 

i 

i 

By  bill  receivable,  No.   108. 

$74 

Folio  1 5 
Dr. 


LEGGAT    BROS 


Cr. 


1901.  1901. 

Dec.      30        i     To  bill  payable,  No.  105....     $5220  (Oec.      30        i     By   goods. 


$52  20 


Folio  1 6 
Dr. 


HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  &  CO. 


Cr. 


1901.  1901. 

Dec.      30        i     To  bill  payable,  No.   106...    $20000    Dec.      30        i     By  goods. 


$200 


Folio  17 
Dr. 


S.    R.    WELLS 


Cr. 


1901.  1901. 

Dec.      30        i     To  bill  payable,  No.   107....  $19240    Dec.      30        i     By   goods. 


$192  40 


Folio  18                                                  JAMES    R.    OSGOOD    &    CO. 
Dr.                                                                                                                                                                                 Cr. 

1901.' 
D«c.      30 

i 

To  bill  payable,  No.   108... 

$i7o|8o 

1901. 
Dec. 

y> 

i 

*•- 

BOOK-KEEPING 


After  the  Ledger  has  been  duly  examined, 
and  it  is  seen  that  the  balances  are  struck 
and  brought  down  correctly,  proceed  to  ob- 
serve if  those  balances  are  transferred  prop- 
erly to  the  general  BALANCE  SHEET  at  page 
819^  which  is  the  last  operation  of  all. 

Beyond  this,  Book-keeping  by  Single 
Entry  "can  no  further  go."  It  is  only  a 
confined  system,  and  its  results  are  never 
demonstrated  or  proved.  Errors  of  omis- 
sion, of  addition,  and  of  wrong  posting, 
may,  and  in  large  establishments  do,  fre- 
quently occur  without  any  means  of  detec- 
tion, except  the  tiresome  and  frequently  fal- 
lacious method  of  a  re-examination  of  the 
entire  books  by  another  person.  But  by 
Double  Entry,  provided  the  system  be  a 
correct  one,  no  error  of  any  kind  can  es- 
cape without  detection,  because  everything 
is  verified  by  an  infallible  rule.  Neverthe- 
less the  diligent  study  of  the  method  of 
Single  Entry  is  absolutely  necessary  as  a 
preparatory  step  toward  acquiring  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  other.  No  one  can  keep  a  set 
of  books  by  Double  Entry  who  does  not 
understand  Single  Entry,  because  the  one 
is  based  upon  the  other.  When  the  learner 
has  well  studied  what  has  already  been  laid 
before  him,  let  him  pass  on  to  the  follow- 
ing pages,  where  he  will  find  the  same  trans- 
actions registered  by  Double  Entry. 

BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY 

This  method  differs  from  the  former 
chiefly  in  making  cash,  stock,  goods,  etc., 
parties,  as  well  as  persons,  and  in  making 
a  debitor  and  creditor  account  in  every 
transaction.  Thus,  if  cloth  is  sold  to  A, 
A  is  made  debtor  to  cloth,  and  cloth  cred- 
itor to  A ;  if  cash  is  received  from  B,  cash 
is  made  debtor  to  B,  and  B  creditor  to 
cash ;  and  in  every  case  the  party,  whether 
animate  or  inanimate,  which  receives  is 
debtor  to  that  which  pays,  and  inversely. 
In  Single  Entry  the  record  is  single,  and 
there  it  ends,  whereas  in  Double  Entry  every 
transaction  has  a  debit  and  credit,  and 
every  account  in  which  it  is  not  so  rep- 
resented is  imperfect.-  Two  parties  are 
necessarily  engaged  in  every  transaction, 
and  therefore  each  of  them  requires  in  his 
Ledger  two  separate  accounts,  one  for  him- 
self, and  a  second  for  his  customer  or 
furnisher,  as  the  case  may  be.  Now,  by 
the  use  of  what  are  called  nominal  accounts 
representing  the  proprietor  in  his  own 
Ledger,  the  double  receptacle  is  provided 
which  every  transaction  requires.  The 
nominal  accounts  receive  the  counter  en- 


tries of  all  the  personal  accounts,  and 
through  their  operation  the  merchant  is  en- 
abled to  ascertain  whether  his  business  is 
profitable  or  the  reverse.  These  accounts 
are  those  of  Stock,  Profit  and  Loss,  and 
its  branches.  Stock  is  a  term  used  to  rep- 
resent the  proprietor,  and  it  contains  on  the 
credit  side  the  amount  of  the  money,  goods, 
or  other  property  brought  into  trade;  and 
on  the  debtor,  the  owner's  liabilities.  Fn 
Profit  and  Loss,  the  credit  side  exhibits  the 
gain  of  the  business,  and  the  debit  the  loss. 
In  Single  Entry,  nominal  accounts  have  no 
place.  There  is  a  record  only  of  the  side 
of  the  accounts  belonging  to  the  person 
dealing  with  the  concern,  and  none  what- 
ever of  that  which  represents  the  owner. 
Such  a  method  enables  us  to  balance  the 
accounts  of  each  party,  but  exhibits  no 
register  by  which  the  state  of  the  stock  in 
trade,  and  the  balances  of  capital  and  cash, 
can  be  at  once  ascertained  without  a  sep- 
arate and  independent  investigation. 

We  have  seen,  that  by  Single  Entry  the 
items  are  transferred  from  the  Cash  Book, 
Day  Book,  and  Bill  Books,  at  once,  into 
the  Ledger;  but  in  Double  Entry,  another 
book,  called  the  JOURNAL,  is  necessarily 
used,  in  which  the  items  from  all  the  others 
are  first  arranged  in  proper  form,  and  then 
passed  into  the  Ledger.  Thus,  posting  by 
Single  Entry  is  done  from  several  books; 
whereas  from  Double  Entry  from  the  Jour- 
nal alone. 

The  old  Italian  method  of  keeping  a 
Journal  is  fraught  with  so  many  crudities, 
useless  repetitions,  and  technical  jargon, 
that  it  has  been  long  abandoned  for  one 
a  thousand-fold  more  simple  in  its  con- 
struction, and  perfect  in  its  results.  In- 
stead of  continually  entering  "Sundries  Dr. 
to  Cash,"  "Interest  Dr.  to  Sundries,"  "Com- 
mission Dr.  to  A.  B.  C,"  and  "D.  E.  F. 
Dr.  to  Commission,"  with  a  multitude  of 
such  anomalies,  the  Journal  is  divided  into 
two  parts  (the  right  and  left  hand  side  of 
the  book),  the  one  called  the  Debtor  side 
and  the  other  the  Creditor  side.  Under  the 
Debtor  side  must  be  entered  uninterruptedly 
everything  that  is  to  be  debited;  and  under 
the  Creditor  side,  everything  that  is  to  be 
credited;  and  both  sides  must  agree,  if  the 
entering  has  been  done  correctly. 

In  addition  to  the  simplicity  of  this  ar- 
rangement, there  are  other  advantages  which 
may  not  be  overlooked.  In  the  first  place, 
all  the  entries  on  one  side  of  the  Journal 
are  posted  upon  the  same  side  in  the  Ledger, 
a  convenience  which  every  book-keeper  will 
know  how  to  prize.  Next,  all  the  items  for 


824 


BOOK-KEEPING 


each  account  in  a  month  are  consolidated 
in  one  entry  previous  to  posting,  thus  greatly 
reducing  that  labor,  and  offering  the  phe- 
nomenon of  a  Ledger  wherein  no  account 
for  one  year  can  have  more  than  twelve 
lines,  one  for  each  month;  and,  finally,  the 
totals  of  each  month  in  the  Journal  added 
together  must  correspond  with  the  gross 
amount  of  all  the  totals  in  the  Ledger,  the 
last  and  surest  demonstration  of  correctness 
which  figures  can  offer. 

Let  us  proceed  to  Journalize  according  to 
this  method  all  the  entries  contained  in  the 
preceding  Day  Book,  Cash  Book,  Bills  Pay- 
able Book,  and  Bills  Receivable  Book  (for 
which  see  pages  819,  820),  begging  the 
learner  meanwhile  to  recollect  the  follow- 
ing rules: 


i  st.  When  Goods  are  sold,  the  buyers  must  be 
debited  and  Trade  Account  Credited  with  the  amount. 

ad.  When  goods  are  bought  Trade  Account  must 
be  debited  and  the  sellers  credited  for  the  amount. 

3d.  When  Cash  is  paid,  the  parties  receiving  it 
must  be  debited  and  Cash  Account  credited,  and 
when  it  is  received  the  Account  must  be  debited 
and  the  payers  credited. 

4th.  When  Acceptances  are  given,  the  persons 
on  whose  account  they  are  drawn  must  be  debited, 
and  Bills  Payable  credited;  and  when  they  are 
received  Bills  Receivable  must  be  debited  and  the 
party  on  whose  account  they  are  received  must 
be  credited. 

5th.  When  Accepted  Bills  become  due  and  are 
paid,  Bills  Payable  must  be  debited  and  Cash  cred- 
ited, and  when  Bills  to  be  received  become  due 
and  are  paid,  Cash  must  be  debited  with  the  amount, 
and  Bills  Receivable  credited. 

Finally.  No  entry  can  be  made  in  the  Ledger 
unless  it  be  extracted  from  the  Journal,  consequently 
everything  must  go  into  the  Journal  first. 

These  rules  must  be  most  carefully  heeded 
in  order  to  rapidly  acquire  the  science  of 
book-keeping. 


Dr. 


JOURNAL,  January,  1901. 


Cr. 


Tenter  &  Co.           3.  Goods    sold    as    per 
invoice    

74 

oo 

J.  W.   Bouton.         i   Goods  as  per   nvoice. 
Dodd    Mead  &  Co    i   Goods  as  per   nvoice. 

»5° 
241 

10 

oo 

D.  Flock.                  3.  Goods    sold    as    per 

5° 

80 

A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.  i   Goods  as  per   nvojce. 
D   Appleton  &  Co    i    Goods  as  per   nvoice. 

300 
124 

00 

60 

Roberts  Bros.            4.  Goods    sold    as    per 

74 

32 

A.  D.  F.  Randolph.  2  Goods  as  per   nvoice. 
W.   H.   Vernon.       4.  Goods  as  per  invoice. 

.86 
170 

60 

oo 

A.  D.  F.  Randolph.  4.  Paid  them  Bill 
Receivable, 
No.    102....   3080 
Idem    103...   7432 

Bills  Payable.          31.  Amount  of  Bills  ac- 
cepted  this  month 
as   per   Bill    Book. 
Tenter  &  Co.           3.  Bill   Receivable, 

230 

00 

W.  H.  Vernon.        4.  Goods,     as    per     in- 
voice     

82 

8? 

Cash  Received  ..36  20 

7* 

4" 

J.  W.  Bouton           2.  Bill      Payable, 
No.    101  4000 

B.  Flock.                  4.  Bill   Receivable, 
No.    1  02  30  80 

Cash  paid  them.  80  oo 
Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.  2.  Bill      Payable,      No. 

130 

oo 

3.  Cash  Received  .  20  oo 
Roberts  Bros.          4.  Bill   Receivable, 

5° 

80 

Cash  paid  them.  120  oo 

Trade  Account.        i.  Cap'al    invested   this 

A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.  2.  Bill      Payable 
No.  _  ip  3  ....   60  oo 

Goods  sold  this  month: 
3.  To  Tenter  &  Co.  74  oo 
3.    Flock    50  80 

D.  Appleton  &  Co.  2.  Bill      Payable, 
No.  _  104.  ...  40  oo 

W  H.  Vernon.82  30 
I.    Cash   received.  1  4  80 
4.    Ditto    6  60 

-_„, 

82 

Bills  Receivable.     31.  Am't     received     this 
month  as  per  Bill 

142 

20 

Cash.                         31.  Amount      paid      this 
month  as  per  Cash 
Book    

420 

Cash.                         31.  Am't     received     this 
month      as      per 

2,076 

H 

Bills  Receivable.      4.  No.     102.    paid 
A.  D.  F.  Ran- 
dolph      30  80 

Trade  Account      Goods  bought  this 
month: 
i  Of      J        W 

No.     103,    paid 
A.  D.  F.  Ran- 

Bouton   ...15020 
I.    Dodd,     Mead 
&    Co  241  oo 
I.    A.  S.   Barnes 
&    Co  30000 
I.    D.     Appleton 
&    Co  124  60 
4.    A.  D.  F.  Ran- 
dolph   .  .  .  .186  60 
4.    W.    H.    Ver- 
non     170  oo 

i°5 

11 

6.    Cash         paid 
charges     as 
per       Cash 
Book  1028 

I,l82 

68 

4,43° 

28 

4i43° 

.•E 

BOOK-KEEPING 


Dr. 

JOURNAL    (continued)                                                                    Cr. 

Bills  Payable             5. 

February 
Cash  paid,  No.  104.11      4° 

oo 

1001. 

Cash.                         26.  Amount     paid     this! 
month  as  per  Cash 
Fook    

40 

oo 

00 
'XN 

Bills  Payable            5. 
5- 

Cash  oaid   No.    102. 
Cash  paid   No.   102. 

March 
90 
40 

t 

00 

oo 

1901. 

Cash.                         31.  Amount      paid      this 
month  as  per  Cash 
Book         

130 

130 

oo 

130 

Bills   Payable.           5. 
B.  Flock.           '        7. 

Charges  on  Trade.  8. 
Cash.                         30. 

Cash  paid  No.    103. 
His  bill  returned  un- 

Apri 
60 

3° 

«S 
36 

00 

So 
44 

20 

1901. 
Cash.                         30.  Amount      paid     this! 
month,       as       per 
Cash    Book... 

206 
36 

44 

^0 

-i* 

Cash   for   rent  .  80  oo 
Taxes  20  24 
Taxes  15  20 

Am't     received    this 
month     per     Cash 
Book    

Bills  Receivable.      6.  Cash    received,     No. 

101     

242 

44 

242 

Ramsden  &  Co. 
S.  -Green. 
G.   Barrows. 
W.   Sinn. 
V.   S.   Brown. 

No 
Goods   sold   them... 
Goods   sold   him  —  . 
Goods   sold   him  
Goods   sold   him  .... 
Goods   sold   him.  .  .  . 

vembe 

20 

18 
80 

120 

74 

-. 

00 

24 

00 
00 

20 

1901. 
Trade  Account.      Goods  scld  this  month: 
i.  To  Ramsden  & 

312 

44 

i.    S.    Green....    1824 
i.    G.    Barrows..  80  oo 
i.    W.    Sinn.  ..  .120  oo 
i.    V.  S.  Brown.  74  20 

312 

44 

3« 

44 

Trade  Account.      20. 
Of 

Leggat   Bros.           30. 
Houghton,    Mifflin 
&  Co          30. 
S.   R.  Wells.            30. 
T.  R.  Osgood.         30. 
Bills  Receivable.     31. 

De 
Goods     bought     this 
month: 
Leggat  Bros.  .   52  20 
Houghton,  Mif- 
flin &  Co  ...  200  oo 
S.    R.    Wells..  1  92  40 
J.    R.    Osgood 
&  Co             .170  80 

cembe 

<5iS 
52 

200 
192 
I70 

3*4 

4° 
20 

OO 

4° 
80 

04 

1901. 
Leggat  Bros.           20.  Goods  b'ght  by  him. 
Houghton,    Mifflin 
&  Co          20.  Idem     
S.   R.  Wells.           20.  Idem     

52 

200 
193 
170 

<5iS 

20 

?9 
80 

120 

74 

20 

00 
40 

So 

40 

TO 

54 

<X>. 
DO 
JO 

J.  R.  Osgood  &  Co.20.  Idem     

Bills   Payable.         30.  Bills     accepted     this 
month,  as  per  Bill 
Book     

Ramsden  &  Co.         i.  Bill  Rec'le,  No.   104. 
S.   Green.                     i.  Idem               No.    105. 
G.    Barrows.               i.  Idem              No.   106. 
V.   S.  Brown.            i.  Idem              No.   107. 
W.  Sinn.                    i.  Idem              No.   108. 

Bill  Pay'le,  No,  105. 

Idem                       1  06. 
Idem                       107. 
Idem                       108. 
Am't     rereived     this 
month,  as  per  Bill 
Book     

1.544 

84 

i,S44 

S-i 

THE   LEDGER 

Wherein    the    contents    of    the    preceding    Journal    are    posted 

Dr. 
1901 

TENTER 

00 

&  Co                                                                         Cr 
1901 

00 

3- 

Dr. 

B. 

50  80 
30  80 

FLOCK                                                                Cr 

8b 

to 

April  7.  To    Bill    ret 
To    Balance 

8  1  60 

81   60 

30  80 

Dr. 
Jan.     4.  To   Goods.  . 

ROBERTS 
74  32 

BROS.                                                                  Cr. 
By  Bill  Receivable  74  32 

Dr. 
Tan.     4.  To  Sundries 
To    Balance 

A. 

D.  F. 

106  oo 
82   60 

RANDOLPH                                                        - 
Jan.     2.  By  Goods  188 

r,o 

By   Balance  

1  88  60 

1  88  60 

82  60 

826 


BOOK-KEEPING 


THE  LEDGER  (continued) 

Dr. 

W.  H. 

82  10 

VERNON 
Jan.     4.  By    Goods  

Cr. 

By   Balance  

169  30 

169  30 

...         87    09 

Dr. 
Jan.     2.  To  Sundries  

J.  W. 

BOUTON 
By    Sundries  

Cr. 

To   Balance  

By   Balance  

150  «o 

150  20 

30    20 

Dr. 
Jan.     2.  To   Sundries  

DODD, 

MEAD  &  CO. 
Jan.     4.  By   Sundries  

Cr. 

To   Balance  

By    Balance  

241  oo 

241  oo 

.  .  .      3  1  oo 

Dr. 
Jan.     2.  To    Sundries  

A.  S.  BAR 

NES  &  CO. 
Jan.     i.  By   Goods  

Cr. 

To   Balance  

By   Balance  

300  oo 

300  oo 

.  .  .      90  oo 

)       Dr. 

D.  AP 

PLETON  &  CO. 
Jan.     i.  By    Goods  

Cr. 

To  Balance  

124  60 

124  60 

Dr. 
Tan.  31.  To    Sundries  

BILLS 

RECEIVABLE 

Cr. 

To  Balance  

Balance   

142    20 

456  60 

456  60 

314  40 

Dr. 
Jan.     31.  To    Sundries  

CASH 
2,076  34 

ACCOUNT 
Tan.  31.  By    Sundries  

Cr. 

To    Balance  

Mar.  3  1  .  Idem    

Balance  

798  68 
.  .  i.  in  86 

2,112   54 

2,112  54 

1,313  86 

Dr. 

TRADE 

ACCOUNT 
Sin.   31.   By   Sundries  .... 

Cr. 

.  .    308  84 

By  Balance  

1,913  04 
700  20 

2,613  24 

2,613  24 

Dr. 

BILLS 

PAYABLE 

Cr. 

By  Balance  

230  oo 

844   34 

844  34 
..     614  34 

Dr. 

RAMSDEN 

&  CO. 
Dec      i    By  Bill  Receivable  

Cr. 

Dr. 

S. 

GREEN 
Dec.     i.  By  Bill  Receivable,  No.  105., 

Cr. 
18  24 

BOOK-KEEPING 


827 


THE  LEDGER   (continued) 


Dr.  G. 

Nov.    i.  To    Goods 8000 


BERGER 
Dec.     i.  By  Bill  Receivable,  No.   106. 


cr. 
So  oo 


Dr.  W. 

Nov.    i.  To  Goods 120  oo 


SINN 
Dec.     i.  By  Bill  Receivable,  No.   107. 


Cr. 

120    OO 


Dr.  V.  S. 

Nov.    i.  To  Goods 7420 


BROWI* 
Dec.     i.  By  Bill  Receivable,  No.  108. 


Cr. 

74  20 


Dr.                                                            LEGGAT 
Dec.  30.  To  Bill  Payable,  No.  105 52  20 


BROS. 
Dec.  20.  By    Goods. 


~~Dr. HOUGHTON, 
Dec.  30.  To  Bill  Payable,  No.  106 200  oo 


MIFFLIN  &  CO. 
Dec.  20.  By   Goods.. 


Cr. 

52    20 


Cr. 

200  oo 


Dr.  S.  R. 

Dec.  30.  To  Bill  Payable,  No.   107 192  40 


WELLS 
Dec.  ao.  By   Goods. 


Lr. 
192  40 


Dr.                                            JAS.  R.  OSGOOD 
Dec.  30.  To  Bill  Payable,  No.  108 170  80 


&  CO. 
Dec.  20.  By   Goods.. 


Cr. 

170  80 


In  the  preceding  Ledger  we  have  posted 
under  the  head  of  Trade  Account  all  goods 
bought  and  charges  incurred  (both  in  busi- 
ness and  family  matters)  to  the  Debit;  and 
to  the  Credit,  the  amount  of  the  capital  and 
goods  sold,  consequently  the  balance  of  this 
account  added  to  the  amount  of  stock  on 
hand  always  shows  the  profit  of  the  busi- 
ness. For  instance: 

Balance  of  the  account 700  16 

Value  of  stock  on  hand,  as  es- 
timated in  the  Balance  Sheet 
by  Single  Entry 1,39028 

Total  balance  in  my  favor  as 
shown  in  the  Balance  Sheet 
by  Single  Entry 2,090  44 


But  in  partnership  accounts,  such  a  plan 
would  not  do,  because  domestic  expenses 
can  not  be  charged  to  trade,  nor  should  the 
respective  capitals  be  included.  In  such 
cases  separate  accounts  must  be  opened  for 
each  individual,  which  must  be  credited  with 
their  separate  capitals  and  debited  with  their 
relative  charges.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  a 
balance  is  struck,  the  profit  or  loss  deter- 
mined, and  the  sum  total  divided  into 
proper  proportions,  and  transferred  from 
the  general  Trade  or  Profit  and  Loss  Ac- 


count, to  each  individual's  debit  or  credit, 
as  the  case  may  be. 

N.  B. — A  Profit  and  Loss  Account  is 
merely  another  name  for  a  Trade  Account. 
All  bad  debts  must  be  charged  to  that  Ac- 
count which  shows  the  Profit  and  Loss 
(whatever  the  name  may  be),  and  the  bad 
Accounts  themselves  closed  by  transfer. 

Let  us  now  see  if  the  Ledger  is  correct. 
To  determine  this,  first  extract  all  the  to- 
tals, Dr.  Cr.  (before  the  balances  are 
struck)  which  must  not  only  agree  with 
each  other,  but  correspond  as  well  with  the 
sum  totals  in  the  Journal.  Put  all  the 
amounts  at  debit  on  one  side,  and  the 
amounts  at  credit  on  the  other.  The  to- 
tals must  agree  with  the  totals  in  the  Jour- 
nal. If  this  prove  to  be  the  fact,  it  is  thus 
demonstrated  that  everything  in  the  Journal 
has  been  posted  in  the  Ledger. 

Having  thus  seen  that  the  totals  on  both 
sides  of  the  Ledger  not  only  agree  with 
each  other,  but  correspond  as  well  with 
those  of  the  Journal,  which  is  proof  posi- 
tive that  the  books  are  correct,  the  next 
and  last  care  will  be  to  see  that  both  sides 
agree. 

NOTE.— -The   foregoing  explains  the  system  gen- 

ally  preferred  by  accountants,  but  a  more  recent 

ethod,   requmng  less  labor,  and  often  preferred, 

provides   for  transferring  direct  from  the  original 

books   of  entry  to  the  ledger;   and   the  journal   is 

used   merely   for  recording  such    itraes  as  are   not 

found    in    any    of    the    other    original    books.     A 

journalized  day-book  often  takes  the  place  now  of 

the  former  day-book. 


THE     LIGHTNING 
CALCULATOR 


THE  following  tables  show  at  a  glance  the  price  of  any  number 
of  articles  at  any  given  rate:  The  first  column  of  figures  shows 
the  number  of  articles,  and  the  second,  the  total;  e.g.,  87  ar- 
ticles at  J4  cent  each,  amount  to  21  fy  cents;  46  articles  at  56^4  cents 
each,  give  for  a  total  $25.87^.  If  the  price  be  one  not  given  in  the 
tables,  the  sum  is  easily  ascertained  by  adding  together  two-  or  more 
of  those  which  are  given,  thus:  23  articles  at  19 24  cents,  23  at  10 
cents  would  be  2.30,  at  5  cents  1.15,  at  2  cents  46  cents,  at  ^2  11^2 
cents,  and  at  %  5^;  adding  these  totals,  2.30+1.15+46  +  46  + 
\\y2  +  5^4  =  $4- 54/4 »  tne  amount  sought  for. 

These  tables,  too,  will  operate  in  other  directions,  and  show  the 
number  of  articles,  when  the  total  amount  and  the  price  per  capita 
are  given;  also  when  the  number  of  articles  and  the  total  amount  are 
given,  the  price  per  capita  is  easily  ascertained. 

When  fractions  of  a  cent  are  involved,  it  is  often  confusing  to  an 
inexpert  accountant  to  readily  compute  the  amount.  A  reference  to 
these  tables  will  quickly  give  the  required  result,  thereby  saving  that 
which  is  so  important  to  the  business  man — time. 

The  convenience  of  these  tables  can  not  be  overrated.  Not  only 
do  they  save  time,  but  are  also  conducive  to  perfect  accuracy,  a  result 
which  is  not  always  certainly  obtained  in  a  hurried  calculation. 


At  54   Cent 


,No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts.    | 

No. 

$Cts. 

i 

•  Y* 

18 

•454 

35 

.  8# 

52 

•13 

69 

•  1754 

86 

.2154 

2 

.  X 

19 

•4*4 

36 

•  9 

53 

.1354 

70 

•1754 

87 

•21*4 

3 

•  X 

20 

.5 

37 

.  91A 

54 

.1354 

71 

•  17*4 

88 

.22 

4 

.1 

21 

•5'/4 

38 

.  954 

55 

•  13*4 

72 

.18 

89 

.2254 

5 

.i!4 

22 

•55* 

39 

•  9H 

56 

.14 

73 

.1854 

90 

.22  }4 

6 

•i54 

23 

•5« 

40 

.10 

57 

.1454 

74 

.1854 

9i 

.22*4 

7 

•i*4 

24 

.6 

4i 

.1054 

58 

.1454 

75 

.18*4 

92 

•23 

8 

.2 

25 

.654 

42 

.1054 

59 

•  14*4 

76 

.19 

93 

.2354 

9 

.2«4 

26 

.654 

43 

.10*4 

60 

.15 

77 

.1954 

94 

.2354 

10 

.254 

27 

.6*4 

44 

.11 

61 

.1554 

78 

.1954 

96 

.24 

ii 

•2*4 

28 

•7 

45 

."54 

62 

.155^ 

79 

.19*4 

98 

.24'/S 

12 

•3 

29 

.754 

46 

.n54 

63 

•  15*4 

80 

.20 

IOO 

.25 

13 

•354 

30 

.7H 

47 

.11*4 

64 

.16 

81 

.2054 

200 

.50 

14 

.m 

3» 

.7* 

48 

.12 

65 

.1654 

82 

.2054 

300 

•75 

IS 

•3*4 

32 

.8 

49 

.1254 

66 

.1654 

83 

.20*4 

400 

1.  00 

16 

•4 

33 

.854 

50 

.1254 

67 

.16*4 

84 

.21 

500 

1.25 

17 

-454 

34 

.854 

Si 

.12*4 

68 

.17        1 

85 

.21*4 

1000 

2.50 

(828) 


THE   LIGHTNING   CALCULATOR 


829 


At  Yi  Cent 


Ne. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts.   ||   No. 

$Cts. 

i 

.     J* 

32 

.16              63 

.311/2 

2 

.  i 

33 

•  l6l/2 

64 

.32 

3 

1  y* 

34 

.17 

65 

•3*y» 

4 

.   2 

35 

'T-lYz 

66 

•33 

5 

,  2y* 

36 

.18 

67 

•33^2 

6 

•  3 

37 

.iSJ'z 

68 

•34 

7 

38 

.19 

69 

•34J/2 

8 

•  4 

39 

'*9l/2 

70 

•35 

.      9 

.  4/^ 

40 

.20 

71 

.355^2 

10 

.  5 

.20  l/2 

72 

.36 

ii 

42 

.21 

73 

•36^ 

12 

!  6  2 

43 

.21  l/2 

74 

•37 

13 

.  6J4 

44 

.22 

75 

•37^ 

14 

.  7 

45 

.22^ 

76 

.38 

15 

•  7/^ 

46 

•23 

78 

•39 

16 

.  8 

47 

•23^ 

80 

.40 

17 

.  8H 

48 

.24 

82 

.41 

18 

.  9 

49 

•24^ 

84 

.42 

19 

50 

•25 

86 

.43 

20 

.10 

•25^ 

88 

.44 

21 

.ioj^ 

52 

.26 

90 

.45 

22 

.11 

53 

.26^ 

92 

.46 

.11  5^ 

54 

.27 

94 

•47 

.12 

55 

.27^ 

96 

.48 

25 

.I2j4 

56 

.28 

98 

.49 

26 

•13 

57 

.28^ 

IOO 

.50 

27 

.13/4 

58  - 

.29 

200 

i. 

28 

'I4I 

59 

.29^ 

300 

1.50 

29 

60 

.30 

400 

2. 

30 

•IS 

61 

.30^ 

500 

2.50 

31 

•  15^ 

62 

•31 

IOOO 

5. 

At  i  Cent 


No.  f  $Cts. 

No. 

$  Cts.  | 

j  No. 

$  Cts.  

i 

.  I 

32 

•32 

63 

•63 

2 

.  2 

33 

•33 

64 

.64 

3 

•  3 

34 

•34 

65 

.65 

4 

•  4 

35 

.35 

66 

.66 

5 

.  5 

36 

•36 

67 

•67 

6 

.  6 

37 

.37 

68 

.68 

7 

.  7 

38 

.38 

69 

.69 

8 

.  8 

39 

•39 

70 

.70 

9 

•  9 

40 

.40 

7i 

•71 

10 

.10 

4i 

.41 

72 

.72 

ii 

.11 

42 

•42 

73 

•73 

12 

.12 

43 

•43 

74 

.74 

13 

•13 

44 

•44 

75 

.75 

14 

.14 

45 

.45 

76 

.76 

15 

•15 

46 

.46 

78 

•78 

16 

.16 

47 

•47 

80 

.80 

17 

•17 

48 

.48 

82 

.82 

18 

.18 

49 

•49 

84 

•84 

19 

.19 

50 

•50 

86 

.86 

20 

.20 

Si 

•Si 

88 

.88 

21 

.21 

52 

•52 

90 

.90 

22 

.22 

53 

•S3 

92 

•92 

23 

.23 

54 

•54 

94 

•94 

24 

.24 

55 

.55 

96 

.96 

25 

•25 

56 

•56 

98 

.98 

26 

.26 

57 

•57 

IOO 

I. 

27 

.27 

58 

•58 

200 

2. 

28 

.28 

59 

•59 

300 

3. 

29 

•29 

60 

.60 

400 

4- 

30 

•30 

61 

.61 

500 

5- 

31 

.31 

62 

.62 

IOOO 

10. 

At  2  Cents 


JSio. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

i 

.  2 

32 

.64 

63 

1.26 

2 

•  4 

33 

.66 

64 

1.28 

3 

.  6 

34 

.68 

65 

1.30 

4 

.  8 

35 

.70 

66 

1.32 

5 

.10 

36 

•72 

.  67 

1.34 

6 

.12 

37 

•74 

68 

1.36 

7 

.14 

38 

•76 

69 

1.38 

8 

.16 

39 

•78 

70 

1.40 

9 

.18 

40 

.80 

7i 

1.42 

10 

.20 

4i 

.82 

72 

1.44 

ii 

.22 

42 

.84 

73 

1.46 

12 

.24 

43 

.86 

74 

1.48 

13 

.20 

44 

.88 

75 

1.50 

14 

.28 

45 

.90 

76 

1.52 

15 

.30 

46 

.92 

78 

1.56 

16 

•32 

47 

•94 

80 

i.  60 

17 

•34 

48 

.96 

82 

1.64 

18 

•36 

49 

.98 

84 

1.68 

19 

•38 

So 

. 

86 

1.72 

20 

.40 

51 

.02 

88 

1.76 

21 

.42 

52 

.04 

90 

i.  80 

22 

•44 

53 

.06 

92 

1.84 

23 

.46 

54 

.08 

94 

1.88 

24 

.48 

55 

.10 

96 

1.92 

25 

•So  . 

56 

.12 

98 

1.96 

26 

.52 

57 

.14 

IOO 

2. 

27 

•54 

58 

.16 

200 

4- 

28 

•56 

59 

.18 

300 

6. 

29 

.58 

60 

I.2O 

400 

8. 

30 

.60 

61 

1.22 

500 

10. 

31 

.62 

62 

1.24 

IOOO 

20. 

At  5  Cents 


No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$  Cts. 

i 

.  5 

32 

.60 

63 

3-iS 

2 

.10 

33 

•65 

64 

3.20 

3 

.15 

34 

.70 

65 

3-25 

4 

.20 

35 

•75 

66 

3-30 

5 

•25 

36 

.80 

67 

3-35 

6 

•30 

37 

•85 

68 

3-40 

7 

•35 

?.8 

.90 

69 

3-45 

8 

.40 

39 

•95 

70 

3-50 

9 

.45 

40 

2. 

7i 

3-55 

10 

•So 

41 

2.05 

72 

3.60 

ii 

•55 

42 

2.IO 

73 

3-65 

12 

.60 

43 

2.15 

74 

3-70 

13 

.65 

44 

2.2O 

75 

3.75 

14 

.70 

45 

2.25 

76 

3.80- 

IS 

•75 

46 

2.30 

78 

3-9» 

16 

.80 

47 

2-35 

80 

4- 

17 

.85 

48 

2.40 

82 

4.10 

18 

.90 

49 

2-45 

84 

4.20 

19 

•95 

50 

2.50 

86 

4-30 

20 

i. 

5i 

2-55 

88 

4.40 

21 

1.05 

52 

2.60 

90 

4-50 

22 

.10 

53 

2.65 

92 

4.60 

23 

•15 

54 

2.70 

94 

4.70 

24 

.20 

55 

2.75 

96 

4.80 

25 

.25 

56 

2.80 

98 

4.90 

26 

•30 

57 

2.85 

IOO 

5. 

27 

•35 

58 

2.90 

125 

6.25 

28 

.40 

59 

2-95 

150 

7-SO 

29 

•45 

60 

3- 

175 

8.75 

30 

•So 

61 

3-05 

200 

10. 

3| 

•55 

|  62 

3.10 

225 

11.25 

53 


830 


THE    LIGHTNING    CALCULATOR 


At  10  Cents 


No. 

$Cts. 

Mo. 

$  Cts. 

AO. 

$Cts. 

I 

.10 

32 

3.20 

63 

6.30 

2 

.20 

33 

3-30 

64 

6.40 

3 

•30 

34 

3-40 

65 

6.50 

4 

.40 

35 

3-50 

66 

6.60 

5 

•50 

36 

3.60 

67 

6.70 

6 

.60 

37 

3-70 

68 

6.80 

7 

•70 

38 

3.80 

69 

6.90 

8 

.80 

39 

3-90 

70 

7- 

9 

.90 

40 

4- 

7i 

7.10 

10 

I. 

4i 

4.10 

72 

7.20 

ii 

1.  10 

42 

4.20 

73 

7-30 

12 

1.  20 

43 

4-30 

74 

7.40 

13 

1.30 

44 

4.40 

75 

7-50 

14 

1.40 

45 

4-50 

76 

7.60 

15 

1.50 

46 

4.60 

78 

7.80 

16 

1.  60 

47 

4-70 

80 

8. 

17 

1.70 

48 

4.80 

82 

8.20 

18 

1.  80 

49 

4.90 

84 

8.40 

19 

1.90 

So 

5- 

86 

8.60 

20 

2. 

Si 

5-10 

88 

8.80 

21 

2.IO 

52 

5-20 

90 

9- 

22 

2.20 

53 

5.30 

92 

9.20 

23 

2.30 

54 

5.40 

94 

9.40 

24 

2.40 

55 

5.50 

96 

9.60 

25 

2.5O 

56 

5.60 

98 

9.80 

26 

2.60 

57 

5.70 

IOO 

10. 

27 

2.7O 

58 

5.80 

125 

12.50 

28 

2.80 

59 

5-90 

150 

IS- 

29 

2.9O 

60 

6. 

175 

17-50 

30 

3- 

61 

6.10 

200 

20. 

31 

3.10 

62 

6.20 

225 

22.50 

At  1254  Cents,  or  %  of  a  Dollar 


No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

i 

.12^ 

32 

4- 

63 

7.87  '/$ 

2 

.25 

33 

4-12*4 

64 

8. 

3 

•37*4 

34 

4-25 

65 

8.121^ 

4 

.50 

35 

4-37H 

66 

8.25 

5 

.6254 

36 

4-50 

67 

8.37^ 

6 

•75 

37 

4-62*4 

68 

8.50 

7 

•87*4 

38 

4-75 

69 

8.62^ 

8 

. 

39 

4-87*4 

70 

8.75 

9 

.1254 

40 

5. 

7i 

8.87.^ 

10 

•25 

4» 

5-12*4 

72 

9- 

ii 

•37*4 

42 

5-25 

73 

9.I2l/$ 

12 

•So 

43 

5-37*4 

74 

9-25 

13 

.62  54 

44 

5-50 

75 

9-3754 

U 

1-75 

45, 

5.6254 

76 

9-50 

15 

I.87H 

46 

5-75 

78 

9-75 

16 

2. 

47 

5.87*4 

80 

10. 

17 

2.I2J4 

48 

6. 

82 

10.25 

18 

2.25 

49 

6.1254 

84 

10.50 

19 

2-37*4! 

50 

6.25 

86 

10.75 

20 

2.50 

Si 

6.37*4 

88 

ii. 

21 

2.6254 

52 

6.50 

90 

11.25 

22 

2.75 

53 

6.62*4 

92 

11.50 

23 

2.87*4 

54 

6.75 

94 

"-7S 

24 

3- 

55 

6.87*4 

96 

12. 

25 

3-12*4 

56 

7- 

98 

12.25 

26 

3-25 

57 

7-12*4 

IOO 

12.50       . 

27 

3-37*4 

58 

7-25 

125 

I5.62I4 

28 

3-50 

59 

7-37*4 

150 

18.75      ' 

29 

3.6254 

60 

7-50 

175 

2I.87J4 

30 

3-75 

61 

7-6254 

200 

25- 

31 

3-87*4 

62 

7-75 

225 

28.I2I/S 

At  25  Cents 


No. 

$  Cts.  i  i  No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

i 

.25 

32 

8. 

63 

15-75 

2 

.50 

33 

8.25 

64 

1  6. 

3 

•75 

34 

8.50 

65 

16.25 

4 

i. 

35 

8.75 

66 

16.50 

5 

1.25 

36 

9- 

67 

16.75 

6 

1.50 

37 

9-25 

68 

17- 

7 

1-75 

38 

9-50 

69 

17-25 

8 

2. 

39 

9-75 

70 

17.50 

9 

2.25 

40 

10. 

7i 

17-75   • 

10 

2.50 

4i 

10.25 

72 

1  8. 

ii 

2-75 

42 

10.50 

73 

18.25 

12 

3- 

43 

10.75 

74 

18.50 

13 

3-25 

44 

n. 

75 

18.75 

14 

3-50 

45 

11.25 

76 

19- 

IS 

3-75 

46 

11.50 

78 

19-50 

16 

4- 

47 

"•75 

80 

20. 

17 

4-25 

48 

12. 

82 

20.50 

18 

4-50 

49 

12.25 

84 

21. 

19 

4-75 

50 

12.50 

86 

21.50 

20 

5- 

Si 

12.75 

88 

22. 

21 

5-25 

52 

13- 

90 

22.50 

22 

5-50 

53 

13.25 

92 

23- 

23 
24 

5-75 
6. 

54 
55 

13.50 
13-75 

94 
96 

-'3.50, 
24. 

25 

6.25 

56 

14. 

98 

24.50 

26 

6.50 

57 

I4-25 

IOO 

25- 

27 

6.75 

58 

14.50 

125 

31.25 

28 

7- 

59 

14-75 

150 

37-50 

29 

7-25 

60 

IS- 

175 

43-75 

30 

7-So 

61 

15.25 

200 

50. 

31 

7-75 

62 

15.50 

225 

?r'.-\S 

At  33*4  Cents,  or  *4  of  a  Dollar 


No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$  Cts.    1  1    No. 

$  Cts. 

i 

•33*4 

32 

10.6654 

63 

21. 

2 

.6654 

33 

ii. 

64 

21.33*4 

3 

i. 

34 

"•33*4 

65 

21.6654 

4 

1-33*3 

35 

11.6654 

66 

22. 

5 

1.6654 

36 

12. 

67 

22.33*4 

6 

2. 

37 

12.33*3 

68 

22.6654 

7 

2.33*4 

38 

12.6654 

69 

23- 

8 

2.6654 

39 

13- 

70 

23-33*4 

9 

3- 

40 

13-33*4 

7i 

23-6654 

10 

3-33*3 

4i 

13-6654 

72 

24- 

ii 

3-6654 

42 

14. 

73 

24-33*3 

12 

4- 

43 

14-33*4 

74 

24.6654 

13 

4-33^ 

44 

14.6654 

75 

25- 

14 

4-6654 

45 

IS- 

76 

25-33*3 

15 

5- 

46 

15-33*3 

78 

26. 

16 

5-33*4 

47 

15-6654 

80 

26.6654 

17 

5-6654 

48 

1  6. 

82 

27-33*3 

18 

6. 

49 

i6.33*4 

84 

28. 

19 

6.33*3 

So 

16.6654 

86 

28.6654 

20 

6.6654 

Si 

17- 

88 

29-33*3 

21 

7- 

52 

17-33*4 

90 

30. 

22 

7-33*4 

53 

17-6654 

92 

30.6653 

23 

7-6654 

54 

1  8. 

94 

31-33*3 

24 

8. 

55 

i8.33*4 

96 

32. 

25 

8.33*3 

56 

18.6654 

98 

32.6653 

26 

8.6654 

57 

19. 

IOO 

33-33*3 

27 

9- 

58 

19-33*3 

125 

41-66*3 

28 

9-33*4 

59 

19-66541 

ISO 

So. 

29 

9-66541 

60 

20. 

175 

58-3353 

30 

10. 

61 

20.33*4 

200 

66.6653 

31 

10.33*4 

62 

20.6654 

225 

75- 

THE    LIGHTNING   CALCULATOR 


•831 


At  43%   Cents,  or  ^  of  a  Dollar 


No. 

$  Cts.  | 

No.  |   $Cts.   ||   No. 

$  Cts. 

i 

•43  %! 

32    |I4-          II      63 

27-5654 

2 

.8754 

33 

14-43% 

64 

28. 

3 

1-3154 

34 

I4.8754 

65 

28.43% 

4 

1.75 

35 

I5.3I54 

66 

28.8754 

5 

2.18% 

36 

15-75 

67 

29.3154 

6 

2.6254 

37 

i6.i8%||     68 

29.75 

7 

3-0654 

38 

16.6254 

69 

30.18% 

8 

3-50 

39 

17.0654 

70 

30.6254 

9 

3-93% 

40 

17-50 

7i 

31.0654 

10 

4-3754 

4i 

17-93% 

72 

31.50 

ii 

4.8i54 

42 

18.3754 

73 

31-93% 

12 

5-25 

43 

18.8154 

74 

32.3754 

13 

5-68% 

44 

19.25 

75 

32.8i54 

14 

6.1254 

45 

19.68% 

76 

33-25 

15 

6-5654 

46 

20.1254 

78 

34-1214 

16 

7- 

47 

20.5654 

80 

35- 

i? 

7-43% 

48 

21. 

82 

35.8754 

18 

7.8754 

49 

21.43% 

84 

36.75 

19 

8.3154 

50 

21.8754 

86 

37.6214 

20 

8-75 

Si 

22.3154 

88 

38.50 

21 

9.18% 

52 

22.75 

90 

39-3754 

22 

9.6254 

53 

23.18% 

92 

40.25 

23 

io.o654 

54 

23.6254 

94 

4i.i2}4 

24 

10.50 

55 

24.0654 

96 

42. 

25 

10.93% 

56 

24.50 

98 

42.8754 

26 

11-3754 

57 

24-93% 

IOO 

43-75 

27 

11.8154 

58 

25-3754 

125 

54-68% 

28 

12.25 

59 

25.8154 

150 

65.6254 

29 

12.68% 

60 

26.25 

175 

76.5654 

30 

13-1254 

61 

26.68% 

200 

87.50 

31 

13-6554 

62 

27.1254 

225 

98.43% 

At  50    Cents 


No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

No.  |  $  Cts. 

i 

.50 

32 

16. 

63 

31.50 

2 

i. 

33 

16.50 

64 

32. 

3 

1.50 

34 

17- 

65 

32.50 

4 

2., 

35 

17-50 

66 

33- 

5 

2.50 

36 

1  8. 

67 

33-50 

6 

3- 

37 

18.50 

68 

34- 

7 

3-50 

38 

19. 

69 

34-50 

8 

4- 

39 

19.50 

7o 

35- 

9 

4-50 

40 

20. 

7i 

35-50 

IO 

5- 

41 

20.50 

72 

36. 

ii 

5-50 

42 

21. 

73 

36.50 

12 

6. 

43 

21.50 

74 

37- 

13 

6.50 

44 

22. 

75 

37.50 

14 

7- 

45 

22.50 

76 

38. 

15 

7-50 

46 

23- 

78 

39- 

16 

8. 

47 

23.50 

80 

40. 

17 

8.50 

48 

24. 

82 

41. 

18 

9- 

49 

24.50 

84 

42. 

19 

9.50 

So 

25- 

86 

43- 

20 

10. 

Si 

25-50 

88 

44. 

21 

10.50 

52 

26. 

90 

45. 

22 

ii. 

53 

26.50 

92 

46. 

23 

11.50 

54 

27- 

94 

47- 

24 

12. 

55 

27-50 

96 

48. 

25 

12.50 

56 

28. 

98 

49. 

26 

13. 

57 

28.50 

IOO 

So. 

27 

13-50 

58 

29. 

125 

62.50 

28 

14. 

59 

29.50 

150 

75- 

29 

14.50 

60 

30. 

175 

87.50 

30 

15- 

61 

30.50 

200 

IOO. 

31 

15-50    62 

31- 

225  |  1  12.50 

At  5654    Cents,  or  ^  of  a  Dollar 

Ao. 

$Cts.  ||    No. 

$Cts.  ||  No. 

$  Cts. 

i         -50/411     32   |i8.         ||     63 

35-43% 

2          I.I2J4 

33 

i8.5654||    64 

36. 

3   |    1-68% 

34 

19.1214  jj    65 

36.5654 

4 

2.25 

35 

i9.68%| 

66 

37-I2J4 

5 

2.8154 

36 

20.25 

67 

37-68% 

6 

3-37541 

37 

20.81  54 

68 

38.25 

7 

3.93% 

38 

21.3754 

69 

38.8154 

8 

4.50 

39 

21.93% 

70 

39-3754 

9 

5-0654 

40 

22.50 

7i 

39-93% 

10 

5.62}4 

4i 

23.06% 

72 

40.50 

ii 

6.18% 

42 

23.6254 

73 

41.0654 

12 

6-75 

43 

24.18% 

74 

4-.  62  54 

13 

7-3iJ4 

44 

24-75 

75 

42.18% 

14 

7.8754 

45 

25-3154 

76 

42.75 

15 

8.43*4 

46 

25-8754 

78 

43.8754 

16 

9- 

47 

26.43% 

80 

45- 

17 

9-5654 

48 

27. 

82 

46.i2}4 

18 

IO.I2J4 

49 

27-5654 

84 

47-25 

19 

10.6854 

50 

28.1254 

86 

48.3754 

20 

11.25 

Si 

28.68% 

88 

49-50 

21 

n.8i54 

52 

29.25 

90 

50.6254 

22 

12.3754 

53 

29.8154 

92 

51-75 

23 

12.93% 

54 

30.3754 

94 

52.87*S 

24 

13-50 

55 

30.93% 

96 

54- 

25 

14.0654 

56 

31-50 

98 

55-1254 

26 

14.6254 

57 

32.0654 

IOO 

56.25 

27 

15-18% 

58 

32.6254 

125 

70.3154 

28 

15-75 

59 

33-18% 

150 

84.3754 

29 

16.3154 

60 

33-75 

175 

98.43% 

3« 

16.8754 

61 

34.3I54 

200 

112.50 

31 

17-43% 

62 

34.8754 

225 

126.5654 

At  8754  Cents,  or  ^  of  a  Dollar 

"No7 

$  Cts. 

No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

^  Cts. 

i 

.8754 

32 

28. 

63 

55-I2J4 

2 

1-75 

33 

28.8754 

64 

56. 

3 

2.6254 

34 

29-75 

65 

56.8714 

4 

3-50 

35 

30.6254 

66 

57-75 

5 

4-3754 

36 

3i.5o 

67 

58.6214 

6 

5-25 

37 

32.3754 

68 

59-50 

7 

6.I2J4 

38 

33-25 

69 

60.3714 

8 

7- 

39 

34-125^ 

70 

61.52 

9 

7-8754 

40 

35- 

7i 

62.1214 

10 

8-75 

4i 

35.8754 

72 

63-' 

ii 

9-6254 

42 

36.75 

73 

63.8754 

12 

10.50 

43 

37.6254 

74 

64.75 

13 

H.3754 

44 

38.50 

75 

65.6214 

14 

12.25 

45 

39-3754 

76 

66.50 

15 

I3.I254 

46 

40.25 

78 

68.25 

16 

14. 

47 

41-1254 

80 

70. 

17 

I4.8754 

48 

42. 

82 

71.75 

18 

15-75 

49 

42.8754 

84 

73-50 

19 

16.6254 

So 

43-75 

86 

75-25 

20 

17.50 

51 

44-6254 

88 

77- 

21 

18.3754 

52 

45-50 

90 

78.75 

22 

19-25 

53 

46.3754 

02 

80.50 

23 

20.12*4 

54 

47-25 

94 

82.25 

24 

21. 

55 

48.1254 

96 

84. 

25 

21.87*4 

56  (49- 

98 

85-75 

26 

22.75 

57 

49.8754 

TOO 

87-50 

27 

23.6254 

58 

50.75 

125     1109.3754 

28 

24.50 

59 

5I-62J4 

ISO 

131-25 

29 

25.3754 

60 

52.50 

175 

153.12^ 

30 

26.25 

61 

53-3754 

200 

175- 

3r 

27.1254 

62 

(54.25 

225 

ip6.87r/< 

882 


THE   LIGHTNING   CALCULATOR 


At  $1.25 


N£. 

$Ct* 

No. 

$Cts. 

No. 

$  Cts.  ~ 

I 

1.25 

30 

45- 

7i 

88.75 

a 

2.50 

37 

46.25 

73 

90. 

3 

3-75 

38 

47-50 

73 

91.25 

4 

5- 

39 

48.75 

74 

92.50 

5 

6.25 

40 

50. 

75 

93-75 

6 

7.50 

4i 

51.25 

76 

95- 

7 

8.75 

42 

52.50 

77 

96.25 

8 

10. 

43 

53-75 

78 

97-50 

9 

11.25 

44 

55- 

79 

98.75 

10 

12.50 

45 

56.25 

80 

IOO. 

li 

13-75 

46 

57-50 

81 

101.25 

12 

15. 

47 

58.75 

82 

102.50 

13 

16.25 

48 

60. 

83 

103.75 

14 

17-50 

49 

61.25 

84 

105. 

IS 

18.75 

50 

62.50 

85 

106.25 

16 

20. 

51 

63-75 

86 

107.50 

17 

21.25 

52 

65- 

87 

108.75 

18 

22.50 

53 

66.25 

88 

no. 

»9 

23-75 

54 

67-50 

89 

111.25 

20 

25. 

55 

68.75 

90 

112.50 

21 

26.25 

56 

70. 

9i 

"3-75 

22 

27.50 

57 

71.25 

92 

"5- 

23 

28.75 

58 

72.50 

93 

116.25 

24 

30. 

59 

73-75 

94 

117.50 

as 

31-25 

60 

75- 

95 

118.75 

26 

32.50 

61 

76-25 

96 

120. 

27 

33-75 

62 

77-50 

97 

121.25 

28 

35- 

63 

78.75 

98 

122.50 

29 

36.25 

64 

80. 

99 

123.75 

30 

37-50 

65 

81.25 

IOO 

125. 

31 

38.75 

66 

82.50 

125 

156.25 

32 

40. 

67 

83.75 

ISO 

187.50 

33 

4L25 

68 

85- 

175 

218.75 

34 

42.50 

69 

86.25 

200 

25O. 

35 

43-75 

70 

87.50 

225 

281.25 

At  $1.50 


Islo. 

f  Us. 

Na 

v  nz 

No. 

$  Lts. 

I 

1.50 

36 

54. 

7i 

106.50 

2 

3- 

37 

55.50 

72 

108. 

3 

4.50 

38 

57. 

73 

109.50 

4 

6. 

39 

58.50 

74 

in. 

5 

7-50 

40 

60. 

75 

112.50 

6 

9- 

41 

61.50 

76 

114; 

7 

10.50 

42 

63. 

77 

115-50 

8 

12. 

43 

64.50 

78 

117. 

9 

I3.50 

44 

66. 

79 

118.50 

10 

IS- 

45 

67.50 

80 

1  20. 

li 

16.50 

46 

69. 

81 

121.50 

12 

1  8. 

47 

70.50 

82 

123. 

»3 

19.50 

48 

72. 

83 

124.50 

14 

21. 

49 

73-50 

84 

126. 

IS 

22.5O 

50 

75- 

85 

127.50 

16 

24. 

Si 

76.50 

86 

129. 

17 

25.50 

52 

78. 

87 

130.50 

18 

27. 

53 

79-50 

88 

132. 

19 

28.50 

54 

to. 

89 

I33.50 

20 

30. 

55 

82.50 

90 

135. 

21 

31-50 

56 

84. 

9i 

136.50 

22 

33- 

57 

85-50 

92 

138. 

23 

34-50 

58 

87. 

93 

139.50 

24 

36. 

59 

88.50 

94 

141. 

25 

37.50 

60 

90. 

95 

142.50 

26 

39- 

61 

91.50 

96 

144- 

27 

40.50 

62 

93. 

97 

145-50 

28 

42. 

63 

94-50 

98 

147. 

29 

43-50 

64 

96. 

99 

148.50 

30 

45- 

65 

97-50 

IOO 

150. 

31 

46.50 

66 

99. 

125 

187.50 

32 

48. 

67 

100.50 

150 

225. 

33 

49-50 

68 

IO2. 

175 

262.50 

34 

Si- 

69 

103.50 

220 

300. 

35 

52-50 

70 

105. 

250 

337-50 

At  $1.75 


TT5T] 

$  Cts.  1 

"H5T 

$Cts. 

nTo— 

$Cts. 

~N^n 

$Cts. 

pro— 

$Cts. 

TToT- 

$  Cts.™ 

i 

1-75 

18 

3i-5o 

35 

61.25 

52 

91. 

69 

120.75 

86 

150.50 

2 

3-50 

19 

33-25 

36 

63. 

53 

92-75 

70 

122.50 

87 

152.25 

3 

5-25 

20 

35- 

37 

64-75 

54 

94.50 

7i 

124.25 

88 

154. 

4 

7- 

21 

36.75 

38 

66.50 

55 

96.25 

72 

126. 

89 

155.75 

5 

8-75 

22 

38.50 

39 

68.25 

56 

98. 

73 

127.75 

90 

157.50 

6 

10.50 

23 

40.25 

40 

70. 

57 

99-75 

74 

129.50 

9i 

159-25 

7 

12.25 

24 

42. 

41 

71-75 

58 

101.50 

75 

131-25 

92 

161. 

8 

14. 

25 

43-75 

42 

73-50 

59 

103.25 

76 

133. 

93 

162.75 

9 

15-75 

26 

45-50 

43 

75-25 

60 

105. 

77 

134-75 

94 

164.50 

10 

17-50 

27 

47-25 

44 

77- 

61 

106.75 

78 

136.50 

96 

1  68. 

n 

19.25 

28 

49- 

45 

78.75 

62 

108.50 

79 

138.25 

98 

171.50 

12 

21. 

29 

50.75 

46 

80.50 

63 

110.25 

80 

140. 

IOO 

175. 

13 

22.75 

30 

52.50 

47 

82.25 

64 

112. 

Si 

141.75 

125 

218.75 

14 

24.50 

31 

54-25 

48 

84. 

65 

"3-75 

82 

M3-50 

150 

262.50 

15 

26.25 

32 

56. 

49 

85-75 

66 

"5.50 

83 

145-25 

i75 

306.25 

16 

28. 

33 

57-75 

So 

87.50 

67 

117.25 

84 

147. 

200 

35o. 

17 

29-75 

34 

59-50 

_?' 

89-25 

68 

119. 

85 

148.75 

393-75 

THE    LIGHTNING    CALCULATOR 


833 


RATE  OF  WAGES,  FROM  $1   TO  $21   PER  WEEK 


50  Cts. 

62^  Cts. 

75  Cts. 

87^  Cts. 

50  Cts. 

62MCts. 

75  Cts. 

87KC* 

DAYS 

$   Cts. 

$  Cts. 

$  Cts. 

$  Cts. 

DAYS 

$  Cts. 

$  Cts. 

$  Cts. 

$  Cts. 

54 

.    2 

.  254 

•  3 

.  354 

454 

•3754 

•4654 

•5654 

.6554 

54 

.  4 

.  554 

.  654 

•  754 

454 

.3954 

•4954 

•5954 

•691/ 

*4 

.  654 

.  7*4 

.  954 

.1054 

5 

>4I54 

.52 

.6254 

•73 

i 

.  854 

.1054 

.1254 

•1454 

554 

•4354 

•5454 

•6554 

•76! 

*54 

.1054 

.13 

.1554 

.1854 

554 

•4554 

•5754 

.6854 

.80 

154 

.1554 

.18*4 

.22 

554 

•4754 

•59*4 

•71*4 

•8354 

X54 

!i454 

.18 

•21*4 

•2554 

6 

.50 

.6254 

•75 

•8754 

2 

.1654 

.2054 

•25 

.29 

7 

.5854 

.72*4 

.8754 

I.O2 

254 

.2354 

.28 

•3254 

8 

•6654 

•8354 

. 

I.l654 

254 

[20  34 

.26 

•3i54 

9 

•75 

•93*4 

.i2y2 

I.3I54 

2*4 

•23 

.28^4 

•3454 

.40 

10 

•8354 

1.04 

•25 

1-45*4 

3 

.25 

.3154 

.3754 

•43*4 

ii 

•9154 

I.I454 

•3754 

i.6o54 

354 
354 

.27 
.29 

•3354 

.3654 

•4054 
.43?' 

.4754 

.51 

12 

18 

i. 
1.50 

1-25 
1.8754 

•So 
2.25 

1-75 
2.6254 

3*4 

.3154 

.39 

.4654 

•5454 

24 

2. 

2.50 

3- 

3-So 

4 

.3354 

.4154 

.50 

.5854 

26 

2.1654 

2.71 

3.25 

3.79 

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22.29 

3-6 

15-43 

17.36 

19.29 

21.21 

23.14 

4- 

1  6. 

18. 

20. 

22. 

24. 

AN  OUTLINE  OF  PHONOGRAPHY,  OR 

SHORTHAND 


WE  NEED  not  dwell  on  the  value  and  advantages  of  shorthand. 
Every  boy  who  learns  it  has  a  twofold  advantage  over  those  who 
do  not,  whether  he  goes  to  college  or  at  once  enters  into  business 
life.    The  collegian  can  take  down  a  full  report  of  his  professor's  lecture, 
while  his  fellow-students  have  only  rough  and  often  unintelligible  notes. 
The  young  man  who  goes  to  learn  a  business,  whether  mechanical 
or  commercial,  takes  down  in  a  moment  instructions  given,  conversations, 
examinations,  details  of  any  machine,   method  of  working,  etc.     There 
is  no  walk  in  life  in  which  it  does  not  come  into  play. 

It  looks  difficult  to  many,  but  is  really  easy  to  acquire,  and  while,  like 
everything  else  that  is  worth  learning,  constant  and  painstaking  practice 
is  required  to  render  it  at  all  serviceable,  the  general  principles  may  be 
explained  in  small  compass,  so  that  the  attentive  student  may  master  the 
system  for  himself.  There  are  various  systems  in  use — some  noted  for 
speed,  others  for  ease  of  learning — but  the  best  all-around  method  is  prob- 
ably that  of  Isaac  Pitman,  which  is  treated  in  the  following  pages. 


THE   ISAAC   PITMAN  ALPHABET  AND  OUTLINES 


AS  in  practically  all  systems  of  short- 
hand at  present  in  use,  the  Isaac  Pit- 
man alphabet  is  merely  a  series  of  lines  and 
curves,  alternately  light  and  heavy.  Thus, 
the  light  lines,  upright,  horizontal,  and 
slanted,  indicate  the  letters  T,  K,  P,  Ch; 
the  heavy  lines,  upright,  horizontal,  and 
slanted,  the  letters  D,  G,  B,  J.  The  light 
curves  indicate  Th,  S,  F,  Sh,  M,  N;  the 
heavy  curves,  hard  Th,  Z,  V,  Zh,  Ng.  The 
matter  is  further  simplified,  when  we  re- 
member that  all  letters  classed  as  "explo- 
dents"— P,  B,  T,  D,  Ch,  J,  K,  G— are  indi- 
cated by  lines;  all  classed  as  "continuants" — 
F,  V,  Th,  Th,  S,  Z,  Sh,  Zh— are  indicated 
by  curves,  as  are  also  the  "nasals,"  M,  N, 
Ng.  The  "linguals,"  L  and  R,  and  the 
"coalescents,"  W,  Y,  H,  are  separately 
treated,  as  are  also  final  .?  (initial,  terminal, 
for  plural  terminations,  etc.)  and  st.  These 
matters  will  be  explained  in  place. 
The  vowels  and  diphthong*  are  repre- , 
(886) 


sented  by  dots,  lines,  and  other  marks,  as 
will  be  subsequently  explained,  always  be- 
ing added  to  the  "outline" — for  thus  the 
combination  of  signs  for  a  word  is  called 
— after  it  is  completed. 

The  names  of  the  characters,  as  given  in 
the  accompanying  alphabet,  are  used  in  talk- 
ing or  writing  about  them,  just  as  are  the 
names  for  the  letters  of  the  ordinary  alpha- 
bet, but  do  not  represent  the  sounds  always 
attaching  to  them  in  outlines.  The  naming 
of  the  signs  is  called  the  "nomenclature"; 
and  it  is  important  always  to  know  a  sign 
by  its  name,  as  will  soon  appear  as  we 
proceed. 

Remember  each  one  of  these  signs  is  a 
part  either  of  a  circle,  or  a  straight  line, 
perpendicular,  horizontal,  or  diagonal,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  cut.  Imitate 
the  cut,  as  nearly  as  you  can,  in  length  and 
in  depth  of  pressure  on  the  heavy  letters. 
The  use  of  heavy  letters  simplifies  the  al- 


PHONOGRAPHY,    OR   SHORTHAND 


837 


phabet,  making  a  few  directions  answer 
double  purpose.  Continue  to  repeat  your 
copying  or  reading  of  the  signs,  sounds,  and 
letters  (it  is  best  to  read  aloud  as  you 


The  Phonographic  alphabet  condensed. 

write),  until  you  can  skip  about,  and  by 
covering  up  the  signs,  write  them  from  the 
print  from  memory,  or  covering  the  print, 
read  the  signs.  All  the  heavy  signs,  per- 
pendicular or  diagonal,  must  be  written 
from  top  to  bottom;  all  the  horizontal  lines, 
heavy  and  light,  from  left  to  right. 

Learn  this  alphabet  thoroughly  before  you 
go  on.  If  you  learn  it  in  a  week,  you  will 
do  as  well  as  many  of  the  most  rapid  re- 
porters did  when  they  began  to  learn.  As 
it  is  all-important  to  thoroughly  master  it 
before  you  go  on,  take  your  time  about  it. 

Above  is  given  the  Phonographic  alpha- 
bet, condensed — in  fact,  all  the  consonants 
in  the  language  in  a  "nutshell,"  except  ray 
and  aitch.  You  will  find  it  handy  for  easy 
reference.  If  you  have  not  mastered  the 
letters  as  presented,  by  all  means  continue 
your  study  and  practice  by  reading,  writing, 
and  sounding  them,  until  you  can  call  them 
one  by  one,  not  only  in  regular  order,  but  by 
skipping,  and  immediately  on  sight. 

This  cut  represents  the  shape,  but  not  the 
relative  length.  All  the  letters,  light  and 
heavy,  should  at  first  be  written  of  the  same 
length — that  is,  about  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  long.  You  will  notice  the  letters  which 
are  of  the  same  form  or  direction,  but 
which  differ  in  depth  and  name,  are  placed 
opposite  each  other,  so  that  you  can  com- 
pare the  single  and  double  letters  more 
easily. 

Supposing,  now,  that  you  have  learned  the 
single  letters,  we  proceed  to  give  you  a  few 
examples  of  joining  letters.  Do  not  take 
off  your  pen  or  pencil  between  the  letters  in 


joining  them.  Double  straight  strokes  should 
be  made  the  full  length  of  two  single  ones, 
as  tt,  kg,  etc. 

The  method  of  joining  consonant  strokes, 
straight  and  curved,  is  shown  in  Exercise 
I.  In  drawing  a  heavy  line,  let  it  taper  off 
gradually  as  it  joins  to  a  light  stroke. 

In  like  manner  take  some  ruled  paper  and 
pen  (which  is  better  than  pencil),  and  write 
Exercise  2,  which  you  will  see  is  a  con- 
tinuance of  the  order  in  Exercise  i, 
commencing  with  p,  etc.,  joining  the  next 


CONSONANTS 


EXPLODENTS. 

P      \      pee 
B      \      bee 


CONTINUANTS. 
*       \.        *f 
V  we 


T       I 

D      I 

OH  /  [  *; 
J     / 

K     -    - 
G     — 

NASALS. 

M    ^ 

N    ^ 
NO  ^ 


tee 
dee 
}chay 
jay 
kay 
gay 

em 
en 
ing 


TS  ( 
TH  ( 
) 
) 


S 
Z 

SH 

ZH 


ith 

thee 

«* 

zee 
ish 
zhee 


LIQUIDS. 

L   /"[«&•]  /ay 


COMK8CBKT& 


B  •*"*  C..SU]  ray 

ASPIRATE. 

. 

aitch 


DOUBLE  CONSONANTS 
whay  LR      ^"      '**" 


KW 
GW 

MP 
MB 


kway 
C—  ^way 
|  *~^emp 


down 

r 

dowa 

RCH)  -x 

RJ  r 

WL    ?" 


rer 
wet 
ivhet 


letter  on  the  right,  until  we  come  around 
to  the  letter  from  which  we  started.  Let  the 
first  down-stroke  letter  come  to  the  line, 
and  the  rest  follow  it  If  the  first  is  hori- 
zontal, let  the  second  letter  rest  on  the  line. 


838 


PHONOGRAPHY,    OR   SHORTHAND 


If  two  horizontal  strokes  begin  a  word,  let 
both  rest  on  the  line. 

To  render  the  matter  simpler,  a  hyphen  (-) 
is  placed  between  the  single  and  the  double 
letters  in  this  exercise,  but  if  you  are  fa- 
miliar with  the  alphabet  you  will  not  make 
a  mistake,  and  try  to  write  three  letters  in- 
stead of  two. 

EXERCISE   TWO 

dp,  dt,     d-ch,     dg,     db,     dd,     dj,  dk, 

jp,  jt,     j-ch,     jg,     jb,     jd     jj,  jk, 

kp,  kt,     k-ch     kg,     kb,     kd,     kj,  kk, 

pm,  tm,     ch-m,     km,     bm,     dm,  jm, 

pn,  tn,      ch-n,      kn,      bn,      dn,  jn, 

p-th,  t-th,  ch-th,  k-th,  b-th,  d-th,  j-th, 

ps,  ts,       ch-s,       ks,      bs,       ds,  js. 

Now  let  us  skip  a  little,  and  write  three 
,'  letters  together : 

kmt,  mnt,  mlt,  Itn,  ntl,  tin, 
tkk,  mkt,  nkt,  kpl,  rnt,  vnt, 
sup,  sh-rp,  Irn,  h-ng. 

In  reading  the  joined  signs,  commence 
with  the  letter  on  the  left  and  top :  p-t,  b-g. 

H  (ay),  R  (ay),  W  (ay),  and  Y  (ay)  are 
all  written  in  the  same  direction. 

It  must  be  remembered  that,  in  writing 
shorthand,  every  word  is  spelled  only  as  it 
sounds.  Note  this  as  we  go  on. 

The  proper  place  for  using  the  two  kinds 
of  R,  sh,  and  circle,  5",  will  be  fully  ex- 
plained later.  Since  their  uses  rank  among 
the  advanced  subjects  of  shorthand  writing, 
they  may  be  properly  delayed  until  the  stu- 
dent has  mastered  the  simple  primary  rules 
of  the  subject.  The  student  should  under- 
stand, therefore,  that  he  must  faithfully 
practice  the  exercises  already  given  before 
he  is  ready  for  these  subjects,  or  for  the 
exercises  including  vowels,  diphthongs,  etc. 

RULES  ON  CERTAIN  LETTERS 

Note  carefully  that  Ar  (r)  is  written 
downward;  Ray  (r)  upward;  Lay  (1)  up- 
ward, and  commences  a  word ;  but  if  the 
vowel  comes  before  it  in  the  spelling,  El 
(/)  is  written  instead,  and  downward.  The 
circle  S  (iss)  may  either  commence,  occur 
in  the  middle,  or  at  the  end  of  a  word.  It 
also  stands  for  Z,  except  at  the  beginning 
of  an  outline.  The  words  in  which  it  hap- 
pens will  not  be  confounded,  as  there  is  but 
little  difference  in  the  sound.  Ch  (ay)  is 
always  written  downward,  and  a  little  more 
straight  up  than  R  (ay),  which  is  always 
written  upward  and  slanting  to  the  right. 
If  you  try  it  you  will  notice  how  natural  it 


is  for  you  to  make  the  distinction.  G  (ay) 
and  ing  are  the  only  letters  that  do  not 
come  under  the  rule  that  all  the  heavy  let- 
ters are  to  be  written  downward,  and  that, 
of  course,  like  all  other  horizontal  letters, 
are  to  be  written  from  left  to  right.  Make 
your  heavy  signs  heavy  enough  to  show  the 
difference  between  the  light  and  heavy  ones, 
and  let  them  taper  from  and  to  a  fine  point 
gradually. 

When  R,  L,  H  are  to  be  made  with  down- 
ward strokes,  they  are  indicated  in  the  ex- 
ercises by  SMALL  CAPITALS:  thus,  R,  L,  H. 

DIRECTION   IN   MAKING   STROKES 

While  the  direction  of  movement  in  mak- 
ing the  several  strokes  in  shorthand  may 
seem  to  the  beginner  a  somewhat  indifferent 
matter,  so  long  as  the  proper  signs  are  writ- 
ten, he  must  carefully  observe  the  rules  laid 
down,  remembering  that  two  very  important 
considerations  depend  upon  the  proper  pro- 
duction of  the  strokes : 

(1)  In  making  word  outlines  it  is  impera- 
tive that  the   several   letter   signs  in   each 
case  be  joined  consecutively,  so  as  to  read 
easily  and  readily  from  left  to  right. 

(2)  Another  important  matter — the  plac- 
ing of  the  vowel  signs — depends  upon  the 
proper  production  of  the  outlines,  as  will 
be  explained  in  the  succeeding  section. 

THE    VOWELS    AND    THEIR    USES 

In  taking  up  the  study  of  the  vowels,  the 
student  must  understand  three  things :  ( i ) 
The  vowels  are  never  included  as  parts  of 
the  outline  representing  a  word,  but  are 
written  as  dots,  short  lines,  etc.,  above  or 
below,  before  or  after,  the  line  or  curve 
representing  the  consonant  with  which  they 
are  immediately  associated. 

(2)  They   always   represent   the   sounds 
rather  than  the  spelling  of  English  syllables, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  are  not  combined  to 
form   diphthongs,  as  in  longhand  spelling. 
The  diphthongal  sounds  are  represented  by 
special  signs,  as  will  be  explained  in  place. 

(3)  The  vowel  and  diphthong  signs  rep- 
resent sounds  rather  than   letters.     Hence 
different  signs  are  used  for  long  and  short 
vowels.      Also,    some    sounds    classed    as 
diphthongal  in  longhand  spelling  are  treated 
as   simple  vowels   in   shorthand. 

RULES    FOR    UPWARD    OR    DOWN- 
WARD   STROKES 

By  reference  to  the  alphabet  the  student 
will  learn  that  there  are  three  simple  letters, 
H,  L,  R,  that  may  be  written  either  up- 


PHONOGRAPHY,    OR   SHORTHAND 


839 


ward  or  downward.  Although  the  rules  in 
this  matter  will  not  be  of  service  until  a 
later  period  in  the  study  of  phonography, 
they  will  be  given  here  for  reference. 

REGARDING  THE  ASPIRATE,  H,  it  may  be 
said  that,  when  represented  by  one  of  its 
alphabetic  characters — and  not  by  a  tick  or 
dot,  as  explained  later — the  question  of 
using  the  up-stroke  or  the  down-stroke  is 
decided  solely  by  convenience  in  forming 
the  outline  with  the  subsequent  strokes. 

STROKE  R  may  be  written  upward  or 
downward,  according  to  convenience,  in 
writing  and  deciphering  outlines.  There 
are  several  rules  in  the  matter,  however, 
that  define  the  best  practice: 

(1)  R,  when  the  first  consonant  in  a  word, 
is    written    downward,    if    preceded    by    a 
vowel ;    upward,   if   followed  by   a   vowel ; 
downward,   when   both   preceded   and    fol- 
lowed by  vowels. 

It  may  be  written  upward,  however,  in 
"earth,"  "origin,"  and  other  words,  where 
the  following  consonant  is  a  down-stroke. 

(2)  Final   R   is   generally  written   down- 
ward,  when  no  vowel  follows  it,  and  up- 
ward, when  followed  by  a  vowel. 

(3)  After  a  straight  up-stroke  it  is  writ- 
ten  upward,   continuing  the   movement   of 
the  stroke  (W,  R,  L). 

(4)  In  outlines  of  three  or  more  strokes, 
final  R  is  generally  written  upward. 

INITIAL  L  is  generally  written  upward, 
except  when  followed  by  a  horizontal  con- 
sonant, K,  G,  M,  MP,  N,  NG,  being  then 
written  downward. 

FINAL  L  is  generally  written  upward,  but, 
when  ending  a  word  (no  vowel  following) 
after  F,  V,  KW,  SK,  R,  W,  Y,  H,  it  is 
written  downward. 

THE   LONG   VOWELS 

The  first  set  of  vowels  to  be  taken  up  by 
the  student  are  the  long  vowels,  which  rep- 
resent the  sounds  of  ah,  ay,  ee,  aw,  oh,  oo. 
Remembering  that  these  signs  always  rep- 
resent sounds,  we  may  combine  them  to 
form  the  following  model  sentence,  which 
should  be  carefully  memorized: 

Pa  may  \>e  thought  so  poor. 

(1)  The  first  three  in  this  series  are  rep- 
resented by  a   heavy   dot    (•),  the  second 
three  by  a  short  heavy  dash  (   ). 

(2)  The  sound  represented  in  each  case 
is  determined  by  the  position  of  the  dot  or 
dash  with  regard  to  the  line  or  curve  rep- 
resenting  the    consonant    immediately    fol- 
lowing or  preceding.    The  ah  dot  is  placed 
at  the  point  whet*"  '*-e  stroke  begins,  which 


varies,  of  course,  as  the  stroke  is  from  be- 
low, upward,  or  from  above,  downward. 
The  ay  dot  is  placed  at  the  middle  of  the 
stroke.  The  ee  dot  is  placed  at  the  point 
where  the  stroke  ends.  Similarly,  the  aw 
dash  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke; 
the  oh  dash,  at  the  middle;  the  oo  dash,  at 
the  end.  Accordingly,  ah  and  aw  are  called 
first-place  vowels;  ay  and  oh  are  called  sec- 
ond-place vowels;  ee  and  oo  are  called  third- 
place  vowels. 

(3)  If  the  vowel  sound  precedes  the  con- 
sonant, it  is  written  to  the  left  of  an  up- 
right or  inclined  line  or  curve,  or  above  the 
horizontal  line  or  curve.  If  it  follows  the 
consonant,  it  is  written  to  the  right  of  an 
upright  or  inclined  line  or  curve,  or  below 
a  horizontal  line  or  curve.  Thus:  the  word 
"ape"  is  written  with  the  P  (pee)  line,  with 
the  dot  in  the  second  position  to  the  left; 
the  word  "pay"  with  the  same  line  with  the 
dot  in  second  position  to  the  right.  Also, 
the  word  "own"  is  written  with  the  horizon- 
tal N  (en)  curve  with  the  dash  in  second 
position  above;  the  word  "no"  with  the 
same  curve,  with  the  dash  in  second  position 
below. 

If  you  commence  making  the  letters  from 
the  top  down,  you  begin  to  place  the  vowels 
from  the  top;  if  the  letter  is  slanting  and 
upward,  you  reckon  the  positions  from  the 
bottom,  or  where  you  commenced. 

Every  stroke  vowel  sign  must  be  written 
at  right  angles  to  the  consonant  line  or 
curve  to  which  it  belongs. 

The  consonant  line  or  curve  must  be 
made  first,  and  vowels  put  in  afterward. 

Exercise  3  illustrates  these  rules,  as  is 
shown  by  the  key  that  follows. 

KEY    TO    EXERCISE    THREE 

The  outlines  of  this  exercise  are  explained 
by  reference  to  the  following  list  of  words, 
which  are  arranged  in  lines  precisely  as  in 
the  exercise. 

LINE  i. — Palm,  balm,  calm,  laugh. 

(Of  course,  /  is  omitted  in  the  outlines.  "Laugh" 
is  supposed  to  be  pronounced  lahf.) 

LINE  2. — DaRe,  page,  maRe,  rake,  lame, 
dame. 

LINE  3. — Theme,  peeR,  female,  peep,  keep, 
weep. 

LINE  4. — FaLL,  bought,  taLL,  yawL,  cawed ; 
also,  maul. 

LINE  5. — Pole,  comb,  coach,  roar,  cocoa, 
poach. 

LINE  6. — Bcot,  boom,  tooth,  food,  rude, 
cool,  fool. 

In  like  manner,  read  aloud  and  write  out- 
lines for  the  following: 


.840 


PHONOGRAPHY,    OR    SHORTHAND 


EXERCISE    FOUR 

Ape,  ope,  pa,  paw,  ate,  ought  or  aught, 
oat,  taw,  to  or  toe,  too,  age,  jay,  jaw,  Joe, 
Jew,  ache,  oak,  key,  caw,  coo,  be  or  bee,  bay, 
bow  or  beau,  each,  chaw,  chew,  me,  ma, 
maw,  mow,  own,  oath,  ace,  ail  or  ale,  all, 
lo,  lieu,  foe,  she,  Shae,  shoe,  eve,  we,  way, 
woe,  woo,  ye,  yea,  you. 

Beet,  became,  bail,  oatmeal,  Paul,  game, 
fame,  boat,  caught,  pool,  teeth,  bait,  cake, 
goal,  shame,  shave,  room,  ball,  tool,  deal, 
delay,  depot,  potato,  make,  thaw,  bathe, 
•wreath,  wreathe,  zeal,  leap,  feed,  deem, 
Hawk,  shawl  (sh  and  1  upward),  shoal, 
•wade,  rule,  read,  haughty,  pooR,  cheap, 
kneeL. 

Study  the  power  of  each  vowel  sign,  by 
reference  to  the  word  underneath  it,  until 
you  can  detect  the  long  vowrels  in  any  other 
word  you  may  read.  The  exercise  will  im- 
prove your  pronunciation  of  words.  Then 
pick  out  all  the  words  you  can  in  this  read- 
ing matter  which  contain  one  or  more  long 
vowel  sounds,  and  if  they  have  no  sound 
different  from  those  in  the  words  under  the 
above  scale,  write  them  on  paper,  first  the 
English  word,  and  under  it  the  phono- 
graphic consonant  outline,  with  the  vowel 
properly  placed. 

WORD    SIGNS 

At  this  point  we  may  introduce  another 
feature  of  shorthand  writing,  which  the  stu- 
dent should  understand  before  proceding 
further.  It  is  regarding  the  so-called 
"word  signs,"  commonly  used,  whereby  cer- 
tain familiar  short  words  are  expressed  by 
their  characteristic  consonants,  instead  of 
by  phonetic  outlines.  Many  of  these  letter- 
words  are  written  in  the  second  position,  or 
on  the  line,  but  others,  above  the  line 
(first  position)  or  below  the  line  (third  po- 
sition). Where  these  signs  are  written  in 
the  first  or  third  positions  they  are  indi- 
cated in  the  exercise  keys  by  those  numbers 
in  parentheses;  thus  (i)  and  (3). 

In  the  terminology  of  shorthand,  the 
words  that  are  thus  expressed  by  charac- 
teristic letters  are  called  GRAMMALOGUES, 
while  the  shorthand  letters  representing 
them  are  called  LOGOGRAMS. 

A  number  of  common  LOGOGRAMS  are 
given  in  Exercise  3A,  their  longhand  equiva- 
lents being  appended. 

KEY    TO    EXERCISE    THREE  (A) 

Be,  do,  they  (or  them),  the,  we,  give  (or 
given),  all  (i),  he,  who,  it,  him  (or  may), 
which,  go  (i),  have,  was. 


It  is  well  to  understand  this  matter  at  the 
start,  in  order  to  avoid  the  confusion  inci- 
dent on  attempting  to  write  outlines  for 
words  that  are  commonly  represented  by 
logograms.  In  studying  the  above  exercise 
the  student  should  carefully  compare  each 
sign  with  the  alphabet  already  given,  and 
learn  what  letters  properly  stand  for  the 
words. 

THE    SHORT    VOWELS 

The  short  vowel  sounds  are  treated  in 
shorthand  in  the  same  general  fashion  as 
the  long  vowels,  already  noticed,  both  as 
to  signs  and  positions  in  the  outlines. 
Furthermore,  they  correspond  to  the  long 
vowels  in  representing  the  sounds  of  similar 
vowels  in  longhand  writing.  They  are  as 
follows:  a,  as  in  "hat";  e,  as  in  "het";  f, 
as  in  "hit";  o,  as  in  "hot";  u,  as  in  "hut"; 
oo  (or  «),  as  in  "hood."  In  speaking,  they 
are  called  respectively,  at,  et,  it,  ot,  ut,  56t. 

The  short  vowels  may  be  learned  in  the 
order  of  their  positions  on  the  consonant 
signs  by  memorizing  the  following  sen- 
tence : 

That  p^n  «s  not  m«ch  good. 

In  writing,  the  short  vowels  are  repre- 
sented by  light  dots  and  light  dashes  in  the 
proper  positions.  Thus,  short  a  is  a  light 
dot  in  the  first  place;  short  e,  a  light  dot  in 
second  place;  short  i,  a  light  dot  in  the 
third  place;  short  o,  a  light  dash  in  the  first 
place;  short  u,  a  light  dash  in  the  second 
place;  short  oo  (as  in  "good,"  "hood," 
"wood"),  a  light  dash  in  the  third  place. 

As  regards  place  and  position,  the  same 
rules  hold  for  both  long  and  short  vowels, 
particularly  when,  as  is  most  commonly  the 
case,  one  of  the  short  vowels  precedes  a  sin- 
gle consonant  sound,  as  in  at,  add,  am,  an, 
ebb,  err,  it,  ill,  egg,  odd,  off,  or,  up,  us,  etc. 
In  order,  however,  to  prevent  the  uncer- 
tainty that  will  frequently  occur  regarding 
a  light  or  a  heavy  dot  or  dash,  certain  rules 
of  position  are  adopted  for  short  vowels  in 
outlines  of  more  than  one  consonant  sound. 

(1)  First  position  vowels,  long  or  short, 
are  written  after  the  first  consonant. 

(2)  Second  position  vowels,  if  long,  are 
written  after  the  first  consonant;  if  short, 
before  the  second  consonant. 

(3)  Third  position  vowels,  long  or  short, 
are  written  before  the  second  consonant. 

These  rules  should  be  carefully  memor- 
ized and  observed  in  practicing  and  writing. 
Exercises  5  and  6  exhibit  most  of  the  pe- 
culiarities that  the  student  needs  to  under- 
stand. By  carefully  studying  them  with  the 
keys,  with  reference  to  these  rules,  the  mat- 
ter will  soon  become  clear. 


PHONOGRAPHY,    OR    SHORTHAND 


841 


Exercise  SA  gives  another  series  of  word- 
signs  (logograms),  which  the  student  should 
carefully  note  in  passing,  and  eventually 
memorize. 

KEY    TO    EXERCISE    FIVE 

Line  I. — Rag,  tap,  car,  rap,  Pat,  tad. 

Line  2. — Get,  leg,  wreck,  peck,  deck,  Heck. 

Line  3. — Pip,  kid,  fib,  bit,  jim,  pill,  fiLL. 

Line  4. — Rob,  lock,  botch,  notch,  fop,  chop. 

Line  5. — Thumb,  numb,  jug,  Dutch,  gum, 
Hug. 

Line  6. — Book,  look,  cook,  push,  shook, 
Hook. 

KEY    TO    EXERCISE    FIVE  (A) 

Had  (i),  can  (i),  come,  if,  think,  shall, 
me  or  my  (i),  in  or  any  (i),  or  (i),  are, 


THE  DIPHTHONGS 
In  addition  to  the  signs  for  the  long  and 
short  vowel  sounds  already  given,  there  are 
five  others  classed  as  diphthongs,  although, 
like  several  of  the  long  vowel  sounds,  they 
are  not  all  the  same  sounds  as  are  so  rep- 
resented in  English  longhand  writing.  Thus, 
we  have  in  this  list  the  following: 

(1)  /   (or  y)   as  in  "my,"  "high,"  "lie," 
"die,"  etc.,  represented  by  an  inverted  point 
(or  caret).     That  it  is  proper  to  represent 
this  sound  as  a  diphthong  is  evident,  when 
we   conisder  that   it  is  really  a   compound 
sound  of  long  a  (ah)  and  long  e  (ee)  pro- 
nounced rapidly.    Thus :  ah-ee. 

(2)  Ow,   as    in   "now,"    "how,"    "cow" ; 
also  representing  the  sound  of  ou  in  "thou," 
and  of  ough  in  "plough."     However,  it  is 


EXERCISE  ONE 


EXERCISE  THREE 


EXERCISE  FIVE 


EXERCISE  THREE  (A) 
\  I  <  .  S-  ^  .  ,  I  ^  /  -  V.  ) 


EXERCISE    FIVE   (A) 


so  or  us,  should,  a  or  an  (i),  of,  and  (i), 
to,  but,  thing,  on  (i),  wish  (3). 

In  like  manner  write,  and  read  aloud  as 
you  do  so,  the  following  words : 

EXERCISE    SIX 

Pick,  pack,  peachy,  poach,  putty,  tick, 
tack,  tuck,  took,  touch,  tip,  top,  tug,  chick, 
check,  cup,  cage,  catch,  cud,  bit,  biddy, 
budge,  back,  jot,  jet,  map,  Mattie,  muddy, 
among,  nothing,  ship,  shape,  shop,  ask,  bet, 
dimity,  bush,  merry,  sham,  shell  (sh  and  / 
upward),  Ned,  bat,  caddy,  carriage,  copy, 
gem,  natty,  nock,  ship,  aRm,  fish  (sh  up- 
ward), knell,  red,  aRk,  faK. 


necessary  to  remember  that  when  ow  is 
sounded  oh,  as  in  "bow"  (the  instrument 
to  shoot  an  arrow),  "mow"  (the  verb), 
"sow"  (the  verb),  the  second-place  long 
vowel  sign  of  oh  is  used,  instead  of  the 
diphthong — shorthand  outlines  always  rep- 
resenting sounds  rather  than  letters,  as  al- 
ready stated.  The  phonetic  sign  for  the 
diphthongal  sound  of  ow  is  a  caret  or  point 
turned  upward. 

(3)  The  sound  of  oi  (or  oy),  as  in  "boy," 
"toy,"  "joy,"  "void,"  etc.  This  is  a  com- 
bination of  the  sounds  of  long  o  (oh)  and 
long  e  (ee)  pronounced  rapidly.  Thus : 
oh-ee. 


842 


PHONOGRAPHY,  OR  SHORTHAND 


(4)  The  sound  of  ew  or  u  with  the  af- 
fected pronunciation  of  yu,  used  by  many 
people  in  such  words  as  "new"  (pronounced 
ne-yoo),   "lute"    (pronounced   le-yoot),   al- 
though the  prevailing  custom  is  to  give  a 
simple  oo  sound  in  most  such  words.   How- 
ever, this  diphthong  sign  would  be  used  in 
such  words  as  "view."    The  sign  is  a  small 
semicircle,  like  an  inverted  U. 

(5)  The  sound  of  wi,  as  in  "wide,"  "wine," 
"swine,"  etc.,  is  a  small  right  angle. 

All  these  signs  are  shown  in  Exercise  7, 
where  they  are  represented  as  preceding  the 
sign  for  T.  According  to  the  rule  of  use, 
the  sign  for  oi  is  always  written  in  the  first 
place;  yu  and  ow,  in  the  third  place,  and  the 
•  (as  in  "my,"  "thy")  and  wi  in  either  of  the 
three  places,  as  is  most  convenient.  These 
matters  may  all  be  understood  by  carefully 
studying  Exercise  7  with  its  key. 

KEY    TO    EXERCISE    SEVEN 

Line  i. — The  diphthongs  I,  oy  or  oi,  wi, 
ow,  U. 

Line  2. — Tie,  ice,  type,  tide,  time,  like, 
chime. 

Line  3. — Boy,  envoy,  annoy,  alloy,  coy, 
joy,  toy. 

Line  4. — Wide,  widely,  wife,  Wite. 

Line  5. — Out,  cow,  bow,  thou,  now,  loud. 

Line  6. — Pew,  few,  due,  cure,  fury. 

The  following  grammalogues  are  also  rep- 
resented after  this  exercise: 

I  (i),  why  (i),  how,  you,  our  (3),  use 
(noun)  or  see  (3),  use  (verb)  or  whose 
(3),  by  (i). 

In  mastering  this  exercise,  copy  the  out- 
lines given,  and  read  aloud  as  you  write,  the 
above  examples;  but  do  not  simply  copy 
them  unless  you  know  how  and  why  the 
signs  mean  what  they  read.  Observe  closely 
the  angles  of  the  diphthong  signs,  whether 
downward,  upward,  to  the  left,  at  the  top, 
or  bottom.  We  might  give  you,  in  this  les- 
son, much  more  to  study,  but  it  is  best  not 
to  try  to  do  too  much  all  at  once.  If  you 
learn  these  perfectly,  you  can  exercise  your- 
self in  making  other  words  like  them  from 
such  lists  as  the  following,  or  from  books 
or  newspapers.  The  following  words  are 
carefully  chosen  with  a  view  to  illustrating 
the  rules  already  given: 

Lime,  mighty,  joyous,  pneumatic,  noisy, 
enjoy,  duty,  owl,  pioneeR,  deny,  isle,  icy,  en- 
dow, endue,  accuracy,  poweR,  HigheR,  re- 
view, NiLe,  foiL,  rout.  iRish,  July,  piety, 
avenue. 


THE   CIRCLE   S  (ISS) 

As  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  pno- 
netic  alphabet  already  given,  there  are  two 
signs  for  S  used  in  shorthand ;  the  first  is  a 
part  of  a  curve,  called  ess,  the  second  a 
circle,  called  iss.  The  ess  is,  accordingly, 
called  "stroke-S."  The  circle  I'M  also  serves 
in  some  words  for  the  Z  (zee)  stroke. 

The  strokes  for  S  and  Z  are  used  prin- 
cipally when  a  vowel  immediately  precedes 
or  follows  a  consonant  sign.  The  circles 
for  S  and  Z  are  used  principally  when  two 
consonant  sounds — one  of  which  is  S  come 
together  in  a  word.  Thus  the  strokes  for 
S  and  Z  are  used  at  the  beginning  or  end 
of  an  outline  always  for  some  particular 
reason. 

(1)  The  circle  S   (iss)   is  always  to  be 
formed  by  a  movement  of  the.  pen  or  pen- 
cil backward — i.e.,  from  left  to  right  or  con- 
trary to  the  hands  of  a  clock.    It  thus  comes 
at  the  right  side  of  an  upright  or  slanting 
down-stroke;    on   the   left  side  of  an    up- 
stroke, and  on  the  upper  side  of  a  horizontal 
stroke.    It  is  necessary  to  observe  this  rule 
carefully,   since,   when  the  circle   is   at  the 
left  or  below,  the  significance  is  different,  as 
will  be  explained  in  the  section  on  "hooked 
consonants." 

(2)  Circle  S  forms  a  convenient  means  of 
joining  two  strokes;  and,  as  shown  in  Ex- 
ercise 9,   when   joining  two   straight   lines, 
it  is  outside  the  angle  formed  by  their  meet- 
ing; when  joining  two  curves,  it  is  inside 
the  curve.    The  direction  followed  in  making 
the  circle  will  always  be  apparent  by  ob- 
serving the  manner  in  which  the  strokes  of 
the  outline  are  joined  together. 

If  this  rule  is  always  carefully  observed, 
there  will  be  no  uncertainty  in  reading  out- 
lines, since  the  direction  followed  in  making 
the  circle  will  always  be  apparent  by  ob- 
serving the  manner  in  which  the  strokes 
are  joined  together. 

(3)  When  the  single  iss  circle  stands  at 
the    beginning    of   a    stroke,    it    is    always 
sounded  first;  when  it  stands  at  the  end  of 
a  stroke1,  it  is  always  sounded  last,  no  mat- 
ter what  the  place  of  the  vowel,  which  is 
sounded  before  or  after  the  stroke,  as  in- 
dicated by  position  before  or  after. 

(4)  Double   S,  medial  or  final,  is  indi- 
cated  by   a    large   circle,    formed   counter- 
clockwise, and  connected  to  the  strokes  pre- 
cisely like  the  single  S.    This  is  called  sess, 
and  corresponds  to  the  sounds  of  ses,  sez, 
zes,  eez,  size,  etc.,  as  in  "exercise,"   "cen- 
sus," etc.,  as  in  Exercise  9. 

(5)  Such  a  large  circle  at  the  beginning 
of  an  outline  indicates  SW,  as  in  "swear," 


"sweet,"  etc.  It  does  not  indicate  the  sess, 
as  in  "cessation,"  "secede,"  "sesame,"  the 
stroke  S  (ess)  being  used  in  such  cases,  as 
will  be  explained  in  the  following  para- 
graphs. 

THE   USES   OF   STROKE   S 

(1)  Stroke  S  (ess)  is  used,  when  S  is  the 
only  consonant  in  a  word. 

(2)  Stroke  S  is  used  in  a  word  beginning 
with  a  vowel  followed  by  the  S-sound. 

(3)  In  a  word  ending  with  a  vowel  sound 
(not  a  silent  vowel),  immediately  preceded 
by  S,  the  stroke  S  is  used. 

(4)  When  the  S-sound  begins  a  word  and 


S  in  respect  to  the  way  in  which  it  is  writ- 
fen  and  combined  in  outlines.  Unlike  the 
iss,  however,  the  st  loops  are  not  circles 
but  elongated  ovals. 

(i)  The  "stay"  loop,  corresponding  to  the 
syllable  st  or  sta,  as  in  "stay,"  "stand,"  etc., 
is  a  small  elongated  loop,  as  shown  in  Ex- 
ercise 9,  lines  n,  12,  13,  14.  It  may  be 
used  initially,  medially,  or  finally.  When, 
however,  ST  is  at  the  end  of  a  word  fol- 
lowed only  by  a  vowel  sound  it  is  spelled  by 
using  circle  S  (iss)  followed  by  T  (tee), 
in  order  to  leave  a  place  to  write  the  final 
vowel.  This  may  be  seen  in  the  word 
"dusty,"  whose  outline  is  the  third  of  Line 


EXERCISE   SEVEN 

1  I:  J 

I         I     Al     J 


EXERCISE   NINE 

NO  tr  t - 


^9  ~s 


EXERCISE  SEVEN   (A) 


V    L 


is  immediately  followed  by  a  vowel  with  an- 
other S-  or  Z-sound,  the  first  S  is  a  stroke, 
the  second  a  circle  (iss). 

(5)  Z-sound  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  is 
always  indicated  by  the  stroke  letter. 

(6)  When  initial   S  is  followed  by  two 
vowel-sounds  in  different  positions,  or  final 
S  is  preceded  by  two  vowels  in  different  po- 
sitions, the  S-sound  must  always  be  repre- 
sented by  the  stroke  letter,  in  order  to  give 
opportunity  for  writing  the  two  vowels  in 
the  outline.    If  this  is  not  done  the  vowels 
will  be  mixed  up  in  the  outline. 

"STAY"     AND    "STER"     LOOPS 
The  sounds  of  st  and  ster  are  commonly 
expressed  by  a  sign  resembling  the  circle 


14,  Exercise  9.  Compare  it  with  "dust," 
whose  outline  is  the  third  of  Line  n,  in  the 
same  exercise. 

(2)  The  ster  loop,  corresponding  to  the 
syllable,  ster  or  stor,  medial  or  final,  in  such 
words  as  "pastor,"  "minister,"  "master- 
piece," is  formed  like  the  stay  loop,  except 
that  it  is  fuller  or  wider  in  proportion 
to  its  length.  Its  formation  and  use  are 
shown  in  Exercise  9,  Line  15.  As  may 
be  seen  in  the  fifth  outline  of  this 
same  line  ("posters"),  the  S  of  the 
plural  is  formed  by  continuing  the  line 
of  the  loop  through  the  stroke  letter  on 
which  it  is  written,  and  making  a  small 
circle  over  or  on  the  other  side  of  the 
stroke. 


844 


PHONOGRAPHY,    OR   SHORTHAND 


KEY    TO    EXERCISE    NINE 

Line  I. — Pass,  ties,  chess,  kiss,  raise, 
house,  yes. 

Line  2.— Soap,  sat,  such,  sack,  sorry, 
sway,  stow. 

Line  3.— Face,  thaws,  cease,  shows,  mouse, 
neighs,  laws. 

Line  4. — Save,  soothe,  seize,  sash,  Sam, 
snow,  seal. 

Line  5.— Task,  excite,  opposite,  Jessup, 
rasp,  desk. 

Line  6. — Dismay,  dozen,  rus(t)le,  Kissam, 
raisin,  cousin. 

Line  7.— Mason,  lacer,  facile,  loosely,  sea- 
son. 

Line  8.— (Examples  of  large  circle  sess 
with  vowel  inserted.)  Exercise,  excessive, 
exhaust,  indexes,  census,  insist. 

Line  9. —  (Circle  ses,  sez,  zes,  sez.)  Paces, 
rouses,  causes,  necessity,  necessary. 

Line  10.— (Large  circle  SW  beginning  of 
outlines.)  Swear,  swell,  swathe,  swarthy, 
swing. 

Line  u.—  (st  loop.)  Cast,  stick,  dust, 
staid,  statute. 

Line  12.— Most,  vestry,  justify,  elastic, 
(h)onest. 

Line  13.— Story,  stuff,  stage,  store. 

Line  14. —  (st  loop  with  vowel  following 
or  between  S  and  T.)  Russett,  rusty, 
dusty,  rust,  dust. 

Line  15. — ("ster"  loop  medial  or  final.) 
Pastor,  lustre,  Chester,  masterpiece,  posters. 

EXERCISE  TEN 
(All  grammalogues  thus  far  given.) 
We  may  go  to  see  him  if  he  can  have  us. 
I  may  give  the  thing  to  them.  We  shall  see 
if  they  all  think  so.  How  can  you  see  in  it? 
It  was  put  on  my  eye,  but  I  think  it  may  be 
had  by  all  who  wish  to  use  it.  How  are 
you,  and  which  hour  do  you  wish  to  come? 
Why  are  we  to  use  them?  Shall  we  see 
whose  they  may  be  or  can  all  of  us  have 
the  use  of  them?  We  may  have  them,  but 
they  should  all  see  our  use  of  them. 

Carefully  review  the  lists  of  logograms 
already  given,  reading  them  by  means  of 
their  keys,  and  write  this  exercise  out  in 
shorthand.  Then  read  it  from  the  signs,  etc., 
;  until  all  the  logograms  are  thoroughly  mem- 
orized. 

PHONOGRAPHIC  HOOKS 
After  the  student  has  carefully  mastered 
what  has  gone  before,  he  is  in  a  position  to 
write  shorthand  with  moderately  good  ease 
and  effect.  From  some  points  of  view,  it  is 
even  advisable  that  he  go  no  further  until 
he  has  thoroughly  mastered  the  characters 
and  principles  already  laid  down,  so  as  to 


be  able  to  write  all  previous  exercises  with 
ease.  In  entering,  however,  upon  the  study 
of  what  might  properly  be  called  the  SEC- 
OND PART  of  this  treatise,  he  must  under- 
stand that  the  various  abbreviations  found 
in  the  hook  characters  are  adopted  for  no 
other  reason  than  to  assist  him  to  the  end 
of  making  his  outlines  shorter  and  less  com- 
plicated— hence,  to  be  more  rapidly  written 
and  more  easily  read.  Of  course,  the  mat- 
ter demands  earnest  and  careful  study;  but 
the  further  we  go  in  this  manner,  the  sim- 
pler seem  all  things  that  follow. 

THE  W  AND  Y  DIPHTHONGS 

When  a  word  begins  with  either  a  W  or 
Y  sound  followed  by  a  long  or  a  short 
vowel,  it  may  be  spelled  with  a  W  or  a  Y 
diphthong,  so-called,  instead  of  by  the  use 
of  a  hooked  stroke  way  or  yay,  as  given  in 
the  phonographic  alphabet.  These  signs  are 
called  diphthongs,  because,  as  phonographic 
teachers  remind  us,  "W  is  really  oo  and  Y  is 
really  ee"  Hence  another  vowel  sound  fol- 
lowing either  of  them  forms  what  is  prac- 
tically a  diphthong. 

The  W  diphthongs  are  represented  by 
small  semicircles,  each  laid  on  one  side,  and 
the  Y  diphthongs  by  small  semicircles  open- 
ing either  upward  or  downward. 

Thus,  wah,  way,  wee,  are  represented  by 
small  heavy  semicircles  opening  to  the  right; 
wah,  woh,  woo,  by  small  heavy  semicircles 
opening  to  the  left;  the  difference  in  each  case 
being  denoted  by  the  position  of  the  sign 
on  the  consonant  outline,  as  in  the  simple 
long  vowels  already  noticed.  In  other 
words,  these  diphthongs  take  first,  second, 
or  third  place,  according  to  the  vowels  with 
which  they  are  compounded. 

The  Y  diphthongs,  yah,  yay,  yee,  are  de- 
noted by  small  heavy  semicircles  opening 
upward,  and  occupy  first,  second,  and  third 
place,  respectively.  Yaw,  yoh,  yoo  are  small 
heavy  semicircles  opening  downward,  and 
occupying  first,  second,  and  third  place, 
respectively. 

The  diphthongs  compounded  with  the 
short  vowels,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  oo,  may  be  rep- 
resented in  similar  fashion  with  W  and  Y, 
but  by  light  semicircles.  However,  it  will 
seldom  be  found  necessary  to  make  this  dis- 
tinction in  practical  shorthand  work. 

HOOKED    CONSONANTS 

The  most  notable  of  the  hooked  conso- 
nants are  the  L  hooks  and  the  R  hooks, 
as  shown  in  the  annexed  diagram.  As  may 
be  seen  here,  the  L  hook  is  formed  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  crook  of  the  first  nn- 


PHONOGRAPHY,    OR   SHORTHAND 


845 


ger  of  the  left  hand:  the  R  hook,  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  crook  of  the  first  finger  of 
the  right  hand.  Consequently,  in  order  to 
remember  which  is  which,  the  student  need 
only  recollect  that  L  stands  for  left  and  R 
stands  for  right.  These  hooks  are  placed 
at  the  beginning  of  a  stroke,  which  there- 
after has  the  sound  of  the  consonant  indi- 
cated followed  by  L  or  R.  Both  are  shown 


Diagram  of  the  L  and  R  hooks. 


combined  with  the  light  strokes  for  K,  P, 
T,  CH,  but  can  be  as  correctly  combined 
with  the  heavy  strokes  for  G,  B,  D,  as 
occasion  requires,  in  precisely  the  same  man- 
ner. These  hooks  may  also  be  combined 
with  any  other  stroke  letters. 

VOWELS     INSERTED     ON     INITIAL 

HOOKS 

When  an  L  or  R  hook  is  written  on  a 
;troke  consonant,  as  already  explained,  we 
have  the  combinations,  GL,  KL,  PL,  BL,  GR, 
KR,  PR,  BR,  etc.,  with  any  vowel  sounds 
following,  as  in  "gland,"  "grand,"  "clay," 
"gray,"  etc.  When,  however,  a  vowel  sound 
is  to  come  between  the  component  conso- 
nants, as  in  "German,"  "chairman,"  "tor- 
ment," "school,"  etc.,  a  variation  in  the 
vowel  signs  is  necessary. 

(1)  A  dot  vowel  (ah,  ay,  ee,  and  short  a, 
e,  i)  is  written  as  a  small  circle,  instead  of 
a  simple  dot.     The  circle  for  a  long  vowel 
sound  precedes  the  stroke  letter  at  the  left, 
or  above  the  horizontal;   the  circle   for   a 
short  vowel  sound  follows  the  stroke  letter 
at  the  right,  or  below  the  horizontal. 

(2)  A  stroke  vowel  (aw,  oh,  oo,  and  short 
o,   u,   oo),   or   a   diphthong   sign   is   drawn 
through  the  stroke  letter. 

(3)  When  an  initial  hook  would  interfere 
with  a  stroke  vowel  or  a  diphthong  sign,  the 
stroke  or  sign  may  be  written   before  the 
hook. 

KEY    TO    EXERCISE    ELEVEN 

W    AND   Y   DIPHTHONGS 

1.  Twelve,   twenty,    wish,    word,   railway, 
frequent,  Asia,  India. 

2.  Associate,     association,     year,     yearly, 
yard,  period,  folio,  ratio. 

3.  Boxwood,    password,    patriot,    fuchsia, 
recreation,  variation,  various. 

4.  Area,  Persia,  piano,  sinew,  mania,  curi- 
ous, warm. 


VOCALIZATION   OF   INITIAL  R  AND   L   HOOKS 

5.  Well,   weal,    well,   Willie,   wile,   while, 
wool,  woolly,  wolf. 

6.  Willing,    wealthy,    weakness,    wakeful, 
wall,  wail,  walker. 

7.  Willow,    woollen,    careless,    cheerless, 
term,   dark,   perfect,   charm. 

8.  Parliament,    external,    dormant,    north, 
curtain,  churl,  churlish,  former. 

9.  Tell,  till,  garment,  girl,  parcel,  darling. 

EXERCISE    ELEVEN 
I  wall,  *!  weh,  <i  wee,   j  waw,  »j  woh,  >j  woo. 
"}  yah,  vj  yeh,  „,'  yee,    j  yaw,  A|  yoh,  A|  yoo. 


t. 
2. 

3. 

4 

5  r 

6 
7 


VI 


\    V 

"V 


r 


, 


r 
t_ 


-V 


i.  *-( 


r.  r 


KEY    TO    EXERCISE    TWELVE 

1.  Pray,  pry,  brew,  adder,  eager. 

2.  Play,  addle,  eagle,  glue,  through. 

3.  Broke,  baker,  couple,  paper. 

4.  Block,  buckle,  copper,  coffer. 

5.  Bible,  teacher,  cover,  measure,  lever. 

6.  Gather,  sugar,  liver,  leisure,  Homer. 

7.  Talker,  tanner,  dinner,  banner,  joiner. 

8.  Banker,  finger,  linger,  lumber. 

9.  Flow,  flee,  flame,  flock. 

10.  Fled,  panel,  funnel,  flannel. 

DOUBLE  CONSONANTS 
In  order  to  prevent  confusion  in  the  stu- 
dent's mind  regarding  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  L  and  R  hooks  combined  with 
stroke  letters  and  the  double  consonants, 
KW,  GW,  WH,  WL,  and  WHL,  and  with 
the  characters  for  W  and  Y,  as  shown  in 
the  alphabet,  it  is  necessary  only  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  the  hooks  of  the 
double  consonants  are  to  be  made  deliber- 
ately larger  than  those  of  the  L  and  R 

54 


846 


PHONOGRAPHY,  OR  SHORTHAND 


characters.  Thus,  KW  will  not  be  con- 
fused with  KL,  nor  GW  with  GL.  Re- 
garding the  WH,  we  may  call  attention  to 
the  fact  that  it  is  to  be  made  with  an  up- 
stroke, and  consequently  can  not  be  con- 
fused with  CHN,  which  is  a  down-stroke. 
Regarding  W,  Y,  WL,  and  WHL,  the  same 
remark  applies.  In  writing  WL  the  hook 
is  made  smaller  than  in  WHL. 

CIRCLE    S    (ISS)    BEFORE    INITIAL 
HOOKS 

When  it  is  necessary  to  write  S  before  any 
hooked  consonant  of  the  L  or  R  series,  the 
circle  S  (iss)  is  used,  only,  contrary  to  the 
rule  previously  stated,  it  is  written  with  a 
forward  movement — i.e.  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  hands  of  a  clock. 

WITH  THE  R  SERIES,  the  circle  S — making 
signs  for  the  sounds  of  SKR,  SPR,  STR, 
etc.,  or  outlines  with  these  and  other  con- 
sonants of  the  series — is  merely  written  to 
the  left  of  the  upright  and  slanting  strokes, 
and  below  the  horizontal  strokes.  The 
meaning  is  thus  unmistakable,  since  with  the 
simple  S  sound  the  circle  is  to  the  right  of 
the  uprights  and  slants  and  above  the  hori- 
zontals, as  we  have  already  stated. 

WITH  THE  L  SERIES,  the  circle  S — making 
the  signs  for  the  sounds  of  SPL,  STL, 
SCHL,  SKL,  etc. — is  written  inside  of  and 
at  the  shorter  end  of  the  L  hook,  although 
written  counter-clockwise.  The  same  rule 
applies  to  the  double  consonant;  KW,  in 
which  the  hook  is  larger  than  in  KL. 

When  a  consonant  sound  indicated  by 
either  an  L  or  an  R  hook  follows  S  in  the 
middle  of  a  word,  the  S  circle  is  always 
written  on  the  shorter  end  of  the  hook,  un- 
less the  sign  having  the  R  hook  follows  a 
straight  stroke  made  in  the  same  direction. 
In  the  latter  case  the  combined  S  and  hook 
sound  is  indicated  as  if  initial. 

An  ST  loop  or  an  SW  circle  may  be  writ- 
ten to  a  consonant  sign  of  the  L  or  the  R 
series  by  observing  the  same  rule  of  making 
the  direction  of  movement  the  same  as  the 
hands  of  a  clock;  the  stroke  continuing  the 
circle  or  loop. 

In  connection  with  the  R  series,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  remark  at  this  point  that  the  pho- 
nographic symbols  for  H,  both  up-stroke 
and  down-stroke,  represent  the  characters 
not  liable  to  be  used.  Thus,  the  down- 
stroke  H  might  indicate  the  combination 
SCHR,  which  would  scarcely  represent  any 
English  word.  The  up-stroke  H  could  in- 
dicate nothing  else  than  SRR,  which  would 
have  to  be  otherwise  written  in  an  outline. 


FINAL   CONSONANT    HOOKS 

Just  as  the  sounds  of  L  and  R  may  be 
added  to  other  consonants  at  the  beginning 
or  middle  of  a  word  by  the  use  of  hooks, 
so  the  sounds  of  N  and  of  F  and  V  may 
be  indicated  by  the  use  of  the  proper  final 
hooks.  The  final  N  hook  is  made  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  initial  L  hook  (being 
indicated  by  the  crook  of  the  left  fore- 
finger), and  the  final  F  or  V  hook,  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  initial  R  hook  (being 
indicated  by  the  crook  of  the  right  fore- 
finger). 

Thus,  when  N  is  the  last  sound  in  a 
word — not  being  followed  by  a  vowel — it 
may  be  indicated  by  a  hook  at  the  finish  of 
a  straight  stroke,  turning  to  the  left  for 
slants  and  uprights,  and  to  the  right  for 
slanting  up-strokes,  R,  W,  and  H.  With 
curved  strokes,  it  simply  continues  the  di- 
rection of  the  curve. 

The  final  F  or  V  hook  is  used  most  usu- 
ally with  straight  strokes,  and  with  them  is 
the  reverse  of  the  N  hook — being  written 
to  the  right  of  slanting  and  upright  down- 
strokes,  and  to  the  left  of  slanting  up- 
strokes, R.  W,  H. 

The  N  and  F  hooks  can  be  used  medially 
in  any  word,  provided  a  sufficient  space  be 
allowed  to  draw  them  in. 

When  a  vowel  sound  follows  N,  F  or  V, 
at  the  end  of  a  word,  the  proper  stroke 
letter  must  be  used  instead  of  the  hook. 
(A  similar  rule  applies  in  the  use  of  the 
ST  Icop  as  already  explained.) 

VOCALIZING    FINAL   HOOKS 

Final  hooks  may  be  vocalized  (i.e.  a  vowel 
may  be  inserted  between  the  component  con- 
sonants) in  precisely  the  same  manner  as 
has  been  explained  in  connection  with  the 
initial  hooks.  Dot  vowels  are  expressed  by 
circles,  before  for  long,  after  for  short; 
stroke  vowels  or  diphthongs  may  be  drawn 
through  the  stroke  consonant.  Also,  when 
the  final  hook  might  interfere  with  the 
stroke  vowel  or  the  diphthong  sign,  either 
of  them  may  be  placed  after  the  hook. 

CIRCLE  S  AND  FINAL  HOOKS 

Circle  S  may  be  added  to  a  final  hook 
(F,  V,  or  N)  in  precisely  the  same  manner 
that  it  is  prefixed  to  an  initial  L  or  R 
hook,  as  already  explained.  In  so  doing 
it  is  essential  only  to  carefully  make  the 
circle  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  in 
which  it  indicates  simply  final  S. 

Thus,  while  circle  S  is  written  to  the 
RIGHT  of  slanting  and  upright  down-strokes, 


PHONOGRAPHY,  OR  SHORTHAND 


847 


•n  the  UPPER  SIDE  of  a  horizontal  straight 
stroke,  and  to  the  LEFT  of  up-strokes,  the 
final  NS  circle  (the  N  hook  continued  and 
closed  into  a  circle)  is  at  the  LEFT  of  slant- 
ing and  upright  down-strokes,  BELOW  a  hori- 
zontal straight  stroke,  and  to  the  RIGHT  of 
up-strokes. 

Noting,  however,  that  the  final  S  circle 
merely  continues  the  bend  of  a  curved 
stroke,  the  distinction  is  made  with  NS  by 
making  the  N  hook  continue  the  bend  and 
drawing  the  S  circle  on  the  short  end  of 
the  hook.  The  distinction  between  the  NS 
and  the  VS  or  FS  circles  is  preserved  by 
using  the  stroke  N  and  circle  S  wherever 


way,  a  large  final  hook  stands  for  the  sound 
represented  by  the  syllables,  tion,  sion,  and 
tian,.  sian,    with    the    sound    of    SHUN    or 
ZHUN. 
Several  rules  govern  the  use  of  this  hook : 

(1)  After  a  stroke  letter  beginning  with 
a  hook  or  circle  (L,  R,  S,  etc.)  it  is  written 
on  the  side  opposite  to  'the  hook  or  circle. 

(2)  After  a  simple  stroke  letter  it  is  writ- 
ten on  the  side  opposite  to  the  vowel  or  to 
the  accented  vowel,  if  there  are  more  than 
one  (as  before  and  after  the  stroke). 

(3)  After  a  curved  stroke  it  is  written 
within,  as  a  continuant  of  the  curve. 

(4)  After   T,  D   or  J,   straight   strokes, 


EXERCISE    TWELVE         EXERCISE    THIRTEEN 

1.  X     \v     V     '1 

2.  <k       f 
3. 

4. 
5. 


EXERCISE    FOURTEEN 


x\ 


2  <i 

3  -}       f-^      i> 

i  -V   i    "( 


»:  t-  L  L 

8-      V 


9. 
10. 


9 
10 


b 


V/T 


v 


10 


w,     O        ^  '•  X 


there  might  be  confusion  of  word  outlines. 
Circle  NS  is  used  most  generally  for  the 
NZ  sound,  and  stroke  N  with  circle  S  for 
Jhe  NS  sound. 

The  circle  S  with  F  and  V  hooks  is 
written  on  the  same  plan  as  with  the  initial 
L  hooks,  on  the  short  end  of  the  hook,  which 
is  made  to  the  right  of  the  inclined  and  up- 
right down- strokes,  above  a  horizontal,  and 
to  the  left  of  up-strokes. 

THE  "SHUN"  HOOK 
As  we  have  already  learned,  the  size  of  a 
hook  or  circle  modifies  the  sound  indicated. 
Thus,  a  small  circle  indicates  S,  or  Z 
(written  heavier),  and  a  small  hook,  R  or 
L  initial  or  N  or  F,  V,  final ;  while  a  large 
circle  stands  for  SW,  and  a  large  hook,  for 
KW  (qu),  GW,  WH,  etc.  In  the  s~ne 


without  hooks,  circles  or  loops,  the  SHUN 
hook  is  written  to  the  right  of  the  stroke. 

(5)  When  circle  S  precedes  this  hook,  as 
in    "possession,"    "position,"    etc.,    it    is   ex- 
pressed by  continuing  the  circle  to  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  stroke  letter. 

(6)  When    circle    S    (final)    follows    a 
SHUN  hook,  also  preceded  by  an  S  sound, 
a  circle  may  be  written  upon  the  extended 
hook  made  as  explained  in  Rule  5. 

(7)  The  SHUN  hook  may  be  used  medi- 
ally, like  other  hook  and  circle  letters. 

These  matters  will  be  made  clear  by  ref- 
erence to  the  following  exercises. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  THIRTEEN 

DOUBLE     CONSONANTS 

1.  Way,  whey,  ware,  where. 

2.  Wail,  whale,  quire,  quiet,  quibble. 


848 


PHONOGRAPHY,    OR   SHORTHAND 


CIRCLE   S    AND    INITIAL    HOOKS 

3.  Screw,  scrap,  scrimmage,  scribble. 

4.  Scraper,  supply,  suffer,  squabble,  squall. 

FINAL    N    AND    F    HOOKS 

5.  Bone,  bun,  tune,  town,  twine,  dine. 

d  Puff,  proof,  beef,  brief,  bluff,  tough, 
trough 

"SHUN"   HOOK 

7.  Nation,  motion,  occasion,  action,  do- 
nation. 

S    AND   FINAL    HOOKS 

8.  Pass,  pans,  dose,  deigns,  cheese,  chance. 

9.  Lawns,   loans,   tosses,   pounces,  tenses, 
expenses. 

FINAL  HOOKS  AND  FINAL  VOWELS 

10.  Wave,     wavy,     mastiff,     mystify,    tin, 
tiny. 

DOT,    CIRCLE    AND    TICK    SIGNS 

Several  notable  shorthand  abbreviations 
are  formed  with  ticks,  circles,  and  dots,  as 
follows : 

THE  PREFIX  CON  OR  COM  is  indicated  by 
a  light  dot  at  the  beginning  of  a  stroke  let- 
ter, above  a  slant  or  upright,  and  to  the  left 
of  a  horizontal  (not  in  any  vowel  position). 

THE  SyFFix  ING  is  a  precisely  similar 
light  dot  at  the  end  of  a  word  stroke. 

THE  SUFFIX  INGS  is  a  small  detached  cir- 
cle at  the  end  of  an  outline. 

THE  SUFFIX  ING  followed  by  "the"  is  a 
small  detached  dash  following  an  outline. 

NOTE. — Whenever  it  is  more  convenient,  the 
stroke  NG  (ing)  may  be  used,  instead  of  the  cir- 
cle, dot,  or  dash  already  mentioned. 

THE  ASPIRATE,  HV  is  expressed  by  two 
stroke  signs,  one  upward,  the  other  down- 
ward, but  may  be  indicated  by  a  tick  joined 
at  an  angle  or  across  the  top  to  the  end  of 
the  stroke  letters.  It  is  then  read  before 
the  vowel  preceding  the  stroke  consonant. 

H  may  also  be  expressed  by  an  additional 
dot  before  a  vowel  dot  or  dash  preceding 
a  stroke  consonant. 

HALVING    CONSONANT    STROKES 

The  principle  of  halving  consonant  strokes 
is  another  notable  method  of  saving  time  in 
writing  phonographic  outlines.  According 
to  this  principle  thin  strokes  made  at  half 
length  indicate  not  only  P,  T,  CH,  K,  F, 
TH,  S,  etc.,  but  these  letters  followed  by  T. 
Thus,  the  curve  stroke  M  made  at  full  size 
and  followed  by  the  sign  of  the  diphthong 
I  (as  in  "my"),  spells  "my,"  but  made  at 
half  length  and  followed  by  the  same  diph- 
thong spells  "mite." 


Heavy  strokes  indicate  the  same  letters, 
or  their  heavy  equivalents,  followed  by  D. 
There  may  be  uncertainties  at  times  re- 
garding those  halved  outlines,  but  generally 
the  matter  is  simple.  Thus,  when  the  curves 
for  M,  N,  L,  R  are  halved  and  thickened  to 
represent  MD,  ND,  LD,  RD,  there  is  no  un- 
certainty in  reading  the  outline,  since  the  rule 
is  never  tc  halve  the  heavy  curves,  MP,  NG. 
LER,  RER,  except  when  they  have  a  final 
or  initial  hook. 

KEY  TO   EXERCISE  FOURTEEN 

DOWNWARD     H 

1.  Hoe,  high,  huge,  highly,  hack. 

UPWARD    H 

2.  Hod,  hobby,  heady,  haughty. 

TICK  H 

3.  Hussy,  hem,  home,  whom,  Hume, 

DOT  H 

4.  Half,   hath,   heaven,   manhood,   handy- 
help. 

UPWARD   AND  DOWNWARD  L   AND  R 

5.  Dare,  deary,  char,  chary,  vile. 

6.  Villa,  fell,  fellow,  ear,  ray. 

HALVING    LETTERS 

7.  Sent,   send,   sound,   hand,   made,   mad, 
middle. 

8.  Fatted,    fitted,    spotted,   plated,   coated, 
cheated. 

9.  Beautiful,    doubtful,    rapid,    habit,    al- 
phabet. 

10.  A  friend  in  need  is  a  friend  indeed. 

PUNCTUATION     MARKS 

It  is  necessary  to  avoid  all  marks  and 
signs  that  might  be  confused -with  steno- 
graphic signs.  Consequently,  the  period  (.)  is 
denoted  by  a  small  cross  (x),  and  the  dash 
( — )  by  a  line  with  two  tails (  <• — ,).  In  in- 
dicating a  capital  letter,  as,  for  example,  a, 
proper  name,  two  slanting  parallel  lines  are 
written  to  the  left  of  the  outline  (^  ). 
Many  stenographers  consider  that  the  best 
practice  is  to  write  a  proper  name  in  long- 
hand, in  order  to  avoid  confusion.  All  other 
punctuations  are  the  same  as  in  longhand. 
All  numbers  are  expressed  by  numerals  (i, 
2,  3,  4,  etc.-). 

A  few  general  rules  for  practical  short- 
hand writing  are  as  follows: 

(.1)  Use  abbreviated  forms  as  soon  as 
your  facility  in  writing  is  established.  The 
rule  is  to  indicate  the  accented  syllables,  as 
Blet  (2)  for  believe  it;  Diet  (2),  for  de- 
liver it,  etc. 


PHONOGRAPHY,  OR  SHORTHAND 


849 


(2)  Write   words  ending  in  er  same  as 
the  primitive  word    (without  er),  with  the 
addition  of  downward  R ;  as  pardoner,  Par- 
Den-Ar,    instead   of    Per-Dee-Ner;    Dinner, 
Den-Ar,  instead  of  Dee-Ner ;  Tinner,  Tenor, 
Ten-ar,  instead  of  Tee-Ner. 

(3)  Make  all  words  ending  with  R,  with 
downward   R ;   and  all   words   with  a  final 
vowel  following  the  R,  with  upward  R ;  but 
R  before  J  is  always  Ray.     This  is  an  es- 
tablished rule,  yet  often  departed  from  with 
perplexing    frequency;    but    it    is   suggested 
as  a  standing  and  unexceptional  rule.     So 
also  with  Ret  and  Ard,  down  or  up,  as  fol- 
lowed or   not  by  a  vowel.     So   also   with 
Lay    and    El,    Let    and    Eld.      As    disposal, 
Dees  Pees-El ;   down-hearted,  Den- Art ;   re- 
tained,   Ret-End;    ordained,    Ard- End,    and 
numerous  others.     This  rule  thus  provides 
a  distinction  between   words  ending  in  er, 
ry,  el,  and  ly,  which,  in  many  cases,  accord- 
ing to  the  Standard  Dictionary,  are  written 
alike. 

(4)  Retain  the   Pitman  Ler  sign   for  Ir, 
instead    of    Lay-Ar,    which    is    longer,    es- 
pecially  in   compound   words,   as   Chandler, 
Chent-Ler,  instead  of  Chay-End,  Lay-Ar. 

(5)  Write    all    words    ending   in    tionist 
with  the  half-length  ess  up  or  down  on  the 
end  of  the  shon  hook;  as  abolitionist,  Bee- 
Layshonst ;     protectionist,     Pret-Kayshonst ; 
prohibitionist,    Per-Beeshonst ;    and    as    in 
revolutionist,     resurrectionist,     secessionist, 
rationalist. 

(6)  Write  half  the  "I"  sign  in  all  phrases 
and   compound   words,   as   eyelid,   eyelet,   I 
am,  I  may,  etc. 

(7)  Write    77rer   joined,   and   of   under- 
stood, instead  of  double  length  Veether  (i), 


to  express  of  their;  except  when  of  is  em- 
phasized. 

(8)  Write  Ret  for  on,  before  p,  b,  t,  d, 
ch,  j,  b,  v,  n,  ng,  s,  z,  sh,  zh,  el,  th,  th,  and 
y;  Chet  before  k,  g,  Lay,  Ar,  Ray,  w  and  m. 

(9)  Write  Ret  for  I,  above  the  line,  be- 
fore p,  b,  t,  d,  ch,  j,  k,  g,  s,  and  th;  Chet 
before  Ar,  and  Ray ;  Pet  before  m,  and  mp. 

(10)  Should,  on  the  line,  by  Ret  before  p, 
b,  d,  t,  ch,  j ;  Chet  before  k,  g,  m. 

(n)  When  new  and  now  commence  a 
phrase,  write  them  below  the  line  without 
the  tick ;  as  nowadays,  En-Dees ;  knew- 
there-were,  Enther-weh. 

(12)  Write  "society"   by   S   through  the 
preceding  word  in  all  possible  cases ;  in  a 
few  other  instances,  join  the  S,  as  in  "good 
society,"  "modern  society,"  etc. 

(13)  "I    should"   may   be   joined   to   the 
rest   of   the   verb,   before   Ray   or  Lay,   by 
Ret-Chet.     As,   I    should   rather,   I   should 
like. 

(14,  "Never  have"  may  be  written  with 
Nef  I — i.e.,  En  and  Vee  hook. 

(15)  "Being,"  if  written  alone,  should  be 
Bee-Ing;  but  in  phrases  simply  Bee — as  "for 
the  time  being,"  Ef-Tee-Bee. 

(16)  Write  half-lengths  to  express  ality, 
idity,   bility,  ility,   inity — as   Frugality,   Fer- 
Gelt;   piincipahty,   Per-Pelt;   timidity,  Tee- 
Med;  fluidity,  Fel-Det;  stability,  Stee-Belt; 
possibility,   Pees-Blet;   facility,  Efs-Elt;  fu- 
tility,    Fet-Elt;     vicinity,     Vees-Net.       But 
after  N  hook,  write  Bee,  or  omit  the  hook, 
as  in  trainable. 

Above  all  the  student  must  practice  writ- 
ing from  dictation.  Whatever  he  writes  he 
must  read  over  and  over  again  in  order  to 
become  familiar  with  his  notes. 


WHO'S  WHO  OF  HISTORY 


THE  following  list  of  prominent  names  has  been  selected  with  a 
view  to  answering  questions  regarding  the  identity  of  charac- 
ters frequently  mentioned  in  literature  and  conversation.  To 
enlarge  it  very  much  would  involve  filling  a  space  that  can  not  be 
spared  in  the  present  volumes,  and  any  attempt  to  make  it  "complete" 
would  speedily  fill  many  hundred  such  pages  as  these.  Then,  again,  it 
is  by  no  means  easy  to  decide  exactly  what  constitutes  a  title  to  dis- 
tinction in  human  affairs.  Many  persons  have  a  place  in  history  only 
because  of  their  colossal  wickedness,  while  many  whose  virtues  should 
justly  have  rendered  them  immortal  have  all  but  been  forgotten.  Still 
others  have  rendered  some  small  services  to  the  progress  of  the  race 
and  are  remembered,  while  many  of  the  greatest  benefactors  of  humanity 
still  remain  nameless.  On  the  whole,  fame  consists  more  in  continu- 
ing to  become  frequently  mentioned  than  in  the  possession  of  noble 
qualities  or  in  the  performance  of  great  services.  This  seems  to  be 
the  verdict  of  history,  and  we  must  abide  by  it. 


PROMINENT    NAMES    FROM    ALL    AGES 


Aahmes  or  Amasis   (572-528  B.C.),   King  of  Egypt. 

Aasen,  Ivar  Andreas  (1813-  ),  Norwegian  phi- 
losopher, botanist,  and  poet. 

Abano,  Pietro  d'  (1250-1316),  Italian  physician  and 
astronomer. 

Abbadie,  Jacques  (i654:i727),  French  Protestant 
theologian. 

Abbas   I    (1557-1628),   Shah  of  Persia. 

Abbas  Mirza  (1783-1833),  Persian  prince  and  war- 
rior. 

Abbatucci,    Charles    (1771-96),    French   general. 

Abbe,  Cleveland  (1838-  ).  b.  New  York.  A»- 
tronomer  and  meteorologist. 

Abbey,  Edwin  Austin  (1852-  ),  b.  Philadelphia. 
A  noted  painter  and  illustrator. 

Abbon  of  Fleury  (945-1004),  French  theologian 
and  diplomatist 

Abbot,  Ezra,  (1819-84).  b.  Maine.    Biblical  scholar. 

Abbot,  George  (1562-1611),  b.  England.  Arch.- 
bishop  of  Canterbury. 

Abbott,  Austin  (1831-96),  b.  Massachusetts.  Law- 
yer and  legal  writer. 

(850) 


Abbott,  Benjamin  Vaughan  (1830-90),  b.  Massa- 
chusetts. Lawyer  and  legal  writer. 

Abbott,  Henry  Larcom  .(1831-  ),  b.  Massachu- 
setts. Soldier. 

Abbott,  Jacob  (1803-79),  b.  Maine.  Clergyman 
and  author. 

Abbott,  John  Stevens  Cabot  (1805-77),  b-  Maine. 
Historian. 

Abbott,  Lyman  (1835-  ),  b.  Massachusetts. 
Clergyman  and  journalist. 

Abdallatif  (1162-1231),  Arabian  physician  and  phi- 
losopher. 

Abd-el-Kadir.  (1807-83),  b.  Algeria.     Arab  chief. 

Abd-er-Rahman  (731-87),  b.  Damascus.  Mussul- 
man warrior. 

Abdul  Aziz   (1830-76),  Sultan  of  Turkey. 

Abdul  Hamid  I   (1725-89),  Sultan  of  Turkey. 

Abdul    Hamid    IJ    (1843-         ),    Sultan   of  Turkey. 

Abdul  Kasim  Mausur  ("Firdusi")  (940-1020), 
great  epic  poet  of  Persia. 

Abegg,  Julius  F.  H.  (1796-1868),  b.  Bavaria. 
Jurist 


WHO'S   WHO    OF    HISTORY 


851 


Abel,  Niels  Henrik  (1802-29),  Norwegian  mathe- 
matician. 

Abelard,  Peter  F.  (1079-1142),  French  scholar. 
Abbot  of  St.  Gildas. 

Abercrombie,  James  (1706-81),  b.  Scotland.  Brit- 
ish general. 

Abercrombie,  John  (1780-1844),  Scottish  physician 
and  philosopher. 

Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph  (1734-1801),  b.  Scotland. 
British  general. 

Abernethy,  John  (1764-1831),  English  surgeon  and 
medical  writer. 

Abert,  John  James  (1788-1863),  b.  Virginia.  Mili- 
tary engineer. 

About,  Edmond  F.  V.  (1828-85),  French  novelist, 
dramatist,  and  journalist. 

Abrabanel,  Isaac  (1437-1508),  b.  Portugal.  Jewish 
scholar  and  statesman. 

Abraham-a-Sancta-Clara  (1644-1709),  b.  Baden. 
Preacher  and  satirical  writer. 

Abraham  ben  Meir  ibn  Ezra  (1092-1167),  b.  Spain. 
Scholar,  astronomer,  and  mathematician. 

Abt,  Franz  (1819-85),  b.  Saxony.  Composer  of 
music. 

Abulfeda,  Ismael  ben-Ali  Emad-eddin  (1273-1331), 
b.  Damascus.  Arabian  geographer  and  histo- 
rian. 

Accius,  Lucius  (abt.  170  B.C.),  Roman  tragic  poet 
and  prose  writer. 

Accolti,  Benedetto  (1415-66),  Italian  jurist  and 
writer. 

Accolti,   Francesco   (1418-83),   Italian  jurist. 

Accorso,   Francesco   (1180-1260),   Italian  jurist. 

Accum,  Friedrich  Christian  (1769-1838),  German 
chemist. 

Achard,  Louis  A.  E.  (1814-75),  French  novelist 
and  dramatist. 

Achenbach,  Andreas   (1827-         ),  German  painter. 

Achenbach,  Oswald  (1827-  ),  German  land- 
scape painter. 

Achenwall,  Gottfried  (1719-72),  German  scholar 
and  professor. 

Achmet   I    (1589-1617),   Sultan  of  Turkey. 

Achmet  III  (1673-1736),  Sultan  of  Turkey  and 
warrior. 

Ackermann,  Johann  C.  G.  (1756-1801),  German 
medical  writer. 

Ackermann,     Konrad     Ernst     (1712-71),     German 

actor. 

Icland,  John  Dyke  (d.   1778),  English  soldier  and 
politician. 

Acosta,  Gabriel  de  (1591-1647),  Portuguese  phi- 
losopher. 

Acosta,  Jose  de  (1540-1600),  Spanish  Jesuit  his- 
torian. 

Acton,  Sir  John  F.  E.  (1736-1811),  b.  France. 
Naval  officer,  and  later  Prime  Minister  at 
Naples. 

Adair,  John  (1759-1840),  b.  South  Carolina.  Poli- 
tician and  soldier. 

Adair,  Sir  Robert  (1763-185$).  English  diplomat 
and  historical  writer. 

Adam  of  Bremen  (d.  abt.  1076),  German  ecclesi- 
astical historian. 

Adam,  Mme.  Edmond  (1836-  ),  French  jour- 
nalist and  editor. 

Adam,  William  (1751-1839),  b.  Scotland.  British 
lawyer  and  politician. 

Adamnan,  Saint  (624-704),  b.  Ireland.  Celtic  ec- 
clesiastic. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis  (1807-86),  b.  Massachu- 
setts. Statesman  and  diplomatist. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  Jr.  (1833-  ),  b.  Mas- 
sachusetts. Soldier  and  historical  writer. 

Adams,  Hannah  (1755-1832).  b.  Massachusetts. 
Author. 


Adams,  John,  (1735-1826),  b.  Massachusetts.  A 
leader  of  the  Patriot  party;  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congresses;  signer  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence;  second  President  of 
the  United  States  1797-1801. 

Adams,  John  Couch  (1819-92),  English  astron- 
omer. 

Adams,  John  Quincy  (1767-1848),  b.  Massachu- 
setts. U.  S.  Minister  to  the  Netherlands, 
Prussia,  Russia,  and  England;  member  of 
the  Senate  and  of  the  House;  Secretary  of 
State  1817-25;  sixth  President  of  the  United 
States  1825-29. 

Adams,  Samuel  (1722-1803),  b.  Massachusetts.  A 
leader  of  the  Patriot  party;  member  of  the 
Continental  Congresses;  signer  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence;  Governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. 

Adams,  Thomas  (d.  abt  1640),  English  Puritan 
divine. 

Adamson,  Robert  (1852-  ),  Scottish  philosoph- 
ical writer. 

Addison,  Joseph  (1672-1719),  English  essayist, 
poet,  and  statesman;  noted  for  his  papers  in 
the  "Taller"  and  "Spectator." 

Adelard  of  Bath  (i2th  century),  English  philo- 
sophical writer. 

Adelung,  Friedrich  von  (1768-1843),  German 
philologist. 

Adelung,  Johann  Christoph  (1732-1806),  German 
philologist. 

Adenet    (i3th   century),    French   poet. 

Adler,  Felix  (1851-  ),  b.  Germany.  Educator, 
establisher  of  the  New  York  Society  for 
Ethical  Culture. 

Adlersparre,  Count  Georg  (1760-1835),  Swedish 
author,  statesman,  and  general. 

Ado,   Saint   (800-75),  Archbishop  of  Vienna. 

Adrian  or  Hadrian  I,  Pope  (772-95). 

Adrian  or  Hadrian  II,   Pope   (884-85). 

Adrian  or  Hadrian  IV  (Nicholas  Breakspear),  b. 
England.  Pope  1154-59- 

Adrian  or  Hadrian  VI  (1459-1523),  b.  Holland. 
Pope  1 522-23. 

Adrian  de  Costello  (1460-1521?),  Italian  ecclesias- 
tic and  scholar. 

jEschines  (389-314  B.C.),  noted  Athenian  orator; 
political  antagonist  of  Demosthenes. 

^Eschylus  (525-426  B.C.),  Greek  poet;  father  of 
the  Greek  tragic  drama. 

jEthelbert    (552-6.16),   King  of  Kent  560-616. 

^Ethelred  II,  surnamed  "The  Unready"  (968- 
1016),  King  of  England  974-1016. 

Aetius   (395-454),  b.   Silistria.     Roman  general. 

Afranius  Nepos,  Lucius  (d.  46  B.C.),  Roman  con- 
sul and  general. 

Afzelius,  Adam   (1750-1837),  Swedish  naturalist. 

Afzelius,  Arvid  August  (1785-1871),  Swedish 
writer  and  scholar. 

Agardh,  Jakob  Georg  (1813-  ),  Swedish  nat- 
uralist. 

Agardh,  Karl  Adolf  (1785-1859),  Swedish  natural- 
ist and  political  economist. 

Agassiz,  Jean  L.  R.  (1807-73),  Swiss- American 
naturalist;  professor  of  geology  and  zoology 
at  Harvard. 

Agesilaus  II  (d.  abt.  360  »-c.).  King  of  Sparta 
399-61. 

Agoult,  Comtesse  d'  (1805-76),  French  author. 

Agricola,  Cnseus  Julius  (37-93).  Roman  soldier 
and  statesman. 

Agrippa  I,  Herod  (n  B.C. — 44  A.D.),  Roman  com- 
mander and  statesman. 

Agrippa  II,  Herod  (27-93),  King  of  northern  Pal- 
estine 52. 


852 


WHO'S   WHO   OF    HISTORY 


Agrippa,  Marcus  Vipsanfac  (63-13  >.c.),  Roman 
commander. 

Affuesseau,  Henri  Francois  d'  (1668-1751),  French 
jurist. 

Aguilar,   Grace    (1816-1847),    English  author. 

Agumaldo,  Emilio  (1870-  ),  h.  Luzon.  Leader 
of  the  Philippine  insurrection;  captured  by 
General  Funston  1901. 

Ahab,    King  of   Israel    (abt.   876-854   B.C.). 

Anastjeras.  Name  of  several  Median  and  Per- 
sian kings. 

Ahaz,  King  of  Judah  (abt.  742-727  B.C.). 

Ahrene,  Heinrich  (1808-74),  German  philosoph- 
ical writer  and  jurist. 

Airy,  Sir  George  Biddell  (1801-92),  English  as- 
tronomer. 

Akbar  or  Akhbar  (1542-1605),  Mogul  emperor  in 
India. 

Akenside,  Mark  (1721-70),  English  poet  and  phy- 
sician. 

Alarcon,  Hernando  de  (i6th  century),  Spanish 
navigator. 

Alarcon  -y  Mendoza,  Juan  R.  de  (1588-1639), 
Spanish  dramatic  poet. 

Alaric    (abt.   376-410),   King  of  the   Visigoths. 

Albert  or  Albrecht  (1414-86),  Elector  of  Branden- 
burg. 

Albert  or  Albrecht  (1490-1568),  Margrave  of 
Brandenburg- Ausbach. 

Albertus  Magnus  (b.  abt.  1200 — d.  1280),  German 
-cholastic  philosopher. 

Albucasis  or  Abul-Casira  (d.  abt.  1106),  b.  Spain. 
Arabian  physician. 

Albumazas   (abt.  805-85),   Arabian  astronomer. 

Albuquerque,  Affonso  de  (1452-1515),  Portuguese 
navigator  and  conqueror. 

Alcseus   (abt.   611-580  B.C.),   Greek  lyric  poet. 

Alcibiades  (b.  abt  450  B.C. — d.  404),  Athenian 
general  and  politician. 

Alcman  (7th  century  B.C.),  Spartan  lyric  poet;  orig- 
inally a  Lydian  slave. 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson  (1799-1888),  b.  Connecticut. 
Philosophical  writer  and  educator." 

Alcuin    (735-804),    English   prelate  and  scholar. 

Aldred  (d.  1069),  English  ecclesiastic;  Archbishop 
of  York  1060. 

Aldrorandi,    Ulisse    (1522-1605),   Italian   naturalist. 

Alembert,  Jean  B.  C  R.  d'  (1717-83),  French 
mathematician. 

Alesius,  Alexander  (1500-65),  Scottish  controver- 
sialist and  reformer. 

Alexander  III,  surnamed  "The  Great"  (356-323 
B.C.),  King  of  Macedon  and  "conqueror  of 
the  world." 

Alexander  III  (Rolando  Ranuccio),  d.  1181;  born 
Italy.  Pope  1159-81. 

Alexander  VI  (Rodrigo  Borgia)  (1431-1503),  b. 
Spain.  Pope  149.7-1503. 

Alexander  of  Hales  (d.  1245),  English  theologian 
and  philosopher. 

Alexander  I  of  Russia  (1777-1825),  crowned  Em- 
peror 1801. 

Alexander  II  of  Russia  (1855-81),  emancipated 
the  serfs  1861. 

Alexander  III  of  Russia  (1845-94),  crowned 
1 88.. 

Alexander,  Archibald  (1772-1851),  b.  Virginia. 
Clergyman  and  educator. 

Alexander,  Sir  William  (b.  abt.  1567 — d.  1640), 
Scottish  poet  and  statesman. 

Alexander  Nevski,  Saint  (1219-63),  Russian  na- 
tional hero. 

Alexander  Severus,  Marcus  Aurelius  (abt.  205- 
235)1  b.  Phoenicia.  Emperor  of  Rome  222-235. 

Alexis  or  Alexei   (1629-76),  Czar  of  Russia. 

Alexius  I  (Comnenus)  (1048-1118),  Byzantine 
emperor  1081-1118. 

Alfieri,  Count  Vittorio  (1749-1803),  b.  Piedmont. 
Italian  dramatist. 


Alfonso  III,  surnamed  The  Great"  (848-913), 
King  of  Asturias  and  Leon. 

Alfonso  VI,  surnamed  "The  Valiant"  (1030-1109), 
King  of  Leon  and  as  Alfonso  I  of  Castile. 

Alfonso  X,  surnamed  "The  Wise"  (1221-84),  King 
of  Leon  and  Castile.  Astronomer. 

Alfonso  I  (abt.  mo — d.  1185),  first  King  of  Por- 
tugal. 

Alfonso  V,  surnamed  "The  Magnanimous"  (1385- 
1458),  King  of  Aragon  and  as  Alfonso  I  of 
Sicily  and  Sardinia,  and  of  Naples 

Alford,  Henry  (1810-1871),  Dean  of  Canterbury; 
poet  and  scholar. 

Alfred  or  ^Elfred,  surnamed  "The  Great"  (849- 
901),  King  of  the  West  Saxons.  Legislator 
and  scholar. 

Alger,   Cyrus    (1781-1856),   American   inventor. 

All,  surnamed  "The  Lion  of  God"  (b.  abt.  600— 
d.  661),  b.  Mecca.  Adopted  son  of  Mo- 
hammed and  fourth  calii. 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald  (1826-  ),  b.  Scotland. 
•  British  general. 

Allen,  Ethan  (1737-89),  b.  Connecticut.  Revolu- 
tionary commander;  capturer  of  Fort  Tico»- 
deroga. 

Allen,'  Ira  (1731-1814),  b.  Connecticut.  Revolu- 
tionary soldier  and  politician. 

Allen,  Joel  Asaph  (1838-  ),  b.  Massachusetts. 
Naturalist. 

Alleyne  or  Allen,  Edward  (1566-1626),  English 
actor. 

Allouez,  Claude  Jean  (1620-90),  b.  France.  Jes- 
uit priest  and  explorer  in  America. 

Allston,  Washington,  (1779-1843),  b.  South  Caro- 
lina. Portrait  and  historical  painter. 

Almansur  or  Almansor  (abt.  712— -d.  775),  Abba- 
side  calif  and  patron  of  learning. 

Alma-Tadema,  Laurence  (1836-  ),  b.  Nether- 
lands. Painter,  resident  in  England. 

Almquist,  Karl  J.  L.   (1793-1866),  Swedish  author. 

Alting,  Johann  Heinrich  (1583-1644),  b.  Prussia. 
Theologian. 

Alva,  Duke  of  (1508-82),  Spanish  general.  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Netherlands. 

Alvarado,  Alonzo  de  (abt.  1490 — d.  1556),  b. 
Spain.  Soldier  and  aider  of  Cortez  in  the 
conquest  of  Mexico. 

Alvarado,  Pedro  de  (1485-1541),  b.  Spain.  Sol- 
dier and  aider  of  Cortez  in  the  conquest  of 
Mexico. 

Alvinczy,  Joseph,  Baron  von  (1735-1810),  b.  Tran- 
sylvania. Austrian,  field-marshal. 

Ambrose,  Saint  (7340-397),  b.  Gaul.  Bishop  of 
Milan. 

Amenemhot  III  (reigned  abt.  2300  B.C.),  Egyp- 
tian king. 

Amenemhotep  III  (reigned  abt.  1500  B.C.),  Egyp- 
tian king  and  warrior. 

Amherst,  Jeffrey,  Lord  (1717-97),  British  field- 
marshal. 

Ampere,  Andr£  Marie  (1775-1836), .  French  physi- 
cist and  electrician. 

Amurath  I  or  Murad  (1319-89),  Sultan  of  Turkey 
1359-80. 

Anacreon    (?s63-478    B.C.),    Greek   lyric   poet. 

Anaxaporas    (500-428   B.C.),    Greek  philosopher 

Anaximander   (610-547   B.C.),   Greek  philosopher. 

Anderson,  Robert  (1805-71),  b.  Kentucky.  Amer- 
ican general,  defender  of  Fort  Sumter. 

Andrassy,  Gyula,  Count  (1823-90),  Hungarian 
statesman. 

Andre,  Major  John  (1751-80),  b.  England.  Brit- 
ish spy. 

Andrews,   Lancelot    (1555-1625),    English   divine. 

Andronicus,  Uvius  (abt.  284-204  B.C.),  Latin 
dramatic  poet. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund  (1637-1714),  English  colo- 
nial governor  successively  of  New  York,  New 
England,  and  Virginia. 


WHO'S   WHO    OF    HISTORY 


863 


Anne,   Queen  of  England   (1664-1714).  . 

Anselm,  Saint  (1033-1109),  b.  Italy.  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  1093-1109. 

Anson,  George,  Lord  (1697-1762),  b.  Ireland. 
English  admiral. 

Anthony  of  Padua,  Saint  (1195-1231),  Franciscan 
monk  and  theologian. 

Anthony,  Susan  Brownell  (1820-  ),  b.  Massa- 
chusetts. Reformer. 

Antiochus,  surnamed  "The  Great"  (237-187  B.C.), 
King  of  Syria  223-187. 

Antipater    (d.    319   B.C.).     Macedonian  general. 

Antiphon    (abt.    480-411    B.C.),    Athenian    orator. 

Antony,  Mark,  Marcus  Antonius  (abt  83-30  B.C.), 
Roman  triumvir  and  general. 

Apelles   (fl.  330  B.C.),   Greek  painter. 

ApoIIodorus    (fl.   abt.   404  B.C.),   Greek   painter. 

Apollonius,  surnamed  "Tyaneus"  (abt.  4  B.C. — 97 
A.D.),  b.  Asia  Minor.  Pythagorean  philoso- 
pher. 

Aquinas,  Thcmas,  Saint  (?i22S-74),  Italian  the- 
ologian and  philosopher. 

Arago,  Dominque  Francois  (1786-1883),  French 
astronomer  and  physicist. 

Aratus  (271-213  B.C.),  Greek  statesman  and  gen- 
eral. 

Archimedes  (abt.  287-212  B.C.),  b.  Syracuse.  Ge- 
ometrician, inventor  of  the  water-screw. 

Ariosto,    Ludovico    (1474-1533),    Italian   poet. 

Aristarchus  (2oth  century  B.C.),  Greek  gramma- 
rian and  critic. 

Aristides,  surnamed  "The  Just"  (  ?d.  468  B.C.), 
Athenian  statesman  and  general. 

Aristophanes  (abt.  450-380  B.C.),  Greek  comic  poet. 

Aristotle    (384-322    B.C.),    Greek    philosopher. 

Arius  (256-336),  Greek  patriarch  of  Alexandria 
and  founder  of  Arianism. 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard  (1732-92),  b.  England. 
Inventor  of  the  spinning-frame. 

Arminius  (18  B.C. — 21  A.D.),  German  chieftain  and 
patriot. 

Arnim,  Count  Harry  K.  K.  E.  von  (1824-81), 
German  diplomatist. 

Arnold   of    Brescia    (1100-1155),    Italian   reformer. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  surnamed  "The  Traitor"  (1741- 
1801),  b.  Connecticut. 

Arrian,  L.  Flavius  Arrianus  (b.  abt.  100),  b. 
Asia  Minor.  Greek  historian  and  philosopher. 

Artaxerxes  I,  surnamed  "The  Long-handed,"  King 
of  Persia  465-425  B.C. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan  (1830-86),  b.  Vermont 
Vice-President  'and  2ist  President  of  the 
United  States  1881-85. 

Asbury,  Francis  (1745-1816),  first  Methodist 
bishop  in  America. 

Ascham,  Roger  (1515-68),  English  scholar,  in- 
structor of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Ashburton,  Alexander  Baring,  Lord  (1774-1848), 
English  financier  and  statesman. 

Asurbanipal    or    Sardanapalus,     King    of    Assyria, 

668-626     B.C. 

Asurnazirpal,   King  of  Assyria,  884-860  B.C. 
Athanasius,  Saint   (?2g6-373),  Greek  father  of  the 

Church. 
Atticus,    Titus    Pomponius    (109-32    B.C.),    Roman 

scholar. 
Attila,  surnamed  "The  Scourge  of  God"  (       -453). 

King  of   the   Huns. 
Audubon,   John   James    (1780-1851),   b.    Louisiana. 

Ornithologist 
Augustine,     Saint     (354-430),     b.     Africa.      Latin 

Church  father. 
Augustus,    Caius   Julros   Caesar   Octavianus    (63-14 

B.C.),    first    Roman    emperor    and    noted    war- 
rior. 


Augustus  III,  Frederick  '(1696-1763),  elector  of 
Saxony  and  King  of  Poland. 

Aurelian,  Claudius  Domitius  (?2 12-2 75),  Roman 
emperor. 

Aurung-Zeb  (1619-1707),  Emperor  of  Hindustan 
1658-1707. 

Avicenna  (980-1037),  b.  Bokhara.  Arabian  phy- 
sician and  philosopher. 


B 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian   (1685-1750),  German  mu- 
sical composer. 

Bacon,    Francis,    Lotd    Verulam    (1561-1636),    En- 
glish  statesman  and  essayist 

Balfour,   Arthur  James    (1848-         ),    English  poli- 
tician. 

Balzac,    Honore   de    (1799-1850),    French   novelist 

Bancroft,  George  (1800-1891),  American  historian. 

Barneveldt,    Jan    van    Olden    (1547-1619),    Dutch 
statesman. 

Barnum,     Phineas    Taylor    (1810-1891),    American 
showman. 

Barrow,     Isaac     (1630-1677),     English     theologian 
and   scholar. 

Bartham,  Jonn   (1699-1777),  American  botanist 

Bartholdi,    Frederic    Auguste    (1834-         ),    Frenck 
sculptor. 

Barye,   Antoine   Louis    (1795-1875),    French   sculp- 
tor. 

Basil,   St.    (329-379),   Father  of  the  Church. 

Baxter,    Richard    (1615-1691),    English   preacher.       \ 

Bayard,    Pierre  du  Terrail,   Chevalier   (1476-1524), 
French  knight. 

Beauharnais,    Eugene   de    (1781-1852),    Viceroy   of 
Italy   under   Napoleon. 

Beaumont,     Francis     (1506-1536),     English     dram- 
atist. 

Beauregard,    Pierre   Gustave   Toutant    (1817-1893), 
Confederate  general. 

Becket,  Thomas  a  (1119-1170),  English  archbishop. 

Bede    (Venerable)     (673-735),    English    monk    and 
scholar. 

Beecher,      Henry     Ward      (1813-1887),     American 
preacher. 

Beecher,    Lyman    (1775-1863),    American  preacher. 

Beethoven,   Ludwig  van   (1770-1827),  German  mu- 
sical composer. 

Belisarius    (505-564),    Byzantine  general. 

Bell,   Alexander   Graham    (1847-         )>   inventor  of 
telephone. 

Bell,    Currer,    pseudonym   of  Charlotte   Bronte. 

Bellamy,  Edward  (1850-1898),  American  economist 
and    writer. 

Belshazzar,     last    king    of     Chaldean     dynasty    i» 
Babylon. 

Benedict,  name  of  fourteen  Popes. 

Benedict,    St.    (480-543),    founder    of   monasticisni 
in   West. 

Benvenuto  Cellini   (1500-71). 

Berlioz,   Hector   (1803-1869),   French  musical  com- 
poser. 

Be'ranger,    Jean    Pierre    de     (1780-1857),     Frenck 
poet. 

Berkeley,   George   (1684-1753),    English  bishop  ant 
philosopher. 

Bernard,    St    (1091-1153). 

Beza,    Theodore    (1519-1605),    Genevese    reformer. 

Bjornson,     Bjornstjerne     (1832-         ),     Norwegian 
poet,    novelist,   and    dramatist. 

Bismarck  -  Schoenhausen,     Otto     Edward    Leopold, 
Prince   von    (1813-1898),   German  general  and 
chancellor. 
Black,    William    (1804-1898),    English   novelist 


854 


WHO'S   WHO    OF    HISTORY 


Blackmorc,    Richard    Doddridge     (1825-1900),    En- 
glish  lawyer  and   author. 
Blackstone,      Sir     William      (1723-1780),     English 

jurist. 
Blucher,  Gcbhard  Lcberecht  von,   Prince  of  Wahl- 

stadt    (1742-1819),    Prussian  general. 
Boccaccio,  Giovanni   (1313-1375),   Italian  author. 
Boleyn,  Anne   (1507-1536),  second  wife  of  Henry 

VIII  of  England. 
Bolivar,  Simon   (1783-1830),  Venezuelan  statesman 

and  general. 

Bonaparte,     Napoleon     (1769-1831),     French     Em- 
peror. 
Bonheur,      Rosalie      Marie      (1822-1899),      French 

painter. 

Boniface,  name  assumed  by  nine  of  the  Popes. 
Boniface,    St    (Winifred)    (680-755),   Papal  legate 

and    martyr. 

Boone,    Daniel    (1735-1820),   American  pioneer. 
Booth,    Edwin    (1833-1893),   American  actor. 
Booth,   John   Wilkes    (1839-1865),   American  actor. 
Borgia,    Cesare    (1478-1507),   Tyrant  of   Romagna. 
Borgia,   Lucrezia  (1480-1520),  Duchess  of  Ferrara. 
Bossuet,     Jacques     Benigne     (1627-1743),     French 

preacher    and   bishop. 
Boswell,    James     (1740-1822),     English    biographer 

of   Dr.  Johnson. 

Botticelli,    Sandro    (1447-1515),   Italian   painter. 
Bourbon,    name   of   royal    dynasty   in    France  and 

Spain. 
Bourget,    Paul    (1853-         ),    French   novelist    and 

critic. 
Bourrienne,    Louis    Antoine    Fauvelet    de     (1769- 

1834),    biographer   of   Napoleon   I. 
Boyesen,  Hjalmar  Hjorth   (1848-1895),  Norwegian- 
American  novelist  and  poet. 
Bozzaris,    Marco    (17     -1823),    Greek   patriot. 
Bradford,   William    (1590-1657),    American   pioneer 

and   historian. 

Bragg,    Braxton    (1817-1876),   Cbnfederate  general. 
Bright,   John '(1811-1889),   English  politician. 
Bronte,     Charlotte     (1816-1855),     English    novelist. 
Brooks,   Phillips  (1835-1893),  American  bishop  and 

writer. 
Brougham,     Henry,     Lord     Brougham     and     Vaux 

(1778-1868),  English  orator  and  reformer. 
Brown,  John,  Captain  (1800-1859),  abolitionist. 
Browne,  Charles  Farrar  (Artemus  Ward)  (1836- 

1867),    American    humorist. 
Browning,    Elizabeth    Barrett    (1809-1861),    English 

poetess. 

Browning,    Robert    (1812-1889),    English  poet. 
Bruce,  name  of  Scotch  family  of  historic  fame. 
Brutus,    Marcus   Junius    (85-42   B.C.),    Roman   poli- 
tician. 
Bryant,     William     Cullen     (1794-1878),     American 

poet. 
Bryce,    James    (1838-         ),    English    historian   and 

politician. 
Buchanan,    James    (1791-1868),    isth   President   of 

the   United   States. 
Buff  on,    George    Louis    Leclerc,    Comte   de    (1707- 

1788),    French   naturalist. 
Bulwer-Lytton    (1803-73),    English   novelist. 
Biilow,       Friedrich      Wilhelm      von      (1755-1818), 

Prussian  general. 
Bunsen,   Christian  Karl  Josias,  Baron   (1791-1860), 

German   statesman   and  author. 
Bunyan,  John    (1628-1688),    English  writer. 
Buonarotti,      Michelangelo     (1475-1564).      Italian 

sculptor   and    painter. 
Burdett-Coutts,      Right     Hon.      Angela     Georgina, 

Baroness    (1814-         ),    English   philanthropist. 
Burke,    Edmund    (1730-1797),    English   philosopher 

and   politician. 


Burne- Jones,  Sir  Edward  (1833-1898),  English 
painter. 

Burns,   Robert    (1759-1796),   Scotch  poet. 

Burr,    Aaron    (1756-1836),    American    politician. 

Burritt,    Klihu    (1811-1879),    American   linguist. 

Burroughs,    John    (1837-         ).    American    essayist 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin  (1818-1893),  Ameri- 
can general. 

Byron,  George  Gordon,  Lord  (1788-1824),  English 
poet 


Cable,   George  Washington    (1844-         ),    American 

novelist. 
Cabot,    Giovanni    (         -1498),    Venetian    navigator 

and    discoverer. 
Cabot,    Sebastian    (1477-1557),    Venetian   navigator 

and  discoverer. 
Caesar,    Caius  Julius    (100-44   B.C.),    Roman  general 

and   dictator. 
Calhoun,    John    Caldwell     (1782-1850),    American 

statesman. 

Caligula    (12-41),    Roman    emperor. 
Calvert,      George,      Lord      Baltimore      (1580-1632), 

founder   of   Maryland. 

Calvin,    John    (1509-1564),    Protestant    reformer. 
Cambyses,    name    of    several    kings   of    the    Medea 

and   Persians. 

Camoens,    Luis    de    (1524-1580),    Portuguese    poet 
Campbell,     Sir     Colin,     Lord     Clyde     (1792-1863), 

British  general. 

Campbell,    Thomas    (1777-1844),    English    poet. 
Canning,    George    (1770-1827),    English   orator   and 

statesman. 

Canova,    Antonio    (1757-1822),    Italian   sculptor. 
Carlyle,   Thomas  (1795-1881),   English  essayist  and 

historian. 
Carnot,    Marie    Francois   Sadi    (1837-1894),    French 

politician. 

Catherine,    name  of  two  empresses  of   Russia. 
Catherine  de  Medici  (1519-1589),  Queen  of  Henry 

II   of    France. 
Catherine    of    Aragon    (1485-1536),    first    wife    of 

Henry   VIII   of    England. 
Catherine    Parr    (is«3-i547).    sixth   wife   of   Henry 

VIII  of   England. 

Catiline    (108-62    B.C.),    Roman    politician. 
Cato,      Marcus     Porcius      (234-149     B.C.),     Roman 

orator. 

Cavour,  Count  Camilla  Benso  di  (1810-1861),  Ital- 
ian statesman. 
Caxton,     William     (1422-1491),     introduced    print- 

ing    into    England. 

Cecil,    William,    Lord    Burleigh    (1520-1598),    En- 
glish  statesman. 

Cecilia,    St.    (       '  -230),    Christian    martyr. 
Cellini,       Benvenuto       (1500-1572),      Italian      gold 

worker   and   sculptor. 

Cervantes,   Saavedra   Miguel  de   (1547-1616),  Span- 
ish  writer. 
Channing,      William      Ellery,      D.D.      (1780-1842), 

American  preacher. 
Charlemagne    (768-814),    king   of   the    Franks    and 

Roman  emperor. 
Charles,    name    of    several    kings    of    England    and 

France  and  Sweden,  and  emperors  of  Germany. 
Chateaubriand,       Francis      Auguste,       Vicomte      de 

(1769-1848),    French  author. 

Chatham,    William    Pitt,    Earl   of    (1708-1778),    En- 
glish orator  and  statesman. 

Chatterton,    Thomas    (1752-1770),    English    poet. 
Chaucer,    Geoffrey    (1340-1400),    English    poet. 
Chesterfield,     Philip     Dormer     Stanhope,     Earl     of 

(1694-1773),    English   statesman   and  author. 


WHO'S   WHO    OF    HISTORY 


855 


Cboate,   Rufus   (1799-1859),   American  lawyer  and 

orator. 
Choiseul-Amboise,    Etienne    Francois    (1719-1785), 

French   statesman. 
Chopin,    Frederic    (1810-1849),   Polish  pianist   and 

musical    composer. 

Christian,   name  of  several   Swedish  kings. 
Cbrysostom,    John    (347-407),    orator,    bishop,    and 

reformer. 
Churchill,    Randolph   Henry    Spencer    (1849-1895), 

English  politician. 

Cibber,   Colley    (1617-1757),    English   poet-laureate. 
Cicero,     Marcus     Tullius     (106-43     B.C.),     Roman 

orator. 
Cincirtnatus,     Lucius     Quinctius     (abt.     400    B.C.), 

Roman    consul. 
Claude  Lorrain  (Claude  Gelee)  (1600-1682),  French 

artist. 

Clay,     Henry,     (1777-1852),     American    statesman. 
Clemens,  Samuel  Langhorne   (Mark  Twain)   (1835- 

),    American    humorist. 

Clement,  name  assumed  by  fourteen  Popes. 
Clement   of   Alexandria    (A.D.    190),    father  of  the 

Church. 

Cleopatra     (69-30     B.C.),     last     queen     of     Egypt. 
Clive,  Robert,  Lord,  Baron  of  Plassey  (1725-1774), 

English    general    and   statesman. 
Cobden,    Richard    (1804-1865),    English    politician. 
Coleridge,     Samuel     Taylor     (1772-1834),     English 

philosopher. 
Coligni,    Gaspard   de-  (1517-1572),    French   admiral 

and  general. 

Collins,  William  Wilkie   (1825-1889),   English  nov- 
elist. 

Colonna,    Vittoria   (1490-1547),    Italian  poet. 
Columbus,    Christopher    (1436-1502),    Italian    navi- 
gator  and  discoverer. 
Commodus,     Lucius     Aurelius     (161-192),     Roman 

emperor. 

Comte,    Auguste    (1795-1857),    French   philosopher. 
Conde,   a   family  celebrated   in   French   history. 
Confucius    (551-479   B.C.),    Chinese  sage. 
Constantine,   272-323,    Emperor   of  the  West. 
Cook,    Captain    James    (1728-1779),    English   navi- 
gator. 
Cooper,    James    Fenimore    (1789-1851),    American 

novehst. 

Cooper,     Peter     (1791-1883),     American    manufac- 
turer and   philanthropist. 

Copernicus,    Nicolas    (1473-1543),    Prussian   astron- 
omer. 
Copley,     John     Singleton     (1737-1815),     American 

painter. 
Coppee,      Francis     Eduard     Joachim     (1842-         ), 

French  writer. 
CoqueHn,     Benoit     Constant     (1841-         ),     French 

actor. 
Corneille,     Pierre     (1606-1684),     French    tragedian 

and  poet. 
Cornwallis,   Charles,   Marquis    (1738-1805),   English 

general   and   statesman. 
Correggio,     Antonio    Allegri     (i494-iS34)»     Italian 

painter. 
Cortes,     Hernando     (1485-1547),     Spanish    soldier, 

conquero-  of  Mexico. 

Cotton,    John     (1585-1652),    American    preacher. 
Cousin,  Victor  (1792-1867),   French  statesman  and 

writer. 
Coverdale,    Miles    (1488-1568),    first    translator    of 

the    Bible    into    English. 

Cowper,  William  (1731-1800),  English  poet. 
Crabbe,  George  (1754-1832),  English  poet. 
Cranmer,  Thomas  (1489-1556),  English  reformer. 
Crichton,  James  dS5i-iS73).  Scottish  scholar  and 
adventurer. 


"rcesus    (500   B.C.),   King  of  Lydia. 

Cromwell,    Oliver    (1599-1658),    English   general. 

Curtis,  George  William  (1824-92),  American  jour- 
nalist and  orator. 

Curzon,  George  Nathaniel  (1859-  ),  English 
statesman. 

Custer,  George  Armstrong  (1839-1876),  American 
soldier. 

Cuvier,  George  Cretien  Leopold  Dagobert,  Baron 
(1769-1832),  French  naturalist. 

D 

Daguerre,  Louis  Jacques  Mand£  (1789-1851), 
French  painter  and  inventor. 

Damien,  de  Venster,  Joseph  (1840-1889),  mission- 
ary to  lepers. 

Dante,   Alighieri    (1265-1321),   Italian  poet 

Danton,  Georges- Jacques  (1759-1794),  French  rev- 
olutionist. 

Darius,  name  of  several  Persian  kings. 

Darnley,  Lord  (Henry  Stuart)  (1541-1567),  sec- 
ond husband  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 

Darwin,  Charles,  F.R.S.  (1809-1882),  English 
naturalist. 

Daubigny,  Charles  Frangois  (1817-1878)-,  French 
painter. 

David,  Jacques  Louis  (1748-1825),  French  painter. 

Davis,  Jefferson  (1808-1868),  President  of  Con- 
federate States. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry  (1778-1829),  English  scientist. 

Decatur,  Stephen  (1779-1820),  American  naval 
officer. 

Defoe,    Daniel    (1661-1731),    English   novelist. 

Delacroix,  Ferdinand  Victor  Eugene  (1799-18637, 
French  painter. 

Demosthenes    (382-322    B.C.),    Greek  orator. 

De  Quincey,   Thomas    (1785-1859),    English  writer. 

Descartes,    Ren6    (1596-1650),    French   philosopher. 

Dewey,   George   (1837-         ),  American   admiral. 

Dickens,    Charles    (1812-1870),    English   novelist. 

Diderot,  Denis  (1713-1784),  French  encyclopedist 
and  philosopher. 

Diocletian,   Valerius   (245-313),   Roman  emperor. 

Diogenes    (412-323    B.C.),    cynic   philosopher. 

Diogenes,  LSertius  (2d  century  A.D.),  Greek  bi- 
ographer. 

Disraeli,  Benjamin,  Earl  of  Beaconsfield  (1805- 
1881),  author  and  statesman. 

Disraeli,  Isaac,  D.C.L.  (1766-1848),  English 
author. 

Donatello,  Donato  di  Betto  Bardo  (1383-1466), 
Italian  sculptor. 

Dor6,    Paul    Gustave    (1833-1883),    French   painter. 

Douglass,  Frederick  (1817-1895),  American  orator 
and  journalist. 

Dow,   Gerard    (1613-1675),   Dutch  genre   painter. 

Draco    (600  B.C.),   Athenian  law-giver. 

Drake,    Sir   Francis    d539-'595).    English   admiral. 

Dryden,   John    (1631-1700),    English  poet. 

Dudley,    Joseph    (1647-1720),    American    politician. 

Dudley,  Robert,  Earl  of  Leicester  dS33-is88),  En- 
glish courtier. 

Dudley,  Thomas  (1576-1652),  colonial  politician, 
Governor  of  Massachusetts. 

Dumas,    Alexandre    (1803-1870),    French    novelist 

Duma's,  Alexandre,  fils  (1824-1895).  French 
novelist. 

Duns  Scotus,  Johannes  (1265-1308),  scholar1  and 
philosopher. 

Dunstan,  St.    (925-988),   English  bishop. 
Dupont,    Samuel    Francis    (1803-1865),    American 
admiral. 

Duquesne,  Abraham,  Marquis  (1610-1688),  French 
naval  officer. 


806 


WHO'S   WHO    OF    HISTORY 


Durer,    Albrccht    (1471-1528),    German    painter. 
D wight,  Timothy  (1752-1817),  American  theologian. 
Dyck,     Sir    Anthony     van     (1599-1641),     Flemish 
painter. 


Ebers,  Georg  (1837-1898),  German  Egyptologist 
and  novelist. 

Edward,    name   of   several   kings   of   England. 

Edwards,  Jonathan  (1703-1801),  American  the- 
ologian. 

Eiffel,  Alexandre  Gustave  (1832-  ),  French 
engineer. 

Elizabeth    (1533-1603),    Queen   of   England. 

Eliot,  George  (Marian  Evans)  (1820-1880),  En- 
glish novelist. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo  (1803-1882),  American 
philosopher. 

Endicott,  John  (1589-1665),  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts colony. 

Epaminondas    (414-362    B.C.),    Theban   general. 

Epictetus   (A.D.   50),   Greek  philosopher. 

Epicurus    (341-270  B.C.),   Greek  philosopher. 

Erasmus,  Desiderius  (1467-1536),  Dutch  human- 
ist and  reformer. 

Erastus,   Thomas    (1524-1583),   Swiss  theologian. 

Ericsson,  Joh  (1803-1889),  Swedish-American  en- 
gineer and  inventor. 

Euclid    (300  B.C.),   Greek  mathematician. 

Eugenius,   name  assumed  by  four  Popes. 

Euripides    (480-406  B.C.),   Greek  tragedian. 

Eusebius    (264-340),   ecclesiastical   historian. 

Evans,  Marian.     See  Eliot,  George. 

Evelyn,   John    (1620-1706),    English   writer. 

Everett,  Edward  (1794-1865),  American  states- 
man and  orator. 


Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel,  (1686-1736),  German 
scientist. 

Faraday,  Michael,  D.C.L.  (1791-1867),  English 
scientist. 

Farragut,  David  Glasgow  (1801-1870),  Vice-Admiral 
of  American  navy. 

Fawkes,   Guy   (1570-1606),   English  conspirator. 

Feiix,    name   assumed   by   four   Popes. 

Fenelon  (Francois  de  Salignac  de  la  Mothe), 
(1651-1715),  French  prelate,  orator,  and 
writer. 

Ferdinand,  name  of  several  emperors  of  Germany 
and  Austria  and  kings  of  Spain  and  Sicily. 

Ferrier,  James  Frederick  (1808-1864),  Scottish 
metaphysician. 

Feuillet,  Octave  (1821-1890),  French  novelist  and 
dramatist. 

Fichte,  Johann  Gottlieb  (1762-1814),  German  phi- 
losopher. 

Field,  Cyrus  West  (1819-1892),  founder  of  At- 
lantic Cable  Company. 

Fielding,    Henry    (1707-1754),    English    novelist. 

Fillmore,  Millard  (1800-1874),  President  of  United 
States. 

Firdusi,  Abul-Rasim  Mausur  (915-940),  Persian 
poet. 

Fiske,  John  (1842-1902),'  American  historical 
writer. 

Flaxman,    John    (1755-1826),    English   sculptor. 

Fouche,  Joseph,  Duke  of  Otranto  (1763-1820), 
French  revolutionist. 

Fourrier,  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,  Baron  (1768- 
1830),  French  mathematician. 

Fox,  Charles  James  (1749-1806),  English  states- 
man. 


Fox,  George  (1624-1691),  originator  of  Society 
of  Friends.  . 

Foxe,    John    (1517-1587),    English    martyrologisL 

Fra  Diavolo  (Michael  Pezzo)  (1760-1806),  Italian 
brigand  and  renegade  monk. 

Francis,  name  of  several  kings  of  France  and  em- 
perors of  Germany. 

Francis  de  Sales,  St.  (1567-1622),  bishop  and 
writer. 

Francis  of  Assisi,  St.  (1182-1226),  founder  of 
Franciscan  order. 

Franklin,  Benjamin  (1706-1790),  American  states- 
man and  philosopher. 

Franklin,  Sir  John  (1786-1847),  English  Arctic 
•  explorer. 

Fremont,  John  Charles  (1813-1890),  Ameri- 
can traveler  and  explorer. 

Frobel,  Friedrich  (1782-1852),  founder  of  kinder- 
garten system. 

Frobisher,  Sir  Martin  (?I535-I594),  English  navi- 
gator. 

Froissart,  Jean  (1337-1410),  French  poet  and 
historian. 

Froude,  James  Anthony  (1818-1894),  English  his- 
torian. 

Fry,  Elizabeth  (1780-1845),  English  female  philan- 
thropist and  preacher. 

Fuller,  Sarah  Margaret,  Marchioness  Ossoli 
(1810-1850),  American  writer. 

Fulton,  Robert  (1765-1815),  American  engineer 
and  inventor. 


Gage,  Thomas   (1721-1787),   British  general. 

Gainsborough,  Thomas  (1727-1788),  English 
painter. 

Galba,  Servius  Sulpicus  (3  B.C. — A.D.  67),  Roman 
emperor. 

Galen    (130-201),    Greek   physician. 

Galilei,  Galileo  (1564-1642),  Italian  physicist  and 
astronomer. 

Garna,  Dom  Vasco  da  (1469-1525),  Portuguese 
navigator. 

Gambetta,  L£on  (1838-1882),  French  lawyer  and 
statesman. 

Garibaldi,   Giuseppi   (1807-1882),   Italian  statesman. 

Garrick,   David    (1716-1779),   English   actor. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd  (1805-1879),  American 
abolitionist. 

Gates,    Horatio    (1728-1806),   American  general. 

Gautier,  Theophile  (1811-1872),  French  poet,  nov- 
elist, and  critic. 

Gay,   John    (1688-1732),    English   poet. 

Genghis   Khan    (1155-1227),    Mongolian   conqueror. 

George,   name  of  several  kings  of  England. 

Ge>ome,    Jean-L£on    (1824-         ),    French    painter. 

Gibbon,    Edward    (1737-1791),    English   historian. 

Giotto  (Ambrogiotto  Bordone),  (1276-1336),  Ital- 
ian painter. 

Gladstone,  Right  Hon.  William  Ewart  (1809- 
1900),  English  statesman. 

Gluck,  Christoph  Willibald  von  (1714-1787).  Ger. 
man  musical  composer. 

Godfrey  de  Botiillon  (1061-1100),  English  con- 
queror and  protector  of  Jerusalem. 

Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von  (1749-1832),  Ger- 
man poet. 

Goldschmidt,  Madame  (Jenny  Lind),  (1821-1887), 
Swedish  singer. 

Goldsmith,   Oliver   (1728-1774),    English   writer. 

Gonzales,  Manuel  (1833-1893),  Mexican  general 
and  statesman. 

Gough.  John  B.  (1817-1886),  American  temper- 
ance lecturer. 


WHO'S   WHO   OF   HISTORY 


867 


Gounod,  Charles  Francois  (1818-1893),  musical 
composer. 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson  (1822-1885),  eighteenth 
President  of  the  United  States  and  general 
in  the  Civil  War. 

Gray,    Asa    (1810-1888),   American  botanist. 

Gray,  Thomas  (1716-1771),   English  poet 

Greeley,  Horace   (1811-1872),   American  journalist. 

Greene,  Nathaniel  (1742-1786),  American  Revolu- 
tionary general. 

Gregory,    name  assumed  by  sixteen  Popes. 

Grenze,  Jean  Baptiste  (1725-1805),  French  painter. 

Grey,  Lady  Jane  (1537-1553),  Queen  of  England 
for  ten  days. 

Grimm,  Jacob  Ludwig  (1785-1863),  German  writer. 

Grimm,  Wilhelm  Karl  (1786-1859),  German  writer. 

Grote,  George  (1794-1871),  English  politician,  his- 
torian, and  philosopher. 

Grotius,  Hugo  (1583-1645),  Dutch  statesman  and 
scholar. 

Guido,    Reni    (1575-1642),    Italian    painter. 

Guise,   name  of  family  famous  in   French  history. 

Guizot,  Francois  Pierre  Guillaume  (1787-1874), 
French  statesman  and  historian. 

Gustavus,   name  of  several  kings  of   Sweden. 

Gutenberg,  Johannes  (Gensfleisch),  (1400-1460), 
inventor  of  movable  type. 

"  H 

Hadrian,  Publius  ^Elius  Hadrianus  (117-138), 
Roman  emperor. 

Hahnemann,  Samuel  (1755-1843),  German  phy- 
sician. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett  (1822-  ),  American 
author,  editor,  and  preacher. 

Hale,    Nathan    (1755-1776),    American   patriot. 

Hall,  Charles  Francis  (1821  -  1871),  American 
Arctic  explorer. 

Hallam,  Henry  (1777-1859),  English  historian  and 
critic. 

Hamilcar,    name   of  several   Carthaginian  generals. 

Hamilton,  Alexander  (1757-1804),  American 
statesman. 

Hampden,    John    (1594-1643),    English   patriot. 

Handel,  George  Frederick  (1685-1759),  German 
musical  composer. 

Hannibal,    name  of   several   Carthaginian  generals. 

Harrison,  Benjamin  (1833  -  1901),  twenty-third 
President  of  the  United  States. 

Harrison,  William  Henry  (1773-1841),  ninth  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States. 

Harold,  name  of  two  kings  of  England. 

Haroun  al  Raschid  (786-809),  Abbaside  Calif, 
hero  of  Arabian  Nights. 

Harte,  Francis  Bret  (1839-1902),  American  poet 
and  novelist. 

Harvey,  William  (1578-1657),  physician  and  dis- 
coverer of  circulation  of  blood. 

Hasdrubal,   name  of  several  Carthaginian  generals. 

Hastings,  Warren  (1732-1818),  governor-general 
of  India. 

Hawkins,  Sir  John   (1520-1595),  English  navigator. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel  (1804-1864),  American 
writer. 

Haydn,  Joseph  (1732-1809),  German  musical 
composer. 

Hayes,  Isaac  Israel  (1832-1881),  American  Arctic 
explorer. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard  (1822-1893).  nine- 
teenth President  of  the  United  States. 

Hazlitt,  William  (1778-1830),  English  essayist  and 
critic. 

Heber,  Reginald  (1783-1826),  English  poet  and 
bishop. 


Hegel,  George  Wilhelm  Friedrich  (1770-1831), 
German  philosopher. 

Heine,  Heinricb  (1799-1856),  German  poet  and 
wit. 

Henry,  name  of  several  kings  of  England  and 
France  and  emperors  of  Germany. 

Henry,  Patrick  (1737-1799),  American  orator  and 
patriot. 

Herbert,  George  (1593-1632),  English  poet  and 
clergyman. 

Herder,  Johann  Gottfried  von  (1744-1803),  Ger- 
man philosopher. 

Herodotus    (484-408    B.C.),    Greek   historian. 

Herrick,    Robert    (1591-1674),   English  poet. 

Herschel,  Sir  William  (1738-1822),  English  as- 
tronomer. 

Hesiod   (7th  century  B.C.),  Greek  poet. 

Heyse,  Johann  Ludwig  Paul  (1830-  ),  German 
novelist  and  poet. 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth  (1823-  ),  Amer. 
ican  author. 

Hippocrates   (460-354  B.C.),   Greek  physician. 

Hogarth,  William  (1697-1764),  English  painter  and 
engraver. 

Holbein,    Hans    (1450-1526),    German   painter. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell  (1809-1894),  American 
poet,  novelist,  and  essayist. 

Homer   (850  B.C.),   Greek  poet. 

Honorius,    name   assumed   by    four   Popes. 

Horace    (68-8   B.C.),    Roman   poet. 

Hord,   Thomas   (1798-1845),   English  poet. 

Howells,  William  Dean  (1837-  ),  American 
novelist  and  poet. 

Hudson,  Henry  (unknown),  English  navigator. 

Hugo,  Victor  Marie,  Vicomte  (1802-1885),  French 
writer. 

Humboldt,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander,  Baron 
von  (1769-1859),  Prussian  naturalist. 

Hume,  David  (1711-1776),  English  philosopher  and 
historian. 

Hunt,  James  Henry  Leigh  (1784-1859),  English 
poet  and  essayist. 

Hunt,  William  Holman  (1827-  ),  English 
painter. 

Huss,  John  (1373-1415),  Bohemian  reformer  and 
martyr. 

Hutchinson,  Anne  (1590-1643),  American  relig- 
ious enthusiast. 

Hutchinson,  Thomas  (1711-1780),  American  mag- 
istrate and  historian. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry  (1825-1895),  English  nat- 
uralist. 

I 

Ibsen,    Henrik    (1828-         ),    Norwegian    dramatic 

poet. 
Inglis,     Sir    John    EaHley    Wilmot    (1814-1862), 

defender  of  Lucknow. 
Inness,    George    (1825-1894),    American    landscape 

painter. 

Innocent,    name  assumed   by  thirteen   Popes. 
Irving,    Edward    (1792-1834),    Scotch   preacher. 
Irving,  Washington  (1783-1859),   American  writer. 
Isabella     (1451-1504),    Queen    of    Spain,    wife    of 

Ferdinand. 
Ivan,  name  of  a  number  of  Russian  Czars. 


J 

Jackson,    Andrew,    General    (1767-1846),    seventh 

President    of   the    United    States. 
Jackson,    Thomas   Jonathan    (Stonewall   Jackson), 

(1824-1863),   Confederate  general. 


858 


WHO'S   WHO   OF   HISTORY 


James,  name  of  several  kings  of  England  and 
Scotland. 

James,  George  Payne  Rainsford  (1801-1860),  En- 
glish novelist. 

James,   Henry   (1843-         ),   American  novelist 

Jay.  John  (1745-1829),  American  jurist  and  states- 
man. 

Jefferson,  Thomas  (1743-1826),  third  President 
of  the  United  States. 

Jeffreys,  George,  Baron  (1648-1689)  English  judge. 

Joan  of  Arc  (Jeanne  D'Arc  or  Dare),  (1412-1431), 
French  national  heroine. 

Johnson,  Andrew  (1808-1875),  seventeenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States. 

Johnson,  Samuel  (1709-1784),  English  writer  and 
lexicographer. 

Jones,  John  Paul  (1747-1792),  Scottish-American 
naval  officer. 

Jonson,    Ben    (1573-1637),   English  dramatist. 

Josephine,  Marie  Rose  (1763-1814),  Empress  of 
French,  wife  of  Napoleon. 

Josephus,    Flavius    (37-90),   Jewish   historian. 

Jugurtha    (          -104   B.C.),    King   of    Numidia. 

Julian  (The  Apostate),  (331-363),  Roman  emperor. 

Julius,    name   assumed   by  three   Popes. 

Justinius,   name  of  two  emperors  of  the  East. 

Justinus   (118-165),  "Father  of  the  Church." 


K 

Kane,    Elisha   Kent,    M.D.    (1820-1857),    American 

Arctic  explorer. 

Kant,   Immanuel   (1724-1804),  German  philosopher. 
Kaulbach,      Wilhelm     von      (1805-1874),      German 

painter. 

Kean,   Edmund    (1767-1833),    English  actor. 
Keats,   John   (1796-1821),   English  poet. 
Keble,    John    (1792-1866),    English   clergyman  and 

poet. 
Kellogg,      Clara      Louise      (1842-         ),      American 

opera   singer. 

Kemble,    Frances   Anne   (1809-1893),   Anglo-Ameri- 
can actress,  Shakespearian  reader,  and  author. 
Kempis,    Thomas    a    (I379-I47O,    Prussian    monk 

and    writer. 

Kepler,    Johann    (1571-1630),    German    astronomer. 
Kidd,     Captain     William      (         -1701),     notorious 

pirate. 
Kitchener,    Horatio    Herbert    (1850-         ),    British 

general. 
Klopstock,   Friedrich  Gottlieb  (1724-1803),  German 

poet. 

Knox,  John   (1505-1572),   Scottish  reformer. 
Kosciusko,     Tadeusz     (1746-1817),    Polish    general 

and   patriot. 
Kossuth,     Lajos     (1802-1894),     Hungarian     patriot 

and  orator. 
Kreutzer,    Rodolphe    (1766-1831),    French   violinist 

and  composer. 


Lafayette,  Marie  Jean  Paul  Roch  Yoes  Gilbert 
Motier,  Marquis  de  (1757-1834),  French  gen- 
eral in  American  army. 

Lafontatne,  Jean  de  (1621  -  1695),  French  fab- 
ulist 

Lamarck,  Jean  Baptiste  Pierre  Antoine  de  Monnet 
Chevalier  de  (1744-1829),  French  naturalist 

Lamartine,    Alphonse    (1792-1869),    French    writer. 

Lamb,  Charles  (1775-1834),  English  poet  and  eS' 
sayist 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin  Henry,  R.A.  (1802-1873), 
English  painter. 


Laplace,  Pierre  Simon,  Marquis  de  (1749-1837), 
French  mathematician  and  astronomer. 

La  Salle,  Robert  Cavalier,  Sieur  de  (1643-1687), 
French  explorer. 

Latimer,  Hugh  (1490-1555),  English  prelate  and 
reformer. 

Laud,   William   (1573-1644),   English  bishop. 

Lavater,  Johann  Kasper  (1741-1801),  French  phy*. 
iognomist 

Lavoisier,  Antoine  Laurent  (1743-1794),  French 
chemist. 

Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas  (1796-1830),  English 
painter. 

Layard,  Austen  Henry  (1817-1894),  English  trav- 
eler, politician,  and  writer. 

Le  Brun,  Marie  Anne  Elizabeth  Viglee  (1755- 
1842),  French  painter. 

Lecky,  William  Edward  Hartpole  (1838-  ), 
British  historian. 

Le  Co  te,  John  Lawrence  (1825-1883),  American 
naturalist. 

Lee,  Robert  Edward  (1807-1870),  general  in  Con- 
federate army. 

Leech,   John   (1817-1864),   English   caricaturist. 

Legendre,  Adrien  Marie  (1752-1833),  Frencfc 
mathematician. 

Leicester,  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  (1531-1588), 
English  courtier. 

Leighton,  Frederick,  Lord  (1830-1896),  English 
painter. 

Leo,   name  assumed  by  thirteen    Popes. 

Leonardo  da   Vinci    (1452-1519),    Italian  painter. 

Leonidas    (         -480   B.C.),    King   of    Sparta. 

Lesseps,  Vicomte  Ferdinand  de  (1805-1894), 
French  engineer  and  diplomatist. 

Lessing,  Gotthoid  Ephraim  (1729-1781),  German 
dramatist 

Lincoln,  Abraham  (1809-1865),  sixteenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States. 

Li  Hung  Chang   (1823-1901),  Chinese  statesman. 

Liszt,  Franz  (1811-1886),  Hungarian  musical  com- 
poser. 

Livingstone,  David  (1813-1873),  African  explorer 
and  missionary. 

Logan,  James  (1674-1751),  American  colonial  poli- 
tician. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth  (1807-1882), 
Amen  :an  poet. 

Lowell,  James  Russell  (1819-1891),  American  poet, 
essayist,  scholar,  and  diplomatist. 

Loyola,  Ignatius  de  (Inigo  Lopez  de  Recalde), 
(1491-1556),  founder  of  Society  of  Jesus. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John   (1834-         ),   English  naturalist. 

Luther,    Martin    (1483-1546),    German    reformer. 

Lyell,    Sir    Charles    (1797-1875),    British    geologist 

Lytton,  Edward  George  Earle  Lytton  Bulwer, 
first  Baron  Lytton  (1803-1873),  English  nov- 
elist, poet,  dramatist,  politician,  and  orator. 

Lytton,  Edward  Robert  Lytton  Bulwer,  first  Earl 
of  Lytton  (Owen  Meredith),  (1831-1891), 
English  diplomatist,  politician,  and  poet. 


M 


Macaulay,  Thomas  Babinpton  (1800-1859),  En- 
glish historian  and  essayist. 

Macchiavelli,  Niccoli  di  Bernadino  del  (1499-1527), 
Italian  diplomatist. 

Mackenzie,  Sir  Alexander  (  -1820),  Scottish 
explorer. 

Macready,  William  Charles  (1793-1873),  English 
actor. 

Madison,  James  (1751-1836),  fourth  President  of 
the  United  States. 


WHO'S   WHO   OF   HISTORY 


859 


Maeterlinck,    Maurice    (1864-         ),    Belgian    poet 

and   dramatist. 
Marat,  Jean  Paul   (1743-93),  French  revolutionist. 
Marcus  Aurelius  Antonius   (.121-180),   Roman  em- 
peror. 

Maria   Louisa    (1791-1847),  second   wife  of  Napo- 
leon  1,  Austrian  princess. 
Maria    Theresa     (1717-80),    Empress    of    Austria, 

mother  of  Marie  Antoinette. 
Marie   Antoinette   de   Lorraine,    Josephine   Jeanne 

(1755-93),   wife  of  Louis  XVI  of   trance. 
Marius,   Caius   (157-86  B.C.),  Roman  general. 
Marlowe,    Christopher     (1565-93),     English    dram- 
atist. 
Marquette,    Jacques    (1637-75),    French  missionary 

and  explorer. 

Mather,   Cotton    (1663-1728),  American  theologian. 
Mather,    Increase    (1639-1723),    American    theolo- 
gian. 

Maupassant,  Henri  Rene  Albert  Guy  de  (1850- 
93).  French  novelist. 

Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange,  Count  of  Nassau 
(1567-1625),  Dutch  general. 

Mazeppa,    Ivan   Stepanovitch    (1644-1709),   Cossack 

chief. 

Mazzini,  Giuseppe  (1805-72),  Italian  patriot  and 
revolutionist. 

McClellan,  George  B.  (1826-85),  general  in  Amer- 
ican army. 

McKinley,  William  (1843-1901),  twenty-fifth  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States. 

Medici,  name  of  famous  Italian  family. 

Meissonier,  Jean  Louis  Ernest  (1811-91),  French 
painter. 

Melanchthon,  Philip  (1497-1560),  German  re- 
former. 

Mello,  Cus;odio  ]os&  de  (1845-  ),  Brazilian 
naval  officer  and  revolutionist. 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  Felix  (1809-47),  German 
musical  composer. 

Menes  (b.  5702  B.C.),  traditional  first  king  of 
united  Egypt. 

Mesmer,  Friedrich  Anton  (1733-1815),  German 
physician,  originator  of  mesmerism. 

Metternich  -  Winneburg,  Prince  Clemens  Wenzel 
Nepomuk  Lothar  von  (1773-1859),  Austrian 
statesman  and  diplomatist. 

Michelangelo  (Buonarotti),  (1475-1564),  Italian 
sculptor  and  painter. 

Michelet,   Jules    (1798-1874),    French   historian. 

Mill,  John  Stuart  (1806-73),  English  philosopher 
and  economist. 

Millais,   John    (1829-96),    English  painter. 

Miller,    Hugh    (1802-56),    Scotch    geologist. 

Millet,    Jean    Francois    (1814-75),    French   painter. 

Miltiades    (500  B.C.),   Athenian  general. 

Milton,    John    (1608-74),    English   poet. 

Mirabeau,  Gabriel  Honor6  Riquette,  Comte  de 
(1749-91),  orator  of  French  Revolution. 

Miramon,    Miguel    (1832-67),    Mexican   general. 

Mithridates  (The  Great),  (132-63  B.C.),  King  of 
Pontus. 

Mohammed    (570-632),   founder  of  Islam. 

Moliere,  Jean  Baptiste  (Poquelin),  (1622-73), 
French  dramatist. 

Moltke,  Count  Helmuth  Karl  Bernhard  von 
(1800-91),  Prussian  field-marshal. 

Monroe,  James  (1758-1831),  fifth  President  of  the 
United  States. 

Montaigne,  Michel  Eyquetn  de  (1533-92),  French 
philosopher. 

Montcalm  Gezan  de  Saint  VeYan,  Louis  Joseph, 
Marquis  de  (1712-59),  French  general. 

Montezuma  II  or  Xocoyotzin  (1470?-! 520),  A2r 
tec  war-chief  or  emperor. 


Moore,  Thomas   (1779-1852),   English  poet. 
Morris,   Gouverneur   (1752-1816),  American  states- 
man. 

Morse,  Samuel   Finley  Breese    (1791-1872),   Amer- 
ican painter,   inventor  of  telegraph. 
Mozart,    Johann    Chrysostom    Wolfgang    Gottlieb 

(1756-91),   German  composer. 
Muir,  John    (1836-        ),  American  naturalist,  ex- 

plorer,-  and  writer. 
Murat,  Joachim   (1771-1815),  French  field-marshal, 

King  of  Naples. 
Miinchausen,    Karl     Friedrich,    Baron    (1720-97), 

German  soldier  and  raconteur. 
Murillo,     Bartolome    Esteban     (1618-82),    Spanish 

painter.  . 
(Musset,  Louis  Charles  Alfred  de  (1810-57),  French 

poet  and  dramatist. 
Mustapha,  name  of  several  Turkish  Sultans. 


N 

Nansen,    Fridtjof    (1861-         ),    Norwegian   Arctic 

explorer. 
Napier,    Sir    Charles    James    (1782-1853),    English 

general. 
Napoleon  Bonaparte   (1769-1821),  first  emperor  of 

the  French. 

Nebuchadnezzar   (605-561   B.C.),   King  of  Babylon. 
Nelson,    Horatio    (1758-1805),    English    admiral. 
Nero,     Claudius    Cassar    Drusus    Gcrmanicus    (37- 

68),  Roman  emperor. 
Newman,  John   Henry   (1801-90),   English  cardinal 

and  theologian. 
Newton,    Sir    Isaac    (1642-1727),    English   scientist 

and  mathematician. 
Ney,    Michel    (1769-1815),   French  marshal,   Prince 

of   the    Moskwa. 

Nightingale,  Florence  (1820-  ),  English  philan- 
thropist. 

o 

O'Connell,  Daniel  (1775-1847),  Irish  agitator  and 
orator. 

O'Donoju,  Juan  (1755-1821),  last  Spanish  ruler 
in  Mexico. 

Offenbach,    Jacques    (1819-80),    German    composer. 

Ohlenschlager,  Adam  Gottlieb  (1779-1850),  Dan- 
ish poet  and  dramatist. 

Oliphant,  Margaret  (nee  Wilson),  (1820-97),  En- 
glish novelist. 

Omar  Khayyam  (d.  A.D.  1122),  Persian  astrono- 
mer and  poet. 

O'Meara,  Barry  Edward  (1786-1836),  Irish  sur- 
geon and  biographer  of  Napoleon  I. 

Otho  or  Otto,  name  of  several  emperors  of  G«r- 
tnany. 

Otis,  James  (1725-83),  American  patriot  and 
orator. 

Ovid  (Publius  Ovidius  Naso),  (43  B.C. — A.D.  18), 
Latin  poet. 

Oxenstierna,  Axel,  Count  (1583-1654),  Swedish 
statesman. 


Paderewski,    Ignace    Jan    (1860-         ),    Polish    pi- 

anist. 

Paez,  Jos6  Antonio   (1791-1873),  Venezuelan  poli- 
tician. 

Paganini,   Nicolo   (1784-1840),   Italian  violinist 
Paine,     Thomas     (1737-1809),    American    political 
writer. 


860 


WHO'S   WHO   OF    HISTORY 


Palissy,     Bernard    (1509-89),    French    potter    and 

enameler. 

1'arkman,    Francis    (1823-93),    American    historian. 
Farnell,  Charles  Stewart  (1846-91),  Irish  agitator. 
Parrhasius    (400    B.C.),    Greek    painter. 
Parry.    Sir    William    Edward    (1790-1855),    English 

admiral  and  Arctic  explorer. 
Pascal,    Blaise    (1623-62).   French   philosopher. 
Patti,    Nicolini,    Adelina    (Baroness    Cedarstrom), 

(1843-         ),   so'rano   singer. 
Peary,  Robert  Edwin  (1854-         ),  American  Arctic 

explorer. 

Pedro   1,  Dom  Antonio  Pedro  de  Alcantara  Bour- 
bon   (1798-1834),   first  emperor  of  Brazil. 
Pedro  II,  Dom  Pedro  de  Alcantara  (1825-91),  sec- 
ond emperor  of  Brazil. 

Peel,    Sir   Robert    (1788-1850),    English  statesman. 
Penn,    William    (1644-1718),    founder    of   Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Pepin   (d.  A.D.  768),   King  of  the  Franks. 
Pepys,   Samuel  (1633-1703),   English  politician  and 

writer. 
Perier,     Jean     Paul     Pierre    Casimir     (1847-         )» 

French  President. 
Perry,  Oliver  Hazard  (1785-1819),  American  naval 

officer. 

Peter  I,  The  Great  (1672-1724),  Czar  of  Russia. 
Petrarca,   Francesco   (1304-1374),   Italian  poet. 
Phidias    (500-430   B.C.),   Greek  sculptor. 
Philip,    name    of    several    kings    of    Macedon    and 

Spain. 
Phillips,   Wendell   (1811-84),   American  orator  and 

abolitionist. 
Pichegru,  Charles   (1761-1804),  French  patriot  and 

general. 
Pickett,     George     Edward     (1825-75),     Confederate 

general. 
Pierce,    Franklin    (1804-69),    fourteenth    President 

of  the  United  States. 
Pindar    (522-443   B.C.),  Greek  poet 
Pinto,    Fernao    Mendez    (1509-82),   Portuguese  ex- 
plorer  of  America. 

Pisistratus    (605-527  B.C.),   tyrant  of  Athens. 
Pitt,    William    (1708-78),    English    statesman    and 

orator. 
Pitt,     William     (1759-1806),     English     statesman; 

Prime  Minister. 

Pius,  name  assumed  by  ten  Popes. 
Pizarro,     Francisco    (1475-1541),    Spanish    soldier, 

conqueror    of    Peru. 

Plato    (427-347   B.C.),    Greek  philosopher. 
Pliny     (Gaius    Plinius    Caecilius    Secundus),     (62- 

110),   Roman  writer. 
Pliny    (Gaius   Plinius    Secundus),    (23-79),    Roman 

naturalist. 

Plutarch    (42-120   abt.),    Greek   biographer. 
Poe,    Edgar   Allan    (1809-49),   American   poet  and 

writer. 
Polk,  James  Knox  (1795-1849),  eleventh  President 

of  the  United  States. 

Polo,    Marco    (1254-1324),   Venetian   traveler. 
Polybius    (204-122   B.C.),   Greek   historian. 
Polycarp    (ist    century    A.D.),    bishop    of    Smyrna 

and    Christian    martyr. 
PoJycletus    (sth  century  B.C.),   Greek  sculptor  and 

architect. 
Pompey,    Cneius   Pompeius   Magnus    (106-48  B.C.), 

Roman   general. 
Ponce  de  Leon,  Juan  (1460-1521),  Spanish  soldier, 

discoverer  of  Florida. 

Pope,    Alexander    (1688-1717),   English   poet. 
Porter,  David  Dixon  (1813-91),  American  admiral. 
Praxiteles    (4th  century  B.C.),   Greek  sculptor. 
Prescott,   William   Hickling   (1796-1859),  American 

historian. 


Proudhon,  Pierre  Joseph  (1809-65),  French  so- 
cialist. 

Ptolemy,  name  of  several  rulers  of  the  Greek 
dynasty  in  Egypt. 

Pythagoras,    (582-500   B.C.),   Grecian  philosopher. 

Puvis  de  Chavannes  (1824-98),  French  decorative 
painter. 


Quetelet,  Lambert  Adolphe  Jacques  (1796-1874), 
Belgian  mathematician  and  astronomer. 

Quincy,  Josiah  (1772-1864),  American  lawyer, 
orator,  and  writer. 

Quinet,  Edgar  (1803-75),  French  philosopher,  his- 
torian, poet,  and  politician. 


R 

Rabelais,    Francois    (1483-1553),    French    humorist. 

Racine,   Jean   (1639-99),  French  dramatist. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter  (1552-1618),  English  courtier 
and  historian. 

Rameses  I  (1400  B.C.),  founder  of  nineteenth  dy- 
nasty of  Egyptian  kings. 

Rameses  II  (1300  B.C.),  one  of  the  most  famous 
of  Egyptian  kings. 

Randolph,  Peyton  (1723-75),  president  of  first 
Continental  Congress. 

Raphael,   banzio   (1483-1520),  Italian  painter. 

Reaumur,  Rene  Antoine  Ferchault  (1683-1757), 
French  physicist. 

Rembrandt  Hermanszoon  (Rembrant  van  Rhyn) 
(1607-69),  Dutch  painter. 

Renan,  Joseph  Ernest  (1823-92),  French  theolo- 
gian and  Orientalist. 

Reszke,  Edouard  de  (1856-  ),  Polish  bass 
singer. 

Reszke,   Jean  de   (1853-         ),   Polish  tenor  singer. 

Revere,   Paul   (1735-1818),   American  patriot. 

Reynolds,    Sir   Joshua    (1723-92),    English   painter. 

Richardson,  Samuel  (1689-1761),  "founder  of  En- 
glish novel." 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  du  Plessis,  Cardinal,  Due 
de  (1585-1642),  French  cardinal,  statesman, 
and  writer. 

Ric  liter,  Jean  Paul  Friedrich  (1763-1825),  German 
scholar. 

Riedesel,  Baron  Friedrich  Adolph  von  (1738-1800), 
German  commander  in  American  Revolution- 
ary army. 

Rienzi,  Cola  di  (1313-54),  Italian  reformer,  "Last 
of  the  Tribunes." 

Rittenhouse,  David  (1732-1803),  American  astron- 
omer. 

Ritter,  Frederic  Louis  (1834-91),  American  com- 
poser, conductor,  and  musical  writer. 

Robbia,  Lucca  della,  Luca  di  Simone  di  Marco 
dclla  Robbia  (1400-82),  Italian  sculptor. 

Robert,  name  of  several  kings  of  France  and  Scot- 
land. 

Roberts,  Sir  Frederick  Sleigh,  Baron  (1832-  ), 
British  general. 

Robespierre,  Maximilian  Marie  Isidore  de  dysX- 
94),  French  revolutionist. 

Rodin,   Auguste    (1840-         ),   French  sculptor. 

Roebling,  John  Augustus  (1806-69),  American 
civil  engineer. 

Rontgen,  Wilhelm  Konrad  (1845-  ),  German 
scientist,  discoverer  of  X-rays. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore  (1858-  ),  twenty  -  sixth 
President  of  the  United  States. 

Rosas,  Juan  Manuel  de  (1793-1877),  dictator  of 
Buenos  Ayres. 


WHO'S   WHO   OF   HISTORY 


861 


Rosecrans,  William  Starke  (1819-98),  American 
general. 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel  (1828-82),  Frerapbaelite 
painter  and  poet. 

Rossini,  Gioacchino  Antonio  (1792-1868),  Italian 
composer. 

Rothschild,  Meyer  Amschcl,  Baron  (1743-1812), 
German-Jewish  banker. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques  (1712-78),  French  philo- 
sophical writer. 

Rousseau,  Pierre  Etienne  Theodore  (1812-67), 
French  painter. 

Rubens,   Peter  Paul  (1577-1640),  German  painter. 

Rubinstein,  Anton  (1829-1894),  Russian  pianist 
and  composer. 

Rush,  Benjamin  (1745-1813),  American  physician 
and  statesman. 

Ruskin,  John  (1819-1900),  English  writer  on  ar- 
chitecture and  art. 

Ruyter,  Michael  Adrianszoon  van  (1607*76), 
Dutch  admiral. 


Sachs,    Hans    (1494-1576),    German   poet. 

Sackville,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Dorset  (1536-1608), 
poet  and  statesman. 

Sadi,  Sheikh  Muslih  Addin  (1184-1291),  Persian 
poet. 

Saint-Saens,  Charles  Camille  (1835-  ),  French 
composer  and  pianist. 

Saladin  (1137-93),  famous  Sultan  of  Egypt  and 
Syria. 

Salisbury,  3d  Marquis  of,  Robert  Arthur  Talbot 
Gascoyne  Cecil  (1830-1903),  English  Conserv- 
ative statesman. 

Sallust,  Caius  Crispus  (86-34  B.C.),  Roman  his- 
torian. 

Sampson,  William  Thomas  (1840-1902),  American 
naval  officer. 

Sand,  George  (Armadine  Lucile  Aurore  Dupin, 
Baroness  Dudevant),  (1804-76),  French  nov- 
elist. 

Santa  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  (1798-1876),  Presi- 
dent of  Mexico. 

Sappho  (b.  600  B.C.),  Greek  poet 

Sardanapalus  (710-606  B.C.),  last  king  of  Assyrian 
Empire. 

Sardou,    Victorien    (1831-         ),   French  dramatist. 

Sarto,  Andrea  del  (1486-1531),  Florentine  fresco 
painter. 

Savonarola,  Girolamo  (1452-98),  Italian  monk  and 
reformer. 

Saxe,  John  Godfrey  (1816-87),  American  poet  and 
journalist. 

Saye  and  Sele,  first  Viscount  (William  Fiennes), 
(1582-1662),  English  politician. 

Scanderbeg,  George  Castriota  (1403-68),  Albanian 
commander. 

Schelling,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Joseph  von  (1775- 
1854),  German  philosopher. 

Schiller,  Johann  Christoph  (1759-1805),  German 
poet. 

Schlegel,  August  Wilhelm  (1767-1845),  German 
critic. 

Schley,  Winfield  Scott  (1839-  ),  American 
naval  officer. 

Schopenhauer,  Arthur  (1770-1838),  German  phi- 
losopher. 

Schubert,  Franz  Peter  (1797-1828),  German  mu- 
sical composer. 

Schumann,  Robert  (1815-56),  German  musical 
composer. 

Schuyler,  Philip  (1733-1804),  American  patriot  and 
general. 


Scipio,    Publius  Cornelius    (234-183   B.C.),    Roman 

general. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter  (1771-1832),  English  author. 
Scott,  Winfield  (1786-1866),  American  general. 
Scotus,  Duns  (i4th  century),  scholar  and  phi- 

losopher. 

Seabury,  Samuel  (1729-96),  American  divine  and 
bishop. 

Sedgwick,  John    (1813-64),   American  general. 

Seneca,    Marcus  Annaeus,   Roman   rhetorician. 

Sennacherib    (702-680   B.C.),   Assyrian  king. 

Sevigne,     Marie    de    Rabutin    Chantal     (1626-96) 
French   writer. 

Seward,  William  Henry  (1801-72),  American 
statesman. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  Earl  of 
(1801-80),  English  statesman  and  philan- 
thropist. 

Shakespeare,  William  (1564-1616),  English  dram- 
atist and  poet. 

Shalmaneser,   name  of   four  Assyrian  kings. 

Shay,    Daniel    (1747-1825),    American    insurgent. 

Shelley,    Percy   Bysshe    (1792-1823),    English  poet. 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry  (1831-88),  American  gen- 
eral. 

Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley  (1751-1816),  English 
writer. 

Sherman,  William  Tecumseh  (1818-90),  American 
general. 

Siddons,  Sarah  (Kemble),  (1755-1831),  tragic 
actress. 

Sidney,   Sir  Philip   (1554-86),   English  author. 

Sigismund  (The  Great),  (1467-1548),  King  of  Po- 
land. 

Silliman,  Benjamin  (1779-1860),  American  physi- 
cist. 

Silva  Paranhos,  Jose  Maria  de  (1819-80),  Brazil- 
ian diplomat. 

Simonides  (556-467  B.C.),  Greek  lyric  poet. 

Sims,  James  Marion  (1813-  ),  American  sur- 
geon. 

Sismondi,  Jean  Charles  Leonard  (de  Simonde)  de 
(1773-1842),  Swiss  economist. 

Smith,  Gerrit  (1797-1874),  American  philanthro- 
pist. 

Smith,   John   (1579-1608),   English  adventurer. 

Smith,  Joseph  (1805-44),  Mormon  prophet  and 
founder. 

Smith,   Rev.   Sydney   (1771-1845),    English  author. 

Smithson,  James  (1766-1829),  founder  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution. 

Smollett,  Tobias  George  (1721-71),  English  nov- 
elist. 

Sparks,   Jared   (1780-1866),    American   historian. 

Spencer,  Herbert  (1820-1903),  English  philosopher. 

Socrates   (469-399  B.C.),   Greek  philosopher. 

Solon  ><638-559   B.C.),    Greek   lawgiver. 

Solyman  ("The  Magnificent"),  (1490-1566),  Sul- 
tan of  Turk  /. 

Sontag,  Henrietta  (1806-54),  German  operatic 
vocalist. 

Sophocles  (495-380  B.C.),  master  of  Greek  tragedy. 

Soto,  Hernando  de  (1500-42),  Spanish  soldier,  dis- 
coverer of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Soublette,  Carlos  (1790-1870),  Venezuelan  general 
and  statesman. 

Soult,  Nicolas  Jean  de  Dieu,  Due  de  Dalmatie 
(1769-1851),  French  marshal. 

Southey,    Robert    (1774-1843),   English   poet. 

Spenser,  Edmund   (1553-99),  English  poet. 

Spinoza,    Benedict    (1632-77),    Dutch    philosopher. 

Spurgeon,  Charles  Haddon  (1834-96),  English, 
clergyman. 

Stael-Holstem,  Anne  Louise  Germaine  Necker, 
Baronne  de  (1766-1817),  French  writer. 

55 


862 


WHO'S   WHO   OF   HISTORY 


Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhjm  (1815-81),  French 
scholar  and  divine. 

Stanley,  Sir  Henry  Morton  (1841-1904),  African 
explorer. 

Stan  ton,  Edwin  McMasters  (1814-69),  American 
statesman  and  jurist. 

Steele,    Sir    Richard    (1672-771  j),    English   author. 

Stephenson,  George  (i78i-i«.48),  founder  of  En- 
glish railways. 

Sterne,   Laurence    (1713-68),    English  author. 

Steuben,  Frederic  William  (1730-94),  officer  of 
American  Revolution. 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis  Balfour  (1850-94),  Scot- 
tish poet  and  writer. 

Story,   Joseph    (1779-1845),    American  jurist. 

Strabo    (63   B.C. — A.D.   24),   Greek  geographer. 

Strauss,    Johann    (1804-49),    German   composer. 

Stradivari,  Antonio  (1644-1737),  Italian  maker  of 
violins. 

Stuart,  Gilbert  Charles  (1756-1828),  American 
painter. 

Stuyvesant,  Peter  (1602-82),  last  Dutch  governor 
of  New  York. 

Suckling,  Sir  John  (1608-42),  English  poet  and 
dramatist. 

Sue  (Marie  Joseph)  Eugene  (1804-57),  French 
novelist. 

Suleiman   Pasha   (1840-92),   Turkish  general. 

Sulla,    Cornelius    (138-78    B.C.),    Roman  general. 

Sullivan,  Sir  Arthur  Seymour  (^642-96),  English 
composer  and  conductor. 

Sully,  Due  de,  Maximilian  de  Bethune,  Baron  de 
Rosny  (1560-1641),  French  Protestant  states- 
man. 

Sully,    Thomas    (1783-1872),    American   painter. 

Sumner,    Charles    (1811-74),    American   statesman. 

Swedenborg,  Emanuel  (1688-1772),  Swedish  re- 
ligious writer. 

Swift,  Jonathan   (1667-1745),   British  author. 

Swithin,    St.    (820-893),   English  bishop. 


Tacitus,  Caius  Cornelius  (50-90),  Roman  historian. 

Taine,  Hippolyte  Adolphe  (1828-  ),  French 
critic. 

Talleyrand-Perigord,  Charles  Maurice  (1764-1838), 
French  statesman. 

Tasso,    Torqnato    (1544-95),    Italian    poet. 

Tauchnitz,  Karl  Christian  Phi'in  (1761-1836), 
German  publisher. 

Taylor,    Bayard    (1825-78),    American    author. 

Taylor,  Jeremy   (1613-67),   English  theologian. 

Taylor,  Zachary  (1784-1850),  twelfth  President  of 
the  United  States. 

Tell,   William    (1290-1354),   Swiss  patriot. 

Tennyson,  Alfred  (1810-92),  English  poet-laureate, 

Teresa,   Saint   (1515-82),   canonized    1621. 

Tertullian    (150-220),    father  of  the  Church. 

Tesla,  Nikola  (1857-  ),  Austro  •  Hungarian 
physicist  and  electrician. 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace  (1811-63),  English 
novelist. 

Themistocles    (514-449    B.C.),    Athenian    statesman. 

Thiers,  Louis  Adolphe  (1797-1877),  French  states- 
man. 

Thomas,  George  Henry  (1816-70),  American  gen- 
eral. 

Thomas,  Theodore  (1835-  ),  American  musical 
conductor. 

Thoreau,  Henry  David  (1817-62),  American  es- 
sayist. 

Thorwaldsen,  Albert  Bietel  (1770-1844),  Danish 
sculptor. 

Thucydides    (471-400   B.C.),   Greek    historian. 


Tiberius,  Claudius  Nero  (43  B.C. — A.D.  37),  second 

Emperor   of  Rome. 
Ticknor,     George     (1791-1871),    American    scholar 

and   author. 

Tilly,   John  Tzercla*,   Count  of    (1559-1632),   Ger- 
man general. 

Titian,    Veceili    (1477-1576),    Italian  painter. 
Tocqueville,  Alexis  Charles  Henri  Clerel  de  (1805- 

59),    French  statesman. 
Tolstoi,     Count     Lyoff     Nikolaievich     (1829-        ), 

Russian  novelist  and  reformer. 
Torquemada,     Tomas     de      (1420-98),     Dominican 

prior,    first    inquisitor-general    in    Spain. 
Torrey,  John    (1796-1873),   American  botanist  and 

chemist. 

Townshend,    Charles,    Right    Hon.    (1725-67),    En- 
glish orator  and  statesman. 

Trollope,  Anthony   (1815-82),   English  novelist. 
Tromp,    Martin    Harpertzoon    (1597-1653),    Dutch 

admiral. 

Trumbull,   John    (1756-1843),    American   painter. 
Tschaikowsky,     Peter     Hitch     (1840-93),     Russian 

composer. 
Tupac,  Amaru  Jos6  Gabriel  Condor  Canqui  (1742- 

81),    Peruvian   revolutionist. 
Turenne,   Henri  de  la  Tour,  d'Auvergne,   Vicomte 

•  de   (1611-75),   French  general. 
Turgenieff,    Ivan    Sergeyevich    (1818-83),    Russian 

novelist. 

Turner,  Joseph  Mallard  William   (1775-1851),   En- 
glish painter. 
Tyler,    John    (1790-1862),    tenth    President   of   the 

United   States. 
Tyndall,   John    (1820-93),    British   physicist. 


Van   Buren,   Martin    (1782-1862),  eighth  President 

of  the   United   States. 

Vancouver,    George    (1758-98),    British    navigator. 
Vanderbilt.      Cornelius      (1794-1877),      American 

financier. 
Van     Dyck,     Sir    Anthony     (1599-1641),     Flemish 

painter. 
Vane,      Sir     Henry     (1612-62),     English     Puritan 

statesman  and  patriot. 
Van    Rensselaer,    Stephen    (1769-1839),    American 

statesman. 
Varas,     Antonio     (1817-86),     Chilian    jurist    and 

statesman. 
Vauban,     Sebastien    le    Prestre    de     (1633-1707), 

French  marshal  and  engineer. 
Velasquez,  Diego  Rodriguez  de  Silva   (1599-1660), 

Spanish   painter. 
Verdi,      Giuseppe     (1814-         ),      Italian     musical 

composer. 

Verestchagin,   Vasili    (1842-1904),    Russian  painter. 
Vergil,    Publius   Vergilius   Maro    (70-19   B.C.),    Ro- 
man poet. 
Vernet,    Emile   Jean    Horace    (1789-1863),    French 

painter. 
Vespasian,     Titus     Flavius     Sabinus     Vespasianus 

(9-79),    Roman  emperor. 
Vespucci,    Amerigo   (1452-1512),    Italian   navigator. 
Vibert,  Jehan  Georges  (1840-1902),  French  painter. 
Victor    Emmanuel   I    (1820-78),   King  of  Italy. 
Victoria,      Alexandrina      (iSip-igoi),      Queen      of 

Great   Britain,   Empress  of  India. 
Vieuxtemps,     Henri     (1820-81),     Belgian    violinist 

and  composer  for  violin. 
Vinci,    Leonardo   da    (1452-1519),    Italian    painter. 
Vokes,   Rosina    (1858-94),   English  actress. 
Voltaire,     Francois    Marie    Arooet     (1694-1778), 

French   writer. 


WHO'S   WHO   OF   HISTORY 


863 


W 

Wagner,  Wilhelm  Richard  (1813-83),  German 
musical  composer. 

Wallace,  Lew  (1827-  ),  American  general,  diplo- 
matist, lawyer,  and  author. 

Wallack,  James  William  (1795-1864),  Anglo- 
American  actor  and  dramatic  manager. 

Wallack,  James  William  (1818-73),  Anglo-Ameri- 
can actor. 

Wallack,  Lester  (John  Johnstone),  (1820-88), 
American  act  r. 

Wallenstein,  Albrecht  Eusebius  von  (1583-1634), 
Austrian  general. 

Walpole,   Horace    (1717-97),   English  author. 

Walpole,    Robert    (1676-1745),    English   statesman. 

Walsingham,  Sir  Francis  (1536-90),  English  states- 
man. 

Walton,    Izaak    (1593-1683),    English   author. 

Ward,   Artemas   (1727-1800),   American  general. 

Ward,  Artemus  (C.  F.  Browne),  (1834-67),  Amer- 
ican humorist. 

Washburne,  Elihu  Benjamin  (1816-87),  American 
statesman  and  diplomatist. 

Washington,  George  (1732-99),  American  soldier 
and  statesman,  first  President  of  the  United 
States. 

Watt,  James  (1736-1819),  Scotch  mechanician, 
inventor  of  the  steam-engine. 

Wayne,  Anthony   (1745-96),  American  general. 

Weber,  Baron  Karl  Maria  Friedrich  Ernst  von 
(1786-1826),  German  musical  composer. 

Webster,  Daniel  (1782-1852),  American  statesman, 
orator,  and  lawyer. 

Webster,  Noah  (1758-1843),  American  lexicog- 
rapher and  author. 

Wellesley,  Arthur  (Duke  of  Wellington),  (1769- 
1852),  English  general  and  statesman. 

Wesley,  John   (1703-91),  founder  of  Methodism. 

West,  Benjamin  (1738-1820),  American  -  English 
painter. 

Whistler,  James  Abbott  McNeill  (1834-1903)1 
American-English  painter. 

White,    Gilbert    (1720-93),    English   naturalist. 


White,  William  (1748-1836),  bishop  and  one  of 
the  organizers  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  America. 

Whitefield,  George  (1714-70),  one  of  the  founders 
of  Methodism. 

Whitman,  Walt  (Walter),  (1819-93),  American 
poet. 

Whitney,  Josiah  Dwight  (1819-96),  American  ge- 
ologist. 

Whitney,  William  Dwight  (1827-94),  American 
philologist. 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf  (1807-92),  American 
poet  and  author. 

Wieland,  Christopher  Martin  (1733-1813),  Ger- 
man poet. 

Winthrop,  John    (1587-1649),   colonial  governor. 

Wolfe,   James   (1727-59),    English  general. 

Wolsey,  Thomas  (1471-1530),  English  statesman 
and  cardinal. 

Wordsworth    William,    (1770-1850),    English    poet. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher  (1632-1723).  English  arch- 
itect. 

Wyclif,  John  (1324-84),  English  reformer. 


St. 


X 

(1506-52), 


Spanish    Jesuit 


Xavier,     Francis, 
missionary. 

Xenpphon    (430-357   B.C.),    Greek   historian. 

Xerxes  (519-465  B.C.)   Persian  king. 

Ximenes    de   Quesada,    Gonsalo    (1498-1576),    con- 
queror of  New  Granada. 


Young,    Brigham     (1801-1877), 
and  president 


Mormon    prophet 


Zinzendorf     und     Pottendorf,     Nicolaus     Ludwig 

(1700-60),  German  religious  reformer. 
Zola,  Emile  (1840-1902),  French  novelist. 
Zwingli,  Ulrfch  (1484-1531),  Swiss  reformer. 


NOTED  EVENTS  IN  THE 
WORLD'S  HISTORY 


WHILE  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  give  anything  like  a  full 
or  adequate  account  of  the  leading  events  in  the  history  of  the 
human  race  on  earth,  the  following  list  of  some  of  the  more 
prominent  will  serve  ordinary  ends  of  reference  and   instruction.     The 
list  has  been  compiled  solely  with  a  view  to  giving  a  number  of  facts  very 
often  mentioned  and  referred  to,  so  that  the  reader  may  readily  determine 
the  approximate  dates  of  occurrence. 

The  study  of  history  is  a  fascinating  one,  but  it  involves  such  a  vast 
amount  of  space  to  treat  even  the  record  of  one  nation  that  little  can  be 
attempted  without  literally  devoting  the  entire  work  to  this  subject  alone. 


EVENTS  FROM  3317  B.C.  TO  19O4 


B.C. 

3317  (about)    The   Noachian   Deluge. 

1652  The  Exodus  from  Egypt. 

1184  (about)   Destruction  of  Troy. 

878  Carthage  founded. 

753  Rome  founded. 

721  The  Ten  Tribes  carried  into  captivity. 

660  The  Japanese   Empire   founded. 

558  Jerusalem  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

536  Restoration   of  the   Jews  to  Jerusalem. 

509  Expulsion  of  the  Tarquins   from  Rome* 

490  Battle   of  Marathon. 

480  Battles  of  Thermopylae  and  Salamis. 

479  Battle   of  Plataa. 

431  The  Peloponnesian  War  began. 

390  Rome  taken  by  the  Gauls. 

338  Battle  of  Chxronea. 

334  Battle  of  Granicus. 

333  Battle    of    Issus. 

332  Battle  of  Arbela. 

264  First  Punic  War  began. 

222  The  Romans  conquered  Cis-Alpine  GatlL 

218  Second  Punic  War  began. 

216  Battle  of  Cannae;  70,000  Romans  slain. 

209  Battle  of  the  Metaurus. 

150  Third  Punic  War  began. 

146  Carthage  destroyed  by  the  Romans. 

146  Greece  subdued  by  Rome. 

112  The  Jugurthine  War  began. 

60  Caesar,    Pompey,    and    Crassus    formed     the 
first  Triumvirate. 

55  Caesar  invaded   Britain. 

48  Caesar  defeated   Pompey   at  Pharsalia. 

31  Octavrus    became    master    of    the    civilized 

world. 

4  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ 

(864) 


A.D. 

30  The    Crucifixion. 

64  First   persecution   of   Christians    (by   Nero). 

70  Jerusalem   destroyed   by  Titus. 

80  Herculaneum   and   Pompeii   destroyed. 

272  Aurelian     conquered     Zenobia,     Queen     of 

Palmyra. 

313  Constantino  converted  to  Christianity. 

325  First  Ecclesiastical  Council  at  Nice. 

395  The   Roman    Empire  divided. 

410  Rome  sacked  by  the   Visigoths.    * 

449  The   Saxons  invaded   England. 

452  Battle  of  Chalons — defeat  of  the  Huns. 

455  Rome  sacked   by  the   VandaK 

476  End  of  the  Western   (Roman)   Empire, 

496  The  ki     dom  of  the  Franks  founded. 

597  Tht    English   converted   to   Christianity. 

609  Mahomet   began   his   alleged   mission. 

711  The   Arabs   invaded   Spain. 

714  Battle    of    Tours.     The    Arabs    driven    from 

France. 

800  Charlemagne  crowned. 

827  Egbert  became   first  king  of  all   England. 

905  The     Normans    took     Neustria     (afterward 

called   Normandy). 

912  Five    German    nations    confederated    under 

Conrad. 

1000  Leif   Erikson  visits   North  America. 

1066  Battle  of  Hastings.     Norman  conquest. 

1076  Jerusalem   taken  by  the  Turks. 

1099  Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Crusaders. 

1147  The    Second   Crusade. 

1172  Henry   II   conquered  Ireland. 

1 1 88  The   Third    Crusade. 

1 202  The    Fourth    Crusade. 

1215  Magna  Charta  signed  by  King  John. 


NOTED    EVENTS    IN    THE   WORLD'S    HISTORY 


865 


1217 

1228 

1248 

265 

270 

291 

291 

314 

1315 

1346 
1356 
1376 

1415 
1431 
1453 
1455 
1462 
1471 
1479 

1483 
1485 

1492 
1498 
1499 
1508 
1509 
1510 

1513 
1519 
1521 
1524 

1526 
1531 

1532 
1534 
1534 
1539 
1540 
1541 
1545 
1552 
1558 
1565 
1565 
1566 

1572 
1579 
1580 
isss 
1590 
1598 
1600 


1604 
1605 
1606 
1607 
1609 

(610 
1616 
1618 
1618 

1619 
1620 


The  Fifth  Crusade. 

The  Sixth  Crusade. 

The   Seventh   Crusade. 

The    first    regular  .English    Parliament. 

Eighth  and  last  Crusade. 

The    Holy    Land    retaken   by   the   Turks. 

Rise  of  the   Swiss   Republic. 

Battle  of  Bannockburn. 

Battle  of  Morgarten.  Swiss  independence 
established. 

Battle    of    Crecy.     Artillery    first    used. 

Battle  of   Poictiers. 

The  English  Parliament  divided  into  two 
Houses. 

Battle    of    Agincourt. 

Joan    of   Arc   burned. 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Turks. 

The  "Wars  of  the  Roses"  began. 

The   Bible   first  printed    (at   Mentz). 

Caxton  set  up  his/printing  press. 

The  kingdoms  ,.#  Castile  and  Aragon 
united. 

Martin   LutLer   born. 

Battle  of  Bosworth  Field.  "Wars  of  the 
Roses"  ended. 

Columbus     discovered     America. 

Savonarola  burned. 

Brazil   discovered  by  Cabral. 

League  of  Cambray. 

Rise   of   Protestantism. 

"First  Holy  League"  formed  (against 
France). 

Battle    of    Flodden    Field. 

Cortez    conquerc  A    Mexico. 

Magellan   discovered  the   Philippine   Islands. 

Battle  of  Pavia.  Francis  I  of  France  de- 
feated. 

Second  Holy  League  (against  Charles  V). 

League  of  Smalcald  (Protestant  German 
States). 

Pizarro  conquered   Peru. 

England  separated  from  the  Roman  Church. 

Cartier   discovered  the   St.   Lawrence. 

Monasteries  closed  in   England. 

The   Order  of  Jesuits  founded. 

De   Soto   discovered   the   Mississippi. 

The    Council   of    Trent. 

Peace  of  Passau  (established  Protestantism). 

Elizabeth    crowned   Queen  of    England. 

St.  Augustine  (Florida)   founded. 

The   Netherlands   revolted    from   Spain. 

The  Holy  League  formed  in  France  to  ex- 
tirpate heresy. 

Massacre   of   St.    Bartholomew. 

The  Netherlands  formed  a  republic. 

Drake   circumnavigated   the   globe. 

The  Spanish  Armada  destroyed. 

Battle  of   Ivry. 

Edict  of  Nantes. 

The  East  India  Company  chartered. 

First  settlement  in  Massachusetts  (tempo- 
rary). 

First   permanent  settlement  in   Canada. 

The  Gunpowder  Plot   (in   England). 

The    independence    of    Holland    established. 

Jamestown,    Va.,   founded. 

Henry  Hudson  discovered  the  Hudson 
River. 

Dutch  settlement  of  Manhattan  (New  York). 

Shakespeare   died. 

"The  Thirty  Years'   War"  began. 

Harvey  announced  his  discovery  of  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood. 

Slavery  introducad  into  Virginia. 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims. 


1627     Delaware  settled. 
1630     Boston   founded. 

1632  Battle     of     Lutzen.      Death     of     Gustavus 

Adolphus. 

1633  Connecticut  settled. 

1634  Maryland  settled. 

1638     The  Scottish  Solemn   League  and  Covenant 

formed. 

1640     Cromwell's  Long  Parliament   assembled. 
1643     The     United     Colonies     of     New     England 

formed. 

1643  Battle  of  Rocroi. 

1644  Battle  of  Marston  Moor. 

1645  Battle  of  Naseby. 

1646  The   Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  com- 

pleted. 

1648  Peace     of    Westphalia    ending    the     Thirty 

Years'    War. 

1649  Charles  I  beheaded.     The  English  Common- 

wealth declared. 

1650  Battle  of  Dunbar. 

1651  Battle  of  Worcester. 

1651     Navigation  Act  passed  in   England. 

1653     Oliver    Cromwell   became    Lord    Protector. 

1660     Restoration   of  the   Stuarts. 

1664  New   York   taken   from   the   Dutch. 

1665  The   Great   Plague  in  London. 

1666  The  Great  Fire  in  London. 

1667  Peace  of   Breda  end  of  naval   war  between 
.          England  and  Holland. 

1668  Peace    of   Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1673  Joliette  and  Marquette  explored  the  Mis- 
sissippi. 

1675  King  Philip's  War  in  New  England  began. 
1679  The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  passed  in  England. 
1682  Pennsylvania  settled. 

1682     Peter  the  Great  became  Czar  of  Russia. 
1685     Revocation   of  the   Edict  of  Nantes. 

1687  Newton    announced   the    principle    of   gravi- 

tation. 

1688  James   II   of   England  abdicated. 
1688     The  siege  of  Londonderry. 
1690     Battle   of   the   Boyne. 

1690  The  first  newspaper  in  America  (at  Boston) 
printed. 

1697  Peace  of  Ryswick  between  France  and  Eng- 
land. 

1701  "The    Grand    Alliance,"    England,    Holland, 

and  Germany. 

1702  War  of  the   Spanish  Succession. 
1704     Battle  of  Blenheim. 

1704     Gibraltar   taken   by   the    English. 

1707  Final  union  of  England  and  Scotland. 

1708  Battle   of   Oudenarde. 

1709  Battles  of  Pultowa,   Mons,   and  Malplaquet. 

1713  Peace   of  Utrecht. 

1714  Accession    of    the    House    of    Hanover    in 

England. 

1715  First  Jacobite   rebellion. 

1717  Grand  Lodge  of  Free  Masons  established  in 

England. 

1718  The   Quadruple   Alliance — England,    France, 

Austria,    Holland. 
1720     The  South  Sea  Bubble. 

1739  Wesley    founded    Methodism. 

1740  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 
1745     Second  Jacobite   rebellion. 

1745  Battle   of   Fontenoy. 

1746  Battle  of  Culloden. 

1748     Peace  of   Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1752  French  and   Indian  War. 

1753  The   Lisbon  earthquake. 

1754  Congress   of  American  colonies,   at  Albany. 

1755  Braddock's  defeat. 

1756  The  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta  tragedy. 


866 


NOTED    EVENTS   IN   THE   WORLD'S    HISTORY 


1756  The   Seven   Years'   War   in   Europe. 

1757  Battle   of   Plassey,    India. 

1759  The  English  conquered  Canada. 

1763  Peace  of   Paris. 

1763  Steam-engine  invented.  i 

1763  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  established. 

1765  The  Stamp  Act  enacted. 

1770  The    Boston   massacre. 

1772  First  partition  of  Poland. 

1773  The   "Boston   Tea-Party." 

'773  Steam-engine  perfected  by  Watt. 

1775  Battles  of  Lexington,  Concord,  and  Bunker 

Hill. 

1776  Declaration  of  Independence.  < 

1776  Battles  of  Fort  Moultrie,  Long  Island,  and 

Trenton. 

1777  Battles  of  Princeton,   Brandy  wine,  German- 

town,     Bennington,     Stillwater,     Saratoga. 

1777  Treaty     between     the     United     States     and 
France. 

1777  Sufferings  at  Valley  Forge. 

1778  Battles  of  Monmouth  and  Savannah. 

1780  Battles    of   Camden,    Guilford    Court-House, 
and  King's  Mountain. 

1780  Benedict   Arnold's   treason. 

1781  Battles  of  the  Cowpens  and  Yorktown. 

1781  Society  of   the   Cincinnati   organized. 

1782  Wreck  of  the  "Royal  George,"  Portsmouth,' 

England. 

1783  New  York  evacuated  by  ihe  British. 

1783  Peace   of    Paris,    United    States,    and   Great 

Britain. 

1787  The   Northwest   Territory  constituted. 

1787  The  Constitution  framed.  » 

1788  First  settlement  in  Australia.  * 

1788  Trial  of  Warren  Hastings. 

1789  Washington   inaugurated    first   President.      • 
1789  The   French  Revolution  began. 

1791  Canada  divided   into  ten  provinces. 

1792  The  French  Republic  established. 

1793  Louis     XVI     of     France    beheaded.      "The 

Reign   of  Terror."  t 

'793  The   cotton-gin   invented   by  Whitney.  i 

'794  Jay's  treaty. 

1795  Second     Triple     Alliance      (Great     Britain, 

France,   The   Netherlands).  . 

1796  Bonaparte's   first   brilliant   campaign.  ,, 
1796  Vaccination   introduced  by  Jenner. 

1798  The  Irish  rebellion. 

1798  War  between  the  United  States  and  France. 

1799  Napoleon   repulsed  at  Acre. 
1799  Napoleon    declared   First    Consul. 
1799  Battle  of  Seringapatam,   India. 

1799  Death  of  Washington.  • 

1800  Battles  of  Marengo  and  Hohenlinden. 
.  1 80 1  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

•  1801  War  between  the  United  States  and  Tripoli. 

1802  Peace  of  Amiens. 

1803  Louisiana   purchased   from    France. 

-1804  Napoleon   proclaimed   Emperor.  * 

1805  Battles   of   Ulm,    Austerlitz,    and   Trafalgar. 

Death  of  Nelson. 

1806  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  formed. 

1806  Battle  of  Jena. 

1807  Battles   of    Eylau   and    Friedland, 
1807  Treaty  of  Tilsit. 

1807  Fulton's   first   steamboat   sailed.  ' 

1807  The    Peninsular    War. 

1809  Battles  of  Corunna,   Wagram,   etc. 

1809  Peace  of  Vienna. 

-  1812  United    States    declared    war   against    Great 

Britain. 

.  1812  Napoleon  invaded  Russia. 

1813  Perry's  victory  on  Lake    Erie.  « 

1813  Battles  of   Lutzen  and   Bautzen. 


1813  Creek    Indian    War. 

1814  Battle   of    Pittsburgh. 

1814     Washington    burned   by   the   British.     — 

1814  Sweden  and  Norway   federated. 

1815  The    Holy    Alliance — Austria,    Russia,   Pros* 

sia,    France,    The   Netherlands. 
1815     Battle  of  New   Orleans. 
1815     Peace  of  Ghent 

1815  Battle  of  Waterloo. 

1816  American    Bible    Society    founded. 

1817  Seminole    Indian   War. 

1818  Congress  of   Sovereigns   (Holy  Alliance)  at 

Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1819  The    first    steamship    crossed    the    Atlantic. 
1819-  Florida  obtained   from   Spain. 

1820  The    "Missouri    Compromise"    adopted. 

1822  The  massacre  of  Scio,  Greece. 

1823  The   Monroe    Doctrine    declared. 

1824  Mexico's    independence    established. 
1827     The  Treaty  of  London. 

1827  Battle  of   Navarino. 

1828  The    first    passenger   railway    in   the   United 

States  opened. 

1829  The     Catholic     Emancipation     Act,     Great 

Britain. 

1829  The  first  Oxford-Cambridge  boat  race. 

1830  The    kingdom    of    Belgium    established. 

1830  Three    Days'    Revolution    in    Paris.      Lotus 

Philippe  made   King. 

1831  The  Black  Hawk  War. 

1832  A  reform   bill  passed  by  Parliament. 
1832     South  Carolina  Nullification  Ordinance. 

1832  Peace  of  Adrianople. 

1833  Slavery  abolished  in  the  British  Colonies. 

1834  The   Quadruple   Alliance — England,    France, 

Portugal,    Spain. 

1835  Morse    invented    the    telegraph. 
1835     Great  fire   in   New  York. 

1835  The   Seminole   War. 

1836  Battle    of    San    Jacinto.      Independence    of 

Texas. 

1836  First   telegraph  message  sent. 

1837  Accession  of  Queen   Victoria. 

1840     The  Ashburton  Treaty  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the   United  States. 

1845  Texas  annexed. 

1846  Battles    of    Palo    Alto    and    Resaca    de    la 

Palma    (Mexican    War). 

1846  Irish  potato   famine. 

:°-46     British  corn  laws  repealed. 

1847  Battles    of    Buena    Vista,    Vera    Crnr,    etc. 

(Mexican  War). 

1848  French  Revolution.     A  Republic  established. 
1848   'Gold  discovered  in  California. 

1848     Peace  of  Guadaloupe.     End  of  the  Mexican 
War. 

1848  Salt   Lake  City  settled. 

1849  Battle   of   Temesvar.     Subjugation   of   Hun- 

gary. 

1851  First    International    Exhibition,    London. 

1852  Louis    Napoleon   became    Emperor. 

1852  The   first   Harvard-Yale  boat  race. 

1853  The  Crimean  War  began. 

1854  Battles    of    Alma,     Balaklava,    and     Inker- 

man. 
1854     Treaty  of  Austria. 

1854  Japan  made  her  first  foreign  treaty. 

1855  The   Panama   Railroad  opened. 

1856  The   Seminole   War. 

1857  The  great  mutiny  in  India. 

1850  The  Austrian-Italian  War  began. 

1859  John    Brown's   raid   into   Virginia. 

1860  Secession  of   South  Carolina. 

1 86 1  The    War    of    the    Rebellion    began    fa    the 

United  States. 


NOTED    EVENTS    IN    THE   WORLD'S    HISTORY 


867 


1 86 1     Battle  of  Bull  Runk 

1861  Emancipation  of  the   Roman  serfs. 

1862  Battles  of  Fort  Donelson,   Shiloh,  Williams- 

burg,  Fort  Pillow,  Seven  Pines,  Seven 
Days,  Cedar  Mountain,  Groveton,  Second 
Bull  Run,  Antietam;  Perryville,  Fred- 
ericksburg,  Murfreesboro,  etc. 

1862  Lincoln's  emancipation   proclamation. 

1863  Battles   of    Fort   Hindman,    Chancellorsville, 

Vicksburg,  Gettysburg,  Chickamauga, 
etc. 

1864  Battles    of    The    Wilderness,    Spottsylvania, 

Cold  Harbor,  Kenesaw  Mountain,  Mai- 
vern  Hill,  Jonesboro,  Winchester,  Cedan 
Creek,  etc. 

1865  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea. 

1865  Battles    of    Fort    Fisher,     Fort    Steadman, 

Five  Forks.  m 

"•1865     Lee's  surrender  at  Appomattox. 
.1866     Formal    proclamation    of    the    end    of    the 

Civil  War.  . 

1866  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic  organized. 
ti866     Alaska  purchased. 

.  1866     First  successful  Atlantic  cable  laid. 

1866  Battle  of   Sadowa. 

1867  Monarchy    of    Austria-Hungary    established. 
.1867     The   Dominion   of  Canada  established. 

1868  Poland  incorporated  with  Russia. 

1868     The    Fourteenth    Amendment    to    the    Con- 
stitution adopted. 

••  1 869     The  Suez  Canal  completed. 
1870     Rome  became  the  capital  of  Italy. 

1870  The   Franco-Prussian   War. 

1871  Feudalism  in  Japan  abolished. 

1871     William    of    Prussia    becomes    German    Em- 
peror. 
1871     The   Irish  Church   disestablished. 

1871  Great  fire  in  Chicago. 

1872  Great  fire  in   Boston. 

•  1876     Centennial   Exposition   in   Philadelphia. 
1877     The   Russo-Turkish  War  began. 
1877     Queen     Victoria     proclaimed     Empress     of 

India. 

'  1 88 1     President  .Garfield  assassinated. 
1882     British  occupation  of  Egypt. 


1882  Third    Triple    Alliance — Austria,     Germany, 

Italy. 

1883  Eruption    of    the    volcano    Krakatoa — 36,000 

perished. 

1884  New  Orleans'  World's  Industrial  Exposition. 
1889     Brazil  became  a  republic. 

1893  World's    Columbian    Exposition,    Chicago. 

1894  The  war  between   China  and  Japan  began. 

1894  Mid- Winter   Exposition,   San  Francisco. 

1895  The   Cuban   Rebellion  became  general. 
1895     Cotton  States'   Exposition,  Atlanta. 
1897     War  between  Turkey  and  Greece. 

1897  Tennessee   Centennial  Exposition,   Nashville. 

1898  The  Spanish- American  War. 

1898  Trans-Mississippi    Exposition,    Omaha. 
4*1899     The  Hague  Court  of  Arbitration  established. 

1899  The   Filipino  insurrection. 

1900  Hawaii   annexed. 

1900     Boxer  insurrection  in  China. 
1900     Tornado  at  Galveston,   Texas. 

1900  Italian  Polar  Exposition  reached  86°  33'  N. 

1901  Pan-American   Exposition,    Buffalo. 
1901     Assassination   of   President   McKinley. 
1901     Death  of  Queen  Victoria. 

1901  Exposition  at  Charleston,   S.  C. 

1902  First  Congress  of  the  Republic  of  Cuba. 
1902     Anthracite    coal    strike   in    Pennsylvania. 
1902     Accession  of  Edward  VII. 

1902  Civil  Government  established  in  the  Philip- 
pines. 

1902  Great  Volcanic  Eruption  in  Martinique. 

1903  Massacre  of  Jews  in  Kishineff,   Russia. 
1903.     Cable   laid   from  the   United   States   to  the 

Philippines. 

1903  Wireless  Messages  sent  from  .America  to 
England. 

1903  Leo   XIII   died.     Accession  of   Pius  X. 

1904  Irish  Land  Bill  passed  by  Parliament. 
1904    The   Louisiana   Purchase   Exposition   at    St. 

Louis. 

1904     Independence   of   Panama    Republic. 

1904     War  between'  Japan  and   Russia. 

1904  The  burning  of  the  excursion  steamer  "Gen- 
eral Slocum"  with  loss  of  a  thousand 
lives. 


HINTS   TO  HOUSEKEEPERS 


THE  questions  connected  with  the  practical  management  of  the  house- 
hold, particularly  such  as  refer  to  culinary  processes,  are  not  only 
inevitable,  but  important.  As  in  nearly  every  other  department 
of  present-day  activity,  the  first  requirement  is  a  knowledge  of  the  facts 
— of  what  to  do,  when  to  do,  and  how  to  do  the  things  that  all  know 
should  be  done.  It  is,  therefore,  not  a  surprising  matter  that  house- 
keeping, including  cookery  and  the  allied  arts,  is  a  thing  to  be  studied 
and  learned,  like  any  other  calling.  Indeed,  in  order  that  a  housekeeper 
should  be  successful,  should  make  her  means  go  as  far  as  possible  and 
with  complete  satisfaction  to  all  concerned,  she  must  learn,  in  the  first 
place,  that  hers  is  an  art  to  be  studied  and  learned,  like  any  other  calling, 
trade,  or  profession.  Furthermore,  as  in  other  branches  of  human  effort, 
experience  and  observation  alone  furnish  the  real  preparation,  yet  much 
can  be  learned  from  reading  and  careful  observance  of  rules  and  regu- 
lations formulated  by  authorities  in  this  department. 

To  supply  the  needed  rudiments  of  the  housekeeping  art,  the  follow- 
ing pages  have  been  written.  Of  course,  many  questions  will  naturally 
arise  for  which  no  answer  is  here  found;  yet  a  careful  observance  of  the 
rules  here  following  can  furnish  the  best  possible  preparation  for  answer- 
ing them  as  they  occur. 

CHOICE     OF     ARTICLES     OF     FOOD 


NOTHING  is  more  important  in  the  af- 
fairs of  housekeeping  than  the  choice 
of  wholesome  food. 

MACKEREL  must  be  perfectly  fresh.  The 
firmness  of  the  flesh  and  the  clearness  of 
the  eyes  must  be  the  criteria  of  fresh 
mackerel,  as  they  are  of  all  other  fish. 

FLOUNDERS,  and  all  flat  white  fish,  are 
rigid  and  firm  when  fresh;  the  under  side 
should  be  of  a  rich  cream  color. 

COD  is  known  to  be  fresh  by  the  rigidity 
of  the  muscles  (or  flesh)  ;  the  redness  of 
the  gills,  and  clearness  of  the  eyes. 

SALMON. — The  flavor  and  excellence  of 
(868) 


this  fish  depend  upon  its  freshness,  and  the 
shortness  of  time  since  it  was  caught. 

HERRINGS  can  only  be  eaten  when  very 
fresh. 

FRESH  WATER  FISH. — The  remarks  as  to 
firmness  and  clear,  fresh  eyes  apply  to  this 
variety  of  fish,  of  which  there  are  pike, 
perch,  etc. 

LOBSTERS  recently  caught  have  always 
some  remains  of  muscular  action  in  the 
claws,  which  may  be  excited  by  pressing 
the  eyes  with  the  finger;  when  this  can  not 
be  produced,  the  lobster  must  have  been 
too  long  kept.  When  boiled,  the  tail  pre- 


HINTS   TO   HOUSEKEEPERS 


869 


serves  its  elasticity  if  fresh,  but  loses  it  as 
soon  as  it  becomes  stale. 

CRABS  have  an  agreeable  smell  when 
fresh. 

PRAWNS  AND  SHRIMPS,  when  fresh,  are 
firm  and  crisp. 

OYSTERS.— If  fresh,  the  shell  is  firmly 
closed;  when  the  shells  of  oysters  are 
open,  they  are  dead  and  unfit  for  food. 
The  small-shelled  oysters  are  the  finest  in 
flavor.  Larger  kinds  are  generally  con- 
sidered only  fit  for  stewing  and  sauces, 
though  some  persons  prefer  them. 

BEEF. — The  grain  of  ox  beef,  when  good, 
is  loose,  the  meat  red,  and  the  fat  inclining 
to  yellow.  When  meat  pressed  by  the  finger 
rises  up  quickly,  it  may  be  considered  as 
that  of  an  animal  which  was  in  its  prime; 
when  the  dent  made  by  pressure  returns 
slowly,  or  remains  visible,  the  animal  had 
probably  passed  its  prime,  and  the  meat  con- 
sequently must  be  of  inferior  quality. 

VEAL  should  be  delicately  white,  though 
it  is  often  juicy  and  well  flavored  when 
rather  dark  in  color.  On  examining  the 
loin,  if  the  fat  enveloping  the  kidney  be 
white  and  firm  looking,  the  meat  will  prob- 
ably be  prime,  and  recently  killed. 

MUTTON. — The  meat  should  be  firm  and 
close  in  grain,  and  red  in  color,  the  fat 
white  and  firm.  Mutton  is  in  its  prime 
when  the  sheep  is  about  five  years  old, 
though  it  is  often  killed  much  younger. 
If  too  young,  the  flesh  feels  tender  when 
pinched;  if  too  old,  on  being  pinched  it 
wrinkles  up,  and  so  remains.  In  young 
mutton,  the  fat  readily  separates;  in  old, 
it  is  held  together  by  strings  of  skin. 

LAMB. — This  meat  will  not  keep  long 
after  it  is  killed.  The  large  vein  in  the 
neck  is  bluish  in  color  when  the  forequarter 
is  fresh,  green  when  becoming  stale.  In 
the  hindquarter,  if  not  recently  killed,  the 
fat  of  the  kidney  will  have  a  slight  smell, 
and  the  knuckle  will  have  lost  its  firmness. 

PORK. — When  good,  the  rind  is  thin, 
smooth,  and  cool  to  the  touch;  when 
changing,  from  being  too  long  killed,  it  be- 
comes flaccid  and  clammy. 

BACON  should  have  a  thin  rind,  and  the 
fat  should  be  firm  and  tinged  with  red  by 
the  curing;  the  flesh  should  be  of  a  clear 
red,  without  intermixture  of  yellow,  and  it 
should  firmly  adhere  to  the  bone.  To  judge 
the  state  of  a  ham,  plunge  a  knife  into  it 
to  the  bone;  on  drawing  it  back,  if  par- 
ticles of  meat  adhere  to  it,  or  if  the  smell 
is  disagreeable,  the  curing  has  not  been 


effectual,  and  the  ham  is  not  good;  it 
should,  in  such  a  state,  be  immediately 
cooked. 

VENISON. — When  good,  the  fat  is  dear, 
bright,  and  of  considerable  thickness. 

TURKEYS. — In  choosing  poultry,  the  age 
of  the  bird  is  the  chief  point  to  be  at- 
tended to.  An  old  turkey  has  rough  and 
reddish  legs;  a  young  one,  smooth  and 
black.  Fresh  killed,  the  eyes  are  full  and 
clear,  and  the  feet  moist.  When  it  has 
been  kept  too  long,  the  parts  about  the 
vent  begin  to  wear  a  greenish,  discolored 
appearance. 

COMMON  DOMESTIC  FOWLS,  when  young, 
have  the  legs  and  combs  smooth ;  when  old, 
they  are  rough,  and  on  the  breast  long 
hairs  are  found  instead  of  feathers.  Fowls 
and  chickens  should  be  plump  on  the  breast, 
fat  on  the  back,  and  white  legged. 

GEESE. — The  bills  and  feet  are  red  when 
old,  yellow  when  young.  Fresh  killed,  the 
feet  are  pliable,  stiff  when  too  long  kept. 
Geese  are  called  green  while  they  are  only 
two  or  three  months  old. 

DUCKS. — Choose  them  with  supple  feet 
and  hard,  plump  breasts.  Tame  ducks  have 
yellow  feet,  wild  ones  red. 

PIGEONS  are  very  indifferent  food  when 
they  are  too  long  kept.  Suppleness  of  the 
feet  shows  them  to  be  young;  the  state  of 
the  flesh  is  flaccid  when  they  are  getting 
bad  from  keeping.  Tame  pigeons  are  larger 
than  the  wild. 

PARTRIDGES,  when  young,  have  yellow  legs 
and  dark-colored  bills.  Old  partridges  are 
very  indifferent  eating. 

WOODCOCK  AND  SNIPE,  when  old,  have 
the  feet  thick  and  hard;  when  these  are 
soft  and  tender,  they  are  both  young  and 
fresh  killed.  When  their  bills  become  moist, 
and  their  throats  muddy,  they  have  been 
too  long  killed. 

SEASONABLE   FOODS 

There   is  an   old   maxim,    "A   place   for 

everything,  and   everything   in    its   place." 

To    which  we    beg   to    add    another,    "A 

season  for  everything,  and  everything  in 
season." 

JANUARY 

[Fish,  poultry,  etc..  distinjjuished  by  italics  are  to  be 
had  in  the  highest  perfection.] 

FISH. — Cod,  crabs,  eels,  flounders,  her- 
rings, lobsters,  oysters,  perch,  pike,  stur- 
geon, porgies. 

MEAT. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork, 
veal,  and  doe  venison. 


870 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Capons,  chickens, 
ducks,  wild-ducks,  fowls,  geese,  partridges, 
pheasants,  pigeons  (tame),  pullets,  rabbits, 
snipe,  turkeys  (hen),  woodcock. 

VEGETABLES. — Beets,  sprouts,  cabbage,  car- 
doons,  carrots,  celery,  onions,  parsnips,  pota- 
toes, turnips. 

FRUIT. — Almonds,  apples. 

FEBRUARY 

FISH. — Cod,  crabs,  flounders,  herrings, 
oysters,  perch,  pike,  sturgeon,  porgies. 

MEAT. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork, 
veal. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Capons,  chickens, 
ducklings,  fowls  (wild),  green  geese,  par- 
tridges, pheasants,  pigeons  (tame  and  wild), 
pullets,  rabbits,  snipe,  turkeys,  woodcock. 

VEGETABLES. — Beets,  cabbage,  carrots,  cel- 
ery, mushrooms,  onions,  parsnips,  potatoes, 
turnips. 

FRUIT. — Apples,  chestnuts,  oranges. 

MARCH 

FISH. — Eels,  crabs,  flounders,  lobsters, 
mackerel,  oysters,  perch,  pike,  shrimp,  stur- 
geon, smelts,  porgies. 

MEAT. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork, 
veal. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Capons,  chickens, 
ducklings,  fowls,  green  geese,  pigeons,  rab- 
bits, snipe,  turkeys,  woodcock. 

VEGETABLES. — Beets,  carrots,  celery,  cress, 
onions,  parsnips,  potatoes,  turnip  tops. 
FRUIT. — Apples,  chestnuts,  oranges. 

APRIL 

FISH. — Shad,  cod,  crabs,  eels,  flounders, 
halibut,  herrings,  lobsters,  mackerel,  oys- 
ters, perch,  pike,  salmon,  shrimps,  smelts, 
sturgeon,  trout,  porgies. 

MEAT. — Beef,  grass-lamb,  mutton,  pork, 
veal. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Chickens,  duck- 
lings, fowls,  green  geese,  leverets,  pigeons, 
pullets,  rabbits,  turkey-poults,  wood-pigeons. 

VEGETABLES. — Onions,  parsnips,  spinach, 
small  salad,  turnip  tops,  and  rhubarb. 

FRUIT. — Apples,  nuts,  oranges,  pears. 

MAY 

FISH. — Shad,  cod,  crabs,  eels,  flounders, 
halibut,  herring,  lobsters,  mackerel,  mullet, 
perch,  pike,  salmon,  shrimps,  smelts,  stur- 
geon, trout,  clams. 


MEAT.  —  Beef,  grass-lamb,  house-lamb, 
mutton,  pork,  veal. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Chickens,  fowls, 
green  geese,  pigeons,  pullets,  rabbits. 

VEGETABLES. — Artichokes,  green  peas,  as- 
paragus, kidney-beans,  cabbage,  carrots, 
onions,  peas,  potatoes,  radishes,  rhubarb, 
salad,  spinach,  turnips. 

FRUIT. — Apples,  pears. 

JUNE 

FISH. — Cod,  shad,  crabs,  eels,  flounders, 
herrings,  lobsters,  mackerel,  perch,  pike, 
salmon,  clams,  smelts,  sturgeon,  trout,  cat- 
fish, blackfish. 

MEAT. — Beef,  grass-lamb,  mutton,  pork, 
veal. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Chickens,  duck- 
lings, fowls,  green  geese,  pigeons,  pullets, 
rabbits. 

VEGETABLES.  —  Asparagus,  beans,  white 
beets,  cabbage,  carrots,  cucumbers,  leeks, 
lettuce,  onions,  parsley,  peas,  potatoes,  rad- 
ishes, salad  of  all  sorts,  spinach,  turnips. 

FRUIT. — Apples,  apricots,  cherries,  cur- 
rants, gooseberries,  melons,  pears,  straw- 
berries. 

JULY 

FISH. — Cod,  crabs,  flounders,  herrings, 
lobsters,  mackerel,  perch,  pike,  salmon, 
trout,  bluefish,  blackfish,  bass,  pickerel,  cat- 
fish, eels,  clams,  porgies. 

MEAT. — Beef,  grass-lamb,  mutton,  veal, 
buck-venison. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME.— Chickens,  ducks, 
fowls,  green  geese,  leverets,  pigeons,  plovers, 
rabbits,  wild-pigeons. 

VEGETABLES. — Artichokes,  balm,  aspara- 
gus, beans,  carrots,  cauliflowers,  celery,  cu- 
cumbers, herbs  of  all  sorts,  lettuce,  mint, 
mushrooms,  peas,  potatoes,  radishes,  salads 
of  all  sorts,  spinach,  turnips,  tomatoes, 
Carolina  potatoes. 

FOR  DRYING. — Mushrooms. 

FOR  PICKLING. — French  beans,  red  cab- 
bage, cauliflowers,  garlic,  gherkins,  onions. 

FRUIT. — Apples,  apricots,  cherries,  cur- 
rants, damsons,  gooseberries,  melons,  nec- 
tarines, peaches,  pears,  oranges,  pineapples, 
plums,  raspberries,  strawberries. 

AUGUST 

FISH. — Cod,  eels,  crabs,  flounders,  her- 
rings, lobsters,  mackerel,  perch,  pike,  sal- 
mon, bluefish,  blackfish,  weakfish,  sheeps- 
head,  trout,  porgies,  clams. 


MEAT. — Beef,  grass-lamb,  mutton,  veal, 
buck-venison. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Chickens,  ducks, 
fowls,  green  geese,  pigeons,  plovers,  rab- 
bits, wild  ducks,  wild  pigeons,  reedbird, 
curlew. 

VEGETABLES. — Artichokes,  beans,  white- 
beet,  carrots,  cauliflowers,  cucumbers,  pot- 
herbs of  all  sorts,  leeks,  lettuce,  mushrooms, 
onions,  peas,  potatoes,  radishes,  salad  of  all 
sorts,  spinach,  turnips,  tomatoes. 

FOR  DRYING. — Basil,  sage,  thyme. 

FOR  PICKLING. — Red  cabbage,  tomatoes, 
walnuts. 

FRUIT. — Apples  (summer  pippin),  cher- 
ries, currants,  damsons,  gooseberries,  mel- 
ons, grapes,  mulberries,  nectarines,  peaches, 
pears,  plums  (green  gages),  raspberries. 

SEPTEMBER 

FISH. — Cockles,  cod,  crabs,  eels,  flounders, 
lobsters,  oysters,  perch,  pike,  shrimps,  por- 
gies,  blackfish,  weakfish. 

MEAT. — Beef,  mutton,  pork,  veal,  buck- 
venison. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Chickens,  ducks, 
fowls,  green  geese,  partridges,  pigeons,  plov- 
ers, rabbits,  turkeys,  wild  ducks,  wild  pig- 
eons, quail. 

VEGETABLES. — Artichokes,  beans,  cabbages, 
carrots,  cauliflowers,  celery,  cucumbers, 
herbs  of  all  sorts,  leeks,  lettuce,  mush- 
rooms, onions,  parsnips,  peas,  potatoes,  rad- 
ishes, salad  of  all  sorts,  turnips,  tomatoes, 
Carolina  potatoes. 

FRUIT. — Apples,  damsons,  grapes,  hazel- 
nuts,  medlars,  peaches,  pears,  pineapples, 
plums,  quinces,  strawberries,  walnuts. 

OCTOBER 

FISH. — Cockles,  cod,  crabs,  eels,  gudgeons, 
halibut,  lobsters,  mussels,  oysters,  perch, 
pike,  salmon-trout,  shrimps,  smelts,  porgies. 

MEAT. — Beef,  mutton,  pork,  veal,  doe- 
venison. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Chickens,  ducks, 
fowls,  green  geese,  larks,  partridges,  pheas- 
ants, pigeons,  reedbird,  blackbird,  robins, 
snipe,  turkeys,  wild  ducks,  wild  pigeons, 
rabbits,  woodcock,  teal. 

VEGETABLES. — Artichokes,  cabbages,  cauli- 
flowers, celery,  herbs  of  all  sorts,  onions, 
parsnips,  peas,  potatoes,  radishes,  salad, 
spinach  (winter),  tomatoes,  turnips,  Caro- 
lina potatoes. 

FRUIT. — Almonds,  apples,  black  and  white 


damsons,  hazelnuts,  grapes,  peaches,  pears, 
quinces,  walnuts. 

NOVEMBER 

FISH. — Cockles,  cod,  crabs,  eels,  gudgeons, 
halibut,  lobsters,  mussels,  oysters,  perch, 
pike,  salmon,  shrimps,  smelts,  porgies, 
flounders. 

MEAT. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork, 
veal,  doe-venison. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Chickens,  ducks, 
fowls,  geese,  larks,  partridges,  pheasants, 
pigeons,  rabbits,  snipe,  turkeys,  wild  ducks, 
woodcock,  robins. 

VEGETABLES. — Beets,  cabbages,  carrots, 
celery,  herbs  of  all  sorts,  lettuce,  onions, 
parsnips,  potatoes,  salad,  spinach,  tomatoes, 
turnips. 

FRUIT. — Almonds,  apples,  chestnuts,  hazel- 
nuts,  grapes,  pears. 

DECEMBER 

FISH. — Cod,  crabs,  eels,  gudgeons,  hali- 
but, lobsters,  oysters,  perch,  pike,  salmon, 
shrimps,  smelts,  sturgeon. 

MEAT. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork, 
veal,  doe-venison. 

POULTRY  AND  GAME. — Capons,  chickens, 
ducks,  fowls,  geese,  guinea-fowl,  hares, 
larks,  partridges,  pea-fowl,  pheasants,  pig- 
eons, rabbits,  snipe,  turkeys,  wild  ducks, 
woodcock. 

VEGETABLES.  —  Beets,  cabbages,  carrots, 
celery,  herbs  of  all  sorts,  lettuce,  onions, 
parsnips,  potatoes,  salad,  spinach,  turnips. 

FRUIT. — Apples,  chestnuts,  hazelnuts. 

NAMES  AND    SITUATIONS   OF   THE 
JOINTS 

The  method  of  cutting  up  the  carcasses 
varies.  That  which  we  describe  below  is 
the  most  general. 

BEEF. — Forequarter. — Fore  rib  (five  ribs)  ; 
middle  rib  (four  ribs)  ;  chuck  (three  ribs). 
Shoulder  piece  (top  of  fore  leg)  ;  brisket 
(lower  or  belly  part  of  the  ribs)  ;  clod 
(fore  shoulder-blade)  ;  neck;  shin  (below 
the  shoulder) ;  cheek. 

Hindquarter. — Sirloin;  rump;  aitchbone — 
these  are  the  three  divisions  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  quarter;  buttock  and  mouse- 
buttock,  which  divide  the  thigh;  veiny 
piece,  joining  buttock ;  thick  flank  and  thin 
flank  (belly  pieces)  and  leg.  The  sirloin 
and  rump  of  both  sides  form  a  baron. 
Beef  is  in  season  all  the  year;  best  in  the 
winter. 


872 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


MUTTON. — Shoulder;  breast  (the  belly); 
over  which  are  the  loin  (chump,  or  tail 
end).  Loin  (best  end) ;  and  neck  (best 
end)  ;  neck  (scrag  end).  A  chine  is  two 
necks;  a  saddle,  two  loins;  then  there  are 
the  leg  and  head.  Mutton  is  best  in  winter, 
spring,  and  autumn. 

LAMB  is  cut  into  forequarter  and  hind- 
quarter;  a  saddle  or  loin;  neck,  breast, 
leg,  and  shoulder.  Grass-lamb  is  in  season 
from  June  to  August. 

.  PORK  is  cut  into  leg,  hand,  or  shoulder; 
hindloin;  foreloin;  belly  part;  spare  rib  (or 
neck),  and  head.  Park  is  in  season  nearly 
all  the  year. 

VEAL  is  cut  into  neck  (scrag  end)  ;  neck 
(best  end)  ;  loin  (best  end)  ;  loin  (chump 
or  tail  end)  ;  fillet  (upper  part  of  the  hind 
leg)  ;  hind  knuckle  (which  joins  the  fillet 
knuckle  of  foreleg)  ;  blade  (bone  of  shoul- 
der) ;  breast  (best  end)  ;  breast  (brisket 
end),  and  hand.  Veal  is  always  in  season, 
but  dear  in  the  winter  and  spring. 

VENISON  is  cut  into  haunch  (or  back)  ; 
neck,  shoulder,  and  breast.  Doe-venison  is 
best  in  January,  October,  November,  and 
December,  and  buck-venison  in  June,  July, 
August,  and  September. 

OX-TAIL  is  much  esteemed  for  purposes 
of  soup;  so  also  is  the  cheek.  The  tongue 
is  highly  esteemed. 

CALVES'  HEADS  are  very  useful  for  various 
<iishes;  so  also  their  knuckles,  feet,  heart, 
etc. 

COOKING. — Ten  pounds  of  beef  require 
from  two  hours  to  two  hours  and  a  half 
roasting,  eighteen  inches  from  a  good  hot 
fire. 

Six  pounds  require  one  hour  and  a  quar- 
ter to  one  hour  and  a  half,  fourteen  inches 
from  a  good  clear  fire. 

Three  ribs  of  beef,  boned  and  rolled,  tied 
round  with  paper,  will  require  two  hours 
and  a  half,  eighteen  inches  from  the  fire; 
baste  once  only. 

The  first  three  ribs  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
pounds  will  take  three  hours  or  three  and 
a  half;  the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs  will  take 
as  long,  managed  in  the  same  way  as  the 
sirloin.  Paper  the  fat  and  the  thin  part, 
or  it  will  be  done  too  much  before  the 
thick  part  is  done  enough. 

When  beef  is  very  fat,  it  does  not  require 
basting;  if  very  lean,  tie  it  up  in  greasy 
paper  and  baste  frequently  and  well. 

Common  cooks  are  generally  fond  of  too 
fierce  a  fire  and  of  putting  things  too  near 
to  it. 


Slow  roasting  is  as  advantageous  to  the 
tenderness  and  flavor  of  meat  as  slow  boil- 
ing. 

The  warmer  the  weather,  and  the  staler 
killed  the  meat  is,  the  less  time  it  will  re- 
quire to  roast  it. 

Meat  that  is  very  fat  requires  more  time 
than  other  meat. 

In  the  hands  of  an  expert  cook,  "al\- 
mentary  substances  are  made  almost  en- 
tirely to  change  their  nature,  their  form, 
consistence,  odor,  savor,  color,  chemical 
composition,  etc. ;  everything  is  so  modi- 
fied that  it  is  often  impossible  for  the 
most  exquisite  sense  of  taste  to  reoognize 
the  substance  which  makes  up  the  basis  of 
certain  dishes.  The  greatest  utility  of  the 
kitchen  consists  in  making  the  food  agree- 
able to  the  senses  and  rendering  it  easy  of 
digestion." 

BOILING  extracts  a  portion  of  the  juice  of 
meat,  which  mixes  with  the  water,  and  also 
dissolves  some  of  its  solids;  the  more  fu- 
sible parts  of  the  fat  melt  out,  combine  with 
the  water,  and  form  soup  or  broth.  The 
meat  loses  its  red  color,  becomes  more 
savory  in  taste  and  smell,  and  more  firm 
and  digestible.  If  the  process  is  continued 
too  long,  the  meat  becomes  indigestible,  less 
succulent,  and  tough. 

To  boil  meat  to  perfection,  it  should  be 
done  slowly,  in  plenty  of  water,  replaced  by 
other  hot  water,  as  evaporation  takes  place' 
for,  if  boiled  too  quickly,  the  outside  be- 
comes tough;  and  not  allowing  the  ready 
transmission  of  heat,  the  interior  remains 
rare. 

The  loss  by  boiling  varies  from  6%.  to  16 
per  cent  The  average  loss  on  boiling 
butcher's  meat,  pork,  hams,  and  bacon,  is 
12;  and  on  domestic  poultry,  is  14^. 

The  loss  per  cent  on  boiling  salt  beef  is 
15;  on  legs  of  mutton,  10;  hams,  i2l/2; 
salt  pork,  131/5 ;  knuckles  of  veal,  8/4 ;  ba- 
con, 6J4 ;  turkeys,  16;  chickens,  13^. 

The  established  rule  as  regards  time  is 
to  allow  a  quarter  of  an  hour  for  each 
pound  of  meat  if  the  boiling  is  rapid,  and 
twenty  minutes  if  slow.  There  are  ex- 
ceptions to  this;  for  instance,  ham  and 
pork,  which  require  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  minutes  per  pound,  and  bacon,  nearly 
half  an  hour.  For  solid  joints  allow  fifteen 
minutes  for  every  pound,  and  from  ten  to 
twenty  minutes  over;  though,  of  course, the 
length  of  time  will  depend  much  on  the 
strength  of  the  fire,  regularity  in  the  boil- 
ing, and  size  of  the  joint.  The  following 
table  will  be  useful  as  an  average  of  the 
time  required  to  boil  the  various  articles: 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


873 


H.  M. 

A  ham,  20  Ibs.  weight,  requires      ...  6  30 

A  tongue  (if  dry),  after  soaking      ...  4  oo 

A  tongue,  out  of  pickle 2%  to  3  oo 

A  neck  of  mutton t . . .  i  30 

A  chicken oao 

A  large  fowl o  45 

A  capon 035 

A  pigeon o  15 

The  loss  by  roasting  varies,  according  to 
a  good  authority,  from  14  3-5ths  to  nearly 
double  that  rate,  per  cent.  The  average 
loss  on  roasting  butcher's  meat  is  22  per 
cent,  and  on  domestic  poultry  is  2Ol/2. 

The  loss  per  cent  on  roasting  beef,  viz., 
on  sirloins  and  ribs  together,  is  19  i-6th; 
on  mutton,  viz.,  legs  and  shoulders  to- 
gether, 24  4~5ths;  on  forequarters  of  lamb, 
22  i-3d;  on  ducks,  27  i-Sth;  on  turkeys, 
20]^;  on  geese,  19  1-3;  on  chickens, 
14  3-5ths. 

BROILING  requires  a  brisk,  rapid  heat, 
which,  by  producing  a  greater  degree  of 
change  in  the  affinities  of  the  raw  meat 
than  roasting,  generates  a  higher  flavor,  so 
that  broiled  meat  is  more  savory  than  roast. 
The  surface  becoming  charred,  a  dark-col- 
ored crust  is  formed,  which  retards  the 
evaporation  of  the  juices;  and  therefore, 
if  properly  done,  broiled  may  be  as  tender 
and  juicy  as  roasted  meat. 

BAKING  does  not  admit  of  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  vapors  so  rapidly  as  the  proc- 
esses of  broiling  and  roasting;  the  fat 
is  also  retained  more,  and  becomes  con- 
verted by  the  agency  of  the  heat  into  an 
empyreumatic  oil,  so  as  to  render  the  meat 
less  fitted  for  delicate  stomachs  and  more 
difficult  to  digest.  The  meat  is,  in  fact, 
partly  boiled  in  its  own  confined  water  and 
partly  roasted  by  the  dry  hot  air  of  the 
oven. 

The  loss  by  baking  has  not  been  esti- 
mated; and,  as  the  time  required  to  cook 
many  articles  must  vary  with  their  size, 
nature,  etc.,  we  have  considered  it  better 
to  leave  that  until  giving  the  receipts  for 
them. 

FRYING  is  of  all  methods  the  most  ob- 
jectionable, from  the  foods'  being  less  di- 
gestible when  thus  prepared,  as  the  fat  em- 
ployed undergoes  chemical  changes.  Olive 
oil  in  this  respect  is  preferable  to  lard  or 
butter. 

ROAST  BEEF. — The  tenderloin  and  first 
and  second  cuts  off  the  rack  are  the  best 
roasting  pieces — the  third  and  fourth  cuts 
are  good.  When  the  meat  is  put  to  the  fire, 
a  little  salt  should  be  sprinkled  on  it  and 
the  bony  side  turned  toward  the  fire  first. 
When  the  bones  get  well  heated  through, 
turn  the  meat  and  keep  a  brisk  fire— baste 


it  frequently  while  roasting.  There  should 
be  a  little  water  put  into  the  dripping  pan 
when  the  meat  is  put  down  to  roast  If  it 
is  a  thick  piece,  allow  fifteen  minutes  to 
each  pound  to  roast  it  in ;  if  thin,  less  time 
will  be  required. 

BEEFSTEAK. — The  tenderloin  is  the  best 
piece  for  broiling — a  steak  from  the  round 
or  shoulder  clod  is  good  and  comes  cheaper. 
If  the  beef  is  not  very  tender,  it  should  be 
laid  on  a  board  and  pounded  before  broil- 
ing or  frying  it.  Wash  it  in  cold  water, 
then  lay  it  on  a  gridiron,  place  it  on  a  hot 
bed  of  coals,  and  broil  it  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible without  burning  it.  If  broiled  slow, 
it  will  not  be  good.  It  takes  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  minutes  to  broil  a  steak.  For 
seven  or  eight  pounds  of  beef,  cut  up  about 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  butter.  Heat  the 
platter  very  hot  that  the  steak  is  to  be  put 
on,  lay  the  butter  on  it,  take  up  the  steak, 
salt  and  pepper  it  on  both  sides.  Beef- 
steak, to  be  good,  should  be  eaten  as  soon 
as  cooked.  A  few  slices  of  salt  pork  broiled 
with  the  steak  makes  a  rich  gravy  with  a 
very  little  butter.  There  should  always  be 
a  trough  to  catch  the  juices  of  the  meat 
when  broiled.  The  same  pieces  that  are 
good  broiled  are  good  for  frying.  Fry  a 
few  slices  of  salt  pork  brown,  then  take 
them  up  and  put  in  the  beef.  When  brown 
on  both  sides,  take  it  up;  take  the  pan  off 
from  the  fire,  to  let  the  fat  cool ;  when 
cool,  turn  in  half  a  teacupful  of  water,  mix  a 
couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  with  a  lit- 
tle water,  stir  it  into  the  fat,  put  the  pan 
back  on  the  fire,  stir  it  till  it  boils  up,  then 
turn  it  over  the  beef. 

ALA  MODE  BEEF. — The  round  of  beef  is 
the  best  piece  to  alamode — the  shoulder 
clod  is  good,  and  comes  lower;  it  is  also 
good  stewed,  without  any  spices.  For  five 
pounds  of  beef,  soak  about  a  pound  of 
bread  in  cold  water  till  soft,  then  drain 
off  the  water,  mash  the  bread  fine,  put  in 
a  piece  of  butter  of  the  size  of  a  hen's 
egg,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  the  same 
quantity  of  ground  cloves,  allspice,  and 
pepper,  half  a  nutmeg,  a  couple  of  eggs, 
and  a  tablespoonful  of  flour — mix  the  whole 
well  together;  then  cut  gashes  in  the  beef 
and  fill  them  with  about  half  of  the  dress- 
ing, put  the  meat  in  a  bake-pan,  with  luke- 
warm water  enough  to  cover  it;  set  it 
where  it  will  stew  gently  for  a  couple  of 
hours;  cover  it  with  a  heated  bake-pan  lid. 
When  it  has  stewed  a  couple  of  hours,  turn 
the  reserved  dressing  on  top  of  the  meat, 
heat  the  bake-pan  lid  hot  enough  to  brown 
the  dressing,  stew  it  an  hour  and  a  half 


874 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


longer.  After  the  meat  is  taken  up,  if  the 
gravy  is  not  thick  enough,  mix  a  teaspoon- 
ful  or  two  of  flour  with  a  little  water,  and 
stir  it  into  the  gravy;  put  in  a  little  but- 
ter, a  wineglassful  of  wine,  and  turn  it  over 
the  meat. 

BEEF  LIVER. — Liver  is  very  good  fried,  but 
the  best  way  to  cook  it  is  to  broil  it  ten 
minutes  with  four  or  five  slices  of  salt 
pork.  Then  take  it  out,  cut  it  into  small 
strips  together  with  the  pork,  put  it  in  a 
stew-pan,  with  a  little  water,  butter  and 
pepper.  Stew  it  four  or  five  minutes. 

To  CORN  BEEF. — To  every  gallon  of  cold 
water  put  a  quart  of  rock  salt,  an  ounce 
of  saltpetre,  quarter  of  a  pound  of  brown 
sugar  (some  people  use  molasses,  but  it  is 
not  as  good)  ;  no  boiling  is  necessary.  Put 
the  beef  in  the  brine.  As  long  as  any  salt 
remains  at  the  bottom  of  the  cask  it  is 
strong  enough.  Whenever  any  scum  rises, 
the  brine  should  be  scalded,  skimmed,  and 
more  sugar,  salt,  and  saltpetre  added.  When 
a  piece  of  beef  is  put  in  the  brine,  rub  a 
little  salt  over  it.  If  the  weather  is  hot, 
cut  a  gash  to  the  bone  of  the  meat,  and 
fill  it  with  salt.  Put  a  heavy  weight  on 
the  beef  in  order  to  keep  it  under  the  brine. 
In  very  hot  weather,  it  is  difficult  to  corn 
beef  in  cold  brine  before  it  spoils.  On  this 
account  it  is  good  to  corn  it  in  the  pot 
when  boiled.  It  is  done  in  the  following 
manner:  to  six  or  eight  pounds  of  beef, 
put  a  teacup  of  salt;  sprinkle  flour  on  the 
side  that  is  to  go  upon  the  table,  and  put 
it  down  in  the  pot,  turn  the  water  into  the 
pot  after  the  beef  is  put  in,  boil  it  a  couple 
of  hours,  then  turn  in  more  cold  water,  and 
boil  it  an  hour  and  a  half  longer. 

MUTTON. — The  saddle  is  the  best  part  to 
roast — the  shoulder  and  leg  are  good 
roasted;  but  the  best  mode  to  cook  the 
latter  is  to  boil  it  with  a  piece  of  salt  pork. 
A  little  rice  boiled  with  it  improves  the 
look  of  it.  Mutton  for  roasting  should 
have  a  little  butter  rubbed  on  it,  and  a  lit- 
tle salt  and  pepper  sprinkled  on  it — some 
people  like  cloves  and  allspice.  Put  a  small 
piece  of  butter  in  the  dripping-pan,  and 
baste  it  frequently.  The  bony  side  should 
be  turned  toward  the  fire  first,  and  roasted. 
For  boiling  or  roasting  mutton,  allow  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  to  each  pound  of  meat. 
The  leg  is  good  cut  in  gashes,  and  filled 
with  a  dressing,  and  baked.  The  dressing 
is  made  of  soaked  bread,  a  little  butter,  salt, 
and  pepper,  and  a  couple  of  eggs.  A  pint 
of  water  with  a  little  butter  should  be  put 
in  the  pan.  The  leg  is  also  good  cut  into 


slices  and  broiled.  It  is  good  corned  a  few 
days,  and  then  boiled.  The  rack  is  good 
for  broiling — it  should  be  divided,  each 
bone  by  itself,  broiled  quick,  and  buttered, 
salted  and  peppered.  The  breast  of  mutton 
is  nice  baked.  The  joints  of  the  brisket 
should  be  separated,  the  sharp  ends  of  the 
ribs  sawed  off,  the  outside  rubbed  over  with 
a  little  piece  of  butter — salt  it,  and  put  it 
in  a  bake-pan,  with  a  pint  of  water.  When 
done,  take  it  up,  and  thicken  the  gravy  with 
a  little  flour  and  water,  and  put  in  a  small 
piece  of  butter.  A  tablespoonful  of  catsup, 
cloves  and  allspice  improves  it,  but  is  not 
essential.  The  neck  of  mutton  makes  a 
good  soup.  Parsley  or  celery  heads  are  a 
pretty  garnish  for  mutton. 

VEAL. — The  loin  of  veal  is  the  best  piece 
for  roasting.  The  breast  and  rack  are  good 
roasted.  The  breast  also  is  good  made  into 
a  pot-pie,  and  the  rack  cut  into  small  pieces 
and  broiled.  The  leg  is  nice  for  frying, 
and  when  several  slices  have  been  cut  off 
for  cutlets,  the  remainder  is  nice  boiled 
with  a  small  piece  of  salt  pork.  Veal  for 
roasting  should  be  salted,  peppered,  and  a 
little  butter  rubbed  on  it,  and  basted  fre- 
quently. Put  a  little  water  in  the  dripping- 
pan,  and  unless  the  meat  is  quite  fat,  a  lit- 
tle butter  should  be  put  in.  The  fillet  is 
good  baked,  the  bone  should  be  cut  out,  and 
the  place  filled  with  a  dressing  made  of  bread 
soaked  soft  in  cold  water,  a  little  salt,  pep- 
per, a  couple  of  eggs,  and  a  tablespoonful 
of  melted  butter  put  in — then  sew  it  up,  put 
it  in  your  bake-pan,  with  about  a  pint  of 
water,  cover  the  top  of  the  meat  with  some 
of  the  dressing.  When  baked  sufficiently, 
take  it  up,  thicken  the  gravy  with  a  little 
flour  and  water  well  mixed,  put  in  a  small 
piece  of  butter  and  a  little  wine  and  cat- 
sup, if  you  like  the  gravy  rich. 

VEAL  CUTLETS. — Fry  three  or  four  slices 
of  pork  until  brown — take  them  up,  then 
put  in  slices  of  veal,  about  an  inch  thick, 
cut  from  the  leg.  When  brown  on  both 
sides,  take  them  up ;  stir  half  a  pint  of  water 
into  the  gravy,  then  mix  two  or  three  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  flour  with  a  little  water,  and 
stir  it  in ;  soak  a  couple  of  slices  of  toasted 
bread  in  the  gravy,  lay  them  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  platter,  place  the  meat  and  pork 
over  it,  then  turn  on  the  gravy.  A  very 
nice  way  to  cook  the  cutlets  is  to  make 
a  batter  with  half  a  pint  of  milk,  an  egg 
beaten  to  a  froth,  and  flour  enough  to  ren- 
der it  thick.  When  the  veal  is  fried  brown,, 
dip  it  into  the  batter,  then  put  it  back  into 
the  fat.  and  fry  it  until  brown  again.  If 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


875 


you  have  any  batter  left,  it  is  nice  dropped 
by  the  large  spoonful  into  the  fat,  and  fried 
till  brown,  then  laid  over  the  veal.  Thicken 
the  gravy  and  turn  it  over  the  whole.  It 
takes  about  an  hour  to  cook  this  dish.  If 
the  meat  is  tough,  it  will  be  better  to  stew 
it  half  an  hour  before  frying  it. 

CALF'S  HEAD. — Boil  the  head  two  hours, 
together  with  the  lights  and  feet  Put  in 
the  liver  when  it  has  boiled  an  hour  and 
twenty  minutes.  Before  the  head  is  done, 
tie  the  brains  in  a  bag,  and  boil  them  with 
it;  when  the  brains  are  done,  take  them 
up,  season  them  with  salt,  pepper,  butter, 
and  sweet  herbs,  or  spices  if  you  like — use 
this  as  a  dressing  for  the  head.  Some  peo.- 
ple  prefer  part  of  the  liver  and  feet  for 
dressing;  they  are  prepared  like  the  brains. 
The  liquor  that  the  calf's  head  is  boiled 
in  makes  a  good  soup  seasoned  in  a  plain 
way  like  any  other  veal  soup,  or  seasoned 
turtle  fashion.  The  liquor  should  stand 
until  the  next  day  after  the  head  is  boiled, 
in  order  to  have  the  fat  rise,  and  skimmed 
off.  If  you  wish  to  have  your  calf's  head 
look  brown,  take  it  up  when  tender,  rub  a 
little  butter  over  it,  sprinkle  on  salt,  pepper, 
and  allspice — sprinkle  flour  over  it,  and  put 
before  the  fire,  with  a  Dutch  oven  over  it, 
or  in  a  brick  oven  where  it  will  brown 
quick.  Warm  up  the  brains  with  a  little 
water,  butter,  salt,  and  pepper.  Add  wine 
and  spices  if  you  like.  Serve  it  up  as  a 
dressing  for  the  head.  Calf's  head  is  also 
good  baked.  Halve  it,  rub  butter  over  it, 
put  it  in  a  pan,  with  about  a  quart  of  water; 
then  cover  it  with  a  dressing  made  of  bread 
soaked  soft,  a  little  butter,  an  egg,  and  sea- 
son it  with  salt,  pepper,  and  powdered  mace. 
Slice  up  the  brains,  and  lay  them  in  the  pan 
with  the  head.  Bake  it  in  a  quick  oven, 
and  garnish  it  with  slices  of  lemon,  or 
force-meat  balls. 

FORCE-MEAT  BALLS. — Chop  a  pound  or 
two  of  veal  fine ;  mix  it  with  one  or  two 
eggs,  a  little  butter,  or  raw  pork  chopped 
fine;  season  it  with  salt  and  pepper,  or 
curry  powder.  Do  it  up  into  balls  about 
the  size  of  half  an  egg,  and  fry  them  brown. 

CALF'S  FEET. — Boil  them  with  the  head, 
until  tender,  then  split  and  lay  them  round 
the  head,  or  dredge  them  with  flour  after 
they  have  been  boiled  tender,  and  fry  them 
brown.  If  you  wish  for  gravy  for  them, 
when  you  have  taken  them  up,  stir  a  little 
flour  into  the  fat  they  were  fried  in;  season 
it  with  salt,  pepper,  and  mace.  Add  a  lit- 
tle butter  and  wine  if  you  like,  then  turn 
it  over  the  feet. 


CALF'S  LIVER  AND  HEART  are  good  broiled 
or  fried.  Some  people  like  the  liver  stuffed 
and  baked. 

A  FILLET  OF  VEAL.— Cut  off  the  shank  of 
a  leg  of  veal,  and  cut  gashes  in  the  re- 
mainder. Make  a  dressing  of  bread,  soaked 
soft  in  cold  water,  and  mashed;  season  it 
with  salt,  pepper,  and  sweet  herbs;  chop  a 
little  raw  pork  fine,  put  it  in  the  dressing, 
and  if  you  have  not  pork,  use  a  little  but- 
ter instead.  Fill  the  gashes  in  the  meat 
with  part  of  the  dressing,  put  it  in  a  bake- 
pan,  with  just  water  enough  to  cover  it; 
put  the  remainder  of  the  dressing  on  top 
of  the  meat,  and  cover  it  with  a  heated 
bake-pan  lid.  For  six  pounds  of  veal,  allow 
two  hours'  steady  baking.  A  leg  of  veal  is 
nice  prepared  in  this  manner,  and  roasted. 

LAMB. — The  fore  and  hind  quarters  are 
good  roasting  pieces.  Sprinkle  salt  and 
pepper  on  the  lamb,  turn  the  bony  side  to- 
ward the  fire  first;  if  not  fat,  rub  a  little 
butter  on  it,  and  put  a  little  in  the  dripping- 
pan;  baste  it  frequently.  These  pieces  are 
good  stuffed  like  a  fillet  of  veal,  and  roasted. 
The  leg  is  also  good,  cooked  in  the  same 
manner ;  but  it  is  better  boiled  with  a  pound 
of  salt  pork.  Allow  fifteen  minutes'  boiling 
to  each  pound  of  meat.  The  breast  of  lamb 
is  good  roasted,  broiled,  or  corned  and 
boiled ;  it  is  also  good  made  into  a  pot- 
pie.  The  forequarter,  with  the  ribs  di- 
vided, is  good  broiled.  The  bones  of  this, 
as  well  as  of  all  kinds  of  meat,  when  put 
down  to  broil,  should  first  be  put  toward 
the  fire,  and  browned  before  the  other  side 
is  broiled.  A  little  salt,  pepper,  and  butter, 
should  be  put  on  it  when  you  take  it  up. 
Lamb  is  very  apt  to  spoil  in  warm  weather. 
If  you  wish  to  keep  a  leg  several  days,  put 
it  in  brine.  It  should  not  be  put  with  pork, 
as  fresh  meat  is  apt  to  injure  it.  Lamb's 
head,  feet,  and  heart  are  good,  boiled  till 
tender,  then  cut  off  the  flesh  from  the  head, 
cut  up  the  heart,  and  split  the  feet  in  two; 
put  the  whole  into  a  pan,  with  a  pint  of  the 
liquor  they  were  boiled  in,  together  with  a 
little  butter,  pepper,  salt,  and  half  a  teacupful 
of  tomato  catsup;  thicken  the  gravy  with  a 
little  flour;  stew  the  whole  for  a  few  mo- 
ments. Pepper-grass  or  parsley  is  a  pretty 
garnish  for  this  dish. 

LAMB'S  FRY. — The  heart  and  sweetbread 
are  nice  fried  plainly,  or  dipped  into  a 
beaten  egg  and  fine  bread  crumbs.  They 
should  be  fried  in  lard  or  butter,  or  half 
and  half. 

TURKEY. — Take  out  the  inwards,  wash 
both  the  inside  and  outside  of  the  turkey. 


876 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


Prepare  a  dressing  made  of  bread  soaked 
soft  in  cold  water  (the  water  should  be 
drained  from  the  bread,  and  the  bread 
mashed  fine).  Melt  a  small  piece  of  butter, 
and  mix  it  with  the  dressing,  or  else  put  in 
salt  pork  chopped  fine;  season  it  with  salt 
and  pepper;  add  sweet  herbs  if  you  like. 
An  egg  in  the  dressing  makes  it  cut 
smoother.  Any  kind  of  cooked  meat  is 
nice  minced  fine,  and  mixed  with  the  dress- 
ing. If  the  inwards  are  used,  they  ought  to 
be  boiled  very  tender,  as  it  is  very  difficult 
to  cook  them  through  while  the  turkey  is 
ro  .sting.  Fill  the  crop  and  body  of  the 
turkey  with  the  dressing,  sew  it  up,  tie  up 
the  legs  and  wings,  rub  on  a  little  salt  and 
butter.  Roast  it  from  two  to  three  hours, 
according  to  its  size;  twenty-five  minutes 
to  every  pound  is  a  good  rule.  The  turkey 
should  be  roasted  slowly  at  first,  and  basted 
frequently.  A  little  water  should  be  put 
into  the  dripping-pan,  when  the  meat  is  put 
down  to  roast.  For  a  gravy  to  the  turkey, 
take  the  liquor  that  the  inwards  are  boiled 
in,  put  into  it  a  little  of  the  turkey  drip- 
pings, set  it  where  it  will  boil,  thicken  it 
with  a  little  flour  and  water  previously 
mixed  smooth.  Season  it  with  salt,  pepper, 
and  sweet  herbs  if  you  like.  Drawn  butter 
is  used  for  boiled  turkey.  A  turkey  for 
boiling  should  be  prepared  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  one  for  roasting.  If  you  wish  to 
have  it  look  white,  tie  it  up  in  a  cloth,  un- 
less you  boil  rice  in  the  pot.  If  rice  is 
used,  put  in  two-thirds  of  a  teacupful.  A 
pound  or  two  of  salt  pork,  boiled  with  the 
turkey,  improves  it.  If  you  wish  to  make 
a  soup  of  the  liquor  in  which  the  turkey  is 
boiled,  let  it  remain  until  the  next  day,  then 
skim'  off  the  fat.  Heat  and  season  it. 

GOOSE. — If  a  goose  is  tender  under  the 
wing,  and  you  can  break  the  skin  easily  by 
running  the  head  of  a  pin  across  the  breast, 
there  is  no  danger  of  its  being  tough.  A 
goose  should  be  dressed  in  the  same  man- 
ner and  roasted  the  same  length  of  time  as 
a  turkey. 

CHICKENS. — Chickens  for  roasting  or  boil- 
ing should  have  a  dressing  prepared  like 
that  for  turkeys.  Half  a  teacupful  of  rice 
boiled  with  the  chickens  makes  them  look 
white.  They  will  be  less  liable  to  break  if 
the  water  is  cold  when  they  are  put  in.  A 
little  salt  pork  boiled  with  the  chickens  im- 
proves them.  If  you  do  not  boil  pork  with 
them  they  will  need  salt.  Chickens  for 
broiling  should  be  split,  the  inwards  taken 
out,  and  the  chicken  washed  inside  and  out. 
Put  the  bony  side  down  on  the  gridiron, 


and  broil  it  very  slowly  until  brown,  then 
turn  it,  and  brown  it  on  the  other  side. 
About  forty  minutes  is  required  to  broil  a 
common-sized  chicken.  For  roast  chicken, 
boil  the  livers  and  gizzards  by  themselves, 
and  use  the  water  for  gravy  to  the  chickens ; 
cut  the  inwards  in  slices,  and  put  them  in 
the  gravy. 

FRICASSEE. — The  chickens  should  be  joint- 
ed, the  inwards  taken  out,  and  the  chickens 
washed.  Put  them  in  a  stew-pan  with  the 
skin  side  down;  on  each  layer  sprinkle  salt 
and  pepper;  put  in  three  or  four  slices  of 
pork,  just  cover  them  with  water,  and  let 
them  stew  till  tender.  Then  take  them  up, 
mix  a  little  flour  and  water  together,  and 
thicken  the  liquor  they  were  stewed  in ;  add 
a  piece  of  butter  of  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg, 
then  put  the  chickens  back  in  the  stew-pan, 
and  let  them  stew  four  or  five  minutes 
longer.  When  you  have  taken  up  the  chick- 
ens, soak  two  or  three  slices  of  toast  in  the 
gravy,  then  put  them  in  your  platter,  lay 
the  chickens  over  the  toast,  and  turn  the 
gravy  on  them.  If  you  wish  to  brown  the 
chickens,  stew  them  without  the  pork  till 
tender,  then  fry  the  pork  brown,  take  it  up, 
put  in  the  chickens,  and  then  fry  until  a 
light  brown. 

PIGEONS. — Take  out  the  inwards,  and  stuff 
the  pigeons  with  a  dressing  prepared  like 
that  for  turkeys;  lay  them  in  a  pot  with 
the  breast  side  down.  Turn  in  more  than 
enough  water  to  cover  them.  When  stewed 
nearly  tender,  put  in  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  butter  to  every  dozen  of  pigeons — mix 
two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  with  a 
little  water,  and  stir  into  the  gravy.  If  you 
wish  to  brown  them,  put  on  a  heated  bake- 
pan  lid,  an  hour  before  they  are  done,  or 
else  take  them  up  when  tender,  and  fry 
them  in  pork  fat.  They  are  very  good  split 
open  and  stewed,  with  a  dressing  made  and 
warmed  up  separately  with  a  little  of  the 
gravy.  Tender  pigeons  are  good  stuffed  and 
roasted.  It  takes  about  two  hours  to  cook 
tender  pigeons,  and  three  hours  tough  ones. 
Roast  pigeons  should  be  buttered  when  put 
to  the  fire. 

DUCKS. — Are  good  stewed  like  pigeons, 
or  roasted.  Two  or  three  onions  in  the 
dressing  of  wild  ducks  takes  out  the  fishy 
taste  they  are  apt  to  have.  If  ducks  or  any 
other  fowls  are  slightly  injured  by  being 
kept  long,  dip  them  in  weak  saleratus  water 
before  cooking  them. 

BAKED  OR  ROAST  PIG. — A  pig  for  roasting 
or  baking  should  be  small  and  fat.  Take 
out  the  inwards,  and  cut  off  the  first  joint 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


877 


of  the  feet,  and  boil  them  till  tender,  then 
chop  them.  Prepare  a  dressing  of  bread 
soaked  soft,  the  water  squeezed  out  and 
the  bread  mashed  fine;  season  it  with  salt, 
pepper,  and  sweet  herbs,  add  a  little  butter, 
and  fill  the  pig  with  the  dressing.  Rub  a 
little  butter  on  the  outside  of  the  pig,  to 
prevent  its  blistering.  Bake  or  roast  it  from 
two  hours  and  a  half  to  three  hours.  The 
pan  that  the  pig  is  baked  in  should  have  a 
little  water  in  it.  When  cooked,  take  out 
a  little  of  the  dressing  and  gravy  from  the 
pan,  mix  it  with  the  chopped  inwards  and 
feet,  put  in  a  little  butter,  pepper,  and  salt, 
and  use  this  for  a  sauce  to  the  pig.  Ex- 
pose the  pig  to  the  open  air  two  or  three 
minutes  before  it  is  put  on  the  table,  to 
make  it  crispy. 

SWEETBREAD,  LIVER,  AND  HEART. — A  very 
good  way  to  cook  the  sweetbread  is  to  fry 
three  or  four  slices  of  pork  till  brown,  then 
take  them  up  and  put  in  the  sweetbread,  and 
fry  it  over  a  moderate  fire.  When  you  have 
taken  up  the  sweetbread,  mix  a  couple  of 
teaspoonfuls  of  flour  with  a  little  water, 
and  stir  it  into  the  fat — let  it  boil,  then  turn 
it  over  the  sweetbread.  Another  way  is  to 
parboil  them,  and  let  them  get  cold,  then 
cut  them  in  pieces  about  an  inch  thick,  dip 
them  in  the  yolk  of  an  egg  and  fine  bread 
crumbs,  sprinkle  salt,  pepper,  and  sage  on 
them  before  dipping  them  in  the  egg;  fry 
them  a  light  brown.  Make  a  gravy  after 
you  have  taken  them  up,  by  stirring  a  little 
flour  and  water  mixed  smooth  into  the  fat, 
and  spices  and  wine  if  you  like.  The  liver 
and  heart  are  good  cooked  in  the  same 
manner,  or  broiled. 

TRIPE. — After  being  scoured,  should  be 
soaked  in  salt  and  water  seven  or  eight 
days,  changing  the  water  every  other  day; 
then  boil  it  till  tender,  which  will  take 
eight  or  ten  hours.  It  is  then  fit  for  broil- 
ing, frying,  or  pickling.  It  is  pickled  in 
the  same  manner  as  souse. 

SAUSAGES. — Chop  fresh  pork  very  fine, 
the  lean  and  fat  together  (there  should  be 
rather  more  of  the  lean  than  the  fat),  sea- 
son it  highly  with  salt,  pepper,  sage,  and 
other  sweet  herbs,  if  you  like  them — a  little 
saltpetre  tends  to  preserve  them.  To  tell 
whether  they  are  seasoned  enough,  do  up 
a  little  into  a  cake,  and  fry  it.  If  not  sea- 
soned enough,  add  more  seasoning,  and  fill 
your  skins,  which  should  be  previously 
cleaned  thoroughly.  A  little  flour  mixed 
in  with  the  meat  tends  to  prevent  the  fat 
from  running  out  when  cooked.  Sausage- 
meat  is  good  done  up  in  small  cakes  and 


fried.  In  summer,  when  fresh  pork  can  not 
be  procured,  very  good  sausage-cakes  may 
be  made  of  raw  beef,  chopped  fine  with  salt 
pork,  and  seasoned  with  pepper  and  sage. 
When  sausages  are  fried,  they  should  not 
be  pricked,  and  they  will  cook  nicer  to 
have  a  little  fat  put  in  the  frying-pan  with 
them.  They  should  be  cooked  slowly.  If 
you  do  not  like  them  very  fat,  take  them 
out  of  the  pan  when  nearly  done,  and  finish 
cooking  them  on  a  gridiron.  Bologna  sau- 
sages are  made  of  equal  weight  each  of 
ham,  veal,  and  pork,  chopped  very  fine,  sea- 
soned high,  and  boiled  in  casings  till  ten- 
der, then  dried. 

HAM. — A  ham  that  weighs  ten  pounds 
should  be  boiled  four  or  five  hours ;  if  very 
salt,  the  water  should  be  changed.  Before 
it  is  put  on  the  table,  take  off  the  rind.  If 
you  wish  to  ornament  it,  put  whole  cloves, 
or  pepper,  in  the  form  of  diamonds,  over 
it.  The  Virginia  method  of  curing  hams 
(which  is  considered  very  superior),  is  to 
dissolve  two  ounces  of  saltpetre,  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  saleratus,  in  a  salt  pickle,  as 
strong  as  possible,  for  every  sixteen  pounds 
of  ham.  Add  molasses  in  the  proportion 
of  a  gallon  to  a  hogshead  of  brine,  then  put 
in  the  hams,  and  let  them  remain  three  or 
four  weeks.  Then  take  them  out  of  the 
brine,  and  smoke  them  with  the  hocks 
downward,  to  preserve  the  juices.  They 
will  smoke  tolerably  well  in  the  course  of 
a  month,  but  they  will  be  much  better  to 
remain  in  the  smoke-house  two  or  three 
months.  Hams  cured  in  this  manner  are 
very  fine  flavored,  and  will  keep  good  a 
long  time. 

TONGUES.  —  Cut  off  the  roots  of  the 
tongues;  they  are  not  good  smoked,  but 
they  make  nice  pies.  Take  out  the  pipes 
and  veins,  boil  them  till  tender,  mince  them 
fine,  season  the  meat  with  salt,  cloves,  mace, 
and  cinnamon,  put  in  a  little  sugar  and  mo- 
lasses, moisten  the  whole  with  brandy,  put 
it  in  a  cool  place,  and  it  will  keep  good  sev- 
eral months  in  cold  weather,  and  is  good  to 
make  pies  of  at  any  time,  with  the  addition 
of  apples  chopped  fine  and  a  little  melted 
butter.  For  the  remainder  of  the  tongues, 
make  a  brine  in  the  following  manner — to 
a  gallon  of  cold  water  put  a  quart  of  rock 
salt,  an  ounce  of  saltpetre,  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  sugar,  and  couple  of  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  blown  salt.  Put  in  the  tongues,  let 
them  remain  in  it  a  week,  and  then  smoke 
them  eight  or  ten  days. 

CHICKEN  PIE. — Joint  the  chickens,  which 
should  be  young  and  tender.  Boil  them  in 

56 


878 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


just  sufficient  water  to  cover  them.  When 
nearly  tender  take  them  out  of  the  liquor, 
and  lay  them  in  a  deep  pudding-dish,  lined 
with  pie, crust  To  each  layer  of  chicken 
put  three  or  four  slices  of  pork,  add  a  lit- 
tle of  the  liquor  in  which  they  were  boiled, 
and  a  couple  of  ounces  of  butter  cut  into 
small  pieces— sprinWe  a  little  flour  over  the 
whole,  cover  it  with  nice  pie  crust,  and  or- 
nament the  top  with  some  of  your  pastry. 
Bake  it  in  a  quick  oven  one  hour. 

BEEF  AND  MUTTON  PIE. — Take  tender 
meat,  pound  it  out  thin,  and  broil  it  ten 
minutes — then  cut  off  the  bony  and  gristly 
parts,  season  it  highly  with  salt  and  pep- 
per, butter  it,  and  cut  it  into  small  pieces. 
Line  a  pudding  dish  with  pastry,  put  in  the 
meat,  and  to  each  layer  add  a  teaspoonful 
of  tomato  catsup,  together  with  a  table- 
spoonful  of  water — sprinkle  over  flour,  and 
cover  it  with  pie  crust,  and  ornament  as 
you  please  with  pastry.  Cold  roast  or 
boiled  beef  and  mutton  make  a  good  pie, 
by  cutting  them  into  bits,  and  seasoning 
them  highly  with  salt  and  pepper.  Put  them 
into  a  pie  dish,  turn  a  little  melted  butter 
over  them,  or  gravy,  and  pour  in  water  till 
you  can  just  see  it  at  the  top. 

CHICKEN  AND  VEAL  POT-PIE. — If  the  pie 
is  to  be  made  of  chickens,  joint  them — boil 
the  meat  until  about  half  done.  Take  the 
meat  out  of  the  liquor  in  which  it  was  boiled, 
and  put  it  in  a  pot,  with  a  layer  of  crust 
to  each  layer  of  meat,  having  a  layer  of 
crust  on  the  top.  The  meat  should  be  sea- 
soned with  salt  and  pepper — cover  the 
whole  with  the  boiled  meat  liquor.  If  you 
wish  to  have  the  crust  brown,  keep  the 
pot  covered  -with  a  heated  bake-pan  lid. 
Keep  the  teakettle  of  boiling  water  to  turn 
in  as  the  water  boils  away — cold  water 
makes  the  crust  heavy.  The  crust  for  the 
pie  is  good  like  that  made  for  fruit  pies, 
with  less  shortening,  but  raised  pie  crust 
is  generally  preferred  to  any  other.  It  is 
made  in  the  following  manner:  mix  to- 
gether three  pints  of  flour,  a  teacupful  of 
melted  butter,  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  then 
turn  in  the  necessary  yeast — add  cold  water 
to  make  it  sufficiently  stiff  to  roll  out.  Set 
it  in  a  warm  place  to  rise,  which  will  take 
seven  or  eight  hours,  unless  yeast  cake  is 
used.  When  risen,  roll  it  out  and  cut  it 
into  small  cakes.  Potato  pie  crust  is  very 
nice.  To  make  it,  boil  eight  or  nine  small 
potatoes,  peel  and  mash  them  fine,  mix  with 
them  a  piece  of  butter  of  the  size  of  a 
hen's  egg,  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  a  tumbler- 
ful of  milk,  and  flour  to  render  it  of  the 


right  consistency  to  roll  out.  When  rolled 
out,  cut  them  into  cakes,  and  put  them  with 
the  meat.  If  you  happen  to  have  unbaked 
wheat  dough,  very  good  crust  may  be  made 
of  it  by  working  into  it  a  little  lukewarm 
melted  butter.  Let  it  remain,  after  you 
have  rolled  and  cut  it  into  cakes,  about  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes,  before  putting  it  with 
the  meat 

WARMED-OVER  MEATS. — Boiled  or  roasted 
veal  makes  a  nice  dish,  chopped  fine,  and 
warmed  up,  with  just  sufficient  water  to 
moisten  it,  and  a  little  butter,  salt,  and 
pepper  added.  A  little  nutmeg  and  the 
grated  rind  of  a  lemon  improve  it — none 
of  the  white  part  of  the  lemon  should  be 
used.  When  well  heated  through,  take  it 
up  on  a  platter,  and  garnish  it  with  a 
couple  of  lemons  cut  in  slices.  Fresh  or 
corned  beef  is  good  minced  fine,  with  boiled 
potatoes,  and  warmed  up  with  salt,  pepper, 
and  a  little  water — add  butter,  just  before 
you  take  it  up.  Some  people  use  the  gravy 
that  they  have  left  the  day  before,  for  the 
meat,  but  it  is  not  as  good  when  warmed 
over,  and  there  is  no  need  of  its  being 
wasted,  as  it  can  be  clarified  and  used  for 
other  purposes.  Boiled  onions,  or  turnips,- 
are  good  mixed  with  mince-meat,  instead 
of  potatoes.  Veal,  lamb,  and  mutton  are 
good  cut  into  small  strips,  and  warmed  with 
boiled  potatoes  cut  in  slices,  pepper,  salt, 
a  little  water — add  butter  just  before  you 
take  it  up.  Roast  beef  and  mutton,  if  not 
previously  cooked  too  much,  are  nice  cut 
in  slices,  and  just  scorched  on  a  gridiron. 
Meat,  when  warmed  over,  should  be  on  the 
fire  just  long  enough  to  get  well  heated 
through — if  on  the  fire  long,  most  of  the 
juices  of  the  meat  will  be  extracted,  and 
render  it  very  indigestible.  Cold  fowls  are 
nice  jointed,  and  warmed  with  a  little  water, 
then  taken  up  and  fried  in  butter  till  brown. 
A  little  flour  should  be  sprinkled  on  them 
before  frying.  Thicken  the  water  that  th» 
fowls  were  warmed  in — add  a  little  salt. 
pepper,  and  butter,  and  turn  it  over  the 
fowls. 

DRAWN  BUTTER. — Mix  two  or  three  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  flour  with  a  little  cold  water — 
stir  it  till  free  from  lumps,  thin  it,  and  stir 
it  into  half  a  pint  of  boiling  water — let  it 
boil  two  or  three  minutes,  then  cut  up  about 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  butter  into  small 
pieces,  and  put  it  with  the  flour  and  water 
— set  it  where  it  will  melt  gradually.  If 
carefully  mixed,  it  will  be  free  from  lumps 
— if  not,  strain  it  before  it  is  put  on  the 
table.  If  the  butter  is  to  be  eaten  on  fish, 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


879 


cut  up  several  soft  boiled  eggs  into  it.  A 
little  curry  powder  sprinkled  into  it  will 
convert  it  into  curry  sauce. 

BURNED  BUTTER. — Put  a  couple  of  ounces 
of  butter  into  a  frying  pan— set  it  on  fire- 
when  of  a  dark  brown  color,  put  in  half  a 
teacupful  of  vinegar,  a  little  pepper  and  salt. 
This  is  nice  for  fish,  salad,  or  eggs. 

ROAST  MEAT  GRAVY. — Meat,  when  put 
down  to  roast,  should  have  about  a  pint  of 
water  in  the  dripping  pan.  A  little  while 
before  the  meat  is  done,  stir  up  the  drip- 
pings, put  it  in  a  skillet,  and  set  it  where 
it  will  boil.  Mix  two  or  three  teaspoon  fuls 
of  flour  smoothly  with  a  little  water,  and 
stir  it  in  the  gravy  when  it  boils.  Lamb 
and  veal  require  a  little  butter  in  the  gravy. 
The  gravy  for  pork  and  geese  should  have 
a  little  of  the  dressing  and  sage  mixed  with 
it.  If  you  wish  to  have  your  gravies  look 
dark,  scorch  the  flour  that  you  thicken  them 
with,  which  is  easily  done  by  putting  it  in 
a  pan,  setting  it  on  a  few  coals,  and  stir- 
ring it  constantly  till  it  is  a  dark  brown 
color,  taking  care  that  it  does  not  burn. 
Enough  can  be  burned  at  once  to  last  a 
long  time. 

SAUCE  FOR  COLD  MEAT,  FISH,  OR  SALAD. — 
Boil  a  couple  of  eggs  three  minutes;  then 
mix  it  with  a  mustard-spoonful  of  made 
mustard,  a  little  salt,  pepper,  half  a  teacupful 
of  salad  oil  or  melted  butter,  and  half  a 
teacupful  of  vinegar.  A  tablespoonful  of 
catsup  improves  it. 

WINE  SAUCE  FOR  VENISON  OR  MUTTON. — 
Warm  half  a  pint  of  the  drippings  or  liquor 
the  meat  was  boiled  in,  mix  a  couple  of 
teaspoonfuls  of  scorched  flour  with  a  little 
water,  and  stir  it  in  when  the  gravy  boils. 
Season  it  with  salt,  pepper,  and  cloves;  stir 
a  tablespoonful  of  currant  jelly  in,  and,  just 
before  you  take  it  from  the  fire,  half  a 
tumbler  of  wine.  Many  people  prefer  melted 
currant  jelly  to  any  other  sauce  for  venison 
or  mutton. 

OYSTER  SAUCE.— Take  the  juice  of  the 
oysters,  and  to  a  pint  put  a  couple  of  sticks 
of  mace,  a  little  salt  and  pepper  Set  it  on 
the  fire;  when  it  boils,  stir  in  a  couple  of 
teaspoonfuls  of  flour,  mixed  with  milk. 
When  it  has  boiled  several  minutes,  stir 
in  half  a  pint  of  oysters,  a  piece  of  butter 
of  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.  Let  them  scald 
through,  then  take  them  up. 

WHITE  CELERY  SAUCE  FOR  BOILED  POUL- 
TRY.—Take  five  or  six  heads  of  celery,  cut 
off  the  green  tops,  cut  up  the  remainder 
into  small  bits,  and  boil  it  tender  in  half 
a  pint  of  water;  mix  two  or  three  tea- 


spoonfuls  of  flour  smoothly  with  a  little 
milk ;  and  then  add  half  a  teacupful  more  of 
milk,  stir  it  in,  add  a  small  lump  of  but- 
ter and  a  little  salt.  When  it  boils,  take 
it  up. 

BROWN  SAUCE  FOR  POULTRY. — Peel  two  or 
three  onions,  cut  them  in  slices,  flour  and 
fry  them  brown  in  a  little  butter;  then 
sprinkle  in  a  little  flour,  pepper,  salt,  and 
sage;  add  half  a  pint  of  the  liquor  the 
poultry  was  boiled  in,  and  a  tablespoonfr.i 
of  catsup.  Let  it  boil  up;  then  stir  in  half 
a  wineglassful  of  wine  if  you  like. 

SAVORY  JELLY  FOR  COLD  MEAT. — Boil  lean 
beef  or  veal  till  tender.  If  you  have  any 
beef  or  veal  bones,  crack  and  boil  them  with 
the  meat  (they  should  be  boiled  longer  than 
the  meat),  together  with  a  little  salt  pork, 
sweet  herbs,  and  pepper  and  salt.  When 
boiled  sufficiently,  take  it  off,  strain  it,  and 
let  remain  till  the  next  day;  then  skim  off 
the  fat,  take  up  the  jelly,  and  scrape  off  the 
dregs  that  adhere  to  the  bottom  of  it;  put 
in  the  whites  and  shells  of  several  eggs, 
several  blades  of  mace,  a  little  wine  and 
lemon  juice;  set  it  on  the  fire,  stir  it  well 
till  it  boils,  then  strain  it  till  clear  through 
a  jelly  bag. 

CHICKEN  SALAD. — Boil  a  chicken  that 
weighs  not  more  than  a  pound  and  a  half. 
When  very  tender  take  it  up,  cut  it  in  small 
strips,  and  make  the  following  sauce,  and 
turn  over  it:  Boil  four  eggs  three  minutes; 
then  take  them  out  of  the  shells,  mash  and 
mix  them  with  a  couple  of  tablespoonfuls 
of  olive  oil  or  melted  butter,  two-thirds  of 
a  tumblerful  of  vinegar,  a  teaspoonful  of 
mixed  mustard,  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  a  little 
pepper,  and  essence  of  celery  if  you  have 
it — if  not,  it  can  be  dispensed  with. 

APPLE  AND  CRANBERRY  SAUCE. — Pare  and 
quarter  the  apples — if  not  tart,  stew  them 
in  cider — if  tart  enough,  stew  them  in  water. 
When  stewed  soft,  put  in  a  small  piece  of 
butter,  and  sweeten  it  to  the  taste  with 
sugar.  Another  way,  which  is  very  good,  is 
to  boil  the  apples,  without  paring  them, 
with  a  few  quinces  and  molasses,  in  new 
cider,  till  reduced  to  half  the  quantity. 
When  cool,  strain  the  sauce.  This  kind  of 
sauce  will  keep  good  several  months.  It 
makes  very  good  plain  pies,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  cinnambn  or  cloves.  To 
make  cranberry  sauce,  nothing  more  is  nec- 
essary thati  to  stew  the  cranberries  till  soft, 
then  stir  in  sugar  and  molasses  to  sweeten 
it.  Let  the  sugar  scald  in  it  a  few  minutes. 
Strain  it  if  you  like— it  is  very  good  with- 
out straining. 


860 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


PUDDING  SAUCE. — Stir  to  a  cream  a  tea- 
cupful  of  butter,  with  two  of  brown  sugar, 
then  add  a  wineglassful  of  wine  or  cider; 
flavor  it  with  nutmeg,  rose-water,  or  es- 
sence of  lemon.  If  you  wish  to  have  it 
liquid,  heat  two-thirds  of  a  pint  of  water 
boiling  hot,  mix  two  or  three  teaspoonfuls 
of  flour  with  a  little  water  and  stir  it  into 
the  boiling  water.  As  soon  as  it  boils  up 
well,  stir  it  into  the  butter  and  sugar. 

MUSHROOM  CATSUP. — Put  a  layer  of  fresh 
mushrooms  in  a  deep  dish,  sprinkle  a  little 
salt  over  them,  then  put  in  anothe.r  layer  of 
fresh  mushrooms  and  salt,  and  so  on  till 
you  get  in  all  the  mushrooms.  Let  them 
remain  several  days ;  then  mash  them  fine, 
and  to  each  quart  put  a  tablespoonful  of 
vinegar,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  black  pepper, 
and  a  quarter  of  a  teaspoonful  of  cloves; 
turn  it  into  a  stone  jar,  set  the  jar  in  a 
pot  of  boiling  water  and  let  it  boil  two 
hours,  then  strain  it  without  squeezing  the 
mushrooms.  Boil  the  juice  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  skim  it  well,  let  it  stand  a  few  hours 
to  settle,  then  strain  it  off  carefully  through 
a  sieve,  bottle  and  cork  it  tight.  Keep  it  in 
a  cool  place. 

WALNUT  CATSUP. — Procure  the  walnuts 
by  the  last  of  June;  keep  them  in  salt  and 
water  for  a  week,  then  bruise  them,  and 
turn  boiling  vinegar  on  them.  Let  them 
remain  covered  with  vinegar  for  several 
days,  stirring  them  up  each  day;  then  boil 
them  a  quarter  of  an  hour  with  a  little  more 
vinegar,  strain  them  through  a  thick  cloth, 
so  that  none  of  the  coarse  particles  of  the 
walnuts  will  go  through ;  season  the  vine- 
gar highly  with  cloves,  allspice,  pepper,  and 
salt.  Boil  the  whole  a  few  minutes,  bottle 
and  cork  it  tight.  Keep  it  in  a  cool  place. 

PLAIN  VEAL  SOUP. — A  leg  of  veal,  after 
enough  has  been  cut  off  for  cutlets,  makes 
a  soup  nearly  as  good  as  calf's  head.  Boil 
it  with  a  cup  two-thirds  full  of  rice,  and  a 
pound  and  a  half  of  pork;  season  it  with 
salt,  pepper,  and  sweet  herbs,  if  you  like. 
A  little  celery  boiled  in  it  gives  the  soup  a 
fine  flavor.  Some  people  like  onions,  car- 
rots, and  parsley  boiled  in  it.  If  you  wish 
for  balls  in  the  soup,  chop  veal  and  a  little 
raw  salt  pork  fine ;  mix  it  with  a  few  bread 
crumbs  and  a  couple  of  eggs.  Season  it 
with  salt  and  pepper;  add  a  little  curry 
powder  if  you  like — do  it  up  into  small  balls 
and  boil  them  in  the  soup.  The  veal  should 
be  taken  up  before  the  soup  is  seasoned. 
Just  before  the  soup  is  taken  up,  put  in  a 
couple  of  slices  of  toast,  cut  into  small 
pieces.  If  you  do  not  like  your  soup  fat, 


let  the  liquor  remain  till  the  day  after  you 
have  boiled  the  meat,  and  skim  off  the  fat 
before  heating  the  liquor.  The  shoulder  of 
veal  makes  a  good  soup. 

MOCK  TURTLE,  OR  CALF'S  HEAD  SOUP. — 
Boil  the  head  until  perfectly  tender,  then 
take  it  out,  strain  the  liquor,  and  set  it 
away  until  the  next  day,  then  skim  off  the 
fat,  cut  up  the  meat,  together  with  the 
lights,  and  put  it  into  the  liquor,  put  it  on 
the  fire,  and  season  it  with  salt,  pepper, 
cloves,  and  mace,  add  onions  and  sweet 
herbs  if  you  like;  stew  it  gently  for  half  an 
hour.  Just  before  you  take  it  up,  add  half 
a  pint  of  white  wine.  For  the  balls,  chop 
lean  veal  fine,  with  a  little  salt  pork,  add 
the  brains,  and  season  it  with  salt,  pepper, 
cloves,  mace,  sweet  herbs,  or  curry  powder, 
make  into  balls  about  the  size  of  half  an 
egg,  boil  part  in  the  soup,  fry  the  remainder, 
and  put  them  in  a  dish  by  themselves. 

BEEF  OR  BLACK  SOUP. — The  shank  of  beef 
is  the  best  part  for  soup — cold  roast  beef 
bones  and  beefsteak  make  very  good  soup. 
Boil  the  shank  four  or  five  hours  in  water 
enough  to  cover  it.  Half  an  hour  before 
the  soup  is  put  on  the  table,  take  up  the 
meat,  thicken  the  soup  with  scorched  flour 
mixed  with  cold  water,  season  it  with  salt, 
pepper,  cloves,  mace,  a  little  walnut  or  to- 
mato catsup  improves  it,  put  in  sweet  herbs 
or  herb  spirit  if  you  like.  Some  cooks  boil 
onions  in  the  soup,  but  as  they  are  very  dis- 
agreeable to  many  persons,  it  is  better  to 
boil  and  serve  them  up  in  a  dish  by  them- 
selves. Make  force-meat  balls  of  part  of  the 
beef  and  pork,  season  them  with  mace, 
cloves,  pepper  and  salt,  and  boil  them  in 
the  soup  fifteen  minutes. 

CHICKEN  OR  TURKEY  SOUP. — The  liquor 
that  a  turkey  or  chicken  is  boiled  in  makes 
a  good  soup.  If  you  do  not  like  your  soup 
fat,  let  the  liquor  remain  till  the  day  after 
the  poultry  has  been  boiled  in  it,  then  skim 
off  the  fat,  set  it  where  it  will  boil.  If  there 
was  not  any  rice  boiled  with  the  meat,  put 
in  half  a  teacupful  when  the  liquor  boils, 
or  slice  up  a  few  potatoes  and  put  in — 
season  it  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  sweet 
herbs,  a  little  celery  boiled  in  it  improves 
it.  Toast  bread  or  crackers,  and  put  them 
in  the  soup  when  you  take  it  up. 

OYSTER  SOUP. — Separate  the  oysters  from 
the  liquor,  to  each  quart  of  the  liquor  put  a 
pint  of  milk  or  water,  set  it  on  _  the  fire 
with  the  oysters.  Mix  a  heaping  table- 
spoonful  of  flour  with  a  little  water,  and 
stir  it  into  the  liquor  as  soon  as  it  boils. 
Season  it  with  salt,  pepper,  and  a  little  wal- 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


881 


nut  or  butternut  vinegar,  if  you  have  it; 
if  not,  common  vinegar  may  be  substituted. 
Put  in  a  small  lump  of  butter,  and  turn  it 
as  soon  as  it  boils  up  again  on  to  buttered 
toast  cut  into  small  pieces. 

PEA  SOUP. — If  you  make  your  soup  of 
dry  peas  soak  them  over  night  in  a  warm 
place,  using  a  quart  of  water  to  each  quart 
of  the  peas.  Early  the  next  morning  boil 
them  an  hour.  Boil  with  them  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  saleratus  eight  or  ten  minutes,  then 
take  them  out  of  the  water  they  were  soak- 
ing in,  put  them  into  fresh  water,  with  a 
pound  of  salt  pork,  and  boil  it  till  the  peas 
are  soft,  which  will  be  in  the  course  of 
three  or  four  hours.  Green  peas  need  no 
soaliing,  and  boiling  only  long  enough  to 
have  the  pork  get  thoroughly  cooked, 
which  will  be  in  the  course  of  an  hour. 

OMELET. — Beat  the  eggs  to  a  froth,  and 
to  a  dozen  of  eggs  put  three  ounces  of 
finely  minced  boiled  ham,  beef,  or  veal ;  if 
the  latter  meat  is  used  add  a  little  salt. 
Melt  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  butter,  mix 
a  little  of  it  with  the  eggs — it  should  be 
just  lukewarm.  Set  the  remainder  of  the 
butter  on  the  fire  in  a  frying  or  tin  pan; 
when  quite  hot,  turn  in  the  eggs  beaten  to 
a  froth,  stir  them  until  they  begin  to  set. 
When  brown  on  the  under  side,  it  is  suffi- 
ciently cooked.  The  omelet  should  be  cooked 
on  a  moderate  fire,  and  in  a  pan  small 
enough"  to  have  the  omelet  an  inch  thick. 
When  you  take  them  up,  lay  a  flat  dish  on 
them,  then  turn  the  pan  upside  down. 

POACHED  EGGS. — Break  the  eggs  into  a 
pan,  beat  them  to  a  froth,  then  put  them 
into  a  buttered  tin  pan,  set  the  pan  on  a 
few  coals,  put  in  a  small  lump  of  butter, 
a  little  salt,  let  them  cook  very  slowly,  stir- 
ring them  constantly  till  they  become  quite 
thick,  then  turn  them  on  to  buttered  toast. 

BROILING,  BOILING,  AND  FRYING  FISH. — 
Fish  for  boiling  or  broiling  are  the  best 
the  day  after  they  are  caught.  They  should 
be  cleaned  when  first  caught,  washed  in 
cold  water,  and  half  a  teacupful  of  salt 
sprinkled  on  the  inside  of  them.  If  they 
are  to  be  broiled,  sprinkle  pepper  on  the 
inside  of  them — keep  them  in  a  cool  place. 
When  fish  is  broiled,  the  bars  of  the  grid- 
iron should  be  rubbed  over  with  a  little 
butter,  and  the  inside  of  the  fish  put  toward 
the  fire,  and  not  turned  till  the  fish  is  nearly 
cooked  through,  then  butter  the  skin  side 
and  turn  it  over;  fish  should  be  broiled 
slowly.  When  fresh  fish  is  to  be  boiled,  it 
should  either  be  laid  on  a  fish  strainer  or 
sewed  up  in  a  cloth;  if  not,  it  is  very  diffi- 


cult to  take  it  out  of  the  pot  without  break- 
ing. Put  the  fish  into  cold  water  with  the 
backbone  down.  To  eight  or  ten  pounds 
of  fish,  put  half  of  a  small  teacupful  of  salt. 
Boil  the  fish  until  you  can  draw  out  one 
of  the  fins  easily — most  kinds  of  fish  will 
boil  sufficiently  in  the  course  of  twenty  or 
thirty  minutes;  some  kinds  will  boil  in  less 
time.  Some  cooks  do  not  put  their  fish  into 
water  till  it  boils,  but  it  is  not  a  good  plan, 
as  the  outside  gets  cooked  too  much,  and 
breaks  to  pieces  before  the  inside  is  suffi- 
ciently done.  Fish  for  frying,  after  being 
cleaned  and  washed,  should  be  put  into  a 
cloth  to  have  it  absorb  the  moisture.  They 
should  be  dried  perfectly  and  a  little  flour 
rubbed  over  them.  No  salt  should  be  put 
on  them,  if  you  wish  to  have  them  brown 
well.  For  five  or  six  pounds  of  fish,  fry 
three  or  four  slices  of  .salt  pork;  when 
brown,  take  them  up,  and  if  they  do  not 
make  fat  sufficient  to  fry  the  fish  in,  add 
a  little  lard.  When  the  fish  are  fried 
enough,  take  them  up ;  for  good  plain  gravy, 
mix  two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  with 
a  little  water,  and  stir  it  into  the  fat  the 
fish  was  fried  in,  put  in  a  little  butter,  pep- 
per, and  salt;  if  you  wish  to  have  the  gravy 
rich  add  spices,  catsup,  and  wine;  turn  the 
gravy  over  the  fish.  Boiled  fish  should  be 
served  up  with  drawn  butter,  or  liver  sauce. 
Fish,  when  put  on  the  platter,  should  not 
be  laid  over  one  another  if  it  can  be  avoided, 
as  the  steam  from  the  under  ones  makes 
those  on  the  top  so  moist  that  they  will 
break  to  pieces  when  served  out. 

Great  care  and  punctuality  are  necessary 
in  cooking  fish.  If  not  done  sufficiently,  or 
if  done  too  much,  they  are  not  good.  They 
should  be  eaten  as  soon  as  cooked.  For 
a  garnish  to  the  fish,  use  parsley,  a  lemon, 
or  eggs  boiled  hard,  and  cut  in  slices. 

CHOWDER. — Fry  three  or  four  slices  of 
pork  till  brown,  cut  each  of  your  fish  into 
five  or  six  slices,  flour,  and  put  a  layer  of 
them  into  your  pork  fat,  sprinkle  on  pep- 
per and  a  little  salt — add  cloves,  mace,  and 
sliced  onions  if  you  like — lay  on  several 
bits  of  your  fried  pork,  and  crackers  pre- 
viously soaked  soft  in  cold  water.  This 
process  repeat  till  you  get  in  all  the  fish, 
then  turn  on  water  enough  to  just  cover 
them — put  on  a  heated  bake-pan  lid.  When 
the  fish  have  stewed  about  twenty  minutes, 
take  them  up  and  mix  a  couple  of  teaspoon- 
fuls of  flour  with  a  little  water,  and  stir 
it  into  the  gravy,  also  a  little  butter  and 
pepper.  Half  a  pint  of  white  wine,  spices, 
and  catsup  will  improve  it.  Bass  and  cod 
make  the  best  chowder,  blackfish  and  clams 


882 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


make  a  tolerably  good  one.     The  hard  part 
of  the  clams  should  be  thrown  away. 

STUFFED  AND  BAKED  FISH. — Soak  bread 
in  cold  water  till  soft,  drain  off  the  water, 
mash  the  bread  fine,  mix  it  with  a  table- 
spoonful  of  melted  butter,  a  little  pepper 
and  salt — a  couple  of  raw  eggs  makes  the 
dressing  cut  smoother — add  spices  if  you 
like.  Fill  the  fish  with  the  dressing,  sew  it 
up,  put  a  teacup  ful  of  water  in  your  bake- 
pan,  and  a  small  piece  of  butter,  lay  in  the 
fish,  bake  it  from  forty  to  fifty  minutes. 
Fresh  cod,  bass,  and  shad  are  suitable  fish 
for  baking. 

FISH  CAKES. — Cold  boiled  fresh  fish,  or 
salt  codfish,  is  nice  minced  fine,  with  pota- 
toes, moistened  with  a  little  water,  and  a 
little  butter  put  in,  done  up  into  cakes  the 
size  of  common  biscuit,  and  fried  brown  ki 
pork  fat  or  butter. 

FISH  FORCE-MEAT  BALLS. — Take  a  little 
uncooked  fish,  chop  it  fine,  together  with  a 
little  raw  salt  pork ;  mix  it  with  one  or  two 
raw  eggs,  a  few  bread  crumbs,  and  season 
the  whole  with  pepper  and  spices.  Add  a 
little  catsup  if  you  like,  do  them  up  into 
small  balls,  and  fry  them  till  brown. 

CLAMS. — Wash  and  put  them  in  a  pot, 
with  just  water  enough  to  prevent  the  shells 
burning  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  Heat 
them  till  the  shells  open — take  the  clams 
out  of  them,  and  warm  them  with  a  little 
of  the  clam  liquor,  a  little  salt,  butter,  and 
pepper.  Toast  a  slice  or  two  of  bread, 
soak  it  in  the  clam  liquor,  lay  it  in  a  deep 
dish,  and  turn  the  clams  on  to  it  For 
clam  pancakes,  mix  flour  and  milk  together 
to  form  a  thick  batter — some  cooks  use  the 
clam  liquor,  but  it  does  not  make  the  pan- 
cakes as  light  as  the  milk.  To  each  pint 
of  the  milk  put  a  couple  of  eggs  and  a  few 
clams — they  are  good  taken  out  of  the  shells 
without  stewing,  and  chopped  fine,  or  stewed, 
and  put  into  cakes  whole.  Very  large  long 
clams  are  good  taken  out  of  the  shells  with- 
out stewing,  and  broiled. 

STEWED  OYSTERS. — Strain  the  oyster  li- 
quor, rinse  the  bits  of  shells  off  the  oysters, 
then  turn  the  liquor  back  on  to  the  oysters, 
and  put  them  into  a  stew-pan — set  them 
where  they  will  boil  up,  then  turn  them 
on  to  buttered  toast — salt,  pepper,  and  but- 
ter them  to  your  taste.  Some  cooks  add 
a  little  walnut  catsup,  or  vinegar.  The 
oysters  should  not  be  cooked  until  just  be- 
fore they  are  to  be  eaten. 

To  FRY  OYSTERS.— Take  those  that  are 
large,  dip  them  in  beaten  eggs,  and  then  in 
flour  or  fine  bread  crumbs — fry  them  in 


lard,  till  of  a  light  brown.  They  are  a  nice 
garnish  for  fish.  They  will  keep  good  for 
several  months  if  fried  when  first  caught, 
sailed  and  peppered,  then  put  into  a  bottle, 
and  corked  tight.  Whenever  they  are  to  be 
eaten,  warm  them  in  a  little  water. 

OYSTER  PANCAKES. — Mix  equal  quantities 
of  milk  and  oyster  juice  together.  To  a 
pint  of  liquor  when  mixed  put  a  pint 
of.  wheat  flour,  a  few  oysters,  a  couple  of 
eggs,  and  a  little  salt.  Drop  by  the  large 
spoonful  into  hot  lard. 

OYSTER  PIE. — Line  a  deep  pie-plate  with 
pie  crust;  fill  it  with  dry  pieces  of  bread, 
cover  it  over  with  puff  paste;  bake  it  till 
a  light  brown,  either  in  a  quick  oven  or 
bake-pan.  Have  the  oysters  just  stewed  by 
the  time  the  crust  is  done ;  take  off  the  up- 
per crust,  remove  the  pieces  of  bread,  put 
in  the  oysters,  season  them  with  salt,  pep- 
per, and  butter.  A  little  walnut  catsup  im- 
proves the  pie,  but  is  not  essential — cover  it 
with  the  crust 

SCALLOPED  OYSTERS. — Pound  rusked  bread 
or  crackers  fine;  butter  scallop  shells  or 
tins,  sprinkle  on  the  bread  crumbs,  then  put 
in  a  layer  of  oysters,  a  small  lump  of  but- 
ter, pepper,  salt,  and  a  little  of  the  oyster 
juice;  then  put  on  another  layer  of  crumbs 
and  oysters,  and  so  on  till  the  shells  are 
filled,  having  a  layer  of  crumbs  at  the  top. 
Bake  them  till  a  light  brown. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  PICKLING. — Vinegar  for 
pickling  should  be  good,  but  not  of  the 
sharpest  kind.  Brass  utensils  should  be 
used  for  pickling.  They  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  before  using,  and  no  vinegar 
should  be  allowed  to  cool  in  them,  as  the 
rust  formed  by  so  doing  is  very  poisonous. 
Boil  alum  and  salt  in  the  vinegar,  in  the 
proportion  of  half  a  teacupful  of  salt  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  alum  to  three  gallons  of 
vinegar.  Stone  and  wooden  vessels  are  the 
only  kind  of  utensils  that  are  good  to  keep 
pickles  in.  Vessels  that  have  had  any 
grease  in  will  not  do  for  pickles,  as  no 
washing-  will  kill  the  grease  that  the  pot 
has  absorbed.  All  kinds  of  pickles  should 
be  stirred  up  occasionally.  If  there  are 
any  soft  ones  among  them,  they  should  be 
taken  out,  the  vinegar  scalded,  and  turned 
back  while  hot — if  very  weak,  throw  it  away 
and  use  fresh  vinegar.  Whenever  any  scum 
rises,  the  vinegar  needs  scalding.  If  you 
do  not  wish  to  have  all  your  pickles  spiced, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  a  stone  pot  of 
spiced  vinegar  by  itself,  and  put  in  a  few 
of  your  pickles  a  short  time  before  they 
are  to  be  eaten. 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


883 


HINTS     ON     CARVING 


CARVING  presents  no  difficulties ;  it  sim- 
ply requires  knowledge.  All  displays  of 
exertion  or  violence  are  in  very  bad  taste; 
for,  if  not  proved  an  evidence  of  the  want 
of  ability  on  the  part  of  the  carver,  they 
present  a  very  strong  testimony  of  the 
toughness  of  a  joint. 

Lightness  of  hand  and  dexterity  of  man- 
agement are  necessary,  and  can  only  be 
acquired  by  practice.  In  addition  to  the 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  knife,  there  is  also 
required  another  description  of  knowl- 
edge, and  that  is  an  acquaintance  with  the 
best  part  of  the  joint,  fowl  or  fish  being 
carved.  Thus  in  a  haunch  of  venison  the 
fat  should  be  served  with  each  slice;  in 
the  shoulder  of  mutton  there  are  some 
delicate  cuts  in  the  under  part.  The  breast 
and  wings  are  the  best  part  of  a  fowl, 
and  the  trail  of  a  woodcock  on  a  toast  is 
the  choicest  part  of  the  bird.  The  list, 
however,  is  too  numerous  to  mention  here; 
and,  indeed,  the  knowledge  can  only  be 
acquired  by  experience.  In  the  following 
directions,  accompanied  by  diagrams,  we 
have  endeavored  to  be  as  explicit  as  pos- 
sible; but  while  they  will  prove  as  land- 
marks to  the  uninitiated,  he  will  find  that 
practice  alone  will  enable  him  to  carve 
with  skill  and  facility. 

AN  AITCH-BONE  OF  BEEF. — This  is  a 
simple  joint  to  carve,  but  the  slices  from 
it  must  be  cut  quite  even,  and  of  a  very 
moderate  thickness.  When  the  joint  is 
boiled,  before  cutting  to  serve,  remove  a 
slice  from  the  whole  of  the  upper  part  of 
sufficient  thickness,  say  a  quarter  of  an 
inch,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  juicy  part 
of  the  meat  at  once.  Carve  from  I  to  2; 
let  the  slices  be  moderately  thin— not  too 


Aitch  Bone 


thin;  help  fat  with  the  lean  in  one  piece, 
and  give  a  little  additional  fat  which  you 


will  find  below  3;  the  solid  fat  is  at  i, 
and  must  be  cut  in  slices  horizontally.  The 
round  of  beef  is  carved  in  the  same  man- 
ner. 

HAM. — It  is  served  as  placed  in  the  en- 
graving,   and    should    come    to    the    table 


Ham 

ornamented.  Carve  from  A  to  B,  cutting 
thin  slices  slantingly,  to  give  a  wedge-like 
appearance.  Those  who  prefer  can  carve 
the  hock  at  D,  in  the  same  direction  as 
from  A  to  B,  then  carve  from  D  to  c,  in 
thin  slices,  as  indicated  in  the  diagram. 

THE  SIRLOIN  OF  BEEF. — The  under  part 
should  be  first  served,  and  carved  as  indi- 


Sirloin  of  Beef 


cated  in  the  engraving,  across  the  bone. 
In  carving  the  upper  part  the  same  direc- 
tions should  be  followed  as  for  the  ribs, 
or  in  the  centre,  from  A  to  B,  and  helping 
the  fat  from  D. 

SUCKING  PIG. — The  cook  should  send  a 
roast  pig  to  table  garnished  with  head  and 
ears.  Carve  the  joints,  then  divide  the 
ribs,  serve  with  plenty  of  sauce;  should 
one  of  the  joints  be  too  much,  it  may  be 
separated;  bread  sauce  and  stuffing  should 
accompany  it. 

BOILED  TONGUE. — Carve  across  the 
tongue,  but  do  not  cut  through;  keep  the 
slices  rather  thin,  and  help  the  fat  from 
underneath. 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


BRISKET  OF  BEEF  must  be  carved  in  the 
direction  i  and  2  quite  down  to  the  bone, 


Brisket  of  Beef 

after  cutting  off  the  outside,  which  should 
be  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick. 

RIBS  OF  BEEF  are  carved  similar  to  the 
sirloin,  commencing  at  the  thin  end  of  the 
joint,  and  cutting  long  slices,  so  as  to  as- 
sist fat  and  lean,  at  the  same  time. 

ROUND  OR  BUTTOCK  OF  BEEF. — Remove  the 
tipper  surface  in  the  same  manner  as  for  an 
aitch-bone  of  beef,  carve  thin  horizontal 
slices  of  fat  and  lean,  as  evenly  as  possible. 
It  requires  a  sharp  knife  and  steady  hand  to 
carve  it  well. 

LEG  OF  MUTTON. — The  under  or  thickest 
part  of  the  leg  should  be  placed  upper- 
most, and  carved  in  slices  moderately  thin, 
from  B  to  c.  When  cold  the  back  of  the 
leg  should  be  placed  uppermost,  and  thus 
carved;  if  the  cramp  bone  is  requested, 
and  some  persons  regard  it  as  a  dainty, 
hold  the  shank  with  your  left  hand,  and 


B 


Leg  of  Mutton 

insert  your  knife  at  D,  passing  it  round  to 
E,  and  you  will  remove  it. 

RIBS  OF  BEEF. — There  are  two  modes  of 
carving  this  joint.  The  first,  which  is  now 
becoming  common,  and  is  easy  to  an  ama- 
teur carver,  is  to  cut  across  the  bone,  com- 
mencing in  the  centre,  and  serving  fat 
from  A,  as  marked  in  the  engraving  of 
the  sirloin;  or  it  should  be  carved  in  slices 
from  A  to  c,  commencing  either  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  joint  or  at  the  sides.  Occasion- 


ally the  bones  are  removed,  and  the  meat 
formed  into  a  fillet;  it  should  then  be 
carved  as  a  round  of  beef. 

THE  LOIN  OF  MUTTON,  if  small,  should 
be  carved  in  chops,  beginning  with  the 
outer  chop;  if  large,  carve  slices  the  whole 
length,  A  neat  way  is  to  run  the  knife 
along  the  chine  bone  and  under  the  meat 
along  the  ribs ;  it  may  then  be  cut  in  slices ; 
and  by  this  process  fat  and  lean  are 
served  together.  Your  knife  should  be 
very  sharp,  and  it  should  be  done  cleverly. 

NECK  OF  MUTTON,  if  the  scrag  and  chine 
bone  are  removed,  is  carved  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  bones. 

THE  SCRAG  OF  MUTTON  should  be  sep- 
arated from  the  ribs  of  the  neck,  and  when 
roasted  the  bone  assisted  with  the  meat. 

HAUNCH  OF  MUTTON  is  carved  as  haunch 
of  venison. 

ROAST  FOWL. — This  operation  is  a  nice 
and  skilful  one  to  perform  ;  it  requires 


Roast  Fowl 

both  observation  and  practice.  Insert  the 
knife  between  the  legs  and  the  side,  press 
back  the  leg  with  the  blade  of  the  knife, 
and  the  joint  will  disclose  itself;  if  young, 
it  will  part,  but  at  best,  if  judiciously  man- 
aged, will  require  but  a  nick  where  the 
joints  unite.  Remove  your  wing  from  D 
to  B,  cut  through  and  lay  it  back  as  with 
the  leg,  separating  the  joint  with  the  edge 
of  your  knife,  remove  the  merrythought 
and  neck  bones  next;  this  you  will  accom- 
plish by  inserting  the  knife  and  forcing  it 
under  the  bones;  raise  it,  and  it  will  read- 
ily separate  from  the  breast.  You  will 
divide  the  breast  from  the  body  by  cutting 


Carving  Roast  Fowl 

through  the  small  ribs  down  to  the  vent, 
tarn   the   back   uppermost,   now   put   your 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


885 


knife  into  about  the  centre  between  the 
neck  and  rump,  raise  the  lower  part  firmly 
yet  gently,  it  will  easily  separate;  turn 
the  neck  or  rump  from  you,  take  off  the 
side  bones  and  the  fowl  is  carved. 

In  separating  the  thigh  from  the  drum- 
stick, you  must  insert  the  knife  exactly 
at  the  joint,  as  we  have  indicated  in  the 
engraving;  this,  however,  will  be  found  to 
require  practice,  for  the  joint  must  be  ac- 
curately hit,  or  else  much  difficulty  will 
be  experienced  in  getting  the  parts  asun- 
der. There  is  no  difference  in  carving 
roast  and  boiled  fowls,  if  full  grown;  but 
in  a  very  young  fowl  when  roasted,  the 
breast  is  served  whole.  The  wings  and 
breast  are  in  the  highest  favor,  but  the  leg 
of  a  young  fowl  is  an  excellent  part. 

GEESE. — Follow  with  your  knife  the  lines 
marked  in  the  engraving,  A  to  B,  and  cut 
slices,  then  remove  the  wing,  and  if  the 
party  be  large,  the  legs  must  also  be  re- 
moved, and  here  the  disjointer  will  again 
prove  serviceable.  The  stuffing,  as  in  the 


.    Goose 

turkey,  will  be  obtained  by  making  an  in- 
sertion at  the  apron. 

GUINEA  FOWL  are  carved  in  the  same 
manner. 

GROUSE  AND  PLOVER  are  carved  as  par- 
tridges. 

SNIPE  AND  WOODCOCK  are  divided  into 
two  parts;  the  trail  being  served  on  a 
toast. 

FISH  should  never  be  carved  with  steel; 
serving  requires  more  care  than  knowl- 


Middle  Cut  of  Salmon 


edge;    the    principal    caution    is    to    avoid 
breaking  the  flakes.     In  carving  a  piece  of 


salmon  as  here  engraved,  cut  thin  slices, 
as  from  A  to  B,  and  help  with  it  pieces  of 
the  belly  in  the  direction  marked  from  c 
to  D.  The  best  flavored  is  the  upper  or 
thick  part. 

HADDOCK. — It  is  dressed  whole,  unless 
unusually  large.  When  sent  to  the  table 
it  is  split  its  whole  length,  and  served  one- 
half  the  head  to  the  tail  of  the  other  part; 
it  is  carved  across. 

MACKEREL  should  always  be  sent  to  table 
head  to  tail.  Divide  the  meat  from  the 


Mackerel 


bone  by  cutting  down  the  back  length- 
wise from  i  to  2;  upper  part  is  the  best. 
All  small  fish,  such  as  herrings,  smelts, 
etc.,  are  served  whole. 

NECK  OF  VEAL. — Were  you  to  attempt 
to  carve  each  chop  and  serve  it,  you 
would  not  only  place  a  gigantic  bit  upon 
the  plate  of  the  person  you  intended  to 
help,  but  you  would  waste  time,  and  if  the 
vertebrae  had  not  been  jointed  by  the 
butcher  you  would  find  yourself  in  the 
position  of  the  ungraceful  carver,  being 
compelled  to  exercise  a  degree  of  strength 


Neck  of  Veal 

which  should  never  be  suffered  to  appear; 
very  possibly,  too,  assisting  gravy  in  a 
manner  not  contemplated  by  the  person 
unfortunate  enough  to  receive  it.  Cut  di- 
agonally from  B  to  A,  and  help  in  slices 
of  moderate  thickness;  you  can  cut  from 
c  to  D  in  order  to  separate  the  small  bones; 
divide  and  serve  them,  having  first  inquired 
if  they  are  desired. 

THE  BREAST  OF  VEAL. — Separate  the  ribs 
from  A  to  B;  these  small  bones,  which  are 
the  sweetest  and  mostly  chosen,  you  will 


886 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


cut  them  as  D  D  D,  and  serve.     The  long 
ribs  are  divided  as  at  c  c  c;  and  having 


Breast  of  Veal 

ascertained   the   preference   of  the   person, 
help  accordingly. 

BOILED  TURKEY  is  trussed  in  a  different 
fashion  to  the  roast,  but  the  same  direc- 
tions given  for  the  first  apply  to  the  sec- 
ond. The  legs  in  the  boiled  turkey  being 


Boiled  Turkey 


drawn  into  the  body  may  cause  some  lit- 
tle difficulty  at  first  in  their  separation, 
but  a  little  practice  will  soon  surmount  it. 

FILLET  OF  VEAL. — Cut  a  slice  off  the 
whole  of  the  upper  part  in  the  same  way 
as  from  a  round  of  beef;  this  being,  if 
well  roasted,  of  a  nice  brown,  should  be 
helped  in  small  pieces  with  the  slices  you 


Fillet  of  Veal 

cut  for  each  person.  The  stuffing  is 
skewered  in  the  flap,  and  where  the  bones 
come  out  there  is  some  placed;  help  this 
with  the  meat,  with  a  piece  of  the  fat. 

LOIN  OF  VEAL. — This  joint    is    sent    to 
table  served  as  a  sirloin  of  beef.     Having 


turned  it  over,  cut  out  the  kidney  and  the 
aft,  return  it  to  its  proper  position,  and 
carve  it  as  in  the  neck  of  veal,  from  B  to 
A;  help  with  it  a  slice  of  kidney  and  fat. 
The  kidney  is  usually  placed  upon  a  dry 
toast  when  removed  from  the  joint. 

SHOULDER  OF  VEAL  is  sent  to  table  with 
the  under  part  placed  uppermost  Help  it 
as  a  shoulder  of  mutton,  beginning  at  the 
knuckle  end. 

A  SHOULDER  OF  MUTTON. — This  is  a 
joint  upon  which  a  great  diversity  of  opin- 
ion exists,  many  professing  a  species  »of 
horror  at  its  insipidity,  others  finding  much 
delicacy  of  flavor  in  certain  parts.  In  good 
mutton  there  is  no  doubt  but  that,  if  prop- 
erly managed,  it  is  an  excellent  joint,  and, 
if  judiciously  served,  will  give  satisfaction 
to  all  who  partake  of  it.  It  should  be 
served  hot.  It  is  sent  to  table  lying  on 
the  dish  as  shown  in  the  annexed  engrav- 
ing. Commence  carving  from  A  to  B,  tak- 
ing out  moderately  thin  slices  in  the  shape 
of  a  wedge;  some  nice  pieces  may  then 
be  helped  from  the  blade  bone,  from  c  to 
B,  cutting  on  both  sides  of  the  bone.  Cut 
the  fat  from  D,  carving  it  in  thin  slices. 
Some  of  the  most  delicate  parts,  however, 


Shoulder  of  Mutton 


lie  on  the  under  part  of  the  shoulder;  take 
off  thin  pieces  horizontally  from  B  to  c, 
and  from  A;  some  tender  slices  are  to  be 
met  with  at  D,  but  they  must  be  cut 
through  as  indicated. 

The  shoulder  of  mutton  is  essentially  a 
joint  of  titbits,  and  therefore,  when  carv- 
ing it,  the  tastes  of  those  at  the  table 
should  be  consulted.  It  is  a  very  insipid 
joint  when  cold,  and  should  therefore  be 
hashed  if  sent  to  table  a  second  time. 

WILD  DUCK  AND  WIDGEON. — The  breast 
of  these  fowls,  being  the  best  portion,  is 
carved  in  slices,  which  being  removed,  a 
glass  of  old  port  made  hot  is  poured  in, 
the  half  of  a  lemon  seasoned  with  cayenne 


HINTS   TO   HOUSEKEEPERS 


887 


and  salt  should  then  be  squeezed  in,  the 
slices  relaid  in  their  places,  and  then 
served,  the  joints  being  removed  the  same 
as  in  other  fowl. 

PARTRIDGE. — Separate  the  legs,  and  then 
divide  the  bird  into  three  parts,  leaving 
each  leg  and  wing  together.  The  breast 
is  then  divided  from  the  back,  and  .helped 
whole,  the  latter  being  assisted  with  any 
of  the  other  parts.  When  the  party  con- 
sists of  gentlemen  only,  the  bird  is  divided 
into  two  by  cutting  right  through  from 
the  vent  to  the  neck. 

PIGEON. — Like  woodcock,  these  birds  are 


cut  in  half,  through  the  breast  and  back, 
and  helped. 

ROAST  TURKEY. — Cut  long  slices  from 
both  sides  of  the  breast  down  to  the  ribs 
at  the  breast-bone.  If  a  large  bird  the 
legs  may  be  removed,  and  the  drumsticks 
taken  off.  The  stuffing  may  be  removed 
by  making  an  incision  in  the  apron. 

BOILED  FOWL. — There  is  but  little  dif- 
ference in  the  mode  of  carving  roast  and 
boiled  fowl,  and  that  little  lies  in  the 
breast  of  the  former  being  generally  served 
entire — the  thigh-bone,  too,  is  preferred  by 
many  to  the  wing. 


FOR  USE  IN  THE  MORNING. — For  five  or 
six  pounds  of  flour  to  a  baking.  Sift  your 
flour  into  a  bowl.  Draw  it  to  the  edges  of 
the  bowl,  leaving  a  well  in  the  middle,  and 
leaving  about  two  inches  of  flour  covering 
the  bottom  of  the  well.  Dissolve  thor- 
oughly one  cake  of  compressed  yeast  in  a 
teacupful  of  lukewarm  water,  and  add  same 
to  one  and  one-half  pints  of  lukewarm 
water,  and  pour  the  liquid  into  the  well  in 
your  flour.  Stir  in — from  the  wall  of  flour 
surrounding  the  well — sufficient  flour  to 
make  a  sponge  considerably  thicker  than 
griddle-cake  batter.  Beat  the  sponge  thor- 
oughly; dust  a  little  flour  over  it;  cover 
with  "  -loth,  and  set  in  a  moderately  warm 
place,  free  from  draught,  to  rise.  As  soon 
as  it  has  risen  well — which  will  be  indicated 
by  the  covering  of  flour  becoming  cracked 
and  air  bubbles  coming  through  the  cracks 
— stir  the  sponge  down;  add  one  table- 
spoonful  of  salt  and  about  one  pint  of  luke- 
warm water,  and  make  a  moderately  stiff 
dough.  Care  should  be  exercised  not  to 
take  sponge  or  dough  before  they  are  ready. 
Knead  well  and  set  to  rise.  When  thor- 
oughly light,  make  into  loaves  and  set  them 
to  rise,  and  when  well  risen  bake  in  a  mod- 
erately quick  oven.  Remember,  the  loaves 
will  spring  still  more  in  the  oven.  When 
baked,  lean  the  loaves  against  something; 
cover  with  a  cloth,  and  cool  by  contact 
with  the  air  on  all  sides. 

QUICK  METHOD. — To  about  three  and  one- 
half  pounds  of  sifted  flour  add  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  salt  and  mix  thoroughly  to- 
gether. Then  dissolve  two  cakes  of  com- 
pressed yeast  in  one  pint  of  lukewarm 
water,  and  add  another  pint  of  lukewarm 
water  to  it  See  that  the  water  is  not  hot. 


Pour  the  water  and  yeast  over  the  flour, 
and  make  a  moderately  stiff  dough.  Knead 
thoroughly,  and  set  in  a  warm  place  to  rise. 
When  well  risen,  mold  into  loaves;  let 
them  rise,  and  then  bake. 

Potatoes,  and  same  quantity  of  butter,  or 
lard  and  sugar,  as  of  salt,  may  be  used  with 
either  of  the  foregoing  recipes. 

FOR  USE  AT  NIGHT. — Dissolve  thoroughly 
one  cake  of  compressed  yeast  in  a  small 
teacupful  of  lukewarm  water,  and  add  same 
to  from  one  pint  to  one  quart  of  water — 
lukewarm  in  winter  and  cold  in  summer. 
Then  add  from  one  to  two  teaspoonfuls 
each  of  salt,  sugar,  and  lard — according  to 
the  quantity  of  water  used — and  stir  in 
sifted  flour  enough  to  make  a  moderately 
stiff  dough.  Knead  thoroughly,  cover  with 
a  cloth,  and  set  in  a  moderately  warm  place, 
free  from  draught,  to  rise.  In  the  morn- 
ing, make  into  loaves  and  set  them  to  rise. 
When  well  risen,  bake  in  a  moderately  quick 
oven.  When  baked,  lean  the  loaves  against 
something,  cover  with  a  cloth,  and  cool  by 
contact  with  the  air  on  all  sides.  Sugar 
and  lard  may  be  left  out  if  desired. 

BISCUITS. — Either  of  the  above  processes, 
with  shortening  to  suit,  will  produce  fine 
light  biscuits  or  breakfast  rolls. 

SPONGE  BREAD. — For  four  loaves  of  bread, 
take  three  quarts  of  wheat  flour  and  the 
same  quantity  of  boiling  water;  mix  them 
well  together.  Let  it  remain  till  lukewarm, 
then  add  a  teacupful  of  family  or  half  a  tea- 
cupful  of  distillery  yeast.  Set  it  in  a  warm 
place  to  rise.  When  light,  knead  in  flour 
till  stiff  enough  to  mold  up,  then  let  it  stand 
till  risen  again  before  molding  it  up. 

TEA  ROLLS. — Take  two  quarts  of  sifted 


888 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


flour,  a  yeast  cake  dissolved  in  lukewarm 
milk,  a  heaping  teaspoonful  of  salt,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  powdered  sugar,  two- 
thirds  of  a  cup  of  butter,  and  lukewarm 
milk  enough  to  make  a  moderately  stiff 
dough.  Set  to  rise  about  2  P.M.  When 
well  risen,  make  into  rolls  and  set  them  to 
rise.  Twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour,  in 
a  quick  oven,  will  be  sufficient  to  bake. 

If  wanted  for  breakfast,  set  overnight 
with  a  half  cake  of  yeast. 

BUCKWHEAT  CAKES. — Dissolve  one  cake 
of  compressed  yeast  in  one  pint  of  luke- 
warm milk  or  water.  Rub  together  one 
tablespoonful  of  wheat  flour,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  molasses  or  sugar,  and  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt.  Add  to  this  the  milk 
or  water  containing  the  dissolved  yeast,  and 
rub  until  perfectly  smooth,  and  then  stir 
in  one  pint  of  lukewarm  milk  or  water. 
To  this  add  sufficient  buckwheat  flour — 
about  one  quart — to  make  thin  batter,  which 
should  be  rubbed  perfectly  smooth.  Set 
the  batter  in  a  moderately  warm  place 
to  rise  overnight.  In  the  morning,  thin, 
if  necessary,  and  fry  on  well-greased 
griddle. 

QUICK  PROCESS. — Dissolve  one  cake  of 
compressed  yeast  in  one  and  one-half  pints 
of  lukewarm  milk  or  water,  and  add  one 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  a  handful  of  wheat 
flour,  a  tablespoonful  of  molasses,  and 
buckwheat  flour  enough  to  make  ordinary 
batter.  Set  in  a  warm  place  to  rise.  Will 
be  ready  for  baking  in  about  thirty  minutes. 

WHEAT  GRIDDLE  CAKES. — Dissolve  one 
cake  of  compressed  yeast  in  one  pint  of 
lukewarm  milk  or  water.  Rub  together  one 
tablespoonful  each  of  butter,  white  Indian 
meal  and  sugar,  and  add  two  eggs,  well 
beaten,  and  a  little  salt.  Into  this  stir  the 
milk  or  water  containing  the  dissolved 
yeast,  and  add  sufficient  wheat  flour,  sifted, 
to  make  thin  batter.  Let  it  stand  in  a 
moderately  warm  place  for  thirty  minutes. 
If  too  thick,  thin  with  lukewarm  milk  or 
water,  and  fry  on  well-greased  griddle. 
Ready  in  thirty  minutes. 

EXCELLENT  BATTER  CAKES  WITHOUT  EGGS. 
— Dissolve  one  cake  of  compressed  yeast  in 
a  cupful  of  lukewarm  milk.  Put  into  your 
mixing  bowl  two  heaping  cupfuls  of  flour, 
four  tablespoonfuls  of  melted  lard,  four 
tablespoonfuls  of  syrup,  a  little  salt,  and 
two  cupfuls  of  milk  or  water — or  milk  and 
water  mixed.  Add  the  water  containing  the 
dissolved  yeast,  and  mix  until  a  smooth 
batter  is  produced.  Set  in  a  moderately 
•warm  place,  cover  with  a  cloth,  and  let  it 


rise  overnight.     In  the  morning  beat  well, 
and  fry  on  well-greased  griddle. 

GRAHAM  BREAD. — To  one  quart  of  Graham 
flour,  one  teacupful  of  rye  flour,  one  tea- 
cupful  of  wheat  flour,  half  a  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls — according 
to  taste — of  molasses,  and  a  piece  of  butter 
the  size  of  a  walnut,  add  one  and  one-half 
pints  of  lukewarm  water,  or  water  and 
milk  mixed,  in  which  a  yeast  cake  has  been 
dissolved,  and  mix  all  thoroughly  together. 
Set  in  a  moderately  warm  place,  free  from 
draught,  to  rise.  When  well  risen,  add  one 
tablespoonful  of  wheat  flour,  knead  well, 
place  in  pans,  and  set  to  rise.  When  well 
risen,  bake  in  a  moderately  quick  oven. 
About  forty-five  minutes  will  be  sufficient 
to  bake. 

If  mixed  overnight,  use  half  a  cake  of 
yeast. 

HARD  BISCUIT. — Weigh  out  four  pounds 
of  flour,  and  rub  three  pounds  and  a  half 
of  it  with  four  ounces  of  butter,  four  beaten 
eggs,  and  a  couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  salt. 
Moisten  it  with  milk,  pound  it  out  thin 
with  a  rolling-pin,  sprinkle  a  little  of  the 
reserved  flour  over  it  lightly,  roll  it  up  and 
pound  it  out  again,  sprinkle  on  more  of  the 
flour — this  operation  continue  to  repeat  till 
you  get  in  all  the  reserved  flour;  then  roll 
it  out  thin,  cut  it  into  cakes  with  a  tum- 
bler, lay  them  on  flat  buttered  tins,  cover 
them  with  a  damp  cloth  to  prevent  their 
drying.  Bake  them  in  a  quick  oven. 

BUNS. — Dissolve  one  cake  of  compressed 
yeast  in  a  pint  of  lukewarm  milk,  or  milk 
and  water  mixed.  Mix  together  four  ounces 
of  sugar,  four  ounces  of  butter — melted — 
two  beaten  eggs,  and  a  little  nutmeg  or  any 
other  flavoring  to  taste.  Pour  into  this  mix- 
ture the  liquid  containing  the  dissolved 
yeast,  and  add  sufficient  flour  to  make  soft 
dough.  Flour  your  baking  board,  turn  the 
dough  onto  it,  and  spread  it  into  a  flat  cake 
with  the  knuckles.  Fold  the  dough  over 
so  that  the  edges  meet,  and  press  the  edges 
together  first,  in  order  that  air  may  be  re- 
tained in  the  middle.  Then  press  the  dough 
out  as  before;  fold  it  over  again;  press  the 
edges  together,  and  repeat  the  operation 
four  or  five  times.  Set  the  dough  in  a 
moderately  warm  place,free  from  draught,  to 
rise,  for  about  two  hours  or  two  hours  and 
a  half.  When  light,  knead  slightly;  make 
into  round  balls,  flatten  them  with  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  and  set  them  to  rise  again. 
When  light,  bake  in  a  moderate  oven  for 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes. 

CRACKERS. — Rub  six  ounces  of  butter  with 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


889 


two  pounds  of  flour — dissolve  a  couple  of 
teaspoonfuls  of  saleratus  in  a  wine-glass  of 
milk,  and  strain  it  on  to  the  flour — add  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  milk  enough  to  en- 
able you  to  roll  it  out.  Beat  with  a  rolling- 
pin  for  half  an  hour,  pounding  it  out  thin — 
cut  into  cakes  with  a  tumbler — bake  them 
about  fifteen  minutes,  then  take  them  from 
the  oven.  When  the  rest  of  your  things 
are  baked  sufficiently,  take  them  out,  set 
in  the  crackers,  and  let  them  remain  till 
baked  hard  and  crispy. 

CREAM  CAKES. — Mix  half  a  pint  of  thick 
cream  with  the  same  quantity  of  milk,  four 
eggs,  and  flour  to  render  them  just  stiff 
enough  to  drop  on  buttered  tins.  They 
should  be  dropped  by  the  large  spoonful  sev- 
eral inches  apart,  and  baked  in  a  quick  oven. 

CRUMPETS.  —  Take  three  teacupfuls  of 
raised  dough ;  work  into  it  with  the  hand  half 
a  teacupful  of  melted  butter,  three  eggs,  and 
milk  to  render  it  a  thick  batter.  Turn  it 
into  a  buttered  bake-pan,  let  it  remain  fif- 
teen minutes,  then  put  on  a  bake-pan  heated 
so  as  to  scorch  flour.  It  will  bake  in  half 
an  hour. 

RICE  CAKES. — Mix  a  pint  of  rice  boiled 
soft  with  a  pint  of  milk,  a  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  and  three  eggs  beaten  to  a  froth.  Stir 
in  rice  or  wheat  flour  till  of  the  right  con- 
sistency to  fry.  If  you  like  them  baked, 
add  two  more  eggs,  and  enough  more  flour 
to  make  them  stiff  enough  to  roll  out,  and 
cut  them  into  cakes. 

BUCKWHEAT  CAKES. — Mix  a  quart  of 
buckwheat  flour  with  a  pint  of  lukewarm 
milk  (water  will  do,  but  is  not  as  good), 
and  a  teacup  of  yeast;  set  it  in  a  warm 
place  to  rise.  When  light  (which  will  be 
in  the  course  of  eight  or  ten  hours  if  fam- 
ily yeast  is  used ;  if  brewer's  yeast  is  used 
they  will  rise  much  quicker),  add  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt — if  sour,  the  same  quantity 
of  saleratus,  dissolved  in  a  little  milk  and 
strained.  If  they  are  too  thick,  thin  them 
with  cold  milk  or  water.  Fry  them  in  just 
fat  enough  to  prevent  their  sticking  to  the 
frying-pan. 

GREEN-CORN  CAKE. — Mix  a  pint  of  grated 
green  corn  with  three  tabkspoonfuls  of 
milk,  a  teacupful  of  flour,  half  a  teacupful 
of  melted  butter,  one  egg,  a  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  pepper.  Drop 
this  mixture  into  hot  butter  by  the  spoon- 
ful, let  the  cakes  fry  eight  or  ten  minutes. 
These  cakes  are  nice  served  up  with  meat 
for  dinner. 

INDIAN-CORN  CAKE. — Stir  into  a  quart  of 
soul  milk  or  buttermilk  a  couple  of  tea- 


spoonfuls  of  saleratus,  a  little  salt,  and  sifted 
Indian  meal  to  render  it  a  thick  batter — a 
little  cream  improves  the  cake — bake  it  in 
deep  cake-pans  about  an  hour.  When  soui 
milk  can  not  be  procured,  boil  sweet  milk, 
and  turn  it  on  to  the  Indian  meal ;  when 
cool,  put  in  three  beaten  eggs  to  a  quart 
of  the  meal,  add  salt  to  the  taste. 

INDIAN  SLAPJACKS. — Scald  a  quart  of 
Indian  meal,  when  lukewarm  turn,  stir  in 
half  a  pint  of  flour,  half  a  teacupful  of  yeast, 
and  a  little  salt.  When  light,  fry  them  in 
just  fat  enough  to  prevent  their  sticking 
to  the  frying-pan.  Another  method  of 
making  them,  which  is  very  nice,  is  to  turn 
boiling  milk  or  water  on  to  the  Indian  meal, 
in  the  proportion  of  a  quart  of  the  former 
to  a  pint  of  the  latter,  stir  in  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  flour,  three  eggs  well  beaten, 
and  a  couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  salt. 

JOHNNY-CAKES. — Scald  a  quart  of  sifted 
Indian  meal  with  sufficient  water  to  make  it 
a  very  thick  batter;  stir  in  two  or  three 
teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  mold  it  with  the  hand 
into  small  cakes.  In  order  to  mold  them 
up  it  will  be  necessary  to  rub  a  good  deal 
of  flour  on  the  hands,  to  prevent  their 
sticking.  Fry  them  in  nearly  fat  enough 
to  cover  them.  When  brown  on  the  under 
side  they  should  be  turned.  It  takes  about 
twenty  minutes  to  cook  them.  When 
cooked,  split  and  butter  them.  Another 
way  of  making  them,  which  is  nice,  is  to 
scald  the  Indian  meal,  and  put  in  saleratus, 
dissolved  in  milk,  and  salt  in  the  proportion 
of  a  teaspoonful  of  each  to  a  quart  of 
meal.  Add  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of 
wheat  flour  and  drop  the  batter  by  the 
large  spoonful  into  a  frying-pan.  The 
batter  should  be  of  a  very  thick  consis- 
tency, and  there  should  be  just  fat  enough 
in  the  frying-pan  to  prevent  the  cakes 
sticking  to  it. 

HOE  CAKE. — Scald  a  quart  of  Indian 
meal  with  just  water  enough  to  make  a 
thick  batter;  stir  in  a  couple  of  teaspoon- 
fuls of  salt,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  but- 
ter; turn  it  into  a  buttered  bake-pan,  and 
bake  it  half  an  hour. 

MUFFINS. — Mix  a  quart  of  wheat  flour 
smoothly  with  a  pint  and  a  half  of  luke- 
warm milk,  half  a  teacupful  of  yeast,  a 
couple  of  beaten  eggs,  a  heaping  teaspoonful 
of  salt,  and  a  couple  of  tablespoonfuls  of 
lukewarm  melted  butter;  set  the  batter  in 
a  warm  place  to  rise;  when  light,  butter 
your  muffin  cups,  turn  in  the  mixture,  and 
bake  the  muffins  till  a  light  brown. 

RAISED    FLOUR    WAFFLES. — Stir    into    a 


890 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


quart  of  flour  sufficient  lukewarm  milk  to 
make  a  thick  batter — the  milk  should  be 
stirred  in  gradually,  so  as  to  have  it  free 
from  lumps — put  in  a  tablespoonful  of 
melted  butter,  a  couple  of  beaten  eggs,  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  half  a  teacupful  of 
yeast ;  when  risen,  fill  your  waffle-irons  with 
the  batter,  bake  them  on  a  hot  bed  of  coals. 
When  they  have  been  on  the  fire  between 
two  and  three  minutes,  turn  the  waffle-irons 
over;  when  brown  on  both  sides,  they  are 
sufficiently  baked.  The  waffle-irons  should 
be  well  greased  with  lard,  and  very  hot, 
before  each  one  is  put  in.  The  waffles 
should  be  buttered  as  soon  as  cooked. 
Serve  them  up  with  powdered  white  sugar 
and  cinnamon. 

QUICK  WAFFLES. — Mix  flour  and  cold 
milk  together,  to  make  a  thick  batter.  To 
a  quart  of  the  flour  put  six  beaten  eggs,  a 
tablespoonful  of  melted  butter,  and  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt.  Some  cooks  add  a  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  sugar  and  half  a  nutmeg. 
Bake  them  immediately. 

RICE  WAFFLES. — Take  a  teacupful  and  a 
half  of  boiled  rice,  warm  it  with  a  pint  of 
milk,  mix  it  smooth,  then  take  it  from  the 
fire,  stir  in  a  pint  of  cold  milk  and  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt.  Beat  four  eggs,  and  stir 
them  in,  together  with  sufficient  flour  to 
make  a  thick  batter. 

RICE  WAFERS. — Melt  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  butter,  and  mix  it  with  a  pound  of  rice 


flour,  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a  wineglass 
of  wine.  Beat  four  eggs,  and  stir  in,  to- 
gether with  just  cold  milk  enough  to  enable 
you  to  roll  them  out  easily.  They  should 
be  rolled  out  as  thin  as  possible,  cut  with 
a  wineglass  into  cakes,  and  baked  in  a 
moderate  oven,  on  buttered  flat  tins. 

Three  of  the  last  recipes  given  call  for 
the  use  of  brewer's  yeast,  a  substance  that 
is  now  but  little  used.  These  recipes,  in- 
volving the  use  of  brewer's  yeast,  are  pub- 
lished more  as  curiosities  than  for  serious 
consideration. 

Use  the  best  flour — it  is  the  cheapest. 
Always  sift  your  flour,  and  in  cold  weather 
warm  it  slightly. 

Sponges  should  be  thoroughly  mixed. 

Use  as  little  flour  as  possible  in  kneading ; 
knead  dough  until  it  is  as  elastic  as  rubber ; 
do  not  stop  while  kneading — dough  that 
has  rested  will  not  make  good  bread. 

Make  small  loaves  and  bake  well. 

If  your  bread  is  not  light  and  spongy 
enough,  give  your  sponge  more  age;  if  too 
much  so,  take  sponge  younger. 

Cold  and  salt  check  fermentation,  and 
heat  hastens  it;  therefore  your  sponge  may 
be  governed  by  temperature  and  salt. 

Keep  dough  well  covered  to  prevent  air 
from  forming  a  crust;  paper  is  better  than 
cloth,  as  air  will  not  penetrate  it. 

Bread  is  proved  sufficiently  for  the  oven 
when  the  dent  produced  by  pressing  the 
finger  on  the  loaf  will  remain. 


THE     HOUSEHOLD     CHEMIST 


IN  ADDITION  to  the  many  toilet  articles 
for  which  formulas  were  furnished  in  a 
preceding  chapter,  there  are  many  other 
chemical  articles  of  daily  use  in  the  house- 
hold that  can  be  made  very  easily  at  home, 
with  the  added  advantages  that  they  are 
much  cheaper  and  that  the  housekeeper 
knows  exactly  what  she  is  using. 

No  apparatus  is  needed  in  this  work 
other  than  that  which  was  called  for  in  the 
chapter  on  "Best  Cosmetics."  One  article 
of  daily  use  is  a  flavoring  extract  of  one 
kind  or  another  in  the  routine  of  cookery. 
We  give  below  formulas  for  making  the 
three  extracts  most  commonly  employed: 

EXTRACT  OF  VANILLA 

Vanillin Thirty  grains 

Alcohol Twelve  ounces 

Water Ten  ounces 

Caramel Twelve  drams 

Syrun Four  drams 


Vanillin  is  a  synthetic  form  of  vanilla, 
extracted  from  many  different  kinds  of 
woods.  In  chemical  composition  it  is 
identical  with  the  vanillin  extracted  from 
the  costly  vanilla  bean,  and  is  in  every  way 
as  healthy.  The  synthetic  product  is  really 
to  be  preferred  to  that  taken  from  the  bean, 
as  it  is  more  uniform  in  strength.  Dissolve 
the  vanilla  in  the  alcohol.  When  thor- 
oughly dissolved  add  the  water  and  shake 
well.  The  syrup  and  the  caramel  are  next 
added  in  tur»,  each  with  considerable  shak- 
ing, to  ensure  thorough  admixture. 

Make  the  caramel  by  placing  a  pound 
and  a  quarter  of  granulated  sugar  in  a 
clean  agate  pan.  Place  this  on  a  stove 
where  the  fire  is  not  too  hot,  and  stir  the 
sugar  while  it  gradually  turns  from  white 
to  a  rich  dark-brown.  At  the  same  time 
the  sugar  will  liquefy.  Pains  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  it  from  scorching.  When 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


891 


the  boiling-point  is  reached,  remove  the 
melted  sugar  quickly  from  the  stove.  Now, 
with  vigorous  stirring  add  just  enough 
boiling  water  to  make  a  pint  of  liquid  in  all, 
taking  pains  that  the  burned  sugar  is  all 
dissolved.  Strain  through  cloth  and  bottle 
as  soon  as  cool  enough.  Caramel  is  also 
much  used  for  darkening  soups. 

EXTRACT  OF  ORANGE 

How  much  orange  peel  is  thrown  away 
in  every  household?  More  than  enough 
every  year,  certainly,  to  supply  a  dozen 
similar  families  with  all  the  extract  of 
orange  required. 

Take  the  peels  of  two  or  three  oranges 
while  still  fresh  and  moist.  With  a  knife 
scrape  away  all  the  white  inner  part  of 
the  peel,  leaving  only  the  outer  golden  part. 
Cut  this  outer  peel  into  very  tiny  pieces. 
Weigh  out  two  ounces  of  this  cut  peel  and 
put  m  a  bottle.  Over  the  peel  pour  eight 
ounces  of  alcohol.  Stopper  the  bottle 
tightly,  shake  a  few  times,  and  set  away 
for  a  week,  shaking  the  bottle  vigorously 
several  times  each  day.  At  the  end  of  the 
week — or,  better  still,  two  weeks — filter 
the  liquid  through  filter  paper.  The  fil- 
trate will  be  extract  of  -orange,  and  the 
housekeeper  will  know  that  she  has  an  arti- 
cle free  from  any  kind  of  injurious  adul- 
teration. 

EXTRACT  OF   LEMON 

is  made  in  exactly  the  same  way,  substi- 
tuting the  same  part  of  the  lemon  peel  for 
orange  peel. 

CAUTION. — Never  use  the  same  piece  of 
filter  paper  for  extracts  of  two  different 
flavors.  After  filtering  always  cleanse  the 
glass  funnel  thoroughly  with  hot  water  and 
soap.  Otherwise  there  will  be  a  confusion 
of  flavors. 

All  flavoring  extracts  are  better  for  stand- 
ing for  some  length  of  time  before  using. 
An  extract  that  has  stood  for  a  year  is 
better  than  one  that  has  stood  for  six 
months.  For  the  same  reason,  in  the  cases 
of  lemon  and  orange  extracts,  it  will  be 
better  if  the  housekeeper  can  let  the  alcohol 
stand  for  several  weeks  before  filtering.  If 
a  little  is  required  for  immediate  use,  filter 
off  what  is  needed.  Let  the  rest  remain 
in  the  mixing  bottle. 

All  of  the  above  extracts  can  be  made 
profitably  for  sale,  and  the  manufacturer, 
if  the  above  formulas  are  faithfully  fol- 
lowed, can  guarantee  the  absolute  purity  of 
the  goods.  Let  no  reader,  however,  make 
the  grievous  error  that  one  of  the  writer's 


correspondents  once  made.  She  used  wood 
alcohol  because  it  was  cheaper  than  good 
aicohol!  Wood  alcohol  is  a  rank  poison, 
utterly  dangerous  to  the  stomach.  In  mak- 
ing extracts  use  only  the  best  95  per  cent 
alcohol. 

SILVER    POLISHING    POWDER 

Whiting Seven  pounds 

Oxide  of  iron One  pound 

Whiting  is  an  excellent  cleanser  and  pol- 
isher of  silver.  It  is  the  basis  of  99  per 
cent  of  the  silver  polishing  compounds  in 
the  market,  and  several  pounds  may  be 
bought  for  five  cents.  Some  housekeepers 
object  that  whiting  scratches  silver.  This 
is  because  it  has  not  been  freed  of  grit. 
Oxide  of  iron  is  the  commercial  form  of 
jewelers'  rouge,  but  is  very  much  cheaper. 
After  mixing  the  two  powders  according  to 
the  above  formula,  pass  the  mixture  sev- 
eral times  through  a  very  finely  meshed 
patent  flour-sifter.  This  will  remove  the 
grit.  When  polishing  silver,  moisten  a  soft 
rag  and  take  up  a  little  of  the  powder. 
Rub  well  and  briskly  all  over  the  silver 
until  the  piece  is  clean.  Then  rinse  with 
warm  water,  dry  and  polish  with  a  clean, 
soft  piece  of  canton  flannel.  The  re- 
sults will  equal  those  accomplished  with 
any  silver  polish  in  the  market. 

PUTZ  POMADE  (PASTE  POLISH  FOR  BASER 
METALS) 

It  is  not  profitable  to  make  this  compound 
in  smaller  quantity  than  is  called  for  in 
this  formula : 

Oxalic  acid One  pound 

Oxide  of  iron ..  Twenty-five  pounds 

Rottenstone Twenty  pounds 

Palm  oil Forty  pounds 

Vaseline Four  poundr 

The  first  three  ingredients  may  be  ob- 
tained at  any  paint  shop.  The  oils  should 
be  secured  of  some  wholesale  oil  house.  A 
very  poor  grade  of  vaseline  will  answer. 
As  oxalic  acid  is  a  violent  poison,  it  is 
better  to  buy  only  what  is  needed  for  im- 
mediate use.  Grind  it  to  a  fairly  fine  pow- 
der and  mix  thoroughly  with  the  oxide  and 
rottenstone.  When  this  is  done,  place  the 
oil  and  vaseline  over  the  fire,  melting  and 
stirring  them  together,  and  taking  pains  not 
to  scorch  the  vaseline.  When  the  oil  and 
vaseline  are  melted  add  the  powders,  stir- 
ring until  the  mixture  is  complete.*  Remove 
from  the  fire  and  stir  until  the  paste  is  cold 
and  firm. 


892 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


LIQUID    PUTZ    POLISH 

Many  housekeepers  prefer  to  use  a  liquid 
polish  for  metals.  Stir  from  twelve  to  fif- 
teen ounces  of  the  above  paste  in  a  gallon 
of  benzine,  and,  when  well  stirred,  add  am- 
monia water,  a  tablespoonful  at  a  time, 
until  the  liquid  becomes  thick  and  creamy. 
This  preparation  will  have  to  be  shaken 
always  before  using. 

LEMON     JUICE 

Lemon  juice  as  excellent  and  healthful 
as  that  which  comes  from  lemons  may  be 
made  in  this  way: 

Water Three  pints 

Citric  acid Four  ounces 

Essential  oil  of  lemon  peel..  Eight  drops 
Extract  of  lemon One-half  ounce 

Pour  the  water  into  a  two-quart  bottle. 
Add  the  citric  acid  and  shake  until  com- 
pletely dissolved.  Then  pour  the  eight  drops 
of  essential  oil  of  lemon  into  the  lemon  ex- 
tract, stir  well,  and  add  to  the  contents  of 
the  bottle.  Shake  well,  and  the  lemon  juice 
is  ready  for  use.  It  should  be  kept  in  a 
cool  place,  but  will  last  indefinitely. 

It  is  wise  to  keep  this  preparation  in  glass 
only.  It  should  never  be  poured  into  an 
earthen  jug  that  has  a  brown  glazed  in- 
side, for  this  glaze  is  supplied  by  the  use 
of  lead.  The  citric  acid,  acting  upon  the 
brown  glaze,  would  produce  citrate  of  lead, 
a  very  dangerous  poison. 

There  is  much  prejudice  in  the  minds  of 
misinformed  people  against  lemon  bever- 
ages made  from  citric  acid.  Yet  this  acid 
is  merely  the  crystal  formed  by  the  evap- 
oration of  the  juice  of  lemons  or  limes,  and 
is  made  in  countries  where  lemons  and 
limes  are  much  cheaper  than  here.  True, 
there  are  some  bad  preparations  made  of 
citric  acid  and  more  dangerous  substances, 
but  no  one  need  fear  to  use  the  lemon  juice 
described  above.  A  tablespoonful  or  more 
to  a  glass  of  water  may  be  used,  according 
to  taste. 

BLACK     INK 

The  best  article  procurable  in  this  line 
may  be  made  without  trouble  and  at  trifling 
expense  by  dissolving  an  ounce  of  nigrosin 
in  three  pints  of  boiling  water,  stirring  the 
same  until  all  the  nigrosin  is  dissolved.  Ni- 
grosin is  a  form  of  aniline  black  soluble 
in  water,  and  costs  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  ceats  per  ounce  package.  This  ink 
is  ready  for  bottling  as  soon  as  it  is  cold, 
although  it  is  better,  where  convenient,  to 


let  it  stand  exposed  in  a  shallow  pan  for 
some  days  in  a  room  where  there  is  no 
dust.  This  exposure  to  the  air  quickens 
the  blackening  of  the  ink,  though  the  same 
result  is  achieved,  more  slowly,  by  allow- 
ing it  to  stand  in  bottles  for  some  weeks. 
If  kept  tightly  stoppered  it  can  not  mould. 
This  ink,  simply  as  it  is  made,  is  perma- 
nent and  fine  enough  for  bank  and  count- 
ing-room work.  It  flows  freely,  and  is  an 
ideal  ink  for  fountain  pens. 

INDELIBLE     BLACK     INK 

Aniline  black. .  .Thirty-two  grains 

Alcohol One  pint 

Glycerine One  pound  (about  12  fl.  oz.) 

In  this  formula  nigrosin  must  not  be  used, 
as  in  the  preceding  one.  What  is  called 
for  here  is  the  regular  aniline  black,  not 
soluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol. 
Dissolve  the  aniline  black  in  the  alcohol  by 
vigorous  shaking  in  a  bottle.  Next  pour 
in  the  glycerine,  a  little  at  a  time,  shaking 
well  after  each  addition  until  the  mixture  is 
complete.  This  indelible  ink  is  used  for 
marking  linen  in  the  usual  way,  passing  a 
hot  iron  over  the  writing  as  soon  as  it  is 
dry. 

DEXTRINE     MUCILAGE 

Dextrine  is  a  form  of  starch  that  has  been 
through  processes  not  necessary  to  explain 
here.  In  its  properties  it  is  very  much  like 
gum  arabic,  and  it  costs  but  a  few  cents  a 
pound.  To  any  ordinary  quantity  of  boil- 
ing water  over  a  fire  add  dextrine,  a  little 
at  a  time,  with  much  stirring,  until  the 
water  has  dissolved  as  much  of  the  dextrine 
as  it  can.  When  this  is  done,  strain  the 
mucilage  through  a  fine  cloth.  When  cool, 
add  oil  of  cloves,  with  more  stirring,  at  the 
rate  of  twenty  drops,  or  a  little  more,  to 
every  quart  of  mucilage.  The  clove  oil  is 
used  to  keep  the  mucilage  from  souring. 
The  dextrine  left  on  the  straining  cloth 
may  be  used  over  again. 

GUM     ARABIC     MUCILAGE 

Dissolve  four  ounces  of  gum  arabic  in  a 
pint  of  boiling  water.  It  may  be  made 
thinner  if  desired,  but  will  then,  of  course, 
lose  in  adhesiveness.  Use  the  same  pro- 
portion of  oil  of  cloves  as  in  the  preceding 
formula. 

STOVE   POLISH 

Black  lead One  pound 

Copperas Two  pounds 

Bone  black One  pound 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


893 


As  the  copperas  comes  in  crystals  it  must 
be  ground  to  a  fine  powder.  The  three  in- 
gredients are  then  well  mixed.  For  use  add 
enough  water  to  a  little  of  the  powder  to 
make  the  liquid  of  about  the  consistency  of 
cream.  Apply  to  the  stove  in  the  usual  way 
and  brush  briskly.  A  lustrous  and  durable 
polish  is  obtained.  There  is  no  better  article 
on  the  market. 

A    TEST    FOR    SEWER    GAS 

Dissolve  one  ounce  of  acetate  of  lead 
("sugar  of  lead")  in  six  ounces  of  water. 
When  solution  is  complete  pour  into  a  shal- 
low glass  dish.  Immerse  in  this  liquid 
strips  of  paper  two  inches  long  and  a  half 
inch  wide.  The  paper  should  be  white, 
and  rather  porous ;  glazed  paper  will  not 
do.  When  the  strips  have  been  thoroughly 
soaked  in  the  solution  pin  them  on  a  stand- 
ing board  to  dry.  When  dry  place  several 
strips  in  a  vial  and  stopper  it  tightly.  When 
it  is  desired  to  ascertain  whether  sewer  gas 
is  present  in  a  room  lay  one  of  these  strips 
in  a  dry  saucer.  If  sewer  gas  is  present 
the  paper  will  soon  begin  to  turn  dark. 
If  the  paper  remains  white  after  two  or 
three  hours  it  is  a  sure  sign  that  sewer 
gas  does  not  lurk  in  that  apartment.  Re- 
member always,  in  handling  the  solution 
of  acetate  of  lead,  that  this  substance  is  a 
deadly  poison. 

AN    EASY    WAY    TO    CLEAN    EGG-SPOONS 

Here  is  a  little  chemical  trick  well  worth 
knowing.  When  silver  spoons  become  tar- 
nished from  use  in  boiled  eggs,  scour  the 
tarnished  parts  with  a  little  moist  salt.  The 
tarnish  will  disappear  as  if  by  magic. 

OTTAR     OF    ROSES 

Although  one  of  the  most  expensive  per- 
fumes, and  generally  considered  a  luxury 
beyond  reach  of  the  many,  this  exquisite 
article  can  be  cheaply  produced  by  a  person 
possessing  an  abundance  of  rose  trees.  The 
following  plan  must  be  pursued :  Take  rose 
leaves  sufficient  to  fill  a  two-gallon  jar  when 
pressed  tightly  down  and  let  them  be  fresh 
when  placed  in  the  jar.  Secure  a  flat  two- 
ounce  vial  to  take  the  place  of  a  stopper. 
It  must  close  the  jar  up  tightly  and  should 
be  filled  with  strips  of  sponge  steeped  in 
pure  odorless  olive  oil.  Let  the  vial  be 
placed  with  the  mouth  downward  and  the 
jar  be  stood  in  the  sun  for  at  least  a  week. 
More  rose  leaves  should  be  added  as  space 
is  available  in  the  jar.  The  rose  leaves 


will  be  distilled  by  the  sun  while  the  aroma 
rising  into  the  sponge  will  be  absorbed  by 
the  oil.  A  little  vial  of  the  genuine  ottar 
of  roses  will  be  the  result.  As  this  sub- 
stance is  volatile  the  bottle  must  be  tightly 
corked. 

TO  DISTIL  PERFUMES 

Take  any  flowers  desired  and  place  in 
alternate  layers  with  common  saH  in  a 
clean  glazed  earthen  pot.  Fill  quite  up, 
cover  well,  and  place  the  pot  in  a  dark  cel- 
lar. Forty  days  afterward  place  some  gauze 
over  a  pan  and  strain  the  juice  out  of  the 
flowers  over  it  by  pressure.  Bottle  the  es- 
sence and  expose  for  several  weeks  in  the 
sun  and  dew  of  the  evening  to  purify.  One 
drop  of  the  essence  will  scent  a  quart  of 
water. 

THE    POT-POURRI    JAR 

First  gather  your  rose  leaves  early  in  the 
morning  and  leave  them  in  a  cool  airy  place 
until  the  dew  has  evaporated.  Next  place 
them  in  a  large  glass  jar,  sprinkling  salt 
over  half-inch  layers  of  the  leaves.  Con- 
tinue adding  to  the  contents  of  the  jar  un- 
til it  is  filled.  For  ten  days,  then,  let  them 
stand,  stirring  the  whole  thoroughly  every 
day.  Take  one  ounce  each  of  cloves  and 
allspice,  coarsely  ground,  and  the  same  quan- 
tity of  stick  cinnamon,  finely  shredded. 
Transfer  to  another  jar  and  scatter  the 
spices,  well  mixed  together  in  layers,  be- 
tween the  leaves.  Cover  the  jar  tightly  and 
let  it  stand  in  a  dark  place  for  three  or 
four  weeks.  Then  the  pourri  is  ready  for 
its  permanent  jar,  which  must  have  a  double 
cover. 

Now  take  a  quarter  ounce  of  mace  and 
half  an  ounce  each  of  allspice  and  cloves, 
all  coar  ely  ground  or  pounded  in  a  mor- 
tar, half  a  grated  nutmeg,  half  an  ounce  of 
cinnamon,  broken  in  bits,  one  ounce  of 
powdered  orris  root,  and  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  dried  lavender  flowers.  Mix  all  these 
together  in  a  bowl  and  as  the  stock  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  permanent  jar  place  the  spice 
mixture  between  it  in  layers.  As  the  jar  is 
filled  scatter  on  the  successive  layers  a  few 
drops  each  of  the  essential  oils  of  rose, 
geranium,  bitter  almond,  and  orange  flower. 
Then  pour  over  all  an  ounce  of  the  favor- 
ite toilet  water  or  colonge.  You  will  have 
sufficient  to  fill  a  two-quart  jar  and  the  con- 
tents will  keep  for  years.  From  time  to 
time  add  various  sweet  things,  such  as  a 
tuberose,  a  bunch  of  violets,  or  a  spray  o£ 
heliotrope.  Open  the  jar  for  half  an  hous 

57 


894 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


daily  and  the  atmosphere  of  the  house  will 
be  permeated  with  a  delightful,  spicy  fra- 
grance such  as  might  be  imagined  to  come 
from  an  enchanted  Arabian  garden. 


COLOGNE    WATER 


To  make  this  toilet  necessity  take  a  quart 
of  pure  alcohol  and  add  to  it  sixty  drops 
each  of  orange  flower  water,  oil  of  berga- 
mot,  oil  of  lemon,  and  oil  of  lavender. 
Cork  tightly,  shake  thoroughly,  and  allow 


it  to  stand  for  several  weeks  before  open- 
ing the  bottle.  It  will  excel  the  imported 
article. 

DRESS     PROTECTORS 

Blotting  paper  incased  in  gauze  is  an  ex- 
cellent and  harmless  substitute  for  the  oil 
skin  or  gutta-percha  article.  The  latter 
stop  the  healthy  action  of  the  sebaceous 
glands  and  the  blotting  paper  absorbs  the 
perspiration,  leaving  the  pores  free  to  per- 
form their  proper  functions. 


INTERESTING  FACTS  AND  USEFUL  RECIPES 


ABSCESS,  To  TREAT. — Bring  it  to  a  head 
by  a  flaxseed  or  bread-and-milk  poultice, 
or  by  a  hot- water  compress;  t.ien,  having 
opened  and  emptied  it,  wash  out  the  cav- 
ity by  injecting  a  mixture  of  one  part  car- 
bolic acid  and  twenty  of  warm  water. 

ACID  STAINS,  To  REMOVE. — Use  spirits 
of  hartshorn,  diluted,  repeating  if  neces- 
sary. 

ACID  STOMACH,  To  CORRECT. — Put  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  powdered  magnesia  in  half  a 
glass  of  water,  and  take  a  teaspoonful 
three  times  a  day. 

AGUE,  CURE  FOR. — Slice  three  lemons 
into  thin  pieces  and  pound  them  fine;  then 
make  a  quart  of  coffee,  and  having  boiled 
it  down  to  a  pint,  pour  it,  while  still  hot, 
over  the  lemons.  When  the  mixture  is 
cold,  strain  it  through  a  cloth  and  drink 
the  whole  at  one  dose  before  the  chill 
passes  off  and  there  is  a  renewal  of  the 
fever. 

ANTS,  To  DESTROY. — Among  the  various 
ways  of  ridding  a  room  or  closet  of  ants 
are  the  following:  (i)  Grease  a  plate 
with  lard  and  place  against  the  plate  a 
stick  or  broom  wisp  for  the  insects  to 
climb  up  on.  As  soon  as  a  number  have 
been  caught,  hold  the  plate  over  a  coal 
fire  and  the  ants  will  drop  off.  The  trap 
may  then  be  reset.  (2)  Place  camphor 
in  a  closet  infested  by  them,  or  bits  of 
sponge  or  rag  kept  moistened  with  creo- 
sote. (3)  For  black  ants,  put  fresh  bones 
in  places  where  they  congregate.  They 
will  collect  on  the  bones  and  these  should 
then  be  scalded. 

APERIENTS. — (i)  "Black  Draught,"  a 
mixture  too  strong  for  children  to  take, 
is  made  as  follows:  To  6  drams  senna 
leaves,  %  dram  bruised  ginger,  4  drams 
sliced  liquorice  root,  add  J£  pint  boiling 


water.  After  the  mixture  has  stood  near 
the  fire  for  three  hours,  strain  it  and  add 
\Yz  drams  sal  volatile  and  ^2  ounce  each 
of  tincture  of  senna  and  tincture  of  car- 
damoms. Keep  in  a  cool  place.  The  dose 
for  an  adult  is  a  wineglassful ;  for  youth 
above  15  years  of  age,  2  tablespoonfuls. 
(2)  SPRING  APERIENT. — Mix  il/2  drams  tar- 
trate  of  soda,  15  grains  each  of  powdered 
galap  and  powdered  rhubarb,  2  grains  of 
ginger.  Dose  for  an  adult,  3  teaspoonfuls, 
or  the  whole  quantity  if  the  patient  is 
otherwise  in  good  health;  for  a  youth 
above  15,  hali  the  whole  quantity,  or  2  tea- 
spoonfuls;  for  children  between  10  and  15, 
a  large  teaspoonful;  for  children  under  10, 
a  small  teaspoonful.  The  powder  may  be 
dissolved  in  warm  water  or  in  tea.  (3) 
The  old-fashioned,  simple  aperient  for  chil- 
dren, made  by  mixing  brimstone  and  mo- 
lasses and  adding  to  each  teacupful  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  is  excellent, 
but  in  many  cases  it  prod*'>:es  nausea. 

BAD  BREATH. — There  is  no  permanent 
cure  for  this  affliction,  but  a  general  ton- 
ing up  of  the  system  will  tend  to  alleviate 
it,  as  well  as  strict  attention  to  keeping 
the  teeth  clean.  It  may  be  temporarily 
relieved  by  using  a  gargle  made  by  dilut- 
ing a  little  bromo-chloralum  with  8  or  IO 
parts  of  water.  A  few  drops  should  be 
swallowed  as  well. 

BALDNESS,  TREATMENT  FOR. — (i)  Take 
of  eau  de  cologne  2  ounces,  tincture  of 
cantharides  2  drams,  oil  of  lavender  or 
rosemary  10  drops.  Mix  well  and  wash 
the  head  once  or  twice  a  day. 

BATHTUBS,  To  CLEAN.— The  dirt  collected 
around  the  sides  of  porcelain  bathtubs  may 
be  removed  with  kerosene.  Apply  with  a 
cloth  saturated  with  the  oil ;  rinse  out,  and 
rub  with  hot  water  and  soda.  The  white 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


895 


blotches  that  form  on  zinc-lined  tubs  may 
be  removed  in  the  same  manner. 

BEDBUGS. —  (i)  Make  a  creamy  paste  of 
2  ounces  of  red  arsenic,  J4  pound  white 
soap,  and  l/2  ounce  camphor,  dissolved  in 
a  teaspoonful  of  spirits  rectified.  Put  this 
paste  into  the  openings  and  cracks  of  the 
furniture  and  of  picture-frames  and  mir- 
rors. (2)  Remove  all  clothing  from  the 
room,  stop  the  cracks  in  the  windows,  and 
then  fumigate  the  room  and  bedding,  if 
there  is  any,  with  brimstone  or  a  sulphur 
candle.  The  latter  should  be  placed  in  a 
deep  tin  pail  or  vessel  to  prevent  it  from 
setting  fire  to  anything.  Let  the  room  re- 
main closed  for  24  hours. 

BED  SORES,  To  PREVENT. — Change  the  po- 
sition of  the  invalid  as  often  as  possible  and 
keep  the  under  sheet  smooth  and  dry.  If  the 
skin  is  not  broken,  sponge  the  parts  that 
touch  the  bed  with  alcohol  or  whisky  and 
water,  applying  it  three  or  four  times  a  day. 

BEE  STINGS,  CURE  FOR. — Put  a  pinch  of 
salt  on  the  place,  dissolve  it  with  water  and 
rub  it  briskly.  If  this  fails  to  relieve,  wet 
the  place  with  aqua-ammonia,  being  careful 
if  the  sting  is  on  the  eyelid  not  to  get  the 
ammonia  in  the  eye.  Soda  and  saleratus 
are  good  substitutes,  spirits  of  hartshorn 
applied  with  a  soft  rag  is  a  capital  remedy* 
and  fresh  wood  ashes  moistened  with  water 
and  made  into  a  poultice  frequently  renewed 
is  another. 

BLACK  CLOTHES,  To  RESTORE.— Having 
boiled  three  ounces  of  logwood  in  a  quart  of 
vinegar  until  the  color  has  been  extracted, 
put  in  a  piece  of  carbonate  of  iron  the  size 
of  a  large  chestnut.  Let  it  boil  five  minutes. 
After  you  have  sponged  the  article  of  cloth- 
ing with  hot  water  and  soap,  sponge  it  with 
the  dye.  It  now  remains  to  set  the  color, 
for  which  a  third  sponging  is  necessary — 
this  time,  and  while  the  article  is  thoroughly 
wet,  with  a  teacupful  of  warm  water  in 
which  a  teaspoonful  of  saleratr  has  been 
dissolved.  Do  not  wring  or  wrinkle  the 
article  before  hanging  it  up  to  drain. 

BLOOD-STAINS,  To  REMOVE. — Mix  starch 
as  if  for  laundry  use,  and  lay  a  thick  coat- 
ing of  it,  wet,  on  the  stain.  If  this  does  not 
answer,  steep  the  article  in  a  solution  of 
iodide  of  potassium  in  four  times  its  weight 
of  water. 

BOTTLES,  To  CLEAN. — Put  powdered  char- 
coal with  hot  or  cold  water  into  the  bot- 
tles and  shake  thoroughly,  then  allow  the 
water  to  stand  a  little  while. 

BRASS  OR  COPPER,  To  CLEAN.— Powder 
some  rottenstonp  very  fine  and  sift  it,  and 


then  add  oil  of  turpentine  and  soft  soap, 
mixing  the  whole  until  it  is  like  putty. 
Having  removed  every  trace  of  grease  from 
the  article,  with  warm  water,  mix  a  little  of 
the  compound  with  water  and  rub  it  over 
the  metal,  then  repeat  the  rubbing,  using  a 
dry  rag  or  piece  of  leather.  The  metal 
will  be  polisi-  d  as  well  as  cleaned. 

BRONCHITIS.  —  Relief  is  sometimes  ob- 
tained by  holding  a  small  quantity  of  salt- 
petre, say  a  cent's  worth,  in  the  mouth  and 
swallowing  it  as  it  dissolves.  Often  the 
attack  may  be  cut  short  by  giving  a  hot 
mustard  foot  bath,  with  10  grains  of 
Dover's  powder,  or  a  hot  lemonade  at  bed- 
time. 

BURNS. — Common  wheat  flour  sprinkled 
thickly  on  a  burn  will  prevent  blistering 
and  scarring,  and  baking  soda  is  similarly 
efficacious.  A  mixture  of  sweet  oil  and 
lime  water  will  relieve  the  pain.  If  the 
burns  have  been  produced  by  powder,  wrap 
the  hand  or  finger  in  a  cloth  saturated  with 
i  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Keep 
the  cloth  wet  for  two  days. 

CARPETS,  To  CLEAN. — (i)  Sprinkle  with 
moist  tea  leaves;  then  sweep  thoroughly, 
using  soft-soap  and  warm  water  on  the 
grease  and  dirt  spots.  (2)  A  teaspoonful 
of  ammonia  in  a  gallon  of  water  will  re- 
store the  color;  or,  after  the  carpet  has 
been  well  beaten,  scrub  it  with  ox-gall ;  I 
pint  to  3  gallons  of  water  for  a  large 
carpet. 

CEMENT  FOR  CHINA. — Dissolve  gum  ara- 
bic  in  water  until  you  have  a  very  thick 
solution.  Stir  in  plaster  of  Paris  until  the 
mixture  becomes  a  sticky  paste.  Apply 
with  a  brush  to  the  fractured  edges  and 
stick  them  together.  A  paste  of  white  of 
egg  and  flour  answers  well  for  small  arti- 
cles, but  vases  mended  in  this  way  will  not 
hold  together  if  water  is  put  in  them. 

CEMENT  FOR  EARTHENWARE.— Grate  a 
pound  of  cheese  into  a  quart  of  milk;  let 
it  stand  14  hours,  stirring  frequently.  Pul- 
verize a  pound  of  unslaked  lime  in  a  mor- 
tar and  add.  Mix  by  beating;  then  beat  in 
the  whites  of  25  eggs. 

CHAPPED  HANDS  AND  LIPS,  To  CURE. — 
(i)  Take  the  yolk  of  one  egg,  2  oz.  honey, 
I  oz.  oil  almonds,  a  little  scent  of  some 
kind  and  V*  oz.  powdered  orris  root. 
Use  as  little  of  the  mixture  as  possible  at 
one  time.  (2)  Heat  together,  until  dis- 
solved, %  oz.  powdered  gum  camphor,  4 
teaspoonfuls  oil  of  sweet  almonds,  i%  oz. 
spermaceti.  Stir  constantly  and  when  cool 
use  freely  on  hands  and  lips. 


896 


CLOTH,  To  BLEACH. — Add  the  str-ined 
juice  of  one  lemon  to  a  quart  of  cold  water; 
spread  the  cloth  on  the  grass  in  the  sun 
and  wet  it  several  times  a  day.  It  may  take 
a  long  time  to  whiten  the  cloth  perfectly. 

COCKROACHES,  To  DRIVE  AWAY. — (i)  Mix 
a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  arsenic  with  a 
tablespoonful  of  mashed  potato  and  sprinkle 
wherever  the  insects  congregate.  (2) 
Sprinkle  powdered  borax  thickly  in  every 
place  infested.  (3)  Cut  up  green  cucum- 
bers and  put  them  at  night  in  places  in- 
fested. Fresh  pieces  should  be  used  for 
several  nights  running. 

CORNS,  TREATMENT  OF. — Either  hard  or 
soft  corns  may  be  removed  by  applying 
night  and  morning  with  a  soft  brush  the 
stronge  t  acetic  acid  (vinegar),  or  by  apply- 
ing every  night  a  poultice  of  bread  wet  with 
cider  vinegar. 

COTTONS,  To  WASH. — A  teaspoonful  of 
black  pepper  stirred  into  the  first  suds  in 
which  cottons  are  washed  will  prevent  the 
colors  from  running.  A  handful  of  salt  in 
a  pailful  of  water  makes  a  solution  which 
fixes  colors,  but  does  not  prevent  their  fad- 
ing. Many  use  salt  in  preference  to  sugar 
of  lead  for  pinks,  blues,  and  lavenders. 
Five  cents'  worth  of  sugar  of  lead  crystals 
dissolved  in  a  pailful  of  water  makes  a  solu- 
tion which  will  establish  the  tone.  The 
fabric  should  remain  in  the  salt  or  sugar 
of  lead  bath  a  half  hour  or  so  before  going 
to  the  suds.  The  garment  should  not  be 
hung  in  the  sun  to  dry.  Alum  water  is  a 
sure  fixative,  but  it  sets  grime  as  well  as 
hue. 

CRACKS  IN  IRON  STOVES  OR  STOVEPIPES. — 
To  mend  these,  make  a  paste  of  wood  ashes 
and  common  salt  and  apply,  whether  the 
iron  or  pipe  be  hot  or  cold. 

DANDRUFF.— See  HAIR  WASH. 

CURTAINS,  LACE,  To  CLEAN.— Pin  a  sheet 
to  the  carpet  so  it  will  lie  without  a 
v/rinkle;  then  scatter  over  it  dry  Indian 
meal  and  powdered  borax  mixed  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  cupful  of  meal  to  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  borax.  Pin  a  curtain  tightly 
over  the  sheet  and  cover  this  with  the  mix- 
ture; on  this  place  another  curtain  and  a 
layer  of  the  mixture  until  all  the  curtains 
have  been  used.  Pull  out  the  pins,  roll  the 
curtains  tightly  so  they  will  be  covered  by 
the  sheet;  lay  the  roll  aside  for  two  or 
three  weeks  and  then  shake  the  curtains 
free  of  the  mixture. 

DISINFECTANTS. — An  unpleasant  odor  in 
a  room  may  be  removed  by  hanging  up  a 
cloth  saturated  with  a  weak  solution  of 


carbolic  acid.  (2)  Heat  an  iron  shovel 
hot  and  pour  vinegar  upon  it.  The  doors 
and  windows  of  the  room  should  be  open 
at  the  time.  (3)  Roast  coffee  until  it  is  of 
a  dark  brown  color,  pulverize  it,  and  burn 
it  on  a  shovel,  or  sprinkle  it  about  the 
room.  (4)  Take  %  cupful  of  common  salt 
and  2  or  3  oz.  sulphuric  acid.  Pour  upon 
the  salt  %  oz.  of  the  acid  and  stir  every  15 
minutes  till  all  the  acid  is  used.  The  mix- 
ture should  then  be  sprinkled  about.  To 
disinfect  a  sink  or  other  place  needing  thor- 
ough cleansing,  put  ^  Ib.  of  copperas  in  2 
qts.  boiling  water,  and,  when  the  copperas 
is  thoroughly  dissolved,  flush  the  pipes  with 
the  solution. 

EARACHE,  CURE  FOR. — (i)  Put  a  pinch  of 
black  pepper  in  a  bit  of  cotton  wool  wet  in 
sweet  oil  and  insert  it  in  the  ear.  (2)  Put 
live  coals  in  a  pan,  sprinkle  them  with 
brown  sugar,  invert  a  funnel  over  the  coals 
and  put  the  tube  in  the  ear,  which  will  soon 
feel  the  soothing  effect  of  the  fumes. 

EYELIDS,  INFLAMED. — Mix  in  a  glass  mor- 
tar one  scruple  of  prepared  calomel  and  % 
oz.  spermaceti  ointment.  Apply  a  small 
quantity  to  each  corner  of  the  eye  night  and 
morning,  and  also  to  the  edges  of  the  lids. 
The  bowels  should  be  kept  in  a  laxative 
state  as  long  as  this  preparation  is  used. 

FEATHERS,  To  WASH  AND  CURL. — Wash 
the  feathers  in  warm  soap  suds  and  (if 
they  are  white)  rinse  in  water  slightly 
blued,  then  dry  in  the  wind.  To  recurl, 
which  should  be  done  over  a  hot  flatiron, 
use  a  bone  or  silver  knife,  drawing  the 
fibres  of  the  feather  between  the  thumb  and 
the  dull  edge,  three  fibres  at  a  time.  Begin 
at  the  point  of  the  feather  and  curl  one- 
half  the  other  way. 

FLIES,  To  KILL. — Boil  quassia  chips  in 
water,  sweeten  with  syrup  of  some  kind, 
and  pour  the  liquid  into  plates.  A  room 
may  be  kept  free  from  flies  by  pouring  a 
little  alcohol  into  saucers  and  adding  to 
each  a  teaspoonful  of  oil  of  lavender.  A 
piece  of  clean  sponge  should  be  placed  in 
the  saucer. 

FOOT  WASH  (For  Tired  Feet)  .—Dissolve 
a  pint  of  sea  salt  in  2  qts.  water;  pour  into 
a  covered  jar  or  bottle  and  let  it  stand  24 
hours.  Pour  I  qt.  brine  into  I  qt.  of  hot  or 
cold  water  and  bathe.  As  the  brine  is 
used  the  bottle  may  be  filled  with  clear 
water,  repeating  the  process  till  all  the  salt 
is  gone. 

FRAMES,  GILT.  To  CLEAN. — Having  dust- 
ed the  frames,  rub  on  gently  with  a  camel's 
hair  brush,  the  white  of  an  egg.  This  will 


HINTS   TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


897 


remove  all  kinds  of  dirt.  Still  better  is  a 
mixture  of  white  of  egg,  2  oz. ;  chloride  of 
potash  or  soda,  i  oz. 

FROST-BITES,  TREATMENT  OF. — Rub  the 
parts  affected  with  pure  oil  (not  essence) 
of  peppermint.  This  will  also  prevent  the 
after  effect  of  chilblains. 

FROZEN  LIMBS,  CURE  FOR. — Dissolve  from 
/-4  to  y2  Ib.  of  alum  in  a  gallon  of  warm 
water  and  immerse  the  feet  or  hands  in  it 
for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes. 

FURNITURE,  To  CLEAN  AND  POLISH. — (i) 
Mix  3  parts  linseed  oil  with  I  of  turpentine, 
and  apply  with  a  woolen  rag.  This  will  not 
only  clean  but  also  give  a  fine  lustre.  (2) 
Mix  (and  shake  well)  cold  linseed  oil,  I 
qt. ;  gin  or  spirits  of  wine,  %  pint ;  vinegar, 
Y2  pint ;  butter  of  antimony,  2  oz. ;  spirits 
of  turpentine,  %  pint.  It  must  be  applied 
to  the  surface  with  a  rubber,  and  if  the 
furniture  is  new  several  applications  will  be 
necessary. 

FURNITURE  VARNISH  FOR  UNPAINTED 
WOOD. — Sandpaper  the  wood  thoroughly 
and  lay  on  a  very  thin  coat  of  varnish  with 
a  piece  of  sponge  or  wadding  covered  with 
linen.  When  dry,  rub  down  with  pumice 
dust  and  apply  a  second  coat  of  varnish. 
Three  or  four  coats  may  be  necessary. 

FURS,  To  RESTORE. — Sprinkle  them  with 
hot  flour  and  sand  and  brush  thoroughly 
with  a  hard  brush ;  then  beat'  with  a  stick 
or  cane,  comb  with  a  wet  comb  and  press 
carefully  with  a  warm  iron.  If  the  fur  is 
ermine,  substitute  plaster  of  Paris  for  the 
flour  and  sand. 

GLASS,  To  PREVENT  CRACKING  OF. — Put 
your  chimneys,  tumblers,  or  other  articles 
in  a  pot  filled  with  cold  water  and  a  little 
cooking  salt;  let  the  mixture  boil  well  and 
then  cool  slowly. 

GLOVES,  To  CLEAN. — (i)  Wash  the  gloves 
when  on  your  hands  in  spirits  of  turpentine 
and  dry  them  before  removing.  (2)  Pour 
i  teacupful  of  benzine  into  a  pint  bowl  and 
put  a  pair  of  gloves  into  it,  soaking  them 
and  rubbing  them  together  as  though  they 
were  cotton  rags ;  then  rinse  in  fresh,  clean 
benzine;  squeeze  them  as  dry  as  possible, 
beat  them  against  each  other  and  hang  them 
in  the  air  for  an  hour  or  so.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  do  the  cleaning  near  a  gas 
jet  or  candle  flame. 

GREASE-SPOTS,  To  REMOVE. — (i)  Cover 
the  spots  with  buckwheat  flour,  magnesia, 
French  chalk,  or  potter's  clay;  over  this 
put  a  piece  of  brown  paper:  set  a  moder- 
ately warm  iron  on  this  and  let  it  remain 


till  it  gets  cold.  The  iron  must  not  be  so 
hot  as  to  scorch  or  change  the  color.  If 
the  article  is  of  woolen,  apply  fuller's  earth ; 
if  the  grease  is  wax  or  tallow,  warm  care- 
fully with  an  iron;  then  apply  the  fuller's 
earth.  If  the  article  is  of  silk,  lay  a  piece 
of  woolen  cloth  or  baize  upon  a  pine  table 
and  upon  this  the  part  stained,  right  side 
downward.  Over  this,  place  a  piece  of 
brown  paper  and  for  about  five  seconds 
apply  a  flatiron  just  hot  enough  to  scorch 
the  paper;  then  rub  the  stained  part  briskly 
with  a  piece  of  smooth  writing  paper. 

HAIR  WASH. — (i)  A  good  wash  to  keep 
the  hair  from  falling  out  and  to  prevent 
dandruff  is  made  by  taking  i  oz.  powdered 
borax,  i  oz.  powdered  camphor,  and  mix- 
ing them  with  I  qt.  boiling  water.  When 
cool,  pour  into  a  bottle  and  apply  it  to  the 
head,  once  a  week,  with  a  flannel  rag  or 
sponge.  (2)  Take  48  grains  resorcin,  % 
oz.  glycerine,  and  enough  alcohol  to  finish 
filling  a  2-oz.  bottle.  Mix  and  apply  to  the 
scalp  every  night,  rubbing  it  well  in. 

HEADACHE. — Mild  attacks  may  be  cured 
by  (i)  water  applied  as  hot  as  the  skin 
can  bear  it;  (2)  draughts  of  hot  water, 
and  a  warm  foot  bath,  ashes  or  soda  having 
been  added  to  the  water;  (3)  soaking  the 
feet  in  hot  water,  drinking  herb  tea  and 
taking  a  sweat.  Severe  attacks  of  a  nerv- 
ous kind  have  been  relieved  by  giving  ^4 
grain  of  ipecac  every  half  hour  or  hour, 
and  cured  by  administering  the  ipecac  in  i 
to  3  grain  doses  three  or  four  times  daily. 

HOARSENESS,  REMEDIES  FOR. — (i)  Take 
green  horseradish  root,  boil  it  down  and 
sweeten  it  into  a  thick  syrup.  (2)  Boil  2 
oz.  of  flaxseed  in  I  qt.  of  water;  strain,  add 
2  oz.  rock  candy,  %  pint  syrup  or  honey, 
and  the  juice  of  3  lemons;  mix  and  then 
boil ;  cool  and  bottle.  Take  a  cupful,  hot, 
before  going  to  bed.  (3)  To  the  white  of 
i  egg,  beaten  up,  add  the  juice  of  I  lemon 
and  sweeten  with  white  sugar.  Take  a  tea- 
spoonful  from  time  to  time. 

INK  STAINS,  To  REMOVE. — (i)  Soak  the 
stained  part  in  strong  salt  water ;  then  wash 
with  ammonia.  (2)  Apply  to  the  stain 
muriatic  acid  diluted  with  five  or  six  times 
its  weight  in  water,  and  after  a  few  minutes 
wash  it  off.  If  the  article  is  of  linen,  dip 
the  ink-spot  in  pure  melted  tallow;  then 
wash  out  the  tallow  and  the  ink  will  come 
out  with  it. 

IRON-RUST  STAINS. — To  remove  these, 
moisten  the  stained  parts  with  a  solution 
of  oxalic  acid ;  then  lay  in  the  sun,  and 
when  the  stain  is  out  rinse  thoroughly. 


898 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


The  acid  must  not  come  in  contact  with 
any  abraded  surface  of  the  hands  or  face. 
Another  way  is  to  moisten  the  pares  with 
lemon  juice,  sprinkle  them  with  salt,  and 
then  lay  the  article  in  the  sun. 

IVY,  OR  SUMACH,  POISONING. — The  sim- 
plest remedy  for  this  is  hot  water  applied 
as  hot  as  the  skin  will  bear  it.  A  cloth 
should  be  dipped  in  the  water  and  laid  on 
the  flesh.  Vaseline  sometimes  relieves  the 
itching,  and  for  the  same  purpose  one  can 
use  a  weak  solution  of  ammonia  in  water, 
applying  it  with  moderation.  Another  ex- 
ternal application  consists  of  a  teaspoonful 
of  calomel  in  a  pint  of  lime  water.  The 
following  is  recommended,  also :  Bromium 
dissolved  in  olive  oil,  cosmoline  or  glyc- 
erine in  the  strength  of  10  to  20  drops  of 
bromium  to  an  ounce  of  oil.  Rub  the  mix- 
ture on  three  or  four  times  a  day;  as  it  is 
volatile,  it  must  be  renewed  within  twenty- 
four  hours.  Bathing  the  parts  affected 
with  sweet  spirits  of  nitre  three  or  four 
times  a  day  is  often  efficacious. 

KID  SHOES,  To  SOFTEN. — Melt  V±  Ib.  of 
tallow,  pour  it  into  a  jar  and  add  the  same 
weight  of  olive  oil ;  stir  and  let  stand  till 
cold.  Apply  a  small  quantity  occasionally 
with  a  piece  of  flannel.  Should  the  shoes 
be  very  dirty,  clean  with  warm  water. 

LACES,  To  CLEAN. — If  your  lace  is  black, 
mix  a  gill  of  rain-water,  a  tablespoonful 
of  borax,  and  one  of  alcohol ;  squeeze  the 
lace  several  times  through  this ;  then  rinse 
in  a  cup  of  hot  water  in  which  a  black  kid 
glove  has  been  boiled;  pull  the  lace  out 
carefully  till  nearly  dry;  then  press  2  or  3 
days  between  sheets  of  paper  under  a  heavy 
weight.  If  the  lace  is  white,  draw  a  stock- 
ing leg  over  a  bottle  and  fasten  it  at  each 
end.  On  this  tack  the  lace  and  put  it  in 
a  kettle  of  cold  water  with  shavings  of 
white  soap  in  it.  Raise  the  water  to  the 
boiling  point,  remove  and  rinse.  If  a 
cream  color  is  desired,  rinse  in  cold  coffee 
or  saffron-water.  Dry  and  remove  from 
the  bottle.  Pick  out  the  purling  with  a  pin, 
and  lay  between  soft  papers  and  under  a 
heavy  weight. 

LINIMENT,  To  MAKE. — (i)  Take  of  lin- 
seed oil  and  lime  water  equal  parts  and 
mix.  This  is  useful  for  burns  and  scalds 
and  in  preventing  rheumatism  after  such 
accidents.  (2)  Dissolve  gum  camphor  in 
sweet  oil  and  rub  on  three  times  a  day  with 
flannel  or  woolen  cloth,  wrapping  up  the 
wound  with  the  cloth  after  rubbing  it  in. 
This  is  useful  for  strains,  sprains,  and 
bruises  hi  man  or  beast. 


LOOKING-GLASS,  To  CLEAN. — (i)  Dampen 
a  sponge  with  water  or  spirits  of  wine  and 
remove  every  speck  and  stain ;  then  dust 
the  surface  with  the  finest  sifted  whiting  or 
powder-blue,  and  polish  it  with  a  silk  hand- 
kerchief. 

MARBLE,  To  CLEAN. — (i)  First  go  over 
with  a  soft  sponge  and  strong,  cold  soap 
suds;  then  wash  off  the  soap  with  clear 
water.  Having  removed  the  dirt  and 
grease,  rub  over  with  fine  powder  of  cal- 
cined tin  moistened  with  water  and  applied 
with  a  cushion  of  cotton.  After  rubbing 
with  this  for  a  short  time,  finish  by  rubbing 
with  a  piece  of  canton  flannel  or  soft 
leather,  which  will  restore  the  gloss.  (2) 
Make  a  paste  with  soft  soap  and  whiting. 
Wash  the  marble  with  it  and  then  leave  a 
coat  of  the  paste  upon  it  for  two  or  three 
days.  Afterward  wash  off  with  warm  (not 
hot)  water. 

MATTING,  STRAW,  To  CLEAN. — Use  a  cloth 
wet  in  clean  salt  and  water  to  wash  the 
matting.  Wipe  dry  immediately. 

MOTHS,  PROTECTION  AGAINST. — Take  an 
ounce  of  gum  camphor  and  the  shell  of  a 
red  pepper,  macerate  them  and  let  them 
stand  in  8  oz.  of  strong  alcohol  for  a  few 
days ;  then  strain.  Sprinkle  this  over  arti- 
cles to  be  preserved  and  roll  them  up  in 
sheets. 

MUMPS,  To  TREAT. — Keep  the  face  and 
neck  warm,  and  avoid  taking  cold.  Drink 
warm  herb  teas,  and  if  the  symptoms  are 
severe,  4  to  6  grains  of  Dover's  powder ;  or 
if  there  is  costiveness,  a  slight  physic,  and 
observe  a  very  simple  diet.  If  a  severe 
cold  has  been  taken  and  other  glands  are 
affected,  physic  must  be  taken,  and  leeches 
or  cooling  poultices  applied  to  the  swelling. 
Sweating  must  be  resorted  to  in  this  case. 

NAUSEA,  To  RELIEVE. — Beat  up  one  egg 
for  about  twenty  minutes,  add  I  pint  fresh 
milk,  i  pint  water,  and  sugar  to  make  it 
palatable;  boil  and  cool.  This  makes  an 
agreeable  drink. 

NEURALGIC  PAINS,  LOTION  FOR.— Take 
equal  parts  of  opodeldoc,  spirits  of  wine,  and 
sal  ammoniac ;  shake  and  bottle.  (2)  Pre- 
pare horseradish  by  grating  and  mixing 
in  vinegar,  the  same  as  for  the  table,  and 
apply  to  the  temples  when  the  head  is 
affected,  or  to  the  wrist  when  the  pain  is 
in  the  arm  or  shoulder.  (3)  Facial  neu- 
ralgia may  be  relieved  by  applying  to  the 
gums  with  a  linen  cloth  a  mixture  of  i  part 
aconite,  I  of  chloroform,  and  2  of  alcohol 
or  cologne  water. 

NOSE-BLEED,    TREATMENT   OP. — Keep    the 


HINTS    TO    HOUSEKEEPERS 


899 


head  raised;  find  which  nostril  the  blood 
flows  from,  and  on  that  side  raise  the  arm 
perpendicularly,  and  hold  the  nose  firmly 
with  the  finger  and  thumb.  At  the  same 
time  a  towel  wet  with  ice  water  or  filled 
with  snow  should  be  applied  to  the  fore- 
head, though  often  it  is  more  efficacious 
when  placed  on  the  back  of  the  neck. 

OIL  PAINTINGS,  To  CLEAN. — Wash  the 
canvas  or  panel  with  soap  and  soft  water 
slightly  warmed.  Dry  the  surface  with  a 
soft  cloth  and  rub  it  with  a  warm  silk  hand- 
kerchief before  a  fire. 

PAPER,  WALL,  To  CLEAN. — Remove  the 
dust  with  a  soft  cloth;  then  make  a  lump 
of  stiff  dough  of  flour  and  water,  and  rub 
the  wall  gently  downward  as  far  as  the 
arm  will  sweep.  Having  gone  around  the 
room,  return  and  begin  your  stroke  a  little 
above  where  the  last  one  ended.  Do  not 
cross  the  paper  or  rub  upward. 

PEWTER,  To  CLEAN. — (i)  Use  a  solution 
of  oxalic  acid;  then  rub  with  whiting  and 
water.  (2)  Use  a  paste  of  fine  wood  ashes 
mixed  with  vinegar  and  salt. 

PIN  HOLES  IN  LEAD  PIPE. — To  stop  these 
up,  place  the  head  of  a  tenpenny  nail  over 
the  hole  and  give  the  other  end  two  or 
three  slight  blows;  this  will  force  the  lead 
together. 

POISON,  ANTIDOTE  FOR  ANY. — Stir  a  heap- 
ing teaspoonful  of  common  salt  and  one  of 
ground  mustard  into  a  glass  of  water  and 
drink  it  all  at  once.  When  this  emetic  has 
acted,  take  the  whites  of  2  eggs  instantly. 
For  corrosive  sublimate,  swallow  6  raw 
eggs  at  once  after  the  emetic.  For  lauda- 
num, take  a  cup  of  clear  strong  coffee;  for 
arsenic,  %  cup  sweet  oil  or  lard  after  the 
emetic. 

RAT  POISON.— (i)  Take  of  flour  3  Ibs. ; 
sugar,  V*  lb. ;  sulphur,  2  Ibs. ;  phosphorus,  2 
Ibs. ;  mix  and  spread  on  pieces  of  bread. 
(2)  Mix  i  oz.  arsenic,  i  oz.  lard,  and  mix 
into  a  paste  with  meal. 

RHEUMATISM,  REMEDY  FOR. — To  i  oz.  of 
Castile  soap  cut  into  small  bits  or  grated, 
add  a  heaping  tablespoonful  of  red  cayenne 
pepper.  Pour  on  this  y2  pint  boiling  hot 
water.  Stir  until  all  is  dissolved  and  add 
a  little  cider-brandy  or  alcohol  when  bot- 
tling. After  applying  this  to  the  joints, 
rub  on  a  little  sweet  oil  to  relax  the 
muscles. 

RUST,  To  REMOVE  FROM  A  STOVE. — Scrape 
some  bath  brick  to  a  fine  powder,  mix  a 
little  oil  with  it,  and  rub  the  spots  well 
with  a  piece  of  flannel  dipped  in  the  mix- 


ture; after  which  apply  some  whiting  and 
rub  it  well  in.  Several  applications  may  be 
necessary  before  the  rust  disappears. 

SEA  WATER,  To  MAKE  SUITABLE  FOR 
WASHING. — Put  in  soda  till  the  water  be- 
comes turbid;  the  magnesia  and  lime  in  it 
will  then  be  precipitated. 

SHIRT  BOSOMS,  To  MAKE  GLOSSY. — Take 
2  oz.  fine  gum-arabic  powder,  pour  on  a 
pint  or  more  water,  and  then,  having  cov- 
ered it,  let  it  stand  all  night.  In  the  morn- 
ing pour  it  carefully  from  the  dregs  into 
a  clean  bottle,  cork  and  keep  for  use.  Add 
a  teaspoonful  of  the  gum  water  to  every 
pint  of  starch. 

SHOE  SOLES,  To  MAKE  WATER-TIGHT. — 
Warm  a  little  beeswax  and  mutton  suet 
until  in  a  liquid  state  and  apply  over  the 
stitches. 

SILK,  To  CLEAN. — Take  equal  quantities 
of  alcohol  (whiskey  will  do), soft  soap  made 
of  wood  ashes  and  molasses.  Mix  and  rub 
on  with  a  cloth;  afterward  rinse  in  clear 
water  once  or  twice  and  dry  it  or  wrap  in 
a  cloth  till  ready  to  iron. 

SILVER,  To  GIVE  LUSTRE  To. — Make  a 
strong  brine  of  alum  dissolved  in  water; 
skim  carefully,  then  add  soap.  Apply  with 
a  linen  rag,  rubbing  gently. 

SOAP,  HARD. — To  5  pails  soft  soap  add  2 
Ibs.  salt  and  i  lb.  resin.  Simmer  together 
and  when  thoroughly  fused  turn  out  in 
shallow  pans  so  as  to  be  easily  cut. 

SOAP,  SOFT. — Boil  25  Ibs.  fried  grease  in 
2  pails  of  strong  lye.  On  the  following  day 
another  pailful  of  hot  lye;  also  on  the  next 
day  if  there  is  grease  on  the  top  of  the  soap. 
Afterward  add  a  pailful  of  hot  water  each 
day  until  the  barrel  is  filled. 

STAINS  ON  THE  HANDS. — Dissolve  five 
cents'  worth  of  crystals  of  oxalic  or  citric 
acid  in  a  6  oz.  bottle  of  water.  Rinse  from 
the  hands  before  they  are  dried.  This 
should  be  labeled  "Poison"  and  put  where 
no  child  can  get  at  it.  A  few  drops  of  oil 
vitriol  (sulphuric  acid)  in  water  is  excel- 
lent for  fruit  or  dye  stains,  but  it  must  be 
used  with  great  care,  as  it  eats  holes  in  cot- 
ton fabrics  and  takes  the  color  out  of 
woolens. 

STOVES,  To  GIVE  LUSTRE  To. — Mix  a 
teaspoonful  of  lye  with  the  polish.  This 
will  give  a  permanent  lustre.  Polish  may 
be  made  to  stay  on  by  adding  to  it  a  little 
vinegar  or  a  pinch  of  granulated  sugar. 

SUMMER  SUITS,  To  WASH. — The  water 
should  be  tepid  and  the  soap  should  not  be 
applied  directly  to  the  fabric.  The  articles 


900 


HINTS   TO   HOUSEKEEPERS 


should  be  washed  and  rinsed  quickly  and 
turned;  than  hung  in  the  shade.  When 
starched  in  thin  starch,  they  should  be 
folded  in  a  delicate  white  cloth ;  then  ironed 
on  the  wrong  side  quickly.  It  is  well  to 
wash  in  water  in  which  hay  or  a  bag  of 
bran  has  been  boiled.  A  little  salt  will  set 
the  colors  of  light  cambrics  and  lawns ;  a 
little  oxgall  is  good  for  yellow  and  purple 
tints. 

SUNSTROKE,  TREATMENT  OF. — While  wait- 
ing for  the  physician,  give  the  afflicted 
person  cool  drinks  of  water,  or  cold  black 
tea  or  cold  coffee,  if  able  to  swallow.  If 
the  skin  is  hot  and  dry  it  should  be  sponged 
with  cold  water,  or  cold  water  should  be 
poured  over  the  body  and  limbs,  and  pow- 
dered ice  should  be  applied  to  the  head, 
wrapped  in  a  towel,  or  cloth.  If  no  ice  is 
procurable,  use  cloths  wet  in  as  cold  water 
as  possible.  If  the  person  is  faint  and  the 
pulse  is  feeble,  inhaling  ammonia,  or  drink- 
ing a  teaspoonful  of  aromatic  spirits  of  am- 
monia in  2  tablespoonfuls  of  water  with  .a 
little  sugar,  will  be  restorative. 

TAN  AND  SUNBURN,  To  PREVENT. — Before 
going  into  the  open  air,  rub  the  juice  of  a 
fresh  lemon  over  the  face,  letting  it  dry. 
At  night,  dust  a  little  oatmeal  over  the 
face ;  in  the  morning  wash  it  off  and  rub 
on  a  little  cold  cream  or  buttermilk. 

TEETH,  DENTIFRICE  FOR. — Dissolve  2  oz. 
borax  in  3  pints  warm  water;  before  this 
becomes  cold  add  I  teaspoonful  of  tincture 
of  myrrh  and  i  tablespoonful  of  spirits  of 
camphor;  then  bottle.  Use  a  wineglassful 
at  a  time  in  a  pint  of  tepid  water.  A  little 
lemon  juice  occasionally  squeezed  into  the 
tooth-brush  will  remove  tartar. 

TINWARE,  To  MEND. — Fill  a  vial  two- 
thirds  full  of  muriatic  acid,  put  in  little 
bits  of  zinc,  as  long  as  the  acid  will  act ; 
add  a  bit  of  sal-ammoniac,  and  fill  with 


water.  With  the  cork  of  the  bottle  dampen 
the  spot  to  be  mended,  then  apply  a  bit  of 
sheet  zinc  over  the  hole  and  apply  a  lighted 
candle  under  the  place;  wet  the  zinc  with 
the  solution,  or  a  little  solder  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  zinc, 

TOOTHACHE  REMEDIES. — (i)  If  there  is  a 
cavity  in  the  tooth,  a  strong  solution  of 
common  baking  soda  held  in  the  mouth 
often  gives  quick  relief.  (2)  Apply  to  the 
defective  tooth  a  bit  of  cotton  saturated  in 
ammonia.  (3)  Insert  in  the  cavity  a  piece 
of  cotton  damp  with  the  oil  of  cloves;  if 
after  a  time  this  fails  to  relieve,  mix  an 
equal  quantity  of  oil  of  cloves  and  oil  of 
cinnamon,  oil  of  peppermint  or  creosote. 
Press  the  cotton  dry  before  applying  it,  to 
prevent  the  swallowing  of  the  liquids. 

WARTS,  To  REMOVE. — Avoid,  if  possible, 
the  use  of  the  knife  or  of  caustic.  A  simple 
remedy,  if  the  warts  are  on  the  hand,  is  to 
make  a  strong  solution  of  borax  in  water 
as  hot  as  the  flesh  can  bear  it,  and  to  let 
the  hand  remain  in  the  water  for  say 
twenty  minutes.  Dry  the  hand  and  then  rub 
the  warts  briskly.  Do  this  four  or  five 
times  and  the  warts  will  disappear  without 
leaving  scars. 

WASH  GOODS,  To  KEEP  COLOR  IN. — Im- 
merse them  for  3  hours  before  washing  in 
i  gallon  cold  water  to  which  has  been 
added  I  tablespoonful  of  ordinary  turpen- 
tine. 

WHOOPING  COUGH. — Sufferings  from  this 
disease  may  be  mitigated  by  mixing  equal 
parts  of  oil  of  pale  amber  and  spirits  of 
hartshorn,  and  applying  the  liquid  night 
and  morning  along  the  soles  of  the  feet  and 
along  the  spine,  especially  the  upper  part. 

WOOLENS,  To  WASH. — Use  hot  soap  suds ; 
rinse  in  clear,  cold  water  and  shake  out  the 
wet  without  wringing.  Never  wring  wool- 
ens after  washing  them. 


INDEX 


Absolute      possessives,      Spanish, 
150-151. 

pressure,  400. 

temperature,    399. 
Accent,   acute,    68. 

acute  in  Spanish,  141. 

circumflex,   the,   68. 

German,   101. 

graphic,   141. 

grave,    the,    68. 

musical,  279,   280. 

poetical,  rules  of,  43,  -44-45. 

in  poetry,  40. 

tonic,    141. 
Acne,  691,  694-695. 
Adams,    John,    202. 
Adams,  John  Quincy,  aoa. 
Adjective    declensions,    German, 

US- 
Adjectives,    English,    3,    12-13. 

endings    of,    5 1-52. 

French,  78-79. 

pronominal,      German,      in* 
112. 

relative,   German,    116-117. 

Spanish,    154-156. 
Administration   of  estates,    767. 
Adverbs,  English,  4,  14. 
Agency  in  law,   764. 
Agreements,    781,    783,    788. 
Agriculture,    600-620. 
Aguinaldo,    Emilio,    210. 
Air,   relation  of,   to  health,  511 
Alabama,    195,   202,  203. 
Alabama,     Confederate     cruiser, 

205. 

Alaska,   205,   207. 
Algiers,  200;  war  with,  202. 
Aliens  and  Naturalization,   779. 
Allegory,   in  rhetoric,  26,   31. 
Allgaier    gambit    in    chess,    466. 
Alliteration  in  poetry,  41. 

of  colors,   499. 
Allodial    tenure    in    New    York, 

203. 
Alphabet,    English,    1-3. 

French,   67-68. 

German,  99. 

Spanish,    139-140. 
Alternating  electric  current,  419- 

423- 
America,    discovery   of,    194. 

first  legislative  body  in,  196. 

origin  of  name  of,   194. 

slavery    introduced    in,    196. 
Americus    Vespucius,    194. 
Ampere,   defined,    the,   406. 
Ampere-hour   defined,   the,    422. 
Ampere-turn*  the,   defined,   417. 
Amphibrach,  a  poetical  measure, 

41. 

Anapest,  a  poetical  measure,  41. 
Angular    advance    of   the    eccen- 
tric,  392. 

Animal   food,   720-721. 
Animals,    farm,    choice  of,   613. 
Anne,   Queen  of  England,  221. 
Anode  defined,  421. 


Antenna,      wireless      telegraphy, 

424. 

Antithesis,    in    rhetoric,    26-31. 
Anthracite   coal    strike    of    1902, 

211. 
Apocopation     in     Spanish,      154- 

155- 

Apostrophe,   in   rhetoric,   25,   31. 
Appogiatura,  or  grace  note,  285. 
Apposition  defined,    18-19. 
Arbitration   in   law,    764. 
Architecture,    371-380. 

Byzantine,   377. 

Chinese,    377. 

Composite,  376. 

Corinthian,   375. 

Doric,    374-375- 

Egyptian,    372-373. 

Gothic,    377-379- 

Grseco-Gothic,  377. 

Greek,   373. 

Ionic,  375. 

Italian,    376-377. 

Lombard,    377. 

Moorish,   377. 

Norman,    379. 

origin  of,  371-372. 

Queen   Anne,    379. 

Roman,    375-376. 

Romanesque,   377. 

terms  used  in,  373-374. 

Tudor,    379. 

Tuscan^   376. 
Arkansas,   202. 
Arm,   human,  251,  252-253. 
Armature,   dynamo,   418. 

sculpture,    figure,    263. 
Arnold,  Benedict,   198,   199-200. 
Arpeggio,   musical,   283-284,   325. 
Arrest   in   law,    765. 
Art,  anatomy  of,  250-254. 
Arthur,  C.  A.,  206,  207. 
Articles,   English,  6. 

German,    loi-m. 

Spanish,    147. 

Articles    of    Confederation,    aoo. 
Articulation   on   cornet,    340. 

in   singing,   348,   351-35*. 
Ashburton  treaty,  the,  202. 
Assembly,   French,  the,   186. 
Assignments,   789-790. 
Assist    in    euchre,    445-446. 
Associations,  organizing,   733. 
Asteroids,   the,   234. 
Astronomy,   descriptive,   230-337. 
Attachment,    in   law,    765. 
Attorney-General,  214. 
Attributes,    English,    18,    19. 
Automobiles,    429-434. 

differential  gear  of,  431. 

electric,    430,    433-434- 

gasoline,   430,  432-433- 

history  of,  429-430. 

rubber  tires,   432. 

speed-changing    in,    432-434. 

Steam,  430. 

steering  of,   431-432. 

Storage  batteries  of,  433-434- 

tinderframes   of,   432. 


Auxiliary  verbs,    English,   7. 
French,    83-84,    88,    90-91. 
German,    121-122,    126-131. 
Spanish,    157-159. 


Ballroom,  behavior,  501-502,  507. 
Baltimore,   Lord,  first,    196,   197. 
Barbary   States,  war  with,   202. 
Barre  on   guitar,   325-327. 
Baseball,    rules   for,    558-560. 
Bathing,    516,   685,   707. 
Batter-cakes,  to  make,  888. 
Batteries,  electric,  404,  412,  421- 

423. 

"Be"   in    Spanish,    158-159. 
Beauregard,  Gen.  P.  G.  T.,  204. 
Beauty,  femate  standard  of,  688. 
Bedroom,  airing  of,    519. 
Beds,  hard  and  soft,   519. 
Bennett,   James   Gordon,   206. 
Benzoin,  milk  of,    703. 
Bertillon   identification   card,  39, 
Beverages,  515. 
Bill  of  Rights  (1689),  219. 
Bills   of  exchange,    789,    790. 
Births  and  deaths,  laws  on,  766* 
Biscuits,  to  make,   887-888; 
Black  Hawk  War,  202. 
Body,   human,    height  of,   250. 

muscles  of,   251-252. 

temperature  of,   519. 
Boilers,    steam,    384-385. 
Bones,   fractured,  treating,   570. 
Bon  Homme  Richard,  ship,    tQQ. 
Boston,    195,   198,  205. 

British  evacuation  of  (1776). 
198. 

great  fire  in,  205. 

harbor,   198. 

retreat   to    (1775),    198. 

"tea    party,"    the,    198. 
Bow  of  a  violin,   309-311. 
Bowing  of  violoncello,   330-331. 
Boxer  War  in   China,   an. 
Boxing,    574-581. 
Brace  in   music,   the,   276. 
Brackets,  use  of,  24. 
Brain  and  mental  exercise,   51)^. 
Brass  work,   hammered,   264-267. 
Breadmaking,   hints  on,  887. 
Breakfast,    working  before,    5i£ 
Breathing,   cornet  playing,   340. 

for  singing,   347-348,   351. 
Bridge,    game   of,    454-456. 

cards    in,    exposed,    456. 

chicane    in,    454-455. 

doubling   in,    455. 

dummy  in,   456. 

honors    in,    454,    455. 

revoke  in,   456. 

rubber  In,   the,   454. 

scoring  in,  454-455. 

slam  in,   454-455- 

tricks  in,   454-455. 
British  Parliament,   197. 
Broom-corn,  610. 
Bruises,    treatment   for,    718. 
Brushes,    dynamo,   418. 


INDEX 


Bryan,   William  J.,  308,  210. 
Buchanan,  James,  203. 
Buckwheat  cakes,  to  make,   888. 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  307,  21 0-2 1 1. 
Bundesrath,   German,   228-229. 
Buns,  to  make,  888. 
Burns,   treatment  for,   717. 
Burr,  Aaron,  200. 
Byzantine  architecture,  377. 


Cabinet,   English,  220-221. 

French,   225. 

King  and,  in  England,  221. 

United    States,    214. 
Cabot,   John,    194,    195. 
Cabot,    Sebastian,    194,    195. 
California,    203,   212. 

conquered,    203. 

gold    found   in,   203. 

missions    in,    212. 
Calling,   etiquette   of,    494-495. 

in  poker,  450. 

Camera,    photographic,    246. 
Canada,    195,  201. 
Canter,  the,  536. 
Cards,      playing,      antiquity     of, 
435- 

cutting,   435. 

dealing,  435,  439. 

forcing,   in  sleight   of  hand, 
479-480. 

games  with,  435-458. 

making  the  pass  with,  479. 

shuffling,  435,  439. 

tricks   with,   479-482. 

trump,   435. 
Carmine   liquid,   704. 
Carolina,  Colony  of,  197. 
Carteret   Colony,    197. 
Carving  meats,   hints  on,   883. 
Carving,   wood,  268-270. 

designs  for,  269,  270. 

flat,   268. 

intaglio,  268. 

lowered    work,    268. 

modeling   for,    268. 

sunken  work,  268. 

tools    for,    268. 

(cut),  269,  270. 
Caryatides,  375. 
Cases  of  nouns   in   English,   6. 
Castling  in  chess,  462. 
Cathode  defined,  421. 
Cattle,   659. 
Causative      auxiliary,      German, 

129. 

C.  E.  M.  F.,  419- 
Centennial  Exhibition,  205-206. 
Ceres,  the  asteroid,   234. 
C  G.   S.  units,  405. 
Chamber    of    Deputies,    French, 

226. 

Chambers     of     French     Govern- 
ment,   225-226. 
Chancellor,   German,   228. 
Characters   in   fiction,    35-36,    38. 
Charles  I  of  England,  196. 
Charles  II  of  England,  197,  219. 
Charles  V  of  Spain,    195. 
Check,  in  chess,  462. 
Checkers,  game  of,  468-471. 

games   in,    469-470. 

losing  game  of,  470-471. 

origin  of,  459. 

rules  of,  468-469. 
Checkmate   in   chess,    462. 
Chesapeake,    U.    S.    frigate,   aoi. 


Chess,  460-468. 

Allgaier  gambit  in,  466. 

castling   in,   462. 

check  in,   462. 

checkmate  in,  462. 

finishing  game  in,  467-468. 

gambit    in,    463,    465,    466, 
467. 

laws  of,    463-464. 

mating  power  in,   463. 

Munzio    gambit   in,    466-467. 

notation  of,   461. 

openings    in,    465,    466. 

origin  of,  459. 

pieces   and   powers    in,    460- 
461. 

queening  a  pawn  in,  463. 

ranks   and   files   in,    462-463. 

Scotch  gambit  in,   467. 

stalemate  in,  462. 

terms  used   in,   462-463. 
Chicago,  205,  207,  208. 
Chicane  in  bridge,  454,  455. 
Children,  care  of,  706-718. 

bathing   of,    707. 

care  and  rearing  of,  707. 

colds  in,    709. 

convulsions    in,    712. 

diseases  of,   712-718. 

sleep  of,   708. 

teething  in,  710. 

vaccination  of,   714. 
Chili-Peru  War,  207. 
Chili    pays    indemnity,    207. 

treaty  with,  207. 
China,   191,  211,  377. 
China,   painting  on,  257-258. 
ChoJera  invasion  prevented,  207. 
Chords,    musical,    289,    291,    318, 

on    guitar,    325. 

on   mandolin,    318. 

perfect,  table  of,  361. 
Christ,   a  miracle  of,  32. 
Chromatic   scale,    the,   275. 
Chyle,  the,    513. 
Chyme,  the,  513. 
Circuit,  electric,  404. 

Ohm's  law  of,  405. 
Citizenship,  conditions  of,  780. 

how  obtained,  779,  780. 

minors  and,  780. 
Civil    Service   Bill,   207. 

rules,   792-799. 
Civil  War,    204. 
Clay,    Henry,    202. 

Compromise   Bill,    202. 
Clay,   modeling  in,   261-263. 
Cleanliness,   importance   of,    516. 
Clearness  in  writing,  27,  28-29. 
Clefs,  bass  and  treble,  275,  276. 
Clermont,  steamboat,  201. 
Geveland,  Grover,  207,  208. 
Climbing    ladders,   etc.,    in    gym- 
nastics,   530-S3I. 
Clinton,    Sir  Henry,    198,  200. 
Coal,   structure  of,  243. 
Coal     strike     in     Pennsylvania, 

211. 

arbitrated,  212. 

conference  on,   211-212. 
Clothing  and  climate,    519. 
Codicil  to  a  will,  784. 
Cceur   d'Alene  Mine  strike,   207. 
Coherer,       wireless      telegraphy, 

424,    426. 
Coil,  Ruhmkorff,  the,  425. 

Tesla,  428. 
Cold   cream   recipe,    703. 


Cold,  catching,  516,  709,  710. 

curing,  710. 
Colds,  cause  of,  516. 
Coligni,   Admiral,    195. 
Colombia,  canal  treaty  with,  21  h 
Colonies,    New    England,    197. 
Colorado,  205. 
Colors,    alliteration   of,    499. 

and   glazes,    mixing   of,    257. 

enamel,    258. 

for  terra  cotta,   257. 

French,   259. 

mixing,  259. 

moist   and   dry,   258. 

necessary   for   painting,   257. 
Columbian  Exposition,  207,  208. 
Columbus,  Christopher,   194,  208. 
Comets,  230,  236-237. 
Comma,  the,  uses  of,   24. 
Commands,   in   German,    125. 
Commission,    Venezuela    Bound* 

ary,  208. 
Commons,     House    of,     English, 

221. 
Compression    in    steam    engine, 

392-393- 

Complexion   lotions,   703. 
Composite    architecture,    376. 
Composition   of   food,    719. 
Composts,   607. 

Compromise  Bill,  Clay's,  202. 
Commutator,   dynamo,   418. 
Concord,  battle  of,  254. 
Conditional   mood,    Spanish,    161, 
Confederation,   articles   of,   200. 

the  German,  227. 
Congress,  Confederate,  204. 

Continental,   first,    198. 

Continental,    second,    198. 

Houses  of,  215. 

United    States,    186. 

U.    S.    President   and,    214. 
Conjugation     of    English    verbs, 
710-712. 

progressive     Spanish,    163. 
Conjugations,    Spanish,    162. 
Conjunctions,  co-ordinate,   14. 

English,   4,    1 4. 

subordinate,    14. 
Connecticut    Colony,    197. 
Connotation   in   writing,   27. 
Consistency    in    writing,    32. 
Consonants,  double  German,  100. 

English,  2-3. 

French,   69. 

Spanish,    141. 
Constitution,   form   for,   733. 

English,    the,    219-220. 

French,  224. 

German,    227,    228. 

United   States,  201-206,   213- 

215. 

Constitution,   U.   S.    frigate,  201. 
Continental  Congress, .  198. 
Contracts,  legal,  766. 
Conversation^    etiquette    of,    495- 

496,    500,   501,   506. 
Conversations   in    fiction,    37. 
Conveyances   of  lands,    783. 
Convulsions    ire  children,    712. 
Copartnership,  articles  of,  782. 
Corinthian   architecture,   375. 
Cornet,    self-taught,    377-343. 

breathing  for  playing,   340. 

demi-legato  on,  341. 

pitch  of  the,   338. 

portato   on,    341. 

position    in-   playing,    328. 


Cornet,  practicing  on  the,  342. 

slurs  on,   341. 

tongueing    for,   340-342. 

tonguemg-in    on,    341-342. 

tuning  the,  342. 

valves    and    tones    of,    337- 

338. 

Corns,   treatment  for,   697. 
Cornwallis,   Lord,    199. 
Corporations,   how  formed,  767. 
Cosmetics,  684,  689-691,  703-705. 
Coulomb   denned,    the,    407. 
Council     of    Ministers,     French, 
225. 

of    State,    French,    225. 
Court,  Supreme,  U.  S.,  215,  217. 
Courts,     Federal     and     District, 

215. 

Cows,  pasturage  of,  658. 
Crackers,  to  make,  888. 
Crayons,  sketching,  258. 
Cricket,    rules    for,    555-558. 
Croquet,  regulations  in,   565-568. 
Croup  and  its  treatment,   715. 
Cuba,   195,  208,  209. 
Current,    electric,    403-404,    419, 

423. 

Custer,   General,  206. 
Cut-off  of  steam  engine,  391-392. 
Cuts  and  their  treatment,   717. 
Cutting  cards,  435,  439. 
Cycle,    gas    engine,    396-398. 
Cylinders,  steam  engine,  387. 

D 

Dactyl,    a   poetical    measure,    41. 
Dancing,    lessons  in,    723-732. 
Dandruff,  cure  for,  698,  705: 
Dark  room,  photographic,  363. 
Dash,  use  of  the,  25. 
Davis,  Jefferson,  204. 
Deal    in    euchre,    the,    445. 

in  poker,   the,   449. 
Dealing  cards,    435-439- 
Debt,   when  outlawed,   773. 
Declaration      of      Independence, 

198. 
Deed  of  gift  from  father  to  son, 

783. 

of  personal   estate,    783. 
on  conditions,    784. 
;          without  covenants,  783. 
Degree    of   scale,    286,    290-291. 
Delaware,   settlement  of,    197. 
Demi-legato  on  cornet,  341. 
Democracy,    Jefferson's,    200. 
Denotation  in  writing,  27. 
Depolarization    of    electric    cells, 

4i3,    414. 
Deputies,    Chamber    of,    French, 

226. 

Developing,   photographic,   365. 
Dewey  seizes  Manila,   209. 
Diaphragm,    exercises     for    the, 

348-349. 

Diaphragms,    photographic,     364. 
Diaphragmatic      breathing,      347- 

348,    351. 

Diatonic  scale,  the,  275. 
Dickens,    Charles,   29,  -  36. 
Dielectrics,   408. 
Dietaries,    food,    calculation    of, 

720. 
Differential      gear,      automobile, 

43i. 

Digestibility   of   food,    721. 
Digestion,    process    of,    513,    515. 
Dinner  parties,  502-505,  508. 


INDEX 


Diphtheria,   716. 
Diphthongs,     French,    68-69. 

German,    100. 
Discussion,  value  of,  to  a  writer, 

28. 

Diseases  of  children,    712-718. 
Divorce,    grounds    for,    774. 
Domino  pool,   475-476. 
Dominoes,   all   fives   in,    472-473. 

drawing  game   in,   473-474. 

English   game    of,    474. 

four  game  of,  the,  476. 

French  game  of,  473,   474. 

general  maxims  in,   471-472. 

matador  game  of,  474-475. 

origin  of,  460. 

Sebastopol   game   of,   477. 

tiddle-a-wink,    477. 

whist   with,    476. 
Doric   architecture,    374-375. 
Doubling  in  bridge,   455. 
Dower  of  a  widow,  770. 
Draining   farm   lands,   607-609. 
Drake,   Sir  Francis,   195. 
Draughts,    game    of,    459,    468- 
471. 

games  in,  469-470. 

losing  game   of,    470-471. 

rules  of,  468-469. 
Drawing-out  in   singing,   352. 

on  violin,  315. 

Draw  poker,   game   of,   449-453. 
Dressing,  etiquette  in,  497-499. 
Driving,  etiquette  of,  497. 
Drowning,  treatment,  571-573. 
Drugs,    administration,    648-654. 
Due  bills,   789, 
Dummy   in   bridge,   456. 

whist,  445. 

Dynamo,   electric,    the,   418-419. 
Dyne  defined,  the,   406. 


Earth,  crust  of  the,  244. 

the,  as  a  planet,  232. 
Eating   as   affecting   the   organs, 

514. 

moderation  in,  515. 

relation    of,    to    bodily    or- 
gans,  514. 

repose  after,  necessary,  514. 

rules   for,  513. 

Eccentrics,  steam  engine,  390-391. 
Eczema,   694. 
Egyptian    architecture,    372-373. 

writing,    172. 
Egyptians,  figure  proportions  of, 

250. 
Election,    Presidential,    of    1876, 

213. 

Electoral  College,  213-214. 
Electric    automobiles,    430,    433. 

batteries,   404,   414. 

calculations,    406. 

cell,    Leclanche,    the,    414. 
Electric  circuit,  404. 

Ohm's  law  of,  405. 

varieties   of,    409-412. 
Electric    circuits,     parallel,    410, 
411,   412- 

series,   410. 

series-multiple,   410-411. 
Electric   current,    405. 

alternating,  419,  423. 

effects  of,  414. 

polyphase,  419,  423, 

single-phase,   423. 

three-phase,  433. 


903 


Electric  dynamo,  the,  418-419. 

gas   engine    ignition,    399. 

horsepower,   407. 

induction,   414. 

insulators,   408. 

motor,   the,   418-419. 

motors,   efficiency  of,  420. 

motors,  power  of,  420. 

oscillations,  427. 

potential,    404. 

power  estimates,   407. 

resistivity,    408. 

secondary      batteries,      421. 
423- 

storage  batteries,  421-423. 

units,   405-407,   408. 
Electricity,    generation    of,    402. 

heat    ind,   compared,   404. 

historical    facts  on,   402. 

n-.ure  of,  402. 

principles  of,  402-423. 
.     static  and  current,  402. 
Electrolyte   defined,    413. 
Electro-magnet  invented,  402. 
Electro-magnets,     winding,     416- 

418. 

Electromotive  force,  404. 
Elegance   in   writing,    27,   32. 
Elegiac  verse,  47. 
Ellipsis,  a  figure  of  rhetoric,  25. 
Emancipation   Proclamation,   204. 
Embargo  Act  of    1807,  201. 
E.  M.  F.,  404. 

Enameling,     photographic,     36^. 
England,    197. 

Cabinet  of,   220-221. 

government    of,    219-223. 

House  of  Commons  of,  221. 

House  of  Lords  of,  221. 
•    King    and    Cabinet    in,    221. 

King  of,  powers  of,  220. 

liberties    in,    219. 

organic  law   of,   219-220. 

parliament    of,    219,    221. 

Prime  Minister  of,  220,  228. 

privy   council   of,    220. 

real   rulers   of,   220. 

royal   family  of,   220. 

rule  of  precedent  in,  220. 

sovereign    of,   laws   on,    220. 

sovereigns    of,    list,    2-2.2-223. 

succession  to  throne  of,  219. 

war   feeling  in    (1895),    208. 
English,  ancient  words  in,   14 

and    Spanish    words,    141.. 

dominions,   474. 

foreign   words  in,    5-6. 

grammar,    1-26. 
Epigram,    a    figure    of    rhetoric; 

26. 

Estates,   administration  of,   767. 
Etiquette,  493-510. 

of  amusements,    509. 

of    the    ballroom,     507-502, 

507. 

of  calling,  494-495. 
of  cards,  494,  495- 
of  conversation,  494-496, 

500,    501,    506. 
of  dancing,    500,    501-502. 
of    dinner    parties,    502-505; 

508. 

of  dressing,  497-499- 
of  driving,  497. 
of  funerals,   508-509. 
of  games,    500,    501. 
of      introductions,      493-494? 

507. 


INDEX 


Etiquette,    of    jewelry,    wearing, 
49«,    499. 

of  parties,   499-501,    507. 

of  perfumery,   498. 

riding,    497. 

of  salutations,   507-508. 

street,   496-497,   509-510. 

traveling,   509. 

visiting,    494-495,    505,    S'O. 
Etymology,    English,    1-14. 
Euchre,  445-449. 

assist   in,   445-446. 

deal  in,   the,   445. 

maxims   in,    446. 

misdeals  in,  447. 

order    up    in,    445-446. 

partners    in,    449- 

pass  in,  445-446. 

revoke  in,    448. 

score    in,    the,    446. 

take-up  in,  445-446. 

two-handed,  447. 

trumps  in,   making,   448-449. 

with   joker,   443. 
Euphonic    changes    in    Spanish, 

164-165. 

Exaggeration   in   rhetoric,    25-26. 
Exchange,    notes    and    bills    of, 

776. 
Exclamation     and    interrogation, 

26. 

Executive     Department,     United 
States,  214. 

Mansion,  Washington,  207. 
!£xercise,  rules  for,  517. 

active  and  passive,   517^ 

bodily,  amount  of,  518. 

dancing  as,  517. 

fencing   as,    517. 

jumping  as,   520. 

mental,  518. 

repose    and,    518. 

riding  as,  517- 

running  as,    520. 

varieties  of,   520-599. 

walking  as,    517,    520. 

with  apparatus,   520-531. 
Exercises   for  piano,   302-306. 
Exposure,    photographic,    timing, 

365. 

Eye,  sculptured,  263. 
Eyebrows  and  eyelashes,  care  of, 

699. 


Fahrenheit  degrees,  385,  386. 
Farinaceous     foods,     merits     of, 

515- 
Farm  animals,  613. 

buildings,    613. 

crops,    614. 

fences,  613. 

gates,    613. 

hedges,    614. 

implements,  613. 

machines,    609-612. 
Farragut,  Com.  D.  G.,  204. 
Federal,  Elections  Bill,  208. 

Hall,    New    York,    200. 
Feet,  care  of  the,  696. 
Fencing  as  exercise,   517. 
Fermentation  products  unhealth- 

ful,  516. 
Feudal    system    in    New    York, 

203. 

Fevers  and  their  treatment,  714. 
Fiction,   rules   for  writing,   34. 
Fifteenth  Amendment,   205. 


Figure,   female,   developing,   7*1. 
Figures,  rhetorical  rules  for,  31. 
Fillmore,  Millard,  203. 
Fingering  the  guitar,  323. 

the   piano,    rules   for,   307. 

the  violin,  311. 
Finish  in  whist,  the,   443. 
Firing,   point   of,    396. 
Flash   point   of  oil,    396. 
Flat,    double,    musical,    286. 
Florida,    195,  202,  203. 
Flux,  magnetic,  418. 
Focus,    equivalent,    364. 
Food,    adulteration    of,    722. 

animal,    vegetable,    720,    721. 

choice   of   articles   of,   862. 

combinations   of,   720. 

farinaceous,    merits   of,    515. 

nutrition   and,    512. 

preservatives  of,  722. 

proper  kinds  of,   514. 

seasonable,    869. 

variations  in,   515. 
Football,   rules   for,   560-561. 
Force  in  writing,  27,  29-31. 
Foreign    words    in    English,    5-6, 

48-62. 

Fossils,  239,  242,  243,  345. 
Fourteenth  Amendment,  205. 
Fractures,    treatment   of,    571. 
France,    195,    197. 

Cabinet  of,  225. 

Chamber  of  Deputies,  126. 

Council  of  State  of,   225. 

government    of,    224-226. 

grammar,   78-93. 

Kings  of,  list,  226. 

president   of,    224-225. 

presidents    of,    list,    226. 
Freckles,  cure  for,   764. 
Fremont,    Gen.    John    C.,    203. 
French  accents,    69. 

adjectives,    78-79. 

alphabet,  67-68. 

auxiliary    verbs,     83-84,    88, 
90-91. 

consonants,  69. 

declensions,    78. 

diphthongs,    68-69. 

impersonal   verbs,   89. 

irregular  verbs,   91-93. 

language,    the,    67-97. 

numerals,   77. 

phases,    94-97. 

pronominal    verbs,    88. 

pronouns,    80-8 1. 

pronunciation,   68-69. 

sequence   of  tenses   in*   90. 

syntax,   87-91. 

u,  the,   66,  67,  68. 

verbs,  81-93. 

vocabulary,  70-77. 

vowels,   68-69. 
Frets  of  a  mandolin,  317. 
Frolic,    British   brig,    201. 
Fruit,    cultivation    of,    620-625. 
Fuels,  385-386,  396. 
Funerals,    etiquette    of,    508-509. 


Galvanic  batteries,  412,  413. 
Gambit,  chess,  463,  465,  466,  467. 
Games,    card,    435-458. 

etiquette  of,    500,   501. 

outdoor,    545-568. 

of   skill,    459-477- 
Gamut,  meaning  of  word,  274. 
Gardening,  indoor.  670-683, 


Garfield,  J.  A.,   206. 

Gas   engine,    the,    395-401. 

air-cooling,   399. 

cycles  of,  396-398. 

cylinder  cooling,   399. 

Diesel,    398. 

electric   ignition   in,   399. 

fly-wheel  of,  396. 

four-cycle,    396-397. 

hot-head  ignition  in,  398. 

ignition   in   a,   398-399. 

indicator  diagram  of,  401. 

initial  pressure  in,  401. 

operation    of    a,    400. 

Otto,  398. 

parts  of  a,  396. 

steam   engine   and,   396. 

theory     and     operation     of, 
395- 

trunk  piston   of,   396. 

two-cycle,   397-398. 

water-jacket   of,    399. 
Gasoline    automobiles,    430,    434- 

433- 

Gates,   Gen.  Horatio,   199. 
Gender  in  German,  98,   101. 
Geology,    outlines    of,    238-245. 
Georgia,   197,   198,   199,  203,  204, 

205. 
German  accent,  101. 

adj  ective-declensions,    115. 

alphabet,   99. 

article,  the,    101,   in. 

auxiliary  verb,   121-122,   126- 

131- 

causative  auxiliary,   129. 

contingent       assertions       in, 
129. 

declensions,     110-115. 

diphthongs,    100. 

double  consonants,    100. 

inflection,    in. 

irregular   verbs,    131-135. 

modal  auxiliaries,   126-131. 

modal   idioms,    130-131. 

modified  vowels,    100. 

nouns,    112-114. 

numerals,    117-118. 

phrases,    135-138. 

plurals,    in,    112-113. 

prepositions,    iio-m. 

pronominal    adjectives,     III- 
112. 

pronouns,   118,    119. 

relative    adjectives,    116-117. 

relative    clauses,     119-120. 

sequences  of  tenses  in,    i2& 

syntax,    125-131. 

Umlaut   in,    100. 

verbal  prefixes,    124-125. 

verbs,    120-135. 

vocabulary,    i  o  I  - 1 1  o. 
Germany,   confederation   of,   227. 

constitution  of,  227,  228. 

Emperor   of,    227,    228. 

government   of,    227-229. 
Gilbert,    the,     defined,    417. 
Glazes  and  colors,  257. 
Gold   found   in   California,   203. 
Gold   standard   affirmed,    208. 
Glissando    on    mandolin,    321. 

on  violin,   315. 
Glycin,  in  photography,  366. 
Golf,  552-555- 

clubs,    552. 

etiquette  of  game,    553. 

forms   of,    553- 

green,  laying  out  a,  554* 


INDEX 


905 


putting,  SS3. 

style,   553. 

forms,  definition  of,  554. 
Goods,   order   for,    789. 
Gorman-Wilson   Bill,   208. 
Gothic   architecture,    377-379. 
Government,  French,  225-226. 

of  England,  219-223. 

of   France,    224-226. 

of   Germany,    227-229. 

representative,   219. 

United    States,    213-218. 
Grace  notes,  285. 

on  guitar,  327. 

Graeco-Gothic   architecture,   377. 
Grain,   how  to  shock,  616, 
Grains,  edible,  614-616. 
Gramme,    the,    186. 
Grant,  U.  S.,  204,  205,  207. 
Great  Britain,  198,  205,  208,  210. 
Greek  architecture,  373,  374-375- 
Greely,    Lieut.    A.    W.,    206. 
Griddle-cakes,   to   make,    888. 
Gruppeto,  284-285. 
Guam   ceded   to  U.   S.,   210. 
Guerriere,    British    frigate,    201. 
Guitar,  self-taught,  322-323. 
Guitar,   arpeggio  on,   325. 

chords  on,   325. 

description   of  the,   322. 

double  fingering   for,   323. 

harmonies    on,    327-328. 

keys   for,   best,   323-325. 

position  in  playing,  322-323. 

sextolets  on  the,  327. 

shifting   on,   323. 

stopping    on,    323,    325. 

strings   and   tones   on,    333. 

triplets    on    the,    327. 

tuning    the,    328-329. 
Gymnastics,   simple,  520-533. 

H 

Habeas    Corpus    Act,    219. 
Hague  Tribunal,  212. 
Hair,   care  of  the,   697-699. 
Hands,    care   of  the,   695. 
Harmonies,    artificial,    336. 

on    guitar,    327-328. 

on    violoncello,    335-336. 
Harrison,   Benj.,  207. 
Harrison,  Gen.  W.  H.,  201,  202. 
Hawaii,    208,    210. 
Hty,  John,  32,  211,  212. 
Hay-Pauncefote    Treaty,    211. 
Hayes,    R.    B.,   inaugurated,   206. 
Health,  preservation  of  the,  511- 

519- 
Health,  air  and,   511-512. 

cleanliness  and,    516. 

exercise   and,    516-518. 

food   and,    512-516. 

mental    activity   and,    518. 

perspiration    and,     516. 

rest    and,    518-519. 
Health  hints  for  women,  684-705. 

acne,    691,    694,    701. 

bath,  the,  685. 

cosmetics    and    the   complex- 
ion,  689-691. 

cosmetics,     evil     effects     of, 
684. 

cosmetics,      how      to      make 
them,     703-705. 

dandruff,  cure  for,  698,  705. 

eczema,  694. 

fcyebrows       and      eyelashes, 
care  of,  699. 


falling  hair,  care  for,   698. 

feet,   care  of  the,   696. 

figure,   development  of,   701. 

hair,  care  of  the,  697. 

hair,     to    change    color    of, 
699. 

hands,  care  of  the,  695. 

liver  spots,  695. 

physical   exercises    (women), 
686-688. 

pimples  and  blotches,  694. 

skin  diseases,  treatment  for, 
700. 

skin,  irritation  of,  701. 

standard   of  beauty,    female, 
688. 

sunburn,   690. 

teeth,  care  of  the,  695. 

wrinkles,       treatment       for, 

691,    694-695. 

Hearts,  game  of,  the,  457-458, 
Heating   surface,   boiler,   385. 
Hebrew  poetry,  39. 
Hemp,  620. 

Herschel,    the   planet,    235. 
Hertz,  Heinrich,  424,  425. 

resonator    of,    426. 
Hertzian   waves,   424,   425,   426. 
Hexameter   verse,   39,   41. 
Hieroglyphic    writing,    1 72. 
Hobart,    G.    A.,    Vice-Preside nt, 

208. 

Holding  over,   oath   of,    789. 
Honolulu,   cable  opened   to,   212. 
Honors   in   bridge,   454,   455. 

whist,  440,  443. 
Hops,  620. 

Horizon  in  drawing,  the,  247. 
Horizontal  bar,  use  of,  522-526. 
Horse,  the,  630-654. 

age  of,  to  tell,   539. 

carriage,   the,   642. 

clipping  or  singeing,   644. 

clothing   for,   640. 

color  of,   632. 

defects,   diseases,   and  faults 
of,  645- 

domestication   of,    633. 

exercise  and  work,  644. 

feeding,  644. 

feet,  management  of,  645. 

for  light  harness,  643. 

hack   or   riding,    641. 

harness  for  stable,  646. 

harnessing,    and    putting    to 
harness,    647. 

how   to  purchase  a,   641. 

hunting,    the,    642. 

ladies',   the,   641. 

mounting  a,   534. 

points  of  a,  630-633. 

stable,    management    of   the, 

643- 

stables,    plans    for,    638. 
stable  vices,  645. 
thoroughbred,    points    of    a, 

635-637. 
tricks    and     vices,     536-538, 

646. 

treatment  of,    539,    54°. 
varieties   of,   633,   637. 
vices  of  the,  536-538,  646, 
vaulting,    the,    522,    527-529. 
Horsepower,    electrical,    407. 
of  a   steam   engine,    394. 
Hotels,  etiquette  at,   509. 
House,    agreement    for   building, 

782. 


House,    agreement    for    purchase 

of,  781. 

Housekeepers,   hints  to,   868-9001, 
Hoyle,   Edmund,  435. 
Hudson,   Henry,    190. 
Human    figure,    oroportions    of, 

250-2151. 
Hyperbole,  in  vnetoric,  25-26,  31. 


Iambic,    a   poetical   measure,    41. 
Idaho,    mining   troubles   in,    207. 
Idioms,   modal   German,    130-131. 
Ignition,    gas   engine,   398-399. 
Illinois,  202. 

Impersonal  verbs,   French,  89. 
Inclination   of  lines   in   drawing, 

247- 

Indefinites,    Spanish,    152-153. 
India    ink,    259. 
Indiana,  202. 
Indians,      American,      195,      19/3, 

197,  201,  204,  206. 
Indicative,   the   Spanish,    159. 
Indicator,  steam  engine,  388-389. 
Indies,    East,    191-192. 
Induction,      electric,      laws      of, 

415-416. 

Injuries,  treatment  for,  569. 
Insulators,    electric,   408. 
Intensifying,    photographic,    366- 

367- 

Interest    and    usury,     771. 
Irterior,    Secretary   of,   214. 
Interrogation,    in   rhetoric,   26. 
Intervals,    augmented,    290. 

consecutive,    290. 

diminished,    290. 

inverted,    290. 

major,    290. 

minor,    290. 

musical,   290-291. 

perfect,    290. 

piano,   299. 

Introduction,    etiquette    of,    493- 
494.    507- 

letters    of,    494,    507. 
Ionic    architecture,    375. 
Iowa,  203. 
Irregular   verbs,    French,   91-93. 

German,    131-135. 
"  Spanish,    165-167. 
Irrigation,    607. 

Isthmian   Canal,    treaty  on,   211. 
Italics,  use  of,  in  printing,  25. 
Italy,    architecture   of,    376-377, 


Jack-pot   in    hearts,   the,   458. 

in    poker,    the,    453, 
Jackson,    Andrew,    202. 
James  I  of  England,   196. 
Japan,   treaty   with,    203. 
Japanese    athletics,    595-599. 
Jeannette,    Arctic    steamer,    ?o6L 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  186,  200,  102. 
Jewelry,  wearing  of,  498,  499. 
Jiu-jitsu,    595-599. 
Johnson,  Andrew,  205. 
Joker,    euchre    with,    447. 
Jones,   Capt.  John  Paul,   1551. 
Joule  defined,  the,   407. 
Judiciary  Dept.,  U.  S.,  214,  2ljj 
Jumping   as  exercise,    520. 

in  gymnastics,  520. 
Juno,  the  asteroid,  234, 
Jupiter,  the  planet  234. 
Jury,  trial  by,  founded,  219. 


906 


INDEX 


K 

Kansas,  204. 

Kansas-Nebraska   Bill,   203. 
Keys    for    guitar,    best,    323-325. 
Kilogram,   the,    186,    189. 
Kilometre,    the,    189. 
King    and    Cabinet    in    England, 
221. 


Labial   consonants,   2. 
Lacquering   for  brass,   266. 
Ladders,    gymnastic,    522. 
Ladies,   dressing   of,    497-498. 
Lamps,    electric,    in   circuit,   411. 
Landlord    and    tenant,    772. 
Landlord's    agreement,    788. 
Land  sale  agreement,    782. 
Lands,    conveyances    of,    783. 
Landscape,    colors   for,   257. 

painting,   255. 

elements    of    a,    247-249. 

sizing   up   a,    256. 
Language,   classes   of,    63. 

original  forms  of,  65. 
Languages,   learning,    65. 
La   Salle,    Father,    197,   200. 
Law,  outlines  of,  763-791. 
Lawn    tennis,    rules    of,    562-565. 
Laws,   State  and  Federal,  215. 
Lead  in   whist,   the,   440. 

returning,  in  whist,  443. 
Leaping  in  gymnastics,  520. 
Lease,  agreement  for  a,  787. 

assignment    of,    790. 
Lee,   Fitzhugh,   208,   209. 
Lee,   Gen.   Robert   E.,  204,   205. 
Left  hand  in  violoncello,   330. 
Legacy,   power   to   receive,   787. 
Legal  documents,   781-791. 
Legato  on  mandolin,   321. 
Legato    passages,    musical,    281, 

282. 

Leger  lines   in   music,   276. 
Legislative    Department,    United 

States,    214,   215. 
Lenses,    photographic,    364. 
Letter-writer,   the,    746-753. 
Letter-writing,    examples   of   cor- 
rect,   748. 

essential    points    in,    746. 
Lexington,   battle  of,   204. 
Lien   laws,    773. 

Light,    zodiacal,    the,    231,    236. 
Lighting,    artificial,   in   sculpture, 

262. 

Limitation  of  action  in  law,  773. 
Lincoln,  A.,  32,  203,  204,  205. 
Link-motion,    steam   engine,    390- 
39>- 

Stephenson,    384. 
Literary   form,    28. 
Litre,    the,    186,    187. 
Lombard    architecture,    377. 
Longfellow,  H.  W.,  41,  43,  45. 
Lord's      Prayer     in     eight     lan- 
guages,   64-65. 

Louis  XIV  of  France,   197-201. 
Louisiana,  197,  200,  203. 
Love,  analysis  of,  37. 
Lungers,    the,    in   exercise,    522. 

M 
McKinley,     William,     207,     208, 

210,  an. 

Madison,  James,  201. 
Magic,  parlor,  478-492. 
Magna  Charta,  219. 


Magnetic  circles,  416. 

field,   418. 

flux,    418. 

lines,    417. 

units,    417. 
Magnetism,   416-418. 
Maine,  202. 

Maine,  U.   S.  ship,  208. 
Major  scale,   the,  286-288. 
Mandolin,  frets  or  touches  of  a 

317. 

holding    the,    317. 

plectrum    of,    317. 

positions    on    the,    312,    313, 
314,    320. 

self-taught,    317-321. 

strokes  on   the,   318. 
Mandolin,    self-taught,    317-321. 
Manila,  cable  completed  to,  212. 

surrendered,     210. 
Manila   Bay,   battle  of,   209. 
Marconi,   G.,   424,   427.   428. 
Marquette,   Father  Jacques,    197. 
Marriage,   774. 

and   divorce,    774. 

contracts   for,    774. 
Married   women,    rights   of,    775- 
Mars,    the    planet,    233-234. 
Maryland,    196,    197,    204. 
Massachusetts,    201. 

colony,    196,    197. 

governors    of,    196. 
Matadore   dominoes,    474-475. 
Mating-power    in   chess,    463. 
Maxwell,    the,    defined,    417. 
Measures,  musical,  277,  279. 
Measures,    weights   and,    191. 
Megohm  defined,  the,   408. 
Mercury,    the    planet,     231-232. 
Merrimac,  Confederate  ship,  204. 
Merrimac,  U.   S.  collier,  209. 
Merritt,   Gen.  Wesley,  210. 
Metaphor,   in  rhetoric,   26,   31. 
Meteor,   German  yacht,   212. 
Metol,    in    photography,    266. 
Metonymy,  in  rhetoric,  26,  31. 
Metre,   musical  quality  of,   45. 

rules  of,  43-44. 
Metre,  the,   186,   187. 
Metres,   English,  41-43,  45. 
Metric   system,    186-190. 
Mexico,  203,  205,  207. 

Gulf  of,    197. 

war  with,  203. 
Michelangelo,   261. 
Michigan,  202. 
Microhm   defined,  the,  408. 
Mil   defined,   the,   408. 
Miles,   Gen.  N.  A.,  209. 
Mil-foot,   the,  408. 
Mills   Bill,   207. 
Milton,   John,   quoted,  41. 
Mining  troubles,  207. 
Minnesota,  203. 
Minor   scale,    the,    288-289. 
Misdeals    in    euchre,    447. 
Mississippi,    195,   202,   203,   204. 
Mississippi  River,   197,   200,   202, 

205,  206. 
Missouri,  202. 

Compromise   Bill,    203. 
Modal    auxiliaries,    German,    126- 

131. 

Modeling,   sculpture,   260-263. 
Modoc   Indians,   war  with,   205. 
Money   order,    790. 
Monitor,  U.   S.  ship,  204. 
Monroe  Doctrine,  205,  ao8. 


Monroe,    James,    198,    202. 

inauguration    of,    202. 
Monterey,  capture  of,  203. 
Moon»  the,  232-233. 
Moore,     Captain    Jack,     hanged. 

205. 

Moorish   architecture,    377. 
Mormons    driven    from    Illinois, 

203. 

Morse  telegraph  invented,  402. 
Mortgage,  assignment  of  a,   790 

chattel,   766,    786. 

of  lands,   785. 
Motor,      electric,      the,      418-419, 

420-442. 

Mumps   and   its  treatment,   716. 
Munzio  gambit,  466-467. 
Muscles,    the,    251-254,    516. 
Muscular   exercise,    516,    517. 
Music,    274-362. 

clefs    in,    275. 

cornet,    337-343. 

dictionary   of,    292-297. 

guitar,    322-329. 

intervals  in,   275,    290-291. 

mandolin,  317-321. 

measure   in,    277. 

notes  in,  275. 

piano,    298-307. 

poetry  and,   39,   44. 

rudiments  of,   274-291. 

sight-reading    in,    353-362. 

syncopation   in,   280. 

terms    in,    292-297. 

time  in,   275,   279. 

violin,    308-316. 

violoncello,    330-336. 

vocal,    344-352. 
"Must,"  in  French,  89. 

N 

Napoleon   I   of  France,  200. 
Napoleon     III     founds    Mexican 

empire,    205. 
Natural   scale,   the,   286. 
Naturalization  laws,   779-780. 
Naturalized      citizens,       children 

of,    780. 

Navy,   Secretary  of,  214. 
Nebraska,  205. 

Neptune,    the   planet,    235-236. 
Nevada  admitted   to  Union,  205. 
New  England,   196. 
New  Haven  colony,    197. 
New    Mexico,    195,    203. 
New    Netherlands,    196. 
New  Orleans,   201-202,   204,   207. 
Ne-v  York,  203. 

City,   196,  200,  20 1. 
Nightmare,    519. 
Norman  architecture,   379. 
North   Carolina,    195,   201. 
Notes,   promissory,   789. 

O 

Octave,   meaning  of  word,   274. 
Odd  trick  in  whist,  the,  443. 
Oersted,    the,    defined,   417. 
Ohio  admitted   to  Union,   200. 
Ohm    defined,    the,    406. 
Ohm's  law   of  circuits,   405. 
Order-up   in  euchre,   445-446. 
Oregon,  195,  203. 
Osceola,   Indian  chief,   202. 
Ottava  in   music,    276. 
Otto   gas   engine,    398. 
Outdoor  games,    546-568. 
Oysters,    cooking   of,    879-882. 


INDEX 


907 


Pacific    Ocean,    194,    203. 
Painting,  256,  257,  258. 
Pallas,   the  asteroid,   234. 
Panama    Canal    Co.,    New,    211 
Pan-American  Fair,  210-211. 
Parables  of  Christ  as  allegoric* 

26. 

Parallax  of  stars,  237. 
Parallel  bars,   521-527. 
Parenthesis,   the,   uses   of,   24. 
Paris,   Treaty  of    (1783),   200. 
Parliamentary     procedure,     rules 

for,   733-745- 
Parties,    499-501,    507. 
Partner,    forcing,    in   whist,    444 
Partners  in  euchre,  449. 
Partnership,    776,    783. 
Pas.,    in    euchre,    445-446 
Patents,  laws  governing,  779. 

assignment  of,  790. 
Patroon  estates  in  N.  Y.,  203. 
Peking,    siege   of    (1900),   ai I. 
Penn,    William,    197. 
Pennsylvania  coal  strike,  211. 

settled,    197. 
Pentameter  verse,  39. 
Perfumes,    when   to    use,    498. 
Perry,  Com.  O.  H.,  201,  203. 
Personification,  a  figure  of  rhet 

oric,   25,   31. 
Perspective,   246-249. 
Perspiration,  function  of,  516. 
Petition    cf   Right    (1628),   219. 
Philadelphia,   197,    198,   199.   200, 

205, 

Philippine  Islands,  209,  210,  212-, 
Photographic  camera,  246. 
Pnotography,  363-370. 
developing  in,   365. 
diaphragms   for,    364. 
formulas  for,  366,  367,  369. 
instantaneous,     364. 
lenses  for,   364. 
portraiture    by,    369-370, 
printing   in,    367-368. 
retouching  in,   367. 
toning   in,    368. 
utensils   needed   in,    363. 
Piano,    exercises    for,    302,    303, 

304.    305,    306. 
fingering    for,    300,    301-302, 

307. 

keyboard  of,   298,   299. 
octaves,   playing  on,   307. 
position  at,   299. 
practice    on,    300,    305. 
self-taught,    298-307. 
tone-production  on,   300-301. 
touch   on,    299-300. 
Pierce,   Franklin,   203. 
Pimples    and    blotches,    694. 
Planet,  meaning  of  word,  230. 
Plates,      photographic,      overex- 
posed, 366. 
Play-writing,    35. 
Plectrum    of   mandolin,    317. 
Pleonasm,   in   rhetoric,   25. 
Plutonic   rocks,    238. 
Poetry,    25,    32,    39-47. 
elements   of,    40-41. 
Hebrew,  39. 
Latin  and  Greek,   39. 
and  music,    39,   44. 
uses   of,   47. 

Point,    vanishing,    the,    347. 
Poker,    draw,    449-453. 
Polarization,  413. 


Polish    for    brass,    266. 

for   wood,    270. 
Polk,  James  K.,  203. 
Polo,  origin  of,  546. 

rules  for,   547-552. 
Portamento  on  mandolin,  321. 
Portato  on  cornet,  341. 
Porto   Rico,  210. 
Portraits,    photographic,    369-370 
Positions,  mandolin,  320-321. 
on  the  guitar,   323,   325. 
on   violoncello,    331-335. 
Postmaster-General,    214. 
Potatoes  brought  to  Ireland,  196 
Potential,    electric,    404. 
Poultry,    660-678. 
Practicing   on    the    cornet,    342. 
on  piano,   rules,  305. 
on   violin,    315. 
Prefixes,    English,   list  of,   52-53 

verbal,    German,    124-125. 
Prepositional  case,   Spanish,    146- 

147- 

prefixes,    English,    14. 
President,    French,    224-225. 
U.   S.  electing,   213-214. 
U.   S.,  powers  of,  214. 
President,   U  S.   frigate,   201. 
Presidents,    U.   S.,   list  of,  216. 
Printing,     photographic,    367-368 
Privy   Council   of   England,   220 
Progressive     conjugation,     Span 

ish,   163. 

Property,  exemption,   777 
Protestantism   in   England,   219. 
Punctuation,    rules    for,    24. 
Puns,  reasons  for  avoiding,  496. 
Putnam,    Gen.    Israel,     198. 
Pyrogallic  acid,  366. 
Pyrography,  271-373. 


Quantity  in  poetry,  40. 
Queen  Anns  architecture,  379. 
Queening  a  pawn  in  chess,  463. 

R 

Racquet,    tennis,    holding,   564. 
Raising  in  poker,  450. 
Raleigh,    Sir   Walter,    195. 
Ranks    and    files    in   chess,    462- 

463- 

Real    estate,    537,    781,    790. 
Redoubling    in   bridge,    455. 
Reducing,  photographic,  367. 
Reichstag  of  Germany,  228,  229. 
Rent,  security  for,   788. 
Repetition,  musical,  278,  283. 
Representative  government,  219. 
Representatives,  election  of,  215. 

House   of,   202,   215. 
Resistance,   electrical,    405,   413. 
Resistivity,    electrical,    408. 
Respiration,    checking,    519. 
Retouching,    photographic,    367. 
Revoke  in  bridge,  456. 
in  euchre,  448. 
in    whist,    the,    439-440. 
Revolution,    American,    198,  aoo. 
Rhetoric,    figures    of,    25-26. 

outline    of,    25-26,    27-38. 
Rhode  Island,   197,  203. 
Rhyme  in  poetry,  41. 
Rhythm  in   poetry,   40-41. 
Richmond,  Va.,  204,  205. 
Riding,   497,   517,    534. 
Right  hand  in  guitar,   323. 
Rights,    Declaration    of.    igjjj. 


Ripple   marks   in    rocks,   242. 
Recks,    analysis   of,    239-241. 

aqueous,   238. 

crystalline,   244. 

igneous,    243-244. 

metamorphic,   238. 

organic,   243. 

plutonic,    238. 

sedimentary,   241-242. 

stratified,    238,    239. 

varieties  of,  238. 

volcanic,   239. 
Roman    sculpture,    263. 
Romanesque  architecture,   377. 
Rome,    192,   375-376- 
Roosevelt,   T.,   210,   211,  212. 
Root-words,   English,  54-62.  * 
Rubber   in  bridge,   454. 
Rubber  tires,  automobile,  432. 
Running  as   exercise,    520. 
Russia,    192. 

cholera   brought    from,    ag 


St.     Augustine,     Fla.,     foundud» 

195- 

Salem   witchcraft,   197. 
Salutations,     etiquette    of,     507* 

508. 

Samoan    Islands,    210. 
Sampson,    W.    T.,    admiral,    209, 
San  Domingo,  205. 
San   Salvador,   Island  of,   194. 
Sanscrit,  vowels  in,  a. 
Santa   Anna,    Gen.,    203. 
Santiago,  naval  battle  of,  209. 
Saracenic  architecture,   377. 
Saturn,    the   planet,    234-235. 
Scalds,    treatment   for,    718. 
Scale,   musical,    274. 

chromatic,    the,    275,    289. 
degrees    of,    290-291. 
diatonic,  the,  275,  302-303. 
major,  286-288. 
minor,    288-289. 

Scansion,   poetical,   rules  of,    #}, 
Scarlatina,   715. 
Schley,  W.  S.,  206,  208,  209. 
Schuyler,   Gen.    Philip,    198. 
Science,  value  of,  245. 
Score   in   bridge,    454-455. 
in  euchre,  the,  446. 
in  whist,  the,  436,  440. 
Scotch   gambit  in  chess,   467. 
Scotland,   sovereigns  of,   223. 
Scott,  Gen.  Winfield,  201,  203. 
Sculpture,  antique  in,  the,  263. 
expressive  power  in,   261. 
Greek,    263. 
modeling,   260-263. 
modern,    263. 
portrait,    262,    263. 
Roman,    263. 

Sebastopol    dominoes     477. 
Semitones,   274. 
Senate,    French,    225-22?. 

United  States,  214,  213 
Sewell,  Arthur,  208. 
Shake,  musical,  282. 
Sherman,   Gen.    W.    T.,    205. 
Shifting  on   violoncello,   335. 
Shiloh,   battle  of,   204. 
Short   whist,    rules   of,    444. 
Shuffling  cards,   435,   439. 
Sight-reading,    musical,    353-362, 
Simile,  in  rhetoric,  26,  31. 
Singing    a    natural    act,    344-34$. 
articulation  in,   348,  351. 


90S 


INDEX 


Singing:,   diaphragm  in,  the,   347- 

•348,  349- 

instruction  in,  need  of,  350. 
octaves    in,    352. 
rudiments    of,    345-347. 
sight-reading    for,    355-363. 
study    of,    344-352. 
tone-production  in,  347,  348, 

349-350. 

Skin,    diseases    of,    700,    707. 
Slam   in   bridge,   454,   455. 
Slang,  vulgarity  of,   496. 
Slavery  abolished,   204. 

discussions  on,  202. 

introduced  in  America,    196. 

laws  on,   203. 

prohibited     in     Constitution, 

205. 
Sleep,  amount  of,   required,  519. 

of  children,  708. 

phenomena   of,    518. 
Sleight-of-hand  tricks,  438-493. 
Slide  valves,    391-392. 
Slur,  musical,  281.   327,   341. 

for  cornet,  341. 

for  guitar,   327. 
Smith,    Capt.    John,    196. 
Smith,  Joseph,  Mormon  prophet, 

203. 
Soils  and  their  treatment,   600. 

analysis  of,  602. 
Sonnet,  the,   defined,   47. 
South  Carolina,   199,  202,  203. 
Spain,    193,    194,    195,    197,    308, 

209,  210. 
Spanish    accent,    141. 

adjectives,    154-156. 

alphabet,    139-140. 

apocope  in,    154-155. 

conjugations,    162. 

consonants,     141. 

declension    in,     153-154. 

double   letters,    141. 

euphonic   changes,    164-165. 

passive  in,   158. 

personal    pronouns,    147-149. 

prepositional    case,    146-147. 

progressive  conjugation,  163. 

verbs,    156-168. 

vocabulary,    141-146. 
Spiccato  on  violoncello,   335. 
Spondee,  a  poetical  measure,  41. 
Staccato,  musical,  281,  282,  315, 

321. 

Staff,  musical,  275. 
Stalemate  in  chess,   462. 
Stamp  Act,  the,   197,   198. 
Stanza,    varieties   of,    46-47. 
Stars,  fixed,  the,  237. 
States    and    Territories,    218. 
Steam    engine,    381-394. 

angular  advance  on,  393. 

compression  in  a,  392-393. 

Corliss,   390. 

crosshead    of,    390. 

cycle    of    a,    393. 

cylinder,    387. 

eccentrics    of,    390-391. 

gas    engine    and,    396. 

history   of,    381-384. 

horsepower  of  a,  394. 

indicator,    388-389. 

link    motion,    390-391. 

Newcomen's    381-383.     387. 

parts    of    a,    389-391. 

piston,   387. 

slide   valve,    390. 

Watt's,  383-384,  387. 


Stephenson    link    motion,    384. 
Stephenson,  Robert,  384. 
Stevens,    Alex.    II.,    204. 
Stevenson,    Adlai    E,,    210. 
Stopping  on  guitar,   333. 

on  the  mandolin,  318. 

oii  the  violin,  311. 

on  the  violoncello,   331. 
Storage    batteries,    electric,    431- 

423.   433-434- 
Straddle   in   poker,   449. 
Stuyvesant,    Peter,    197. 
Style,  English,  27-33. 
Succession,    Presidential,    214. 
Sun,   the,   description   of,   231. 
Sunburn,   690;   wash  for,   704. 
Supreme  Court,  U.  S.,  215,  317. 
Swimming,   541. 
Syncopation,   musical,   280. 
Synecdoche,  in  rhetoric,  26,  31. 
Syntax,    English,    i,    15-25. 

German,    125-131. 

of    French    verbs,    87-91. 


Table  manners,  502-506,  508. 
Take-up   in  euchre,   445-446. 
Taylor,   Gen.   Zachary,   202,   203. 
"Tea  Party,"   Boston,  the,    198. 
Tea  rolls,   to  make,   887. 
Teeth,  care  of  the,  695. 
Teething,  710. 

Telegraphy,    wireless,    424-428. 
Tennessee,  200. 
Texas  admitted  to  Union,  203. 
Thermal   unit,    British,    385-386. 
Thirteenth   Amendment,    205. 
Thumb  in  guitar  playing,  323. 
Tiddle-a-wink    dominoes,    477. 
Tie,   musical,   280. 
Tones,   on  violin,   310. 

names   of,   355-356. 

natural,    274-275. 
Tongueing-in,   cornet,   341-343. 
Tongueing  on  cornet,  340-343. 
Toning,    photographic,    368-3691. 
Tooth  powder,   704. 
Tories,   massacres  by,    199. 
Torque  denned,  420. 
Touch    on   piano,    299-300. 
Tourniquet,    an   improvised,    570. 
Treasury,    Secretary   of.   214. 
Treaty,   Arbitration,   208. 

Hay-Pauncefote,    an. 

of  Washington,   205. 

Reciprocity,        with 
foundland,  212. 

with    Chili,    207. 

with    China,    205. 

with  Japan,  203. 

with    Mexico,    203. 

with  Spain   (1898),  aio. 
Tricks  in  bridge,  454,  455. 

in   whist,    the    odd,    443. 

with  cards,   magic,   479-482. 
Tncopherous,    recipe    for,    704. 
Trochee,  a  poetical  measure,  41. 
Tropes  or  rhetorical   figures,   30. 
Tudor  architecture,   379. 
Tuscan    architecture,    376. 
Tyler,    John,    inaugurated,    202. 

U 

U,    the   French,   66,   67,    68. 
Umlaut,    the,    in    German,     too. 
Underclothing,  the  best,   519. 
United  States,  the,  203,   194-313. 
Constitution,  213,  315. 


United  States,  Government,  313- 
218. 

Government  depts.,  314. 

history    of,     194-313. 

President,  electing,  313,  314. 

Presidents,    list   of,    316. 

settlement    of,    195-197. 

_S tales  and  Territories,  218. 
Uranus,   the  planet,  235. 
"Usted,"   Spanish  word,   148-149. 


Vaccination,    714. 
Van  Buren,  Martin,  202. 
Vanishing  point,   the,    247. 
Vaulting   horse,   522,    527-529. 
Ventilation,  need  of  good,  513. 
Venus,    the   planet,    232. 
Verbs,  auxiliary,   English,-  7. 

auxiliary,  French,  83,  88    90. 

auxiliary,    Spanish,    757-159, 

English,   3,   4. 

French,  81-93. 

German,    120-135. 

impersonal,   English,    7,    15 

impersonal,  French,  89. 

irregular,   French,   91-93. 

irregular,    German,    131-135, 

irregular,   Spanish,   165-167. 

pronominal,    French,    88. 

pronominal,   Spanish,    163. 

Spanish,   156-168,    161-168. 
Verse,   elements  of,   40-41. 
Vespucius,   Americus,    194. 
Vesta,    the    asteroid,    234. 
Violin,  self-taught,  308-316. 
Violoncello,    self-taught,    330-336. 
Virginia,   200,    201,   205. 

governors  of,    195,    196. 
Vocal  music,  344-352. 
Volt  defined,  the,  406. 

W 

Wales,    sovereigns   of,    list,    33jT~ 
War,   Secretary  of,  214. 
Washington,     D.     C.,    206,    207, 

211,    379- 

Washington,    George,    186,    200. 
Wasp,   United   States  sloop,   201. 
Water  colors,  258. 
Watt  defined,   the,   407. 
Watt,    James,    383-384,    387. 
Watt-hour    defined,    the,    407. 
Webster,    Daniel,    203. 
Weights    and    measures,    191. 
Wendell,   Prof.   Barrett,   29,  30, 
West   Virginia,   204. 
Whiskey   poker.   453. 
Whist,    game    of,    435-445. 
Whooping  cough,  712. 
Wills,    771,   778,   784. 
Williams,    Roger,    197. 
Winthrop,  John,  196. 
Wire  gauges,  409. 
Wireless  telegraphy,   424-428. 
Women,  health  of,  684-705. 

physical    exercises    for,    68$ 

688.  ^ 

Wood  carving,   268-270. 
Wounds,  treatment  for,  569. 
Wrinkles,    691,   694-695. 


Yorktown,  battle  of,  200,   206. 


Zeugma,  a  figure  of  rhetoric,  25. 
Zodiacal  light,  the,   231,  336. 


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